Eating Disorders and Risk

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Psychology of Sport & Exercise 5 (2004) 447460

www.elsevier.com/locate/psychsport

Correlates of eating disorders risk among female figureskates: a profile of adolescent competitors5

Eva V. Monsma a,, Robert M. Malina b

a Department of Physical Education, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USAb Tarleton State University, Box T-0010, Stephenville, TX 76402 USA

Received 2 July 2002; received in revised form 23 June 2003; accepted 3 July 2003

Abstract

Objectives: To present a profile of eating disorder risk among figure skaters by (a) comparing somato-

type and BMI as biological variables in explaining Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) variance; (b) exam-

ining relationships among physical characteristics, physique-related perceptions, and psychological

indicators of eating disorders, and (c) determining if a composite of physical and psychological variables

could discriminate solo skaters from dance and pair skaters.Design: Cross-sectional.Methods: A battery of anthropometric dimensions was taken, and the Physical Self Description Ques-

tionnaire, Social Physique Anxiety Scale, and EDI were completed by 114 competitive female figure skat-

ers 1222 yrs of age.Results: Correlation analyses indicated that the BMI was the most robust biological variable for sub-

sequent analyses. Using hierarchical stepwise regression analysis to determine if physical self-perceptions

predicted EDI subscale score, age was forced into each analysis at the first step followed by the BMI at

step two. A composite of psychological variables (SPAS and select PSDQ subscales) were randomly

entered at step three. Beyond age and the BMI, each of the EDI subscales was predicted by at least one

psychological variable, with the SPAS predicting six of the eight subscales. Physical and psychological

variables accounted for 3% to 63% of the variance in the EDI subscale scores. Dancers and pair skaters

were older and less endomorphic, and reported higher Health scores, but lower Appearance scores com-pared to solo skaters.

5 This manuscript was derived from a larger project titled The Psychobiological Profile of Competitive FemaleFigure Skaters, funded by the Canadian Figure Skating Association (C.F.S.A.).

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-803-777-1386; fax: +1-803-777-6250.E-mail address: [email protected] (E.V. Monsma).

1469-0292/$ - see front matter#

2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/S1469-0292(03)00038-4


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Conclusion: Contextual, physical and psychological variables appear to be germane features of eatingdisorder risk among competitive adolescent female figure skaters.# 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Eating disorder risk predictors; Physique; Body build; Psychological; Adolescence

The magnitude of eating disorder risk among female athletes is a topic of considerabledebate. Some studies suggest that athletes are at increased risk (Stoutjesdyk & Jevne, 1993;Sundgot-Borgen, 1994), while others suggest that they may be buffered from eating disorders(DiBartolo & Shaffer, 2002; Hausenblas & Mack, 1999). Correlates of eating disorder riskamong athletes have focused on sport environments which emphasize weight restriction such asjudo and lightweight rowing (Stoutjesdyk & Jevne, 1993), and which have a major aesthetic

component such as gymnastics, cheerleading, ballet, diving and figure skating (Brooks-Gunn,Burrow, & Warren, 1988; DiBartolo & Shaffer, 2002; Reel & Gill, 1996; Sundgot-Borgen, 1994).Although aesthetic sport participants generally self-report more drive for thinness and anorexicsymptomatology than non-aesthetic sport athletes (Hausenblas & Carron, 1999), research exam-ining contributing factors specifically among figure skaters is sparse.

Research on skaters to date suggests a combination of environmental and individual factorsmay be involved in the etiology of eating disorders is this population. Casual comments fromsport officials, coaches and/or peers (Gould, Jackson, & Finch, 1993) within the competitiveand/or practice environments can lead to negative self-perceptions associated with disorderedeating. Although skaters tend to be smaller, leaner and lighter (Brooks-Gunn, Burrow, & War-

ren, 1988) and are later maturing compared to non-athletes (Vadocz, Siegel, & Malina, 2002;Ziegler, Hensley, et al., 1998), pressure to maintain or attain low body weight, and lack ofimprovement associated with bodily changes of puberty are confirmed sources of stress amongfigure skaters (Gould, Jackson, & Finch, 1993; Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1991). Skaters areconcerned about appearance, have lower than recommended daily caloric (energy) intake(Rucinski, 1989; Ziegler, Khoo, et al., 1998), and often engage in caloric restriction (Ziegler,Hensley, et al., 1998) and other behaviors to maintain or lose weight (Brooks-Gunn, Burrow, &Warren, 1988). In a sample of 41 female pair and dance skaters 1622 yr of age, EDI scoresresembled those of an eating disordered population more so than corresponding scores of non-athlete female college students (Taylor & Ste.-Marie, 2001). These results also suggested thatskating with a male partner is a potential concomitant of eating disorders.

