Earth Science

Essentials

Preparing for the Praxis II Series

Subject Assessments in the

Earth and Space Sciences

Second Edition

Robert E. Evans II Old Dominion University

R. E. Evans

Norfolk

Earth Science Essentials: Preparing for the Praxis II Series

Subject Assessments in the Earth and Space Sciences, Second Edition

Copyright © 2003-2004, by

Robert E. Evans II.

All Rights Reserved.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Evans II, Robert E.

Earth science essentials: preparing for the praxis II series subject assessments in the earth and space sciences — 2nd ed /

Robert E. Evans II

p. cm.

Includes index

ISBN 0-970-2300-5-2

1. Earth Science. I. Evans, Robert E. II. II. Title.

2004093008

Praxis I and Praxis II Series Subject Assessments are registered trademarks of the Educational Testing Service (ETS), of

Princeton, New Jersey.

ISBN 0-970-2300-5-2

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

iii

Contents

Preface xi About the Subject

Assessments xiii

Study and Testing Tips xv Study Guide: Critical Focus

Items xix

Chapter I

Basic Scientific Principles of the

Earth and Space Sciences

Topic I.1

The Role of Energy in Earth Systems

1

Section

1 Energy 1

2 Energy in the Earth

Sciences

1

Topic

I.2 The Transfer and Measurement of Heat and Laws of Thermodynamics as They Relate to the Earth Systems

2

Section

1 Heat and Temperature 2

2 The Laws of

Thermodynamics

3

3 Thermodynamics and the

States of Matter

4

4 Heat Movement 5 Topic

I.3 The Structure of Atoms and Compounds, and Their Interrelationships in the Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous Components of the Earth Systems

6

Section

1 Atomic Theory 6

2 Atomic Structure 7

Topic

4 Nuclear Reactions and Their Products as They Relate to the Earth and Space Sciences

9

Section

1 The Basics of Nuclear

Reactions

9

2 Nuclear Power 9

3 Nuclear Power Issues 10 Topic

I.5 Fundamental Biological, Chemical, and Physical Processes as They Apply to the Study of the Earth and Space Sciences

11

Section

1 Cellular Structure 11

2 Cellular Growth 12

3 Reproduction 12

4 Biological Classification 13

5 Evolution 13

6 Modern Evolutionary

Theory

14

7 Patterns of Evolutionary

Change

15

8 How Evolution Proceeds 15

9 The Chemistry of Matter 15

10 Chemical Compositions 16

11 The Periodic Table of

Elements

17

12 Bonding and Chemical

Formulas

19

13 Chemistry and the Earth

Sciences

19

14 Physical Processes and the

Earth Sciences

20

15 Classical (Newtonian)

Physics

20

16 Pressure 21

17 Density 22

18 Objects in Linear Motion 22

iv

Topic

I.6 The Patterns, Interrelationships, and Intrarelationships of Matter and Energy

24

Section

1 Describing Energy 24

2 Quantifying Energy 24

3 Energy and the Earth

Sciences

25

iv Contents

Chapter II

Tectonics and Internal Earth

Processes

Topic

II.1 Plate Tectonics, Including the History of Its Development as a Unifying Theory

