Gee Journal 31.4 457-465 © 1993 (Dec) by Kluwer Academic Publishers

457

Ecotoufism in the Small Island Caribbean

Weave~ David B., Prof. Dl:, UniversiO, of Regina, Luther College, Regina, Saskatchewan $4S OA2, Canada

ABSTRACT: Ecotourism-related strategies can serve to enhance the tourism industries of small Caribbean islands, which are presently dominated by a 3S (sea, sand, sun) product. In the first place, the principles of Alternative Tourism can be applied to 3S tourism in order to minimize negative environmental impacts. Secondly, diversionary ecotourism opportunities can be promoted to diversify the tourism product, thus providing a nature-oriented alternative to resort-based tourists. Thirdly, regional ecotourism, catering to ecotourists, can be fostered in mountainous interiors, peripheral islands, undeveloped coastlines, rural agricultural areas and in offshore reefs. A fourth strategy, exemplified by Dominica, entails a comprehensive ecotourism approach for destinations in which 3S tourism is undesired or unsuited.

Introdactien

The concept of ecotourism has attracted a considerable amount of interest among both academics and non- academics since the term was first introduced in the mid- 1980s (see for example Boo t990; Goriup 1991; Lindberg 1991; Nelson, Butler and Wall 1993; Whelan 1991; Ziffer 1989). In a frequently cited definition, Ceballos-Lascurain (1988) characterizes ecotourism as

Tourism that involves travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific object of studying, admiring and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural aspects (both past and present) found in these areas.

While this definition is useful in stressing the environmental orientation of ecotourism, it is clear that the term has also come to be associated with a range of characteristics which collectively define an "alternative tourism" (AT) paradigm (Dernoi 1981; Krippendorf 1987; Singh, Theuns and Go 1989). This paradigm has emerged as an alternative to "conventional mass tourism" (CMT), which has been criticized as an often inappropriate form of tourism, especially for smaller destinations. CMT characteristics, outlined and contrasted in Tab 1 with the

AT model, tend to appear during the middle and later stages of a destination's cycle of evolution (Butler 1980; Christaller 1963; Stansfield 1978). With respect to accommodations, attractions, market and economic impact, the argument can be made that ecotourism and AT are merely other names for the early "exploration" stage of the resort cycle, when relatively unspoiled areas are opened up to further tourist incursions by a few pioneer travellers. However, as pointed out by Weaver (1991), what distinguishes this "circumstantial" AT from "deliberate" AT is the lack of regulations and policies which attempt to ensure that the activity is maintained at environmentally, economically and socially sustainable levels. "Deliberate" ecotourism, the subject of this paper, is therefore very" much associated with intentions of identifying and working within the carrying capacities of a particular area, and of discouraging the emergence of a CMT product where it is deemed to be undesirable or inappropriate.

The recent proliferation of ecotourism case studies, based largely in the underdeveloped world, is not surprising in light of deliberate ecotourism's status as the fastest growing form of tourism (Whelan 1991). For example, Dearden (1989) and Zurick (1992) examined the phenomenon of mountain trekking in Nepal and northern Thailand respectively, while Boo (1990), and Fennell and

458 GeoJournal 31.4t1993

Tab 1 Characteristic tendencies: conventional mass tourism vs. alternative tourism

Eagles (1990) have studied the rainforest-oriented ecotourism sector of Costa Rica. Other ecotourism "hotspots" include Belize (Cater 1992), Dominica (Boo 1990; Weaver 1991), and the wildlife safari parks of Kenya (Olindo t991; Western 1982). While the newfound enthusiasm for ecotourism among destinations, the travel market and academics bears the mark of a bandwagon effect and should therefore be viewed with skepticism, it is the contention of this paper that ecotourism-related options can contribute to the enhancement of sea-sand- sun, or "3S"-oriented tourism sectors which dominate many small tropical islands, as in the Caribbean. In some cases, a more pervasive ecotourism strategy can even substitute for a 3S product. The following section outlines the contemporary small island tourism industry in the Caribbean and considers the traditional status of ecotourism. This is followed by a presentation of deliberate ecotourism-related strategies as they are currently and potentially applied in the region. The implications and applicability of these options are also discussed.