Behavioral context is a central theme in the developmental psychology literature. The good-ness-of-fit hypothesis (Lerner, 1985) offers a potential explanation for the increased disorderedeating risk among skaters. According to this hypothesis, the valence of affect and behavior relieson the extent to which an individuals physical and psychological characteristics match contex-tual demands, that is, the goodness-of-fit between the athlete and her chosen sport. It is con-ceivable that if the petite, linear physique of a skater matches the biomechanical (Harris, 1986)and aesthetic demands of the sport, and if she has a positive self-concept beneficial to artisticpresentation and subjective evaluation, she may be buffered from negative affect and behavior.In contrast, skaters who are unable to achieve or maintain characteristics demanded by the

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sport may experience negative affect and perhaps resort to attempts at controlling physical sizeby disordered eating behaviors. This contention is supported by clinical-based explanations ofeating disorders suggesting a relationship between self-restricted eating and perceived control

(Rezek & Leary, 1991). Restricted eating among aesthetic sport athletes may in part be aresponse to a lack of control over performance outcome primarily controlled by judges.

A self-presentational understanding of eating disorders has been advocated (Hausenblas &Mack, 1999; Leary, Tchividjian, & Kraxberger, 1994) and is consistent with the goodness-of-fithypothesis. Impression management theory suggests that Social Physique Anxiety (SPA) isinvolved in the selective presentation of the self in order to create desired impressions and toavoid those undesired (Leary, 1992). Accordingly, skaters who perceive that they do not meetthe physical characteristics preferred by sport officials may experience heightened SPAa liab-ility in a sport where success is contingent on judges evaluations of self-presentation. Socialphysique anxiety and eating disorder risk often develop early in adolescence (Crocker, Synder,Kowalski, & Hoar, 2001; Thompson & Chad, 2002). Figure skating is an early entry sportwhere specialization often occurs prior to 8 yr of age and where physique and appearance areevaluated regularly. Thus, a positive self-concept is essential particularly when competition andpubertal transitions coincide. Researchers have suggested that changes associated with growthand maturation negatively impact self-concept (Brooks-Gunn, 1988; Marsh, 1996, 1998). Thus,in addition to SPA, age-related physical characteristics and self-concept are warranted whenconsidering the etiology of eating disorders.

Physical characteristics (size, physique, proportions, composition) should be considered inevaluating correlates of disordered eating risk in athletes. Variance associated with physicalcharacteristics and with specific psychological variables, and perhaps their interactions may bet-ter explain the determinants of risk for disordered eating. The most frequently used physical

characteristic is the body mass index [BMI: weight (kg)/height (m2

)], which is often used as anindicator of fatness. However, it is also related to fat-free mass and is more appropriately anindicator of heaviness. It may have limited utility with athletes who are generally more muscularand less fat than the general population (Malina, Bouchard, & Bar-Or, 2004). Athletes mayhave an elevated BMI because they are heavier and leaner.

An alternative for assessing the contribution of physical characteristics to the risk of eatingdisorders is an objective estimate of physique, or body build. Somatotype is a quantitativedescription of physique which has a long tradition of use in studies of athletes (Carter & Heath,1991). An individuals somatotype is a composite of three components: endomorphy (relativefatness), mesomorphy (relative muscularity) and ectomorphy (relative linearity). Somatotypemay be a more robust correlate of eating disorder risk since it includes specific features of phys-ique and also permits evaluations of intra-individual variation, that is, individuals may have thesame BMI but can differ in somatotype. Somatotype changes are generally small during child-hood, but are variable during puberty and the adolescent growth spurt due to individual differ-ences in timing and tempo of these processes (Malina et al., 2004).

