Drug and Alcohol Review (i992) II, I5-2I

Effect of television advertising of alcohol on alcohol consumption and intentions to drive

JEFFREY WILKS, ANGELO T. VARDANEGA & VICTOR J. CALLAN

Key Centre in Strategic Management, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane; Department of Psychology and Graduate School of Management, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia Abstract

The alcohol consumption ofx2o male and female college students was measured as they viewed a 90- rain videotape of popular prime-time television programmes. Independent measures were the sex of the student, their drinker classification (light or moderate-heavy) and the number of alcohol advertisements (o, 6, xz) shown during the screening of the television programmes. Dependent measures were the number of drinks consumed, and the intentions of students to drive a motor vehicle after viewing the videotaped programmes. As prediqted, males consumed more alcohol than females, and moderate-heavy drinkers consumed more than light drinkers. Male and female students who viewed six alcohol advertisements consumed more alcohol than students shown no alcohol advertisements or x2 alcohol advertisements. Analysis of intentions to drive after viewing the programmes revealed that the number of drinks consumed was not a significant covariate of driving intentions. Rather light drinkers of both sexes were less likely to intend to drive than moderate-heavy drinkers. Males exposed to alcohol advertisements were less likely to intend to drive than males who did not view alcohol advertisements. Different levels of exposure to alcohol advertisements did not influence the driving intentions of college females. [Wilks J, Vardanega AT, Callan vJ. Effect of television advertising of alcohol on alcohol consumption and intentions to drive. Drug Alcohol Rev r992; II: *5-2I.]

Key words: alcohol; television advertising.

Introduction

Concern about alcohol-related problems has moti- vated many investigations into the factors which primarily contribute to problem drinking, espe- cially by young people. One factor being targeted by governments is the influence of alcohol bever- age advertising. In response to arguments about

the impact of alcohol advertising, spokespersons for the alcohol and advertising industries typically contend that the effects of alcohol advertising are limited to only encouraging existing drinkers to change or maintain their brand preference. Critics of liquor and advertising industries, however,

Jeffrey Wilks, PhD, Postdoctoral Fellow, Key Centre in Strategic Management, Queensland University of Technology, GPO Box 2434, Brisbane, Queensland 4OOl, Australia; Angelo T. Vardanega, BA (Hons), Graduate Student, Department of Psychology; Victor J. Callan, PhD, Professor, Graduate School of Management, University of Queensland, Australia. Correspondence to Dr Wilks.

I5

16 Jeffrey II/'ilks et al.

argue that alcohol advertising encourages in- creased consumption and promotes modelling of the behaviours in advertisements, in addition to encouraging drinkers to change or maintain drink preferences.

Both econometric and experimental studies have investigated the relationship between adver- tising of alcohol and consumption. Econometric studies using a variety of indicators and large samples generally indicate no relationship between advertising, increased consumption and sales [i]. Experimental studies which have manipulated exposure to alcohol beverage advertising typically reveal little evidence for an association between exposure and overall consumption of alcohol [2-5]. At the same time, various methodological limitations that exist in such econometric and experimental studies may explain the poor find- ings. The large-scale econometric studies charac- teristically use secondary data generated to answer quite different research questions. Often variables are measured globally rather than specifically, and there can be considerable sampling and measure- ment error that affects the statistics used in these studies. Experimental studies are limited by the number of treatment conditions that can be considered, and the use of experimental control often introduces considerable levels of artificiality in the drinking environments studied by resear- chers. The research evidence to date reveals that alcohol advertising does not have a strong direct impact upon actual consumption. However, like peer influences and family environments [6,7], advertising is one of many factors that may possibly contribute and which are worthy of more research [i,8].

Among investigators who have examined the effects of exposure to liquor advertising, Atkin and Block [9,xo] present some of the strongest asser- tions that advertising stimulates consumption levels, which in turn produces heavier drinking and drinking in dangerous situations. Nonetheless, their studies are limited by their use of correlation rather than experimental designs, as well as problems of sampling and their interpretations of observed effects [e.g. Ref. ii].