The Small Island Caribbean

For the purposes of this paper, the "small island Caribbean" is defined as including all discrete political

entities having a poplation below 5,000,000 and a land area of less than 15,000 km 2 (Fig 1). While the destinations which fall into this category are diverse with respect to area, population, per capita incomes, political structures and physical geography, certain important characteristics are commonly held, such as the recent colonial legacy and persistent links with the former colonial power, a historical dependency upon primary sector activity (especially agriculture), and, most germane to this paper, a high degree of dependence upon tourism. Tab 2 reveals an inverse relationship between size (population and area) and the relative importance of tourism with respect to tourist/host ratios and contribution to GNP. As well, the cumulative small island host/guest ratio of approximately 1.00:1, and the 15-20% contribution of tourism to the regional GNP (global average = 13.00:1 and 5%, respectively) identify the area as one of the world's most tourism-intensive destination regions (WTO 1990). During the 1980s, the overall Caribbean tourism industry expanded by an annual rate of 5.5% (second only to East Asia and the Pacific), and it is expected that this sector will grow by an annual rate of 40/0 through the 1990s (Douglas 1992).

Because of favourable political conditions, proximity to the North American market and the nature of the region's resource endowment, the Caribbean has become strongly

GeoJourna! 31.4/1993 459

~/~ B X / c 0

} THE CARIBBEAN

x. ~ DOMINICA - Independent States

, • BAHAMAS

~, ." Aruba (Neth.) - Dependencies / t " " ~ '.. ~ J . . . . . . . . . - International Boundary

"" ~ '~# ~J ' " " 'Turks&Oaicos ls lands(UK)

JAMAICA ~ k / Puer, o R,oo/U.S,1 ST. K,TTS-N>EVlS ' ° ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA Montserrat (U.K.) o ~o Guadel°upe (Fr.)

DOMINtCA

5 O d' •Martinique (Fr.)

/ ' / b b 8 g O SAINT LUCIA SAINT VINCENT ~ ~ BARBADOS

, l 'q"l

Aruba (Neth.)l~ Curacao (Neth.) --.4-'-*- ~ I~ ~Bonaire (Neth.) , ~ GRENADA

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Fig 1

identified as a 3S destination region anchored by two distinct sub-sectors; beach resorts (located on or near the coast), and cruise ship activity (located mainly in major port cities). In addition, a second tier of tourism activity is occupied by social tourism (eg visits by family and friends) and ~business" tourism (eg conventions, business contacts, education, research, etc.), while a third tier includes environmental (ecotourism), cultural and historical (ie heritage) tourism. Fig 2 attempts to depict these tiers in a hierarchical manner, recognizing that any particular tourist trip could incorporate a combination of the sub-sectors. It should also be pointed out that the sectoral emphasis varies from one destination to another, with Trinidad and Tobago having an important business sector, Puerto Rico a dominant social sector and St. Thomas-USVI a cruise ship orientation.

While environmental, cultural, historical, social, and educational tourism by their very nature tend to lean toward AT, resort and business tourism generally display the characteristics of CMT (Fig 2), a product which in the Caribbean and small tropical island context has been criticized in a particularly vigorous manner (Britton and

Clarke 1987; Bryden 1973; English 1986; Hills and Lundgren 1977; P6rez 1973; Lea 1988). Much has been made of the structural similarities between resort tourism and plantation agriculture, the new monoculture, where the hotel displaces the plantation as the primary mode of production in response to the changing needs of the metropolitan core countries, and the coast develops as an "elite" space juxtaposed to an improverished interior which functions as little more than a local labour reservoir (Britton 1980; Finney and Watson 1975; Harrigan 1974; Weaver 1988). Exacerbating this inequitable system is the observation that most of the servers are non-white and poor, while most of the served are white and wealthy. In short, because of its implication in a variety of negative economic, social and environmental impacts, resort-based CMT is widely perceived as an inappropriate and unsustainable form of tourism activity in small tropical islands. Unfortunately, it is also likely to remain in the foreseeable future as the economic lifeblood for these same destinations, and therefore every effort should be made to ameliorate its undesirable characteristics and effects.