27

Section

1 Plate Tectonics 27

2 History of Tectonic Theory 28

3 Proofs of Tectonic Theory 29 Topic

II.2 The Processes By Which the Earth’s Crust is Deformed

31

Section

1 Convection Cells 31

2 Tectonic Plate Movement 31

3 Hot Spots & Aseismic

Ridges

34

4 Volcanoes 34

5 Craters 38 Topic

II.3 Earthquakes and How They Provide Information About the Earth

40

Section

1 Earthquakes 40

2 Seismic Waves 40

3 Faulting 41

4 Effects of Earthquakes 42

5 Predicting Earthquakes 43

6 Earthquakes in

Unexpected Places

44

Topic II.4

The Origin and Effect of the Earth’s Magnetic Field

45

Section

1 Origin of Earth’s

Magnetism

45

2 The Magnetic Poles 46

3 The Earth’s Magnetic Field 46

4 The Magnetosphere 47

Chapter III

Earth Materials and Surface

Processes Topic III.1

The Characteristics of Minerals and Rocks and the Methods Used to Identify Them

49

Section

1 Minerals 49

2 Properties of Minerals 49

3 Classification of Minerals 51

4 Rocks 53 Topic III.2

The Cycling of Earths Materials

55

Section

1 The Rock Cycle 55 Topic III.3

The Processes of Rock Weathering and Soil Formation

56

Section

1 Weathering 56

2 Sediments and Soils 57

3 Basic Soil Classifications 59 Topic III.4

Sedimentary Processes and How Rocks Are Formed From These Processes

60

Section

1 Sedimentary Rocks 60

2 Lithification Processes 61

3 Classification of

Sedimentary Rocks

62

4 Sedimentary Rocks as

Historical Markers

62

v Contents

Topic III.5

Igneous Processes and How Rocks Are Formed From These Processes

64

Section

1 Igneous Rocks 64

2 Classifying Igneous Rock 65

Topic III.6

Metamorphic Processes and How Rocks Are Formed From These Processes

67

Section

1 Metamorphic Rocks 67

Contents v

2 Types of Metamorphism 67

3 Classification of

Metamorphic Rocks

68

Topic III.7

The Interrelationships Between Civilization and Earth Materials as Resources

70

Section

1 Natural Resources 70

2 Renewable Resource Concerns 70

3 Nonrenewable Resource

Concerns

71

4 Addressing the Issues 73 Topic III.8

The Processes By Which A Landscape Evolves

74

Section

1 Streams 74

2 Stream Erosion 74

3 Stream Transportation 75

4 Stream Deposition 76

5 Mass Wasting 78

6 Landscape Alterations by

Groundwater

79

7 Coastal Geomorphology 80

8 Deserts 81

9 Wind 83

Topic III.9

Recognition and Interpretations of Geologic Features as Represented by Photographs and Topographic and Geologic Maps

87

Section

1 Topographic Maps 87

2 Interpreting Topographic

Maps

90

3 Cross Sections 92

4 Geologic Maps 93

5 Tectonic Maps 94

6 Hydrologic Maps 95

7 Physiographic Maps 95

8 Stratigraphic Maps 96

9 Interpreting Aerial

Photography

97

10 Stereoscopy 97 Topic III.10

The Interrelationships Between Civilization and Natural Hazards

98

Section

1 The Demand for Water &

Land

98

2 Fascination with

Volcanoes

98

3 Water Hazards 99

4 Living in an Earthquake

Zone

99

Chapter IV

The History of Earth and Its Life

Forms

Topic IV.1

The Principle of Uniformitarianism

101

Topic IV.2

The Basic Assumptions Behind Stratigraphic Correlation

102

Section

1 The Basic Principles of

Geology

102

2 Sequence of Events 102

3 Stratigraphic Correlation 104 Topic IV.3

How Rocks Provide A Record of the Earth’s History

106

Section

1 Environment of

Deposition

106

2 Reconstructing the Past 107

Contents vi

3 Unconformities 108

4 Displaying the Historical

Record

109

Topic IV.4

Earth’s Origin, Including the Formation of the Atmosphere and Hydrosphere

110

Section

1 The Origin and Age of

the Earth

110

2 The Earth’s Landmasses 110

3 Hadean Eon Geology 111

4 Archean Eon Geology 111

5 Proterozoic Eon Geology 111

6 Phanerozoic Eon Geology 111

7 Early Paleozoic Era

Geology

113

8 Late Paleozoic Era

Geology

114

9 Mesozoic Era Geology 115

vi Contents

10 Cenozoic Era Geology 117

11 The Formation of the

Atmosphere 127

12 The Formation of the

Hydrosphere 127

Topic IV.5

How Time is Measured 129

Section

1 Time 129

2 Relative Dating 129

3 Absolute Dating 129

4 Geologic Time Scale 131 Topic IV.6

Paleontology, Including the Origin of Life, Developments of Life, and Use of the Fossil Record