In a major review, Smart [8] argues that three studies [3-5] to date provide useful models in the design of future experimental studies to study drinking and advertising. Two of Smart's nomi- nated studies are his own Kohn and Smart studies

[3,4] that examine the alcohol consumptio n of college students while viewing alcohol advertise- ments in a casual party atmosphere. In the initial study, the consumption rates of male students were monitored while they viewed a videotaped indoor soccer game. A 3 (o beer commercials, 4 beer commercials, 9 beer commercials)X 2 (immediate access to beer, delayed access to beer) experimen- tal design was employed. Exposure to the first few commercials increased consumption, but con- tinued exposure did not. The number of alcohol advertisements seen by students did not have a significant effect on total beer consumption. However, delayed access did result in compensa- tory drinking when alcohol became available. The study suggested some short-term effects due to advertising, but generally advertising had little impact on consumption. A major shortcoming of the work, however, was that subjects' awareness of the purpose of the study was not checked by the researchers. In a second study, Kohn and Smart [4] used female college students who viewed videotaped programmes with or without wine commercials (i.e. o, 3, 9), in a party atmosphere similar to their first study. On this occasion subjects' views about the purpose of the study were evaluated at the end of the experiment. Results indicated that women exposed to 9 wine commer- cials consumed more than women in the 3 wine commercial condition.Twelve of the 66 subjects, however, were judged to be suspicious about the true purpose of the experiment, and these subjects had exaggerated consumption patterns. Effects for the female students disappeared when these suspicious subjects were removed from the analy- sis. Unfortunately, the lack of suspiciousness measure in the earlier study with male students, and differences in the experimental conditions used in both Kohn and Smart studies (e.g. the type of commercials and television shows, the type of refreshments) only permits very limited interpreta- tions about sex differences in reactions to alcohol advertising.

The Sobell et al. study [5] is the third model study nominated in Smart's review [8]. This study employed a 3 (advertisement type: beer, non- alcohol, food) × 2 (scene: unedited, edited) design to investigate the drinking behaviour of male college students. Alcohol consumption was mea- sured unobtrusively through a taste test for light beer. Neither drinking scenes nor alcohol adver-

Effect of television advertising of alcohol 17

tisements had significant effects on the amount of beer consumed. Unfortunately, the laboratory situation used in the research was not very naturalistic, and suspiciousness measures were not taken.

It is clear from these studies that we need to continue to design more sophisticated, experimen- tal~tesearch which uses less contrived experimental settings that better simulate the contexts in which young people do drink and can be exposed to alcohol advertising. In particular, there is a need to take into account the prior drinking habits of young people who participate in such studies, as well as differences between the sexes. While McCarty and Ewing, f o r instance, report links between print alcohol advertising., and drinking, they ignore the fact that 4o% of /he i r students were heavy drinkers. It is quite possible that the reported advertising effects were due to the over- sampling of heavier drinkers who may be more influenced by alcohol advertising than other drinkers. In the Sobell et al. study [5], there was some consideration of drinking habits in that a measure of daily drinking behaviour was used as a covariate in the analyses of the alcohol consump- tion data. There was a trend for levels of daily consumption to be a covariate of the alcohol consumption that occurred while viewing alcohol advertising on television. Together such findings suggest that the drinking habits of young people need to be a consideration when determining how much our youth are influenced by the television advertising of alcohol.

As shown by evidence of a range of drinker types among college students [I2,r3] and sex differences in drinking habits [7,i4], drinker classification and drinker sex need to be consi- dered in studies of the effect of exposure to television advertising upon alcohol consumption. Heavier drinkers do have an 'at-risk' personality profile that may encourage more imitation of drinking models like those frequently presented in liquor advertisements. In addition there is con- siderable experimental evidence that females are more easily influenced than males by persuasive messages like those used in television advertising [i5].

Some correlational and survey designs have explored various links between alcohol advertising, alcohol consumption and risk-taking behaviours like driving a motor vehicle. Atkin et al. [io]

found that respondents above a median level of alcohol advertising exposure were more likely in the past month to have driven after drinking than those below this median level of exposure. Re- spondents with higher levels of exposure to alcohol advertising were also more likely to have con- sumed alcohol while riding in a car. Experimental studies, on the other hand, have not tended to explore the impact of alcohol advertising upon consumption and the increased likelihood to drink and drive, nor the associations between exposure to alcohol advertising and driving intentions. Yet alcohol consumption is linked to many fatal traffic accidents and among the many controls intro- duced on the availability and promotion of alcohol is the use of alcohol advertising codes that do not allow the consumption of alcohol and the driving of a motor vehicle to be shown in the same scene [~6].

The present study used an experimental design to examine the impact of alcohol advertisements upon alcohol consumption and driving intentions. Males were expected to consume more alcoholic drinks than females, and heavier drinkers of both sexes were expected to consume more alcohol. On the basis of previous experimental studies, how- ever, it was not expected that greater exposure to alcohol advertisements would lead to higher consumption.