460 GeoJournal 31.4/1993

Tab 2 The insular Caribbean: geographic and tourism data 1989

Traditional Place of Ecotourism

Circumstantial ecotourism has long existed in the small island Caribbean as a minor activity confined to the more isolated or less developed destinations. Examples of deliberate ecotourism are rarer, being limited to a small number of isolated private initiatives (eg Asa Wright Nature Centre, Trinidad; Blue Water Inn, Tobago), and to a few national parks and protected areas where nature tourism has been accommodated as a complementary activity. Several factors account for the traditionally low profile of ecotourism in the region. In the first instance, the emergence of a widespread environmental consciousness and the concomitant growth and awareness of ecotourism are recent phenomena which have not traditionally factored into the tourism policy decisions of most destinations; thus, in contrast to the emphasis put upon the lucrative 3S product, little effort was expended by governments and entrepreneurs on AT products deemed to have minimal economic potential or market demand. In addition, the physical setting of the small island Caribbean has not been particularly well suited for"hard" ecotourism, with opportunities for terrestrial ecotourism being

constrained by a small and densely populated land base which has been extensively degraded and modified during the past 350 years of European settlement. Except for the island of Trinidad, the insular Caribbean is also characterized by low biodiversity in comparison with the South and Central American mainland or with more isolated islands and island chains such as Madagascar and the Galapagos.

Contemporary Ecotourism-Related Strategies

The apathy which has traditionally characterized the Caribbean attitude toward ecotourism has been replaced by enthusiastic support on the part of most destinations in the region (Gill 1992). The growing regional interest is further evidenced by the initiation of annual Caribbean Ecotourism Conferences, hosted so far by Belize (1991), St. John-USVI (1992) and the Cayman Islands (1993). Based both upon speculation and the actual regional experience, four distinct ecotourism-related strategies, progressing from the tangential to the pervasive, can be utilized to

GeoJournal 31.4/1993 461

enhance or in some cases substitute for the traditional tourism product of the small island Caribbean:

1. Modification of Resort Tourism by Ecotourism Principles This option recognizes that 3S-based tourism will in all likelihood remain as the core of the regional tourism industry for some time to come, but that the product can be improved and made more sustainable through the application of various ecotourism principles, without changing basic tourist motivations or activities. A substantial body of evidence already confirms the negative environmental impacts often generated by CMT, which if unresolved can despoil the very assets which attract tourists in the first place (Cohen 1978; Pearce 1985; Ryan 1991; WTO 1983). According to the OECD (1980), tourism can affect the environment through (a) permanent landscape restructuring (eg the construction of hotels, golf courses, marinas and associated infrastructure, (b) the generation of waste residuals (sewage and garbage disposal, noise), and (c) tourist activities (disruption of wildlife, littering, habitats damage, etc.). Remedial measures which would fulfill the principles of sustainability include more sensitive hotel design, development restrictions and building moratoria, curtailment of quarrying and beach mining, sensitive landscaping, limitations on height and distance from the beach, more effective sewage treatment and garbage disposal, recycling and minimization of waste, and education programs to eliminate harmful tourist activities.

It is true that many Caribbean destinations have already passed legislation and have implemented measures to minimize the environmental effects of the tourism industry. However, accelerated rates of tourism development, and problems of enforcement and cooperation, continue to generate concerns over the environmental sustainability of CMT. The extent of the problem has been made apparent by several recent conferences on the issue, including the Workshop on Environmentally Sound Tourism Development, held in Barbados in 1987 (Edwards 1988), and the Conference on the Public Implications of Sustainable Development in the Caribbean Region, held in Kingston, Jamaica, in 1990 (Jackson 1990). Both conferences stressed that the long- term survival of tourism is dependent upon sound environmental measures and policies, even though many entrepreneurs in the highly competitive Caribbean tourism market might express legitimate concerns of reduced profit margins caused by the enforcement of such measures. Furthermore, with the emergence of a mass environmental consciousness during the past decade, tourists and local populations are becoming more vocal in demanding such measures, while an expanding body of environmental knowledge is available to facilitate the introduction of appropriate strategies.

2. Diversionary Ecotourism As in the previous strategy, diversionary ecotourism assumes that most tourists visiting the small island

3S

BEACH RESORTS

t TOURISM

I

1 I CRUISE t SHIPS

[

::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ....

iiii iiii iiiil iiiiiii ii iiiiiiiiii iiiiii i iiiiiiii ill iiiii!ii i iilii ! iii === .......

