Educational Planning in Latin America - Poggi

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DIRECTIONS IN E DUCATIONAL P LANNING: S YMPOSIUM TO H ONOUR THE W ORK OF F RANÇOISE C AILLODS

LES ORIENTATIONS DE LA P LANIFICATION DE L ’É DUCATION : S YMPOSIUM EN L ’ HONNEUR DU TRAVAIL ACCOMPLI PAR F RANÇOISE C AILLODS

Thursday 3 Ju ly –

Fr iday 4 Ju ly 2008

Jeud i 3 ju i l l e t –

Vendr edi 4 ju i l l e t 2008

Educational planning in Latin AmericaNew perspectives for traditional issues

Margarita Poggi



Educational planning in Latin AmericaNew perspectives for traditional issues

Margarita Poggi1

The Symposium on “Directions in Educational Planning” – organized by IIPE/UNESCO withthe purpose of disseminating the extensive work done by Françoise Caillods at the Institutethroughout three decades - encourages us to ponder over the tradition built around this issueand, at the same time, to approach the most appropriate new trends to understand, design anddevelop educational policies.

This paper will focus on some considerations about educational planning based on theexperience gathered in Latin America and in the light of the main challenges set out byeducational systems, which result in demands and specific requirements to plan the policies ofthis sector.

The starting point is one of the ideas raised by F. Caillods (1991) in the sense that planning

should adapt to specific contexts and their challenges in order to direct the decision making process at the educational policy field.

I. Planning in the Latin American Ministries of Education

A quick look at the offices2 responsible for planning in the Ministries of Education of thecountries in the region will allow introducing some preliminary considerations on this issue.

On the one hand, a wide diversity of positions and ranks in the planning departments may beseen in formal organization charts in the ministries. In some cases they are under the Minister(or his/her desk or executive secretariat) as is the case in Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica,Ecuador and Mexico, just to give some examples; in other cases they are under theSecretariats (or undersecretariats) of Education as it occurs in Argentina, Chile and Honduras,which shows, in turn, their different hierarchies.

The organization charts analysed show a less clear relationship between these planningdepartments and the different offices they are included in and their relationship withsubstantive areas (whether they are related to levels within the educational system or keyinstitutional issues for ministries) or with administration and budget areas. In this sense,

planning departments may hold a hierarchical position in connection with those areas, but thisoccurs in very few cases and, mainly, as advisory boards of the minister or vice-minister



strong coincidence: they mostly gather the offices producing statistical information, programming or planning offices – in the strict sense – and monitoring and evaluation offices

(not only of programmes and policies, but also of educational quality). There also appear,though to a lesser extent, offices connected with studies and research or budgetary issues, andthe planning department closely related to the administrative area. In the latter case, it mayalso be a part of the school infrastructure area.

There is practically no ministry of education that lacks an office specifically oriented to the planning task, though in these cases, the planning functions connected with other offices maynot be ruled out.

Based on the above, the evidence shows that there is no simple or single definition about themost appropriate location for the planning department in the ministries of education, since it isthe relationship with other areas and the tasks assigned to it that define in each country therole they are expected to play when defining and developing the educational policies.Certainly, taking into account only formal organization charts of the ministries of education ofthe region is not enough, because it falls within a traditional paradigm about organizations,

but it is useful for a first approach to the issue.

From another perspective that goes beyond the foregoing analysis and takes up discourses and practices on educational planning, there are critical discourses about the tasks typical of thearea that seem to be related to a reaction towards the prevailing characteristics adopted in theregion during the last decades, that is, its technocratic version. Technocracy separatestechnical areas from the strictly political ones, as far as planning is concerned, andconsequently it is reduced to a mere instrumental or operative version. It must be mentionedhere that discourses recognize this aspect only in rare occasions, but many times morecomplex conceptions of planning entail a technocratic conception in solving educational

problems (Matus, 2007). In other words, educational planning discourses and practices are notconsistent and, even when they claim or adhere to the strategic-situational planningconception, in practice they reduce it to operative techniques.