The purpose of this study was twofold. First, it sought to examine potential physical, psycho-logical and contextual variables thought to contribute to the etiology of disordered eating, andsecond, it attempted to determine if selected physical and psychological characteristics discrimi-nate skaters who skated with male partners from solo skaters. Several hypotheses were gen-erated in the context of the two purposes. Somatotype and the BMI are related to indices of

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eating disorder. Somatotype is a stronger physical correlate of eating disorder indices than theBMI. Social physique anxiety and perceptions associated with physical characteristics are salientpredictors of disordered eating indices. And, skaters with male partners differ in physique and

psychological characteristics from solo skaters.

Methodology

Participants

Participants were 114 female figure skaters, 12.822.3 yr of age (mean age 16:2 2:0 yr).They were participants in four United States Figure Skating Association (USFSA) clubs(n 25), and seven Canadian Figure Skating Association (CFSA) clubs (n 89). Purposivesampling was used to recruit skaters across three disciplines (solo: n

74; dance: n

22, pairs:

n 18). Participants were part of a larger study of physical and psychological characteristics offigure skaters (Vadocz, 1999). The response rate for participants completing all of the psycho-logical inventories was 71%. Status quo and retrospective menarcheal data for the total sampleof skaters (n 159) are reported inMonsma, Malina & Feltz (2003), and variation in physicaland psychological variation characteristics by maturational status and timing are presented inVadocz et al. (2002).

Variables and measurement procedures

General procedures

Officials from the skating clubs were contacted by phone to request permission for contactingthe figure skaters. Participation and consent were then solicited from parents and athletes at aninformation meeting. All subjects and/or their parents gave informed consent. The study wasapproved by the University Committee for Research Involving Human Subjects at MichiganState University. Consenting skaters were given a questionnaire package and a tentative timefor anthropometry was scheduled. The questionnaire package included a form on backgroundand training history in figure skating and the forms for assessing eating disorder risk, socialphysique anxiety, and physical self-description scales. Skaters were instructed to complete thepackage and return it to the primary investigator at the time scheduled for anthropometry,which was scheduled around practice schedules within one month of the initial request for par-ticipation. The menarcheal status of the skaters was ascertained at interview. Consistent withHausenblas and Carrons (1999) recommendations, all data were collected during Januarythrough March, the peak figure skating training season.

Psychological measures

Risk of eating disorder was assessed with the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI,Garner, Olm-stead, & Polivy, 1983). The 64-item self-report inventory consists of eight subscales: Drive forThinness, Body Dissatisfaction, Bulimia, Perfectionism, Maturity Fears, Ineffectiveness Inter-



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personal Distrust, and Introceptive Awareness. Scores range from lowest to highest where1 never, 2 rarely, 3 sometimes, 4 often, 5 usually, and 6 always. Scoringthe EDI requires summing the responses after condensing the 6-point Likert scale to a 4-point

scale where scores of 13 are recoded as 0, 4 is recoded as 1, 5 is recoded as 2, and 6 is recodedas 3. Individuals scoring15 and10 on the summed scores for the Drive for Thinness andBody Dissatisfaction scales, respectively, are considered at risk for developing an eating disorder(Garner & Olmstead, 1984).

The Physical Self-Description Questionnaire (PSDQ,Marsh, 1996) was used as a measure ofself-concept. It is a 70-item self-report scale measuring nine components of Physical Self-Con-cept: Appearance, Coordination, Endurance, Flexibility, Strength, Health, Physical Activity,Body Fat, and Sport Competence. The scale also provides two global components: GlobalPhysical Self-Concept and Self-Esteem. Each item is a declarative statement and the participantresponds on a 6-point true-false response scale. It has been used with youth, 1218 yr of age,

and has been recommended as appropriate for older subjects (Marsh, Richards, Johnson,Roche, & Tremayne, 1994).

The 9-item Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS) recommended by Martin, Rejeski, Leary,McAuley, and Bane (1997) was used to assess the anxiety that individuals experience inresponse to others evaluations of their physique. This modification omits questions 2, 5, and 11from the original 12-item questionnaire due to conceptual and empirical weaknesses. Each itemis scored on a 5-point scale where 1 not at all, 2 slightly, 3 moderately, 4 very (4),5 extremely. Items 1 and 8 are reverse scored.