CMT oriented ~ AT oriented

Fig 2 Components of contemporary Caribbean tourism

Caribbean will be primarily interested in the play and relaxation opportunities afforded by beach resorts. However, it also assumes that many tourists would appreciate occasional breaks from a 3S-centred agenda, and given the growth in environmental consciousness, would be open to "soft" ecotourism activities which would not require a great deal of exertion, nor any hardship with respect to food, transportation or lodging. Diversionary ecotourism opportunities could range from the maintenance of labelled plant collections on hotel grounds to small, road-accessible nature preserves where interpretive material would be readily available. Many tourists already try to have at least one reef viewing experience, an option which is facilitated on some islands by the availability of small "Atlantis" submarine tours. By having an array of diversionary ecotourism opportunities available, destinations are able to market a more diversified tourism product, which should improve their competitive advantage over those which remain tied to a resort-based package. As well, the exposure of "mass" tourists to nature-oriented activities may inspire some of these individuals to pursue more rigorous ecotourism opportunities in future.

3. Regional Ecotourism Regional ecotourism assumes that a small island destination will continue to derive most of its tourism revenue from coastal resorts, but that a significant flow of

462 GeoJournal 34.1/1993

ecotourism income, generating a high multiplier effect and directly benefitting some local residents, can be obtained from certain suitable portions of the extensive non-resort land base. A further attraction of this option is that the potential of ecotourism revenue helps to justify the continued protection and enhancement of relatively unspoiled areas which may otherwise by subjected to unsustainable land uses, and which also bring about many ancillary environmental (eg biodiversity and watershed regulation) and social (eg education, local recreation) benefits. Five ecotourism-appropriate small island environments can be identified:

a) Mountainous Interiors: Excellent ecotourism potential exists in volcanic island interiors, where remnants of primary and secondary vegetation are complemented by low population densities, relatively cool temperatures, and dramatic terrain and scenery. The most extensive and diverse area is the Northern Range of Trinidad, while Jamaica's Blue Mountains and the interior of St. Lucia, Montserrat, Martinique, Guadeloupe, St. Kitts and Nevis, and Grenada are potentially significant. (The case of Dominica will be dealt with separately below). Non-volcanic areas with potential include the limestone karst Cockpit Country of Jamaica, the Christoffel district of Curacao, and the Arikok region of Aruba. Many of these interior spaces are designated as protected areas, or are in the process of being so designated, thus providing a well-defined focus for high-quality ecotourism.

b) Peripheral Islands: Many small island Caribbean destinations are archipelagos where dominant islands co-exist with one or more peripheral islands. These satellite islands are often suited for ecotourism because of their sparse population and low level of economic development, which may result from poor accessibility and infrastructure. The best example of such an island already utilized to a large degree by an ecotourism- related product is St. John in the US Virgin Islands, most of which is occupied by a national park. Other island peripheries with such potential include Barbuda (Antigua and Barbuda), Little Cayman Island (Cayman Islands), the "Family Islands" of the Bahamas, (currently marketed as ecotourism destinations), Nevis (St. Kitts and Nevis) and Tobago (Trinidad and Tobago).

c) Less Developed Coastlines: Coastal areas with significant ecotourism potential include areas unsuitable for resort development because of cliffs, mangroves and other wetlands, or the lack of beaches. Windward coasts also tend to be unsuited for intensive tourism development because of rough seas, as in the case of Barbados' Bathsheba Coast, and the northern coasts of Aruba and Curacao. Several coastal wetlands are already being utilized or examined for ecotourism, including the Negril Great Morass of Jamaica's west coast, the Flamingo Sanctuary of Bonaire, Graeme Hall

Swamp on the south coast of Barbados, and portions of Guadeloupe's Parc Naturelle. However, the coastal wetland with the greatest current use and potential as an ecotourism attraction is Trinidad's 30 km 2 (12 square mile) Caroni Swamp, which features the scarlet ibis, and which during the 1970s attracted an annual traffic of about 5,000 visitors, including birdwatchers, hunters, sports fishermen, and oyster and crab harvesters (Bacon 1987).

d) Settled Areas Removed from Coastal Resort Regions: Typical in Caribbean small islands is a zone of agriculture and village settlement located between the coastal resorts and the interior mountains, as well as along certain parts of the coast. Surprisingly, settled areas such as cacao plantations and small subsistence plots can provide habitat for a diverse array of birds and other types of wildlife, making such areas suitable for both diversionary and regional ecotourism. Because of the high population, such areas may also provide supplementary cultural and historical activities, and small-scale private sector village accommodations. Jamaica's "Community Tourism" strategy is an example of an AT product involving ecotourism which is geared toward this type of region.