Method Subjects

Subjects were i2o students living in a residential college at the University of Queensland. All students were single, had a current driver's license, and were i8-2o years of age. They were of legal age to buy alcohol/or consume alcohol from licensed premises. At this age in the State of Queensland, all were also subject to the same blood-alcohol level (BAG) of o.o 5 or below for driving a motor vehicle (i.e. for 17 year olds, the BAG level is o.o2).

Two weeks prior to the experimental study, over 2oo students signed up as part of a course requirement to participate as subjects in a range of experiments. They completed a screening ques- tionnaire which tapped their age, sex, whether they had a current driver's license, their television viewing habits and their drinking behaviour. Alcohol consumption was measured through an

i8 feffrey l~ilks et al.

adaptation of the Khavari Alcohol Test (KAT) [x7] which is discussed and critiqued in more detail elsewhere [7]- The KAT consists of 12 questions which ask students to report their usual frequency of drinking, the amount consumed per occasion, and the frequency of this maximum intake. Four identical questions are asked for beer, wine and distilled spirits. Frequency of drinking is reported on an 11-point scale, where zero repre- sents never having tried beer, wine or spirits, and i i indicates daily use. To determine annual consumption levels, each frequency category was then assigned a loading ranging from o (never tried) to 365 (daily consumption). The full list of these loadings is provided by Khavari and Farber [17]. The following measures of absolute alcohol content were used: 285 ml of beer (Io.4 g), 9 ° ml glass of wine (8.2 g) and 3 ° ml 'nip' of spirits (9.2 g). To calculate the daily average of absolute alcohol consumed by adolescents, the usual quan- tity of alcohol (g) was multiplied by the frequency loading for each of the three beverages separately. Beverage totals were then summed and divided by 365 to give a daily estimate. Students who consumed less than 2o grams per day were placed in the KAT category of light drinkers, and drinkers of 2o g or more a day fell into the KAT group of moderate to heavy drinkers. Heavy and very heavy drinkers were excluded from the study as they were too few in number to provide another category.

Eocperimental design and procedure

Students were randomly assigned to one of i2 conditions in a 2 (type of drinker: light, moderate -heavy) × 2 (student sex) × 3 (number of alcohol advertisements: o, 6, i2) experimental design. Between-subject measures were student sex, drinker classification and number of alcohol advertisements shown. There were io subjects per cell.

Students were asked to meet in a student's room in the same residential college. Experiments were held after dinner on Thursday, Friday, Saturday, and Sunday nights, which are times that diary and other studies reveal college students are most likely to consume alcohol [i8,i9]. Because of ethical concerns about students attempting to drive home after the study each treatment condition had students from the one college, and all walked to

the experimental room within the building. The room had a VHS recorder and monitor, and tables and chairs assembled around the monitor. Stu- dents watched the television (monitor) for 9 ° min, viewing 3 ° min of an Australian soap opera (Neighbours), 3 ° min of Australian comedy (Hey Dad) and 3 ° min of sports highlights (Wide World of Sports). Students viewed the programmes in groups of 8-1o in the experimental room. Beer, wine, soft drinks and snacks were provided. Three different brands of beer and two different brands of wine were provided to cater for different tastes. No limits were imposed on the number of drinks available in the 9 ° min. However, students were told that the researcher was interested in their attitudes toward various television programmes and at the end of each 3 ° min programme they would need to rate each show on a variety of characteristics. This requirement was expected to encourage some moderation in drinking. Students were told that the alcohol and food was being provided to make the television viewing as natural as possible. As Smart [8] has suggested, there is a need to conduct experimental studies in more natural, less contrived settings than in the past. Sitting in another student's room, watching television on a Thursday, Friday, Saturday, or Sunday night while drinking and eating, with people they are familiar with, is much closer to a natural setting than studies conducted in univer- sity laboratories, during the day, at various times during the week.

Male and female students viewed the same programmes and advertisements in same-sexed groups. Unknown to the subjects, they were in groups with fellow students classified from the screening as having similar drinking levels. Most subjects knew each other, but groups of good friends were limited to only two or three in each condition. During the videotaped programmes, subjects viewed either no alcohol advertising; six alcohol advertisements (two every 3 ° min)i or I2 alcohol advertisements (four every 3 ° min). Non-alcohol advertisements were also shown at the same level as from the original recording of the programmes. The total number of advertisements (alcohol and non-alcohol) was similar across all conditions. Beer, wine, and spirits advertisements were equally spread across the 9 ° min to appeal to all drink preferences.