On the contrary, the purpose of this paper is to highlight, from different viewpoints, the

impossibility to artificially split both dimensions (political and technical ones) when definingand developing educational policies. Planning is the quintessential political task; the technicalcomponent will complement the capacity to identify and solve problems, the efficiency to find

better ways and alternatives, the appropriate management to accompany political actions. Atthe same time, this paper intends to reveal the challenges planning offices are currently facing(and continue to face in the future) with respect to key educational issues in Latin American



Based on different papers on public policies (Aguilar Villanueva, 2000) it is known that not

every problem necessarily manages to be part of the public agenda and, consequently, be agovernment priority. It is also known that the agenda sets up the government tone andmanagement. In the case of the educational sector, like in other areas of government, theagenda is understood to be a set of problems, demands or issues that have been selected and

prioritised to be the object of specific actions; that is, they have turned into objects in which itwas decided to get involved.

Considering the educational trends included in the educational agendas in Latin Americaduring the last decades, it must be recognized that no doubt the school offer expansion has

been a part of the agenda and facilitated the important progress in the basic education ofchildren and youths (particularly primary and lower secondary education). However, the

problem of social and educational inequalities still continues with less conclusive effects,since it is very difficult for children and youths to finish their primary studies, least of allsecondary studies, especially when this problem is analysed in specific groups in the school

population. Indicators still show a clear disadvantage for students coming from poor sectors,

native groups and those living in a rural environment. Besides, the educational quality issue inthe region has been (and is) dealt with in political discourses; however, beyond thedissemination of evaluation experiences (either through national systems or regional andinternational studies) it is still an issue of concern in the policies because little progress has

been done in this sense. We will get back to these topics later when dealing with the maineducational trends in the region in item III.

It is known that the way in which an issue is dealt with in the agenda is not merely accidental, but it is not completely planned either. On the contrary, it means a complex and looselystructured process in which the most specialised and consistent knowledge may be a keyelement providing relevant evidence. However, there are other factors involved to turn it intoan issue, such as the degree of specificity to define a problem, the area of social importance,the temporary relevance, the technical complexity, the existence of action precedents on thesubject, the controversial and polemic nature in connection with the legitimacy created toassume the conflict and the interest to get involved in the subject.

It is also true that there are no criteria completely agreed to indicate the moment in which thesolution to certain problems is reached and on which educational policies are involved. Thesolution is never true or false; in many cases there is a lack of an ultimate proof about thesolution of the problem, either because it has not been definitively raised or because as there isa progress in connection with some established goals, it is possible that there appear other new



With reference to this item, it is important to point out that building the education agenda

refers to a fundamental issue in the planning field such as the direction of processes,appropriate to certain established goals. Insofar as this aspect remains in the educational

policies, risks resulting from a clear distance between a methodological command of thesituation and the substantive knowledge of educational processes are reduced.

II. 2. Planning in decentralized educational systems

In many cases, educational policies implemented in various countries of the region tended tointroduce transformations in the traditional patterns that structured the educationalmanagement. These interventions emphasised the tendency towards decentralisation ordeconcentration and, in some cases, have modified sector financing strategies (Caillods,2003). In decentralised systems, central States transferred a series of responsibilities to subnational government levels (or they retained or recovered their own historical responsibilities)and assumed new roles such as pedagogic innovation, technical assistance, evaluation,

production of knowledge and information, definition of curricular policies (with wide margins

ranging from the national curriculum to common contents or parameter proposals), equity policies, etc. But even in those systems that in the strict sense are still centralized, there appearsub national units responsible for different functions (in regions, departments ormunicipalities) that bear highly variable performance margins according to the regulations inforce. For several circumstances, these have also turned into units involved in the educational

planning.