e) Coral Reefs: The high marine ecotourism potential of the small island Caribbean, fostered by the large number of islands, extensive territorial waters and lengthy coastline, compensates somewhat for con- straints in the availability of terrestrial ecotourism opportunities. Marine-based ecotourism is arguably the most developed form of the sector in the study area, being frequently undertaken by resort tourists as diversion, and constituting a major element of tourism in several destinations, such as Saba, Bonaire, Bahamas and the Cayman Islands, where diving respectively generated US $1-1.5 million, $30 million, $80-90 million and $ 52.3 million in 1985 (Dixon and Sherman 1990). Not all divers are ecotourists, especially when consumptive activities such as spearfishing and coral collection are practised. However, the great majority do fulfill the motivational criteria outlined in Ceballos- Lascurain's definition of ecotourism and many destinations are protecting their reefs through the establishment of offshore marine parks.

4. Comprehensive Ecotourism This option differs fundamentally from those described above in that the entire thrust of the destination's tourist sector gravitates toward deliberate ecotourism, and conscious attempts are made to foster the AT characteristics outlined in Tab 1. For islands already well developed as resort destinations, comprehensive ecotourism may not constitute a viable or even desirable option. However, the case study of Dominica illustrates the possibilities of this strategy for islands which are not well suited for beach-based tourism, or which do not desire a

GeoJourna! 31.4/1993 463

CMT path of development (Boo 1990; Douglas 1992; Weaver 1991; Wilkinson 1993). During the 1950s and 1960s, the Dominican government was frustrated in its attempts to develop a resort-based tourism sector by poor accessibility (ie limited infrastructure, no direct flights from major markets, and a small, inconveniently located airport), unfavourable physical geography (heavy rainfall, rainforest, mountainous terrain, lack of white sand beaches), and an abundance of more suitable intervening opportunities in the region. Accordingly, the AT which characterized the Dominican product at that time was circumstantial. The transition to deliberate AT occurred during the early 1970s, as geographic characteristics hitherto perceived as liabilities were increasingly perceived and marketed as assets which distinguished Dominica from the more conventional destinations. Assisting this transition was the establishment of Morne Trois Pitons National Park, which although created mainly for watershed and wildlife protection, also offered an array of "hard" ecotourism opportunities.

Twenty years later, both the intent and structure of its tourism sector identify Dominica (the "Nature Island of the Caribbean") as the Caribbean destination most closely associated with comprehensive ecotourism. These characteristics include an emphasis upon natural, historical and cultural local attractions, a minor beach-resort sector, low visitation levels, less evidence of seasonality, the dominance of smaller, Dominican-owned accommoda- tions dispersed throughout the island and in the interior, and the status of tourism as an interrelated component within an economy dominated by agriculture. However, this is not to say that Dominica adheres perfectly to the ecotourism model. Problems which have been cited include inadequately trained guides, incompatible land uses within parks, litter spread by trekkers and cruise ship excursionists, soap pollution in local waterways, and the illegal collection of wild plants in protected areas. Furthermore, Dominica's current commitment to pervasive ecotourism is no guarantee that this policy will continue indefinitely, and legitimate concerns are raised by certain recent developments, such as the opening of a cruise ship berth and relatively large beach hotel in the north, and plans to significantly increase tourist arrivals over the next decade.

Discussion

The first three options all apply to destinations in which the 3S product is likely to dominate the tourism industry in the long term. In the initial case, there is an assumption that resort tourism can be improved and made more sustainable through the application of ameliorative environmental measures, without otherwise changing the basic nature of the product. However, perhaps more problematic than the environmental issues are the well- known social and economic problems associated with Caribbean CMT, cited earlier. It is possible that remedial

environmental action in the absence of any social or economic reform may only serve to perpetuate an exploitative tourism industry. Environmental measures should therefore be accompanied by attempts to implement, as far as possible, the social and economic elements of the AT paradigm, such as increased local participation in tourism decision-making and management, and closer linkages between tourism and other sectors of the local economy. Unfortunately, the ability to bring about these changes, and at the same time retain significant tourism revenues from a resort-oriented product, is seriously constrained by the realities of the existing power structure (ie foreign corporate dominance of airlines, hotels and travel agencies), and by the inherent limitations of small-scale economies. One could perhaps argue, although the hypothesis has not yet been tested, that the implementation of environmental reform will help to change the way in which tourists, governments and entrepreneurs think about other aspects of the tourism sector, and therefore facilitate an openness to social and ecomomic change.