133

Section

1 Fossils 133

2 Methods of Fossilization 133

3 Use of the Fossil Record 134

4 Characteristics of Life 136

5 Early Sequence of Life 136

6 Early, Middle, and Late

Proterozoic Life

137

7 The Phanerozoic Eon 138

8 The Paleozoic Era 138

9 Paleozoic Era

Invertebrates

139

10 Paleozoic Era Vertebrates 141

11 Evolution of Paleozoic

Plant Life

142

12 Evolution in the Late

Paleozoic

142

13 The Rise of the Amphibian 143

14 The Rise of the Reptiles 144

15 The Mesozoic: “The Age of

Reptiles”

144

16 Mesozoic Life 145

17 Mesozoic Vertebrate Life 145

18 Mass Extinction at the KT 148

(Cretaceous/Tertiary)

Boundary

19 The Cenozoic: “The Age of

Mammals”

149

20 Cenozoic Plant Life 149

21 Cenozoic Life 150

22 Cenozoic Mammals 150

23 Primate Evolution 152

24 Evolution of Hominoidea 152

25 First Appearance of the

Hominids

153

26 Genus Australopithecus 153

27 Genus Homo 154

Chapter V

Earth’s Atmosphere and

Hydrosphere

Topic V.1

The Structure of the Water Molecule as it Relates to its Special Properties

157

Section

1 The Significance of Water 157

2 Water & the States of

Energy

158

Topic

V.2 The Paths that Water Follows as it Moves Through the Water Cycle and the Energy Transfers that Accompany this Movement

159

Section

1 Water on the Earth 159

2 Calculating the Amount

of Water on the Earth

159

3 The Hydrologic Cycle 160

4 Energy Transfers 160 Topic

V.3 The Origin, Distribution, and Variation of Climate

162

Section

vii Contents

1 Climate Basics 162

2 Climate Zones 162

3 Global Climate Change 163

4 Climate Trends 165

5 Reasons for Climate

Change

165

6 Effects of a Warmer

World

166

Topic

V.4 The Systematic Development and Movement of Weather Patterns and Phenomena

167

Section

1 The Atmosphere 167

2 Layers of the Atmosphere 167

Contents vii

3 Spatial Considerations in

Meteorology

170

4 Weather Forecasting 170

5 Solar Radiation

(Insolation)

175

6 Air Pressure 175

7 High and Low Pressure

Areas

176

8 Water in the Atmosphere 178

9 Humidity 179

10 Expansion, Compression & the

Adiabatic Process 181

11 Atmospheric Stability 182

12 Precipitation 184

13 Clouds 185

14 Optical Phenomena 187

15 Winds 189

16 Tornadoes 192

17 Hurricanes 194

18 Lightning 196

Topic V.5

The Interrelationships Between Civilization and the Atmosphere and Hydrosphere

197

Section

1 Air Pollution 197

2 Types of Pollutants 197

3 Sources of Outdoor

Pollutants

197

4 Indoor Air Pollutants 199

5 Climate, Topology, and

Atmospheric Interactions

with Pollutants

200

6 Acid Deposition 200

7 Surface & Ground Water 201

8 Water Pollution 202

9 Types of Pollutants 202

10 Sewage Treatment 204

11 Strategies for Living in a

Flood Zone

205

12 Water Rights 206

13 Problems Associated

with Groundwater Use

206

14 Drought 208

Topic V.6

The Processes By Which Water Moves On and Beneath the Earth’s Surface

209

Section

1 Floods 209

2 Flood Plain Deposits 209

3 Groundwater 210

4 Groundwater Zones 210

5 Wells 212 Topic

V.7 Glaciers and Ice Ages 213

Section

1 How Glaciers Form &

Grow

213

2 Glacial Motion 214

3 Glacial Erosion 214

4 Erosional Features 215

5 The Ice Ages 217

6 Causes of the Ice Ages 218

7 Effects of the Ice Ages 219

Topic V.8

The Physical and Chemical Characteristics and Processes of the Oceans

220

Section

1 Our Evolving Oceans 220

2 Topography of the Sea

Floor

220

3 Classification of

Continental Margins

221

4 Equation of Motion

(EOM)