Dependent measures included the actual con-

Effect of television advertising of alcohol 19

sumption by students while viewing the video (i.e. the number of standard beer or wine glasses consumed: for beer one standard drink would be a io ounce (285 ml)glass; and for wine one standard drink would be a wine glass (9 °ml)). The number of standard drinks consumed was monitored by the second author who was in the room through- out the video. He had been a resident of the college for some years. At the end of each video segment, subjects rated each programme using 7- point scales on its level of originality, enjoyment, and their identification with the show as part of a 'market survey' into their attitudes about television programmes.

At the end of the videotape programmes, subjects were also asked to provide various socio- demographic data, information on television habits and life-style habits. They were told this information would be used to determine whether different types of people rated the programmes in different ways. They were also asked to estimate the number of standard alcohol drinks they had consumed, and they rated on 7-point scales the likelihood they would engage in six activities after the completion of the video screening (e.g. study, going to a club, going to bed, driving a motor vehicle). The key question was the likelihood they would now drive a motor vehicle. Finally, subjects completed an open-ended question in which they were asked what they believed was the aim of the study. At the end of the experiment, students stayed on for another 9 ° min, watching further programmes, but given access only to food and non-alcoholic drinks. They were also debriefed, and some weeks later sent a summary of findings of the research. No subject was upset or concerned about the manipulations used in the study, and all student data were used in the analyses.

Results

Of the i2o subjects who participated in the experimental study, nine (7.5 % ) students were considered by the researchers to be suspicious about the true purpose of the study. This was based on answers from students on the debriefing question in the television questionnaire. In line with the findings of Kohn and Smart [4], these subjects were dropped from all analyses.

A 2 × 2 × 3 ANOVA examined the number of drinks consumed by students across the i2 condi-

tions. Between-subject measures were sex of student, drinker classification (light, moderate -heavy), and the number of alcohol advertisements viewed (% 6, i2). Main effects emerged for sex: F(i,84)=36.o2, p < o . o o i ; drinker classificaton: F(I,84)=33.68, p < o . o o i ; and the advertisement condition: F(2,84) = 6.44 , p < o . o L Males (x=5.63) consumed more alcohol than females (x=3.io), while, as expected, moderate-heavy drinkers (x=5.58) drank more alcohol than light drinkers (x=3a4). Follow-up tests (Newman- Keuls) revealed tha t students who viewed six alcohol advertisements (x-~-5.3i) drank more than students who viewed no alcohol advertisements (x=3.47). Students who viewed r2 alcohol adver- tisements (x= 4.3 I) did not differ from these two conditions in their levels of consumption.

A second 2 × 2 × 3 ANOVA examined the number of drinks students believed they consumed across the x2 conditions. Between-subject mea- sures were the same as those used in the first ANOVA. The dependent measure was the num- ber of standard drinks students believed they had consumed. Similar to the first analysis of variance, main effects emerged for sex: F(i,84)=37.75, p<o .oo r ; drinker classification: F(I,84)= 27.35, p < o . o o i ; and advertisement condition: F(2,84)----7.43, p<o .o I ) . All effects were similar to those reported for the actual consumption of alcohol discussed earlier. This in line with strong correlation (r=o.97) between the obser- ver's recording of the number of drinks consumed (actual consumption) and students' perceptions of their consumption (perceived consump- tion).

A 2 × 2 × 3 analysis of covariance examined the students' intention to drive a motor vehicle immediately after the experimental study. Be- tween-subject measures were the same as those for the previous ANOVAs, but with number of drinks consumed being entered as a covariate. The covariate was not significant (p=o.o9) , with the raw regression coefficient being --o.o88. Analyses revealed a drinker classification main effect, F(I,84)~--~-8.45, p ~ o . o i , and a sex of student by advertisement condition interaction, F(2,84)~3.46, P < o . o 5. Light drinkers of both sexes were less likely to intend to drive than moderate-heavy drinkers. Males exposed to 6 and ia alcohol advertisements were less likely than males who did not view alcohol advertisements to

20 /ef frey IlPilks et al.

intend to drive a motor vehicle. Exposure to the different levels of alcohol advertisements did not affect the intentions of females to drive. Finally, females who did not view any alcohol advertising were less likely to intend to drive a motor vehicle than males who did not view advertisements about alcohol.