Diversionary ecotourism constitutes a viable option for all resort destinations because of the abundance of actual and potential appropriate small-scale attractions within the natural or modified environment. The cost of"developing" these attractions for casual ecotourism would not be excessive, while they would serve to diversify the destination's tourism product, expose tourists to ecotourism, and offer recreation and education opportunities for the local population. With respect to regional ecotourism, not all small islands are equal. Because of their large land mass and longer coastlines, Jamaica, Trinidad and Puerto Rico possess more spaces which have not been directly impacted by resort tourism, and thus offer a more diverse array of environments in which ecotourism is appropriate. As well, volcanic islands such as Grenada and St. Lucia offer more terrestrial opportunities than comparably sized limestone-dominated islands such as Antigua and Barbados, while some destinations lack peripheral islands (eg Barbados, Jamaica, St. Lucia). Offshore reefs and settled agricultural areas are ubiquitous throughout the region.

Certain problems may accompany regional ecotourism strategies. Even though ecotourism is a relatively low-cost option with the potential to generate high multiplier revenues in areas where high unemployment and economic stagnation are chronic, a positive local reaction to the presence of ecotourists cannot be taken for granted. Clearly, no such strategy should be undertaken without a high degree of local support, and in no way should the strategy be imposed. This problem may be even more apparent on satellite islands, where separatist sentiments fostered by isolation and local insular identity can be stoked by the perception that the dominant island is imposing a particular strategy, especially one which stresses its "unspoiled" (ie undeveloped) and "quaint" (ie backward) character. The strength of such local core/ periphery relationships should thus be taken into account

464 GeoJournal 31.4/1993

when assessing the possibilities for regional ecotourism. A second potential problem is the implementation of ecotourism strategies which are such in name only. Many critics (eg Butler 1990) correctly point out that the fashionable label of "ecotourism" is often recklessly applied to products which actually resemble CMT in their effects. It is also evident that sincere ecotourism efforts may be sabotaged by an incorrect assessment of an area's environmental or social carrying capacity, or may serve to open an area to more intensive forms of tourism through increased publicity. A third problem concerns the continuing deterioration of the small island Caribbean environment, particularly in coastal and offshore zones. Nowhere in the Caribbean are coral reefs considered stable, and based upon the extrapolation of current trends, it has been estimated that the reefs around Jamaica and Trinidad will be lost within 20-30 years, and those in the remainder of the archipelago within 20-40 years (Allen 1992; Weber 1993). Orginally occupying 25% of the insular Caribbean cost, wetlands have been reduced to a fraction of this amount through resort development and other activity (Bacon 1987). Interior forests, especially those not incorporated into protected areas, are subjected to the pressures of grazing, agricultural encroachment and woodcutting, while scenic coastal vistas are being tarnished by the relentless expansion of condominiums, hotels, estate housing projects and marinas. This destruction not only reduces the potential for regional ecotourism and revenues so derived, but also generates costs through the loss of fisheries, erosion, etc.

Comprehensive ecotourism is best represented by Dominica, despite certain qualifications. Not all destinations, however, wish to or can pursue a similar path. Islands in addition to Dominica which do appear to be advocating comprehensive ecotourism include Montserrat, Saba, St. Eustatius (both constituting part of the northern Netherlands Antilles) and St. Vincent within the volcanic chain, and Bonaire among the limestone islands. All are in the earlier stages of tourism development, lack ready air access, and possess attractions amenable to ecotourism. However, it is far too early to assess whether a deliberate ecotourism product is emerging as a final product on these islands. In all likelihood, enhanced accessibility, relatively cheap land prices and the prospect of resort-generated employment and revenue will exert enormous pressure to conform to the regional 3S norm, in which case the first three ecotourism-related options could still be pursued.