For all of the above, it may be stated that educational system management is increasingly polycentric as a result of transferring educational services and responsibilities to othergovernment levels, growing institutional autonomy, the new role of central States and subnational entities and their corresponding capacities and resources. Furthermore, oldeducational bureaucracies are no longer bureaucratic in the rationalist and Weberian sense ofthe word. In too many cases they have turned into diminished, merely formal bureaucracies,unable to orient the life of school institutions towards democratically agreed nationalobjectives. In this context, planning with voluntarist, imperative and centralized

characteristics (Caillods, 1991) have been strongly questioned. Therefore, it is necessary torebuild a State in the different levels provided with competent human resources, with careersoriented towards professionalisation and equipped with technological and informationresources that allow ensuring mechanisms required for the compliance of educational policyobjectives.



that will be fulfilled on different legal bases and government programmes.

Apart from the levels of higher responsibility in the governments defining the orientations ofthe educational policy, it is also in the political-technical levels where most decisions aredefined and implemented. Precisely, changes in the government structure of educationalsystems, with multiple areas expanding the decision-making levels, demonstrates theimportance to analyse the determinations (that is, frameworks or limits) that have a bearing onthem when definitions are called for. Actors that have multiplied, with different responsibilitylevels, are part of a complex map for the management of educational systems of the region,where the institutional capacity of ministries is defined (and accumulate) by means of thearticulation of macro and micro regulation-oriented working practices.

Also, ensuring a recomposition of the legitimacy of the State at its different levels is a taskthat several ministries of the region are involved. This legitimacy is consolidated both in thecapacity to orient policies on an agreed social justice principle, and in the capacity to managethe changes required in that framework.

II. 3. Time frames

Planning implies different ideas: according to the most classical conceptions, it means theestablishment of purposes, the systematic and strict analysis, and entails the anticipation ofscenarios as well as possible action courses to adopt. The idea of a lineal rationality, wheretemporal sequence steps could be artificially separated has been long discussed. Studies on thedesign, implementation, management and evaluation of policies have already shown that theyare processes only analytically and artificially separated, even if waves in those studies have

highlighted some of them as the case may be (Aguilar Villanueva, 2000).

No doubt, the planning and strength of the prospective capacity of ministries are indissolublyrelated. One of the most urgent problems of planning departments is to solve the immediateday-to-day matters, typical of the everyday pace of management, and the consideration of themedium and long term issues where the sense and direction of a policy are built.

In short, it is the mere concept of time that sets the grounds for action of a planningdepartment. Hargreaves (1996) points out the importance to distinguish between amonochronic and a polychronic concept of time. The latter is particularly important for

policies and is characterized by the simultaneity, the sensitiveness to the context, theorientation towards the relationship among people and not only towards procedures. The firstone refers exclusively to a merely administrative framework to understand organizations; the



2000 period. This average is even higher in the education management of federal countries, attheir different levels. Although the above mentioned document states that ministerial

instability does not hold a unique relationship with education policy management, no doubtthey are both affected.

Rotation of ministers is practically simultaneous to that of the political-professional technicalstaff of a ministry, where, among other causes, there is a lack of true professional careers atstate agencies. This is a second factor that must be stressed because it is a characteristic of theregion. It is true, there have been efforts in various countries to strengthen the capacity ofStates by offering training to government officials, but they have been poorly systematizedand sustainable throughout time, since they were subject to the ups and downs of eachgovernment context. Only a few exceptions in this trend could be mentioned where long-term

programmes aimed at different public officers have been developed during the last years,which involved a range of levels in the government (Mexico). On the other hand, it may besaid that training has to be complemented with the redesign of professional careers and theconsolidation of common guidelines in various levels of the educational system management.

Unlike the above, the political immediatism based on the ephemeral nature of management,especially if time required to introduce changes in the educational system is considered, addsup to a naïve voluntarism (even entailing the best intentions) and ends up therefore to outlinea kind of performance of planning departments that does not allow to respond to thecomplexity of problems to be approached.