222

5 Major Ocean Circulation

Currents

224

6 Convergence & 225

Contents viii

Divergence Zones

7 Layers of the Ocean 225

8 Salinity & Density 226

9 Marginal Seas 226

10 The Chemistry of the

Oceans

227

11 The pH Balance 228

Topic V.9

The Interrelationships Between the Waters of the Oceans and the Solid Earth

231

Section

1 Water in Motion 231

2 Submergent Vs Emergent

Coastline

232

3 Effects of Water on the

Shorelines

232

4 Shoreline Erosion 233

5 Coastline Deposition &

Beaches

234

viii Contents

6 Sea Level Effects on

Beaches

236

7 Comparing Coastline

Features

236

8 Strategies for Living on a

Submergent Shoreline

237

9 The Biologic Coastline 237

Chapter VI

Astronomy

Topic VI.1

The Characteristics and Consequences of Earth’s Moon

239

Section

1 The Origin of the Moon 239

2 Phases of the Moon 240

3 Tides 241

Topic VI.2

The Relationships Between Earth, the Moon and the Sun

242

1 The Sun 242

2 Eclipses 243

Topic VI.3

Characteristics Of and Relationships Between the Components of the Solar System in Terms of Composition, Size, and Motions

245

Section

1 The Inner Planets 246

2 The Outer Planets 247

3 Kepler’s Laws of

Planetary Motion

249

4 Galileo, Newton, Einstein

and Gravity

250

5 Seasonal Change 251

Topic VI.4

The Internal and Surface Processes of Planetary

253

Bodies and Their Natural Satellites

Section

1 Planetary Exploration 253

2 Basic Planetary

Properties

254

3 Mercury 254

4 Venus 255

5 Earth 255

6 Mars 256

7 Jupiter 257

8 Saturn 258

9 Uranus 258

10 Neptune 259

11 Pluto 259

Topic VI.5

The Characteristics of Stars and the Processes That Occur Within Them

261

Section

1 Measurement Units in

Astronomy

261

2 Measuring the Distance

to the Stars

261

3 The Components &

Properties of Light

261

4 Telescopes & Light 262

5 New Generation

Telescopes

264

6 Black Body Radiation 265

7 Detecting Motion of the

Stars

266

8 The Light Spectrum 266

9 The Characteristics of the

Stars

268

10 The Life Cycle of Stars 269

11 Constellations 271

Topic VI.6

The Structure of the Milky Way and other Galaxies

274

Section

ix Contents

1 The Milky Way Galaxy 274

2 Other Galaxies 274

3 Galactic Shapes 274

4 Quasars 275

Topic VI.7

Hypotheses that Relate to the Origin and Development of the Universe

276

Section

1 Creationist Theory 276

2 Early Models of the

Universe

276

3 Scientific Models of the

Universe

278

Contents ix

Appendixes

A The Scientific Method of Problem Solving

281

1 The Scientific Method 281

B Measurement Systems 283

1 Latitude, Longitude & Time 283

2 SI Units 285

3 Derived Units &

Mathematical Notations

287

4 Temperature 289

C List of Illustrations 291

Index 295

Self Assessments

Chapter Work-up Questions

303

Chapter I 303

Chapter II 305

Chapter III 309

Chapter IV 313

Chapter V 317

Chapter VI 321

Answer Key: Chapter Work-up Questions

325

Chapter I 325

Chapter II 327

Chapter III 329

Chapter IV 333

Chapter V 335

Chapter VI 339

Sample Assessment 343

Answer Key: Sample 357

Assessment

x

This book is dedicated to my first Geology Professor, Terri M. Mathews,

an exceptional educator whose knowledge and enthusiastic teaching style

were responsible for turning a would-be accountant into an Earth Scientist.

About the Author

Robert E. Evans II

A Phi Kappa Phi, cum laude graduate of Old

Dominion University, Robert E. Evans II holds a

degree in geology and is a member of the Earth

Science Education division of the Geological

Society of America.

Mr. Evans has over twenty-five years experience

in the field of adult education and is currently the

Earth Science Instructor for the Programs for

Continued Learning, and Instructional Support

Manager for the Department of Physics at Old

Dominion University in Norfolk, Virginia.