Any decision regarding tourism policy should take into account the long-term prospects of various models of tourism. While a 3S tourism product currently dominates

the Caribbean, this status could be jeopardized by the growing evidence of a link between increased incidents of skin cancer and the depletion of stratospheric ozone, which would cause individuals to minimize their exposure to the sun. Secondly, even a small rise in sea level, induced by the greenhouse melting of polar icecaps, could effectively destroy the beaches and most of the resorts of the small island Caribbean. In either case, the gradual nature of the process should allow time for modifications which would foster the transition to ecotourism-related strategies less vulnerable to these changes. As for ecotourism, high contemporary growth rates and the bandwagon effect cited earlier could indicate a fashion which is fated to go the way of other ephemeral phenomena. However, it is also possible that ecotourism, and AT in general, manifest a fundamental shift toward a "green paradigm" (Knill 1991), and as such herald the future of tourism. I f this is true, or even if the reality lies somewhere between temporary fashion and paradigm shift, then the adoption of ecotourism-related options is a logical strategy for the small island Caribbean.

Conclusions

This paper argues that three strategies related to deliberate ecotourism can be employed to enhance the traditional 3S resort product which dominates the small island Caribbean, and is likely to continue to do so for some time. First, the principles of AT can be applied to resort tourism to minimize the negative environmental impacts. Secondly, diversionary "soft" ecotourism can be promoted to diversify the 3S tourism product and provide an alternative to the beach. Thirdly, islands can encourage regional ecotourism in areas of the island where resort tourism is impractical or undesirable. Appropriate spaces include mountainous interiors, peripheral islands, undeveloped coastlines, settled agricultural areas and coral reefs. Such spaces are often already designated as protected areas and can accommodate ecotourism as a compatible activity and revenue generator. Some destinations may choose to avoid resort tourism altogether as undesirable or unsuitable, and instead follow a comprehensive ecotourism strategy based upon the AT paradigm. Dominica is currently the most advanced Caribbean destination in this respect, although others appear to be following a similar strategy. For all ecotourism-related strategies, it is possible to point out potential problems which could emerge as a result of their implementation.

References

Allen, W.H.: Increased dangers to Caribbean marine ecosystems. BioScience 42, 330-35 (1992)

Bacon, R R.: Use of Wetlands for Tourism in the Insular Caribbean. Annals of Tourism Research 14, 104-17 (1987)

Boo, E.: Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls, Vol. 1 and 2. World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC 1990.

Britton, S.: The Spatial Organization of Tourism in a Neo-Colonial Economy: a Fiji Case Study. Pacific Viewpoint 21, 144-65 (1980)

GeoJournal 31.4/1993 465

Britton, S.; Clarke, W. eds.: Ambiguous Alternative: Tourism in Small Developing Countries. University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji 1987.

Bryden, J.: Tourism and Development: A Case Study of the Commonwealth Caribbean. The University Press, Cambridge 1973.

Butler, R.W.: The Concept of a Tourist Area Cycle of Evolution: Implications for Management of Resources. Canadian Geographer 24, 5-12 (1980)

Butler, R.W.: Alternative Tourism: Pious Hope or Trojan Horse? Journal of Travel Research 28, 40-45 (1990)

Cater, E.: Profits from Paradise. Geographical Magazine 64, 16-21 (1992)

Ceballos-Lascurain, H.: The Future of"Ecotourism". Mexico Journal January 17, 13-14 (1988)

Chant, S.: Tourism in Latin America: perspectives from Mexico and Costa Rica. In: Harrison, D. (ed.), Tourism and the Less Developed Countries, pp. 85-101. Belhaven Press, London 1992.

Christaller, W.: Some Considerations of Tourism Location in Europe: The Peripheral Regions - Underdeveloped Countries - Recreation Areas. Papers, Regional Science Association 13, 95- 105 (1963)

Cohen, E.: The Impact of Tourism on the Physical Environment. Annals of Tourism Research 5, 215-37 (1978)

Dearden, P.: Tourism in Developing Societies: Some Observations on Trekking in the Highlands of North Thailand. World Leisure and Recreation 31, 40-47 (1989)

Dernoi, L.: Alternative Tourism: Towards a New Style of North- South Relations. International Journal of Tourism Management 2, 253-64 (1981)

Dixon, J.; Sherman, P.: Economics of Protected Areas: A New Look at Benefits and Costs. Island Press, Washington, DC 1990.

Douglas, J.: Ecotourism: The future for the Caribbean? Industry and Environment 15, 64-66 (1992)

Edwards, F. (ed.) Environmentally sound Tourism Development in the Caribbean. The Universtity of Calgary, Canada 1988.