Anthropometry and physiqueAnthropometric dimensions needed to estimate somatotype with the Heath-Carter protocol

(Carter & Heath, 1991) were taken by the primary researcher following the methods describedby Lohman, Roche, and Martonell (1988): weight (kg), height (cm), flexed arm circumference(cm), calf circumference (cm), biepicondylar breadth of the humerus (cm), bicondylar breadth ofthe femur (cm), and four skinfolds (mm)triceps, subscapular, supraspinale and medial calf.Multiple circumferences, breadth and skinfold measurements were taken (2, 2, and 3 times,respectively), and the averages of the measures were used in the analyses. Inter-rater reliabilitybetween an experienced anthropometrist and the primary investigator, and intra-rater reliabilitywere established on 13 subjects who were not part of the study sample. The technical error of

measurement (TEM,Malina, 1995) was used as the indicator of measurement variability. TEM

pPd2=2n is the square root of the sum of squared differences of replicate measurements(P

d2) divided by twice the number of pairs (2n). Inter- and intra-observer errors for the anthro-pometric dimensions were within acceptable ranges for studies of young athletes, 0.010.64(Malina, 1995).

The BMI was calculated as weight (kg) divided by height squared (m2). Somatotype was esti-mated with the HeathCarter algorithms:

Endomorphy 0:7182 0:1451X 0:00068X2 0:0000014X3



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whereXis the sum of the triceps, subscapular and supraspinale skinfolds, adjusted for stature;

Mesomorphy 0:858 biepicondylar 0:601 bicondylar 0:188 corrected arm circumference 0:161 corrected calf circumference stature 0:131 4:50

where corrected arm and calf circumferences are the respective limb circumferences minus thetriceps and medial calf skinfolds, respectively;

Ectomorphy HWR 0:732 28:58where HWR stature 3pweight. If HWR< 40:75 but >38.25, ectomorphy HWR0:463 17:63. If HWR 38:25, a rating of 0.1 is assigned (Carter & Heath, 1991).

Each component has a numerical score ranging from a low value 0.1 and in theory no upperlimit, although most scores are below seven. The component ratings are always presented in the

same order: endomorphy, mesomorphy, ectomorphy. A somatotype rating of 2-5-2 thus indi-cates an individual high in mesomorphy with rather slight development of endomorphy andectomorphy.

Results

Descriptive statistics and correlational analyses

Cronbach (1951) alpha coefficients ranged from 0.70 to 0.94 for the EDI scales, and from0.81 to 0.94 for the PSDQ subscales in the figure skaters. It was 0.91 for the SPAS. BMIsranged from 14.9 to 24.3 kg/m2 and 25% of the skaters (n

28) in the sample were pre-

menarcheal. Forty-three (38%) of the skaters met the eating disorder risk criterion for Drive forThinness (score >15) and 62 (54%) met the Body Dissatisfaction eating disorder risk criterion(score >10), whereas 13 (8%) met both the Drive for Thinness and Body Dissatisfaction criteria.Screening for multicollinearity of all independent and dependent variables showed no correla-tions > 0.90 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). Evaluations for normal distribution indicated theneed to transform several variables to reduce skewed data. Due to moderate negative skews inHealth, Global Physical Self-Concept, Appearance and Self-Esteem, reflect and square roottransformations were used. Square root transformations were used for scores on Bulimia andBody Fat because they were somewhat positively skewed (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996).

Correlations between age and EDI subscale scores were, with two exceptions, low to moder-ate and positive. Hence, age was controlled in subsequent analyses. Means and standard devia-tions for all variables, and partial correlations with age held constant, between EDI subscalesand the physical and psychological variables are summarized in Table 1. Correlations betweenphysical and psychological characteristics and EDI subscales were variable but in the expecteddirections. Correlations between height, weight and the BMI, and Drive for Thinness, BodyDissatisfaction, Bulimia, Ineffectiveness and Introceptive Awareness were positive and moder-ate. Mesomorphy and ectomorphy were correlated with Ineffectiveness and Introceptive Aware-ness, and the relationships were negative and low. The BMI was a stronger correlate of EDIsubscales than the somatotype components. Significant low to moderate positive correlationswere found between BMI and five of the EDI subscales whereas only mesomorphy and