III. Old and new problems in educational policies in Latin America: Implications for

planning

It may be seen that the great issues of the educational policies of the region refer, to a certainextent, to the old problems of their societies and educational systems. However, the fact thatthey remain in the agendas is due to two factors: one, it has to do with failed attempts (someof them in part, it is true) to solve them in the past, therefore they are still included in theagenda. But, on the other hand, it is necessary to point out that, on a similar background, these

problems adopt new expressions or structures. Their existence in the agendas calls for an

update of diagnosis and makes them more suitable for the current situation, which no doubtmeans to cast a more precise and accurate glance to understand the context and the design ofstrategies more consistent with this view.

Also, it is important to mention that the purpose of this item is not to exhaust all the topicsthat may be included in an agenda or to deal with the specific educational problems of each



family school capital of that child or youngster. Furthermore, it is important to bear in mindthat the probability to access, remain and learn at school is significantly higher in an urban

rather than in a rural population. Besides, trends show that educational inequalities tend tomove to the higher levels of the educational system (higher secondary and university levels)and to the early stages of education (three and four years old).

It is necessary to say that, in a context of extremely unequal societies, a higher attendance tothe secondary level of education is closely associated with a strong accent of the stratifiednature of the teaching institutional offer. While traditional or modern elites send their childrento full-time schools and with a bilingual curriculum offer (in general, Spanish and English)that provide at the same time better and various contents, popular sectors (whether from thecities or from rural environments) tend to go to institutions with higher deficiencies as to theinfrastructure, curricular offer and resources in general (Tenti Fanfani, 2003). The territorialnature of the educational offer supports this tendency towards school segmentation. In certaincontexts, fragmentation and hierarchisation of school systems has attained such significanceand quality that it is increasingly difficult to think about it as a homogeneous “system” thattends to fulfil the same functions and attain the same objectives. Education inequality in each

level of the education system strongly determines the probability to access and finisheducation in the subsequent level, mainly due to the knowledge transmitted and the cognitiveand attitudinal abilities acquired by students.

Among the strategies prioritised in the region, it may be said that one of them has been todiversify or make the education offer flexible in order to meet diversity. However, it must betaken into account because many times that diversification results in an undervalued offer thatmakes education gaps deeper.

Even though it has been said many times that the effective action that allows reducing socialand educational gaps calls for comprehensive or intersectorial policies, it is necessary to statethe great efforts they require and the difficulty to be implemented. Nevertheless, the analysissuggests that it is still a relevant ambition that does not annul or delegitimise the capacity ofeducation ministries to participate in reducing these gaps from their areas of responsibility.Thus, democratisation will not be merely understood as an extension of school careers,

without paying attention to other fundamental aspects: that is, to effectively ensure equalaccess to knowledge, which is closely related to the quality issue.

The educational quality

There is a consensus to criticise the idea of quality disseminated in the region in the 1980’s



the different areas of social life and build projects in connection with others. The relevancemay also be analysed with respect to educational goals which, typical of a given time and

context, are in line with a political and social project and provide sense to the practicesdeveloped at the schools included in the educational system. Yet, pertinence and equitysuggest, in the first case, to meet the different needs of individuals and contexts, so that theeducation is important to people coming from different social and cultural stages; in thesecond case, it means to ensure equal access to a quality education for the whole population,ensuring the conditions (resources and help) required.

The concern for aspects wider than the ones traditionally considered in the conception of theeducational quality (effectiveness and efficiency), consequently suggests an interesting basicreconsideration that results in defining policies for the region. In this sense, it may be said thateven though the educational quality issue has been included in the agenda of the last twodecades, in recent years it has adopted a complexity that not only calls for different evaluationstrategies (and thus review national evaluation systems), but basically a more comprehensiveapproach to improve it.