Discussion

This study presents mixed support for the belief that exposure to televised alcohol advertisements stimulates consumption of alcohol among stu- dents. The drinking behaviour of subjects of both sexes and both drinker classifications in the six alcohol advertisement conditions (i.e. two alcohol advertisements every 3 ° min) was greater than students not exposed to alcohol advertising. At the same time, the pattern of effects was not consis- tent in that those exposed to ~2 alcohol advertise- ments (i.e. four every 3 ° min) did not consume significantly more alcohol than students who viewed six or no liquor advertisements.

This finding is contrary to many previous studies which generally have found that the amount of alcohol advertising does not affect consumption. It is possible that there is a level of exposure to alcohol advertising that may promote increased consumption, but higher levels of expo- sure to alcohol advertisements do not have an effect. A moderate level of two alcohol advertise- ments every 3 ° min may influence consumption, but four alcohol advertisements might provide overexposure. This proposal about a plateau effect, however, is quite speculative, and needs to be followed up. Kohn and Smart [4], prior to removing their 'suspicious' subjects, also found mixed support for advertising effects. In their study, women shown the most alcohol advertise- ments (i.e. nine advertisements) drank more than women shown three advertisements. However, like the present study, those not shown alcohol advertisements did not consume less alcohol than students shown the most alcohol advertisements.

Like previous experimental studies, various features of our experimental design do reduce the likelihood of measuring strong effects between advertising and drinking. Unlike others [e.g. refs 3 and 4] we did not impose an upper limit as to how much alcohol could be consumed. However, we did set a task of rating the television programmes

that encouraged students to limit drinking in order to complete their ratings in an accurate way. In addition, for ethical reasons, we limited the likelihood of driving by conducting the study with students who lived in college, and who generally have more limited access to motor vehicles.

Other results revealed, as predicted, that males consumed more alcohol than females, which is consistent with previous research on sex differ- ences in college drinking patterns [4]. Student's sex, however, did not interact with advertising condition, in spite of evidence of higher levels of influenceability among females. This finding sup- ports previous research that has yet to reveal significant differences in how males and females respond to liquor advertising [3,4]- In addition, the expected difference between light drinkers and moderate-heavy drinkers was also found, indicat- ing that subjects drank to levels predicted by their drinker-type classification determined in the screening phase. Also, the present study did not find any differences in the extent to which the consumption of light and moderate-heavy drink- ers was affected by advertising.

The correlation between actual and perceived consumption levels indicated that subjects did not distort the number of drinks they believed they had drunk. This finding suggests that the presence of a researcher recording the number of drinks consumed by a group may not be required. Thus, the naturalness of the experimental setting might be improved in future studies by not having the experimenter present to record the number of drinks consumed. Nonetheless, the level of suspi- ciousness among students about the true purpose of the study was quite satisfactory. Our rate of suspicion among subjects (i.e. 7.5%) is less than half the level reported by Kohn and Smart [4]. This lower proportion of suspicious subjects is promising in terms of the experimental design used here. Ideally, all subjects should be unaware of the true purpose of the experiment, but the present study demonstrates at least some improve- ment upon previous work.

The number of drinks consumed by students was not a significant covariate of their driving intentions. Moderate-heavy drinkers of both sexes were more likely to intend to drive, but their mean ratings of driving intentions showed that both groups expressed intentions against driving. Also, an interaction between student sex and alcohol

Effect of television advertising of alcohol 21

advertisement exposure showed that males ex- posed to alcohol advertising were less likely to intend to drive. Males in the alcohol advertising conditions of six and ~2 advertisements did tend to consume more alcohol than males who did not view alcohol advertisements, although as other analyses revealed, these effects emerged as an advertising exposure main effect rather than a sex by advertising exposure interaction.

As other studies have found [2o,2i], college students fall outside the typical background and personality profile of the frequent drink-driver, and on the whole they are anti-drink-driving. The higher education levels of tertiary students may expose them more often to the harmful effects of drink-driving, while their relative lack of access to motor vehicles may encourage more responsible behaviour when they do gain access to a car. As Smart [81 also argues, however, experimental studies need to focus more upon the personality variables that might mediate the alcohol adverti- sing-consumption relationship in college and other populations. In particular, we need to expose the typical drink-driver, with his higher levels of emotional instability and irresponsible attitudes, to the manipulations used in such experimental studies to examine the links between alcohol advertising , consumption and intentions to drink and drive.

Acknowledgement

This study was supported by funds from the Federal Office of Road Safety, Canberra, Australia.

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