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ectomorphy components of somatotype showed significant negative correlations with two of the

social adjustment subscales (Ineffectiveness and Introceptive Awareness). Consequently, the

BMI was used as the physical (biological) control variable in subsequent analyses. Consistent

Table 2Results of the regression analysis for variables predicting EDI subscale scores

Variables Adjusted Standard

r R2 R2 Increment Beta t

Drive for thinnessAge 0.25 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.37BMI 0.35 0.12 0.11 0.05 0.01 0.14Body fat 0.63 0.40 0.38 0.24 0.41 4.30SPA 0.70 0.48 0.47 0.09 0.37 4.25

Body dissatisfactionAge 0.36 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.02 0.35BMI 0.56 0.33 0.32 0.20 0.17 2.19

Body fat 0.75 0.57 0.55 0.24 0.40 5.00Global physical self-concept 0.80 0.64 0.63 0.08 0.36 4.76

BulimiaAge 0.12 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.16BMI 0.14 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.06 0.56SPA 0.40 0.15 0.13 0.13 0.41 4.18

PerfectionismAge 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.02BMI 0.09 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.19 1.69SPA 0.24 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.25 2.40

IneffectivenessAge 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.12 1.18BMI 0.08 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.48SPA 0.36 0.13 0.11 0.13 0.40 4.00

Maturity fears

Age 0.25 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.27 2.81BMI 0.26 0.07 0.05 0.00 0.10 0.90Self-esteem 0.40 0.16 0.14 0.10 0.32 3.26

SPA 0.45 0.20 0.18 0.04 0.34 3.18

Body fat 0.50 0.25 0.21 0.04 0.31 2.48

Interpersonal distrustAge 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.04 0.40BMI 0.09 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.18 1.70Self-esteem 0.39 0.15 0.13 0.15 0.26 2.27

Appearance 0.43 0.18 0.15 0.03 0.22 2.00

Introceptive awarenessAge 0.15 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.22BMI 0.18 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.20 1.89Global physical self-concept 0.49 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.27 2.50

SPA 0.55 0.30 0.28 0.07 0.26 2.43

Body fat 0.57 0.33 0.30 0.03 0.25 2.12P< 0:05; P< 0:01; P< 0:001.



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with the hypotheses, correlations between PSDQ and EDI subscales were negative and rangedfrom low to high, whereas correlations between SPA and each EDI subscale were positive andmoderate. Each of the selected psychological variables showed significant correlations with at

least four of the eight EDI subscales were thus, entered as predictors in the regression analyses.

Regression analyses

Eight separate regression analyses, one for each EDI subscale, were conducted. Age wasforced into each analysis at step one and the BMI was forced into the equation at step two.Next, the following psychological variables were entered using stepwise regression analysis atstep 3: Appearance, Body Fat, Health, Global Physical Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem from thePSDQ and SPA. This quasi-hierarchical approach was utilized to control for age and body sizebefore considering the amount of variance accounted for by psychological variables.

Results of the regression equation are presented inTable 2. The variance in Drive for Thin-

ness was accounted for by Body Fat (24%) and SPA (9%) accounting for 47% of the total vari-ance F4; 113 25:61, P< 0:001. In addition to the BMI (20%), Body Dissatisfaction waspredicted by Body Fat (24%) and Global Physical Self-Concept (8%), accounting for 63% of thetotal variance F4; 113 48:60,P< 0:001. SPA was the only significant predictor of Bulimia,F3; 113 6:68, P< 0:001, Perfectionism, F3; 113 2:25, P< 0:05, and Ineffectiveness,F3; 113 5:57, P 0:001, accounting for13%, 3% and 11% of variances, respectively.Maturity Fears was predicted by age (6%), Self-Esteem (10%), SPA (4%) and Body Fat (4%),accounting for 21% of the total variance F5; 113 7:08, P< 0:001. Self-Esteem (15%) andAppearance (3%) F3; 113 6:10, P< 0:001, accounted for 15 % of the variance in Inter-personal Distrust, and Global Physical Self-Concept (20%), SPA (7%) and Body Fat (3%),

F4; 113 10:61,P< 0:001, accounted for 30% of the variance in Introceptive Awareness.Discriminant function analysis