The learning quality is always the result of a combination of school and social factorsreciprocally connected. Apart from social and family conditions, there are fundamentallearning conditions associated with the learning interest, which is also built as a result of goodschool practices. Systemic factors add up to them (building resources and school equipment,teaching working conditions, updated and pertinent curricular designs, strategies to follow-upschool processes of children and youngsters with learning difficulties, etc.) such as a goodschool, well-trained teachers, adequate strategies and methods for the characteristics of thestudent population.

In the region, only during the last years, the educational quality issue from this wider andcomplex viewpoint has been strengthening the agendas of the ministries. Partly because thegathered experience has set the boundaries to the academic results; partly because, eventhough these are unavoidable dimensions of the issue, social and educational factors that are

part of it, as it has already been said, require policies that are more comprehensive than theones already promoted.

Financing education

Latin America assigns an average of approximately 5% of its GDP to education (year 2005).As a region, it is ranked second after North America and Western Europe, which assign anaverage of 5.7% per annum. However, it must be taken into account that this is only one of the



necessary to significantly increase investment in the sector, especially if willing to achievesome goals set for 2015 (universalise initial and primary education, raise secondary education

coverage to 75% and eradicate illiteracy among adults, among others). Countries in the regionare already developing some strategies, such as new financing laws and/or laws providing fora different allocation of resources of the sector. Argentina, Brazil, Colombia and Chile areclear examples of this. These regulations require further planning tasks to make those goalseffective and feasible.

III. 2. Some specific topics

Recognising “new” subjects at institutions and educational systems

Education systems in the region call for education strategies to meet the needs of the diversitycharacterising the new population included in the systems. In strict sense, it is not a questionof new subjects, since they have been attending schools for decades, but it may be said theythat have remained, to a certain extent, unnoticed. Just to provide some examples, verydifferent from one another, that allow illustrating this situation: on the one hand, pupils and

students with ages highly above the average in primary and secondary levels, coming from themost disadvantaged groups (as a result of a combined effect of repetition and/or temporarydropouts and new admissions to the system); the growing attendance of youngsters in adulteducation levels, partly because of social questions but also of education conditions at thesecondary level, that has remained almost impassive in spite of the attempts to change it. Allof these groups require the launch of institutional and learning strategies that allow meet theirsingular characteristics to ensure the education process.

Early childhood and its inclusion in the educational processes

In general, it may be established in the government policies in the region that a higher priorityis given to the attention and education of early childhood, unlike past situations when thesubject was clearly less important than other EFA objectives. It must be said that countriesshow big differences as to the offer in early education: they are children from the mostdisadvantaged families and from families living in rural areas, as well as children excluded for

different causes, who have less possibilities to access education, when in fact they are the oneswho should most benefit from education programmes.

Early childhood education receives in this context a particular attention in policies,characterised by a comprehensive idea of education. (López, 2007). In this sense, it involvesnot only the formal educational system (particularly in initial education), but also it is a



and, as a result, education systems have not always been ready to adequately satisfy thisdemand.

On the one hand there is a tendency in the region to universalise secondary education and, insome cases, to make it compulsory (Argentina and Chile). On the other hand, following the

behaviour of education rates (SITEAL, 2006 and 2007), it may be observed during the firstyears of this decade that they are not only growing, but they are adopting negative values,which allows setting the grounds of a hypothesis related to the limits for the expansion ofupper secondary education levels. Obviously, this hypothesis may be explained partly becauseof factors external to the education systems, but under no ground it may be dismissed theincidence of the conditions typical of the existing offer to educate youngsters coming fromvery heterogeneous sectors, both in socioeconomic and cultural terms.

Youth cultures at higher education are a sign of a particular vital stage when attending thislevel of education and are a part of an age group bearing peculiar characteristics, which aredifferent from those of past decades. This is one of the “new” current subjects at educationalinstitutions, previously referred to.