English, E. P.: The Great Escape? An Examination of North-South Tourism. The North-South Institute, Ottawa, Canada 1986.

Fennell, D. A.; Eagles, P. F.: Ecotourism in Costa Rica: A Conceptual Framework. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration 8, 23-34 (1990)

Finney, B. R.; Watson, K. A.(eds.): A New Kind of Sugar. Tourism in the Pacific. East-West Centre, Honolulu, Hawaii t975.

Gill, C.: Balancing Tourism and the Environment. Caribbean Tourism Today (September/October), 34-41 (1992)

Goriup, P. (ed.): Parks Magazine 2 (1991)

Harrigan, N.: The Legacy of Caribbean History and Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 2, 13-25 (1974)

Hills, T.; Lundgren, J.: ]he Impact of Tourism in the Caribbean: A Methodological Study. Annals of Tourism Research 4, 248-67 (1977)

Jackson, I.: Tourism and Sustainable Development in the Caribbean. In: Cox, J.: Embree, C. (eds.), Sustainable Development in the Caribbean, pp. 127-38. Institute for Research on Public Policy, Halifax, Canada 1990.

Knill, G. Towards the Green Paradigm. South African Geographical Journal 73, 52-59 (1991)

Krippendorf, J.: The Holiday Markers: Understanding the Impact of Leisure and Travel. Heinemann Professional Publishing, Oxford 1987.

Lea, J.: Tourism and Development in the Third World. Routledge, Chapman and Hall, New York 1988.

Lindberg, K.: Policies for Maximizing Nature Tourism's Ecological and Economic Benefits. World Resources Institute, 1991.

Nelson, J.; Butler, R.; Wall, G.: Tourism and Sustainable Development: Monitoring, Planning, Managing. Department of Geography, University of Waterloo, Publication Series Number 37, Waterloo, Canada (1993)

OECD: The Impact of Tourism on the Environment. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris 1980.

Olindo, P.: "Ilae Old Man of Nature Tourism: Kenya. In: Whelan, T. (ed.), Nature Tourism: Managing for the Environment, pp. 23- 38. Island Press, Washington, DC 1991.

Pearce, D.G.: Tourism and Environmental Research: A Review. International Journal of Environmental Studies 25, 247-55 (1985)

P6rez, L.A.: Aspects of Underdevelopment: Tourism in the West Indies. Science and Society 37, 473-80 (1973-1974)

Ryan, C.: Recreational Tourism: A Social Science Perspective. Routtedge, London 1991.

Singh, T.; Theuns, H.; Go, F. (eds.): Towards Appropriate Tourism: The Case of Developing Countries. Peter Lang, New York 1989.

Stansfield, C.: Atlantic City and the Resort Cycle: Background to the Legalization of Gambling. Annals of Tourism Research 5, 238-51 (1978)

Weaver, D. B.: The Evolution of a "Plantation" Tourism Landscape on the Caribbean Island of Antigua. Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie 79, 319-31 (1988)

Weaver, D. B.: Alternative to Mass Tourism in Dominica. Annals of Tourism Research 18, 414-32 (1991)

Weber, P.: Reviving Coral Reefs. In: Starke, L. (ed.), State of the World 1993, pp. 42-60. W.W. Norton and Company, New York 1993.

Western, D.: Amboseli National Park: Human Values and the Conservation of a Savanna Ecosystem. In: McNeely, J.; Miller, K. (eds.), Proceedings, Wortd Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas, Bali, Indonesia, pp. 93-100, 1982.

Whelan, T. (ed.): Nature Tourism: Managing for the Environment. Island Press, Washington, DC 1991.

Wilkinson, P.: Tourism Policy and Planning in the Eastern Caribbean: Anguilla, Barbados, Dominica, and St. Lucia. Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, North York, Canada 1993.

WTO: Study of Tourism's Contribution to Protecting the Environment. World Tourism Organization, Madrid 1983.

WTO: Compendium of Tourism Statistics 1985-1989, 3rd ed. World Tourism Organization, Madrid 1990.

Ziffer, K.A.: Ecotourism: The Uneasy Alliance. Conservation International Working Papers on Ecotourism Series (1989)

Zurick, D.N.: Adventure Travel and Sustainable Tourism in the Peripheral Economy of Nepal. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82, 608-28 (1992)