A discriminant function analysis was performed to determine if physical and psychologicalvariables discriminated between skaters skating with a partner (dance and pair skaters: n 40)and those skating solo (solo skaters:n 74). Age, the BMI, somatotype, the PSDQ subscales ofHealth, Appearance, Global Physical Self-Concept, Self-Esteem, Body Fat and SPA were varia-bles included in the analysis (seeTable 3). Since the homogeneity of variance was significant for

Table 3Results of the discriminant function analysis for discipline

Variable Discipline Wilks Lambda Standardfunction

F Adj. M SD Adj. M SD

Solo (n 74) Dance and pairs(n 40)

1. Health 0.86 0.50 18.6 0.9 0.3 1.1 0.22. Endomorphy 0.80 0.63 13.8 3.6 1.1 2.9 0.83. Age 0.76 0.39 11.5 15.6 2.2 16.5 2.44. Appearance 0.73 0.61 1.0 1.0 0.2 0.9 0.3



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discipline, Boxs M 28:4, F10 2:7, P< 0:01, separate covariance matrices were used forthe analysis (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996).

The analysis discriminated across discipline. Group centroids were

0.440 for solo skaters

and 0.815 for the combined sample of dance and pair skaters. Age, endomorphy, satisfactionwith Health and Appearance correctly classified 79% of the skaters. Dancers and pair skaterswere older and less endomorphic, and reported higher Health scores, but lower Appearancescores compared to solo skaters (seeTable 3).

Discussion

From a contextual perspective, the goal of this study was to generate a profile of figure skat-ers at risk for disordered eating. Collectively, eating disorder risk in this sample of skaters wassomewhat similar to previous investigations. Although as a group, the mean EDI subscalescores (Table 1) were lower than previous studies of athletes (Hausenblas & Mack, 1999; Taylor& Ste.-Marie, 2001), the percentage of skaters meeting the criteria for eating disorder risk wassimilar to other reports of figure skaters (Taylor & Ste.-Marie, 1998) and gymnasts (Petrie,1993).

Beyond the possibility of inherent social desirability concerns in eating disorder research, thebroad age range of the sample (1222 yr) may explain in part the lower mean scores. Changesin body form, distortion of body image and desire to become thinner accompany sexual matu-ration (Attie & Brooks-Gunn, 1989). Since 25% of the skaters were pre-menarcheal, their con-cerns for factors associated with the risk of disordered eating may not have been strong. Thecorrelations between physical variables, physical self-perceptions and EDI subscales in the figure

skaters have several implications. The majority of EDI subscale scores increased with age andwith changes in physical characteristics associated with growth and maturation. In addition tosupporting the validity of the psychological instruments used in this investigation, this patternof correlations corroborates assertions that eating disorders may be a function of changingphysical characteristics (Attie & Brooks-Gunn, 1989; Hausenblas & Carron, 1999; Killen et al.,1992).

Controlling for the BMI as an indicator of body size and composition is often advocated inthe eating disorder literature (Hausenblas & Mack, 1999; Petrie, 1996). The present study isunique since it also considered an objective measure of physique (somatotype) as a physical cor-relate. Contrary to what was expected, the BMI was the most robust correlate of EDI subscalesand was thus used as a physical control in subsequent analyses. Surprisingly, somatotype com-ponents were not stronger correlates than the BMI. This may be related to the rather narrowrange of variation in somatotype that characterizes athletes in many sports compared to thegeneral population of adolescent girls (Carter & Heath, 1991). The lack of shoulder and hipdimensions in the estimate of mesomorphy in the Heath-Carter protocol may contribute to thelack of stronger correlations. Shoulder and hip dimensions change absolutely and relative toeach other during the growth spurt and sexual maturity (Malina et al., 2004), these changingrelationships are often a concern for adolescent girls. Female athletes (and often their coaches)are commonly concerned about body weight and heaviness per se, and it is possible that theiroverall morphology as reflected in somatotype is not a primary concern, especially in sports like



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figure skating, artistic gymnastics and ballet where the range of variation in physique is oftenlimited. Thus, weight, height and the BMI are physical characteristics that are more stronglysubject to perception than somatotype. This notion is consistent with the literature suggesting

that perceived heaviness is the important factor in the risk of disordered eating (e.g., Ackard &Peterson, 2001; Cooley & Toray, 2001).