According to the above, it may be consequently anticipated that the next steps to expandhigher education (especially higher secondary education) will call for the most significantefforts not only regarding the offer expansion (infrastructure, learning equipment, teachertraining, etc.) but also as far as fitting strategies and learning models are concerned.Secondary education will have to be innovated both in its organizational structure and in itslearning strategies and procedures to ensure the development of knowledge and attitudes thatqualify for a job and for the active citizenship. Therefore, in this context, the learning question

acquires a fundamental strategic importance and the development of innovating proposals based on past experiences will result in a key factor to provide new responses to thetraditional secondary education.

Youngsters and adult education

Traditionally, adult education was limited first to ensure literacy purposes which allowed

people who have not had the opportunity to receive a basic education to access fundamentalknowledge such as the command of a written language and mathematical literacy. For this purpose, specific offers have been organised to be responsible for the initial literacy and thenfor basic and primary education. Insofar as the educational offer expanded during the lastdecades, so was equally strengthened that of the secondary education to allow a continuededucation among adults who were finishing primary school or have abandoned secondary



region: to design programmes and offers that consider the new sides of this problem in theyoungsters and adults offer.

Most of the subjects mentioned in this item are a part of the National Educational Plans of therespective Ministries of Latin American countries3 and are also presented in the new nationallaws passed since the year 2000 until today (López, 2007). Both the regulations and the plans,as well as those papers and reports prepared in line with international agreements andcommitments, such as Education for All, develop the subjects analysed herein, thus showingthat they are current issues in the political agenda of the countries of the region.

Facing these new education scenarios in the region, it is important that planning may in turnre-update traditional tools typical of it and create new strategies to face them, bearing in mindthat, even policies that used to be successful in the past do not necessarily fit in with thecurrent challenges. This outline, appropriate to think the place and role of planning in theministries, also invites IIEP, as a UNESCO institute specialized in the subject, to promote anddevelop research and collaborate in designing new educational policy strategies.



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16

Annex I

Official Websites checked out of Latin American Ministries of Education

Countries Official Websites Link to organization charts

Argentina http://www.me.gov.ar N/A

Bolivia http://www2.minedu.gov.bo/inicio.html N/A

Brazil http://portal.mec.gov.br/ http://portal.mec.gov.br/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=62&Itemid=191

Chile http://www.mineduc.cl/ http://600.mineduc.cl/informacion/info_dire/dire_auto.phpColombia http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/ http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/1621/article-151216.html

Costa Rica http://www.mep.go.cr/ http://www.mep.go.cr/acerca_del_mep/organizacion.html

Cuba http://www.rimed.cu/ N/A

Dominican Republic http://www.see.gov.do/ http://www.see.gov.do/sitesee/sobrelainstitucion/Estructura%20Organizativa.htm

Ecuador http://www.educacion.gov.ec/ http://www.educacion.gov.ec/institucion/organigrama.php?sec=1&subCat=1&subSec=5

El Salvador http://www.mined.gob.sv/ http://www.mined.gob.sv/descarga/Organigrama-MINED-2008.pdfGuatemala http://www.mineduc.gob.gt/ http://www.mineduc.gob.gt/ddes/index.htm

Honduras http://www.se.gob.hn/ http://www.se.gob.hn/index.php?a=Webpage&url=estructura

Mexico http://www.sep.gob.mx/ http://www.sep.gob.mx/wb/sep1/sep1_Organigrama_SEP2

Nicaragua http://www.mined.gob.ni/ http://www.mined.gob.ni/ORGANIGRAM/ORGANIGRAMA%2008.pdf

Panama http://www.meduca.gob.pa/ http://www.meduca.gob.pa/ (section: organizational structure)

Paraguay http://www.mec.gov.py/ http://www.mec.gov.py/index.php?id=organigrama

Peru http://www.minedu.gob.pe/ http://www.minedu.gob.pe/institucional/xtras/ROF_OrganigramaMED2006.pdf

Uruguay http://www.anep.edu.uy http://www.anep.edu.uy/sitio/anep.php?identificador=25

Venezuela http://www.portaleducativo.edu.ve/ N/A

N/A: Not available in the site

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Educational Planning in Latin America - Poggi