Education and Education and Development: the Development: the African ContextAfrican Context

ECON 5310[Text, Chapter 10]

May 27, 2010A. R. M. Ritter

What is Education?What is Education?

What is Education?What is Education? ““All forms of learning and improving human All forms of learning and improving human

knowledge and capabilities”knowledge and capabilities” Education =/= “Schooling”Education =/= “Schooling” Types of education:Types of education:

Informal:Informal: At home, from our parents and family……. At home, from our parents and family……. On our own, learning by doingOn our own, learning by doing At playAt play On the job; at work On the job; at work In conversationIn conversation In our communities In our communities

FormalFormal At “day-care”, school, college, university, classes…At “day-care”, school, college, university, classes… Employee training Employee training Formal apprenticeships Formal apprenticeships

The Functions of The Functions of EducationEducation

The Functions of The Functions of EducationEducation General socialization; Ethical Community & citizenship

responsibility Fundamental personal empowerment Improvement in personal and family

quality of life “Joy of learning”…an “end” in itself Understanding the world and

ourselves “Human capital”: of particular

relevance here

Human CapitalHuman Capital

The economist’s term for the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience.

Produced through investment in people

Examples:

education,

family environment health,

nutrition, sanitation,

on-the-job training; water availability,

Education and Education and DevelopmentDevelopment

In general: In general:

education promotes education promotes development and development and development promotes development promotes educationeducation

How and why?How and why?

Education and Education and DevelopmentDevelopment

How does education promote How does education promote development?development?

Education and Education and DevelopmentDevelopmentHow does education promote

development? Basic literacy and numeracy are

indispensible for coping and survival in the modern world

Generates skills of all sorts needed in the economy

Improved parental, esp. mothers’ education builds “human capital” of children; e.g. via nutrition, health, via nutrition, health, child-care spill-overs or “externalities”child-care spill-overs or “externalities”

Improves quality of entrepreneurship on farms and in other economic activities

But education on its own will not “produce” development;

Public policy mess-ups, institutional stupidities and political dysfunction all can overwhelm good education and produce stagnation and contraction

Education and Education and DevelopmentDevelopment

How does development promote How does development promote education?education?

Education and Education and DevelopmentDevelopment

How does development promote How does development promote education?education?

Development (sustainable growth Development (sustainable growth plus equity) generates the resources plus equity) generates the resources that can improve and support that can improve and support educationeducation

Growth leads to increased tax revenues Growth leads to increased tax revenues for public education expenditures;for public education expenditures;

Higher family incomes permit increased Higher family incomes permit increased family financing of educationfamily financing of education

Education and African Education and African DevelopmentDevelopment

History:1. The Pre-Colonial Era: Mainly Informal Education

2. The “Colonial Era” Exclusion and NeglectBut a launching of formal education systems in most countries

Post-Independence Era Hich Priority and Rapid Expansion Problems:

High Costs of expansion for young populations Quality suffered with rapid expansion Gender, regional urban/rural imbalances Balance among levels of education Financial and equity issues

Trends in African Trends in African Education:Education:

Gross Enrollment RatiosGross Enrollment Ratios1970 2000 2007

Primary 51.0 81.7 94.0Secondary

6.3 25.7 30.0

Tertiary 0.8 3.6 5.0

Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2009

Sub-Saharan Africa: Percent of Children Completing Primary

School Millennium Development Targets and

Actual Rates

School Attainment by Gender

Ratio of Female to Male, Per Cent

Region 1960

2000

South AsiaMiddle East and North Africa

Sub Saharan AfricaLatin America & Carib.East Asia

25%51%

59%83%50%

52%60%

71%96%84%

Gender Disparity in African Education and the MDG Goal

Gender disparity is measured by the ratio of girls to boys enrolled in primary and secondary schools. Most regions are on track to achieve this target by 2015.

Analyzing Education: Costs and Benefits, Private and Social

Private Costs and Benefits:Private Costs and Benefits:

Social Costs and Benefits” Social Costs and Benefits”

Analyzing Education: Costs and Benefits, Private and Social

Private Benefits:Private Benefits:• Personal empowermentPersonal empowerment• Lifetime earningsLifetime earnings• Greater potential for participationGreater potential for participation• Consumption benefits?Consumption benefits?