Mr. Evans is also fully licensed as an Earth Science teacher in both Virginia and North Carolina,

and taught science and math in the North Carolina public schools system. He and his wife

Lori—who is also a teacher—reside in northeastern North Carolina.

xi

Preface

“Evolution is essentially an arms race…” as related to John McPhee, 1998 “Annals of a Former World”

Our planet is truly amazing. Starting from nothingness, the “Big Blue Marble” has undergone billions of

years of development and change. Primordial acidic seas, a deadly atmosphere, and no life forms have

given way to the nurturing environment that we call “Earth.”

We depend on our world for the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the land upon which we build our

shelters and grow our food. Our planet also provides an abundance of diverse life forms, some of which

provide food and clothing, some companionship and protection, and others that merely serve to punctuate

an often-overlooked fact; some things in our world seemingly exist simply to emphasize the joys and

beauty to be found in nature.

Perhaps its not surprising then, that there is an increased interest in understanding and protecting our

environment. In many respects humankind is nearing a crossroad of decision-making; continue on as we

are or seek out another, more “Earth Friendly” approach of interaction with our world. Fortunately,

many educational institutions are now embedding Earth Science lessons within their standard curricula,

and consequently, there is a growing need for individuals qualified to teach those lessons.

Which brings me to why I decided to write this book. Much like thousands of other prospective teachers

before me, I followed the prescribed path to college graduation and then had to jump through all the

“hoops” required for licensure. Part of the requirements was to pass the general skills and subject specific

examinations, thereby validating my academic readiness to teach Earth Science.

In preparing for the tests I found many study guides for the Praxis I PPST. However, I was dismayed

by the dearth of study resources that specifically addressed the Praxis II subject assessments for the

Earth and Space Sciences. Consequently—as I pored over a stack of textbooks and my old class notes—I

experienced a lingering uncertainty; given that the test covered such a huge expanse of material, what

questions would they ask? Was I studying the right topics?

Years later—as I prepared to teach a university course designed to help prospective Earth Science teachers

prepare for the subject assessments—I was amazed to discover that things hadn’t changed. There still was

a shortfall in study guides that specifically addressed the Earth and Space assessments. From the need to

fill that shortfall comes this book, Earth Science Essentials.

About This Book:

Earth Science Essentials was not designed as a traditional, introductory level textbook. Instead, it is a

compendium of the essential concepts and core knowledge that address the areas covered in the Praxis II

series, Earth and Space Sciences subject assessments.

12

The concept behind this book is simple; provide prospective Earth Science teachers with a single-

source study reference to help them prepare for the Praxis II series assessments. Because the

book must cover such a wide range of information drawn from multiple scientific disciplines

(biology, chemistry, physics, geology, meteorology, oceanography, and astronomy), do not expect

to find the scope of coverage or level of detail characteristic of a traditional textbook. It’s not that

the omitted items are unimportant, but rather, based on my personal experiences with the tests,

the omitted items are not essential bits of knowledge needed by candidates in order to pass the

assessments.

The base, underlying assumption behind the scope and level of information presented is that the

user of this book has some prior exposure to the subject material through introductory level

courses. In fact, the most effective way to use Earth Science Essentials is to utilize it in

conjunction with a good, introductory level Earth Science textbook. This will allow you to focus

on the essential items while having access to greater detail as desired.

Earth Science Essentials was designed to the following criteria:

1) Based on the author’s personal experience as an educator and with both versions

of the assessments, present a tightly focused review of the key concepts and

principles associated with each of the subject assessment categories.

2) Provide enough information to allow the reader to effectively grasp the main

ideas and associated terms while simultaneously avoiding a lengthy, in-depth

approach, so that the user can concentrate on the essentials, not the minutiae.

3) Keeping the book as short and to the point as possible, while concurrently

including select examples and/or illustrations to reinforce the user’s

understanding of the topic.

4) Provide user self-assessments through inclusion of sample assessments

formatted to reflect the style used in the Praxis series assessments, and ensure

that the answers to the questions are shown in a clear, easily understood

narrative format.

I wish you the best of luck in your teaching career.

Robert E. Evans II