It is important to note, however, that BMIs are often based on self-reported rather thanmeasured heights and weights in eating disorder studies involving athletes (Diehl, Johnson,Rogers, & Petrie, 1998; Hausenblas & Mack, 1999; Petrie, 1996). This may be a major limi-tation in studies of adolescents. Social desirability may influence underreporting weight and thefocus on size in some sports may influence over-estimating height. Further, individual differ-ences in the rate of growth during adolescence may influence reported heights and weights; ado-lescents who are in the midst of their growth spurt may not realize the magnitude of recentgrowth (Himes & Faricy, 2001).

After controlling for age and the BMI, SPA was related to the EDI accounting for 4% to13% of the variance in five of the eight subscales. Consistent with our hypotheses, this findingsuggests that disordered eating may in part, be a response to physique anxiety stemming fromthe subjective evaluative nature of the sport. The positive correlation between SPA andMaturity Fears further suggests that SPA may be a greater concern during physical develop-ment. This finding should help guide longitudinal investigations towards better understandingthe possible a priori contribution of SPA to eating disorder risk in relation to physical changesoccurring with growth and maturation.

The relationship between SPA and Bulimia, and between SPA and two EDI social adjustmentscales (Ineffectiveness and Introceptive Awareness) should raise concerns for practitioners. SinceSPA may develop in early adolescence (Crocker et al., 2001; Vadocz, 1999) and eating patholo-

gies stem in part from physique-related concerns (Diehl et al., 1998; Hausenblas & Mack, 1999;Leary, Tchividjian, & Kraxberger, 1994), early adolescent girls with concerns for self-presen-tation may be motivated to engage in problematic weight control behaviors (e.g., restricting andpurging). Weight control behaviors may be an attempt to regain control over their changingphysique or performance environment that is largely controlled by judges (Rezek & Leary,1991). Clearly, more research is needed concerning the prevalence of SPA among younger girls.Practitioners may consider directing aesthetic activity participants to exert control over otherareas than eating.

A consistent trend of negative correlations between the EDI subscales and physical self-per-ceptions indicated that skaters less satisfied with their physical characteristics reported higherEDI scores. Aligned with previous research and our hypothesis, physical self-perceptions appearto be salient features of eating disorder risk (Cooley & Toray, 2001; Diehl et al., 1998). Physicalself-perceptions explained a significant portion of the variance in each EDI subscale after con-trolling for age and body size. Satisfaction with Body Fat predicted both Drive for Thinnessand Body Dissatisfaction. In addition, skaters who reported lower Global Physical Self-Conceptreported higher Body Dissatisfaction.

From a practical standpoint, the results suggest that risk of developing eating disordersincreases with the BMI. This may apply more so in athletes who are concerned about presentingthemselves in front of others and who may have negative perceptions of their physical charac-teristics. In addition to employing cognitive restructuring strategies aimed at improving overall



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physical self-perceptions and reducing social physique anxiety, practitioners should perhapsfocus on perceptions of weight because figure skaters as a group are not overweight comparedto non-athletes of the same age (Monsma & Malina, in press).

Finally, the role of psychobiological variables in discriminating across discipline was con-sidered. In line withLerners (1985)matching hypothesis and with the results ofTaylor and Ste.-Marie (2001), pair and dance skaters were expected to differ from solo skaters. Dancers and pairskaters were older, less endomorphic, and reported higher Health, but slightly lower Appearancescores than solo skaters (Table 3). It is possible that dancers and pair skaters reported feelinghealthier because they were less endomorphic, that is, less fat. It is also possible that they reportedless satisfaction with their appearance because they were older and perhaps recognized changes inphysique associated with age during adolescence. Physical changes associated with growth andmaturation are recognized sources of stress among figure skaters (Gould, Jackson, & Finch, 1993;Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1991) and would be considered liabilities for skaters who are chosen toskate with male partners largely because of their petite physique.

This investigation highlights the importance of considering the interaction of psychological,biological and contextual variables in attempts to explain the etiology of eating disorders.Future investigations should consider information on male partners and the potential mediatingeffects of SPA and self-concept in the development of disordered eating. Maintaining or improv-ing physical self-perceptions may be an important foundation in the prevention of eating dis-orders, especially with skaters who skate with male partners.

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Eating Disorders and Risk