Private Costs Private Costs • Earnings foregone (opportunity cost) Earnings foregone (opportunity cost) • Direct costs (fees, supplies, board & lodging)Direct costs (fees, supplies, board & lodging)

Analyzing Education: Costs and Benefits, Private and Social

Social BenefitsSocial Benefits Improved productivity benefits allImproved productivity benefits all Improved nutrition, health, child-care spill-overs or Improved nutrition, health, child-care spill-overs or

“externalities” , especially from women’s education“externalities” , especially from women’s education Improved potential for tech change and productive Improved potential for tech change and productive

entrepreneurship entrepreneurship • More effective political participation?More effective political participation?

• Social CostsSocial Costs Resources dedicated to educationResources dedicated to education Opportunity costs to societyOpportunity costs to society

Psacharopoulos and Patrinos, 2005

Educational Issues for Africa

1.1. Achieving 100% primary school enrollmentsAchieving 100% primary school enrollments

2.2. Equal access to education for girls and womenEqual access to education for girls and women

3.3. Expanding secondary educationExpanding secondary education

4.4. Expanding “tertiary” education (colleges, Expanding “tertiary” education (colleges, universities, training institutes)universities, training institutes)

5.5. Relevance of curricula; especially in rural Relevance of curricula; especially in rural areasareas

6.6. Financial and equity issuesFinancial and equity issues

7.7. ““Balance among primary, secondary and Balance among primary, secondary and tertiary educationtertiary education

Educational Issues for Africa

1. Achieving 100% primary school enrollments

2. Expanding secondary education

Major achievements so far in these areas:

note gross enrollment ratios

Unevenness of advances among countries

1970 2000 2007

Primary 51.0 81.7 94.0

Secondary 6.3 25.7 30.0

Tertiary 0.8 3.6 5.0

Participation in Education for Some African Countries, 2007

Country Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

Adult LiteracyM F

South Africa

103 96 15 89 87

Ghana 96 49 6 72 58

Kenya 106 50 Na Na

Zimbabwe

101 40 Na 95 88

Botswana

107 76 5 83 83

Nigeria 97 32 10 80 64

Malawi 126 28 0 79 65

Ethiopia 91 30 3 Na

D. R. Congo

85 33 4 Na

All Africa 94 32 5 71 54

Source: UNDP. Human Development Report, 2007/2008

Educational Issues for Africa, continued

2. 2. Equal access to education for girls and women

Why the imbalances? Cultural traditions in some countries; “At home” tradition for women; Early withdrawal

for work at home Income potentials for males outside the home? Lack of resources Policy approach of governments Early pregnancies; early marriage

Most countries are catching up regarding women’s education,

quickly enough? A Millennial Development Goal

Educational Issues for Africa, continued

4. Expanding Tertiary 4. Expanding Tertiary EducationEducation

High costHigh cost Quality issueQuality issue Equity issueEquity issue Brain drain issueBrain drain issue Curriculum relevance?Curriculum relevance?

Educational Issues for Africa, continued

5. Relevance of curricula; especially in rural areas

Are “school-leavers” also “village-leavers”? (Rural brain drain?)

“Education for Development”

6. Financial and equity issues6. Financial and equity issues

7. “Balance” among primary, secondary 7. “Balance” among primary, secondary and tertiary educationand tertiary education

Educational Issues for Africa, continued

Public Expenditure per Student per Year as a Percent of GDP pc

Country Primary

Secondary Tertiary

Botswana 16.1 41.2 440.6

Burundi 20.0 77.5 363.1

Ghana 18.4 29.1 213.4

Mauritius 10.3 17.4 40.4

Niger 28.7 46.1 371.4

Rwanda 10.2 365.1 372.8

South Africa 15.6 16.7 44.3

Canada na na Na

USA 22.2 24.6 26Source:: World Bank, World Development report, 2009, Table 2.11

6 and 7. The Issue of Balance and Fairness among Levels of Education

Educational Issues for Educational Issues for AfricaAfrica

8. Improving Quality while the systems expand rapidlyA Major task. How can this be done??

8. Improving Quality while the systems expand rapidly

How can this be done??

Increase resource allocations (from Taxation via economic growth)

Easily said, hard to do; Relevamce of economic growth to undergird tax

increases and education Better teacher training;

better salaries to incentivate good work Improve ability of children to learn

(nutrition at school sometimes) Concentrate attention on primary schools ? Reconsider financing for higher education ?