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Page 1 of 11
Curriculum for Earth Science 15 Sea Water
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
I. Sea Water
A. All properties of liquid
water in the sea can be
divided into
1. chemical properties
a. characteristics of
sea water that
permit it to
dissolve other
substances
2. physical
a. characteristics that
are not associated
with dissolved
materials
1. temperature
B. physical properties
1. sun
a. one of the most
important single
influences on the
sea
b. almost all of the
solar energy
penetrates the sea
surfaces and is
absorbed into the
water
c. water is actually
able to quickly
absorb visible light
Earth Science
1.5 Explain how the
transfer of energy through
radiation, conduction, and
convection contributes to
global atmospheric
processes, e.g., storms,
winds.
1.6 Explain how the layers
of the atmosphere affect the
dispersal of incoming
radiation through reflection,
absorption, and irradiation.
1.9 Describe how the
inclination of the incoming
solar radiation can impact
the amount of energy
received by a given surface
area.
1.11 Explain the dynamics
of oceanic currents,
including upwelling,
density, and deep water
currents, the local Labrador
current and the Gulf
Stream, and their
relationship to global
circulation within the
marine environment and
climate.
Students should be able to:
1. Describe the physical
properties of sea water.
2. Describe several
conditions that change
these properties.
3. Describe the chemical
properties of sea water.
4. Explain how the salt
content and dissolved gases
in sea water affect sea life.
5. Explain how the sea can
be a valuable resource.
Page 2 of 11
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
and most other
forms of radiant
energy
d. of the many
wavelengths of
visible light, only
blue wavelengths
are able to travel
very far into the
water before they
are absorbed
1. at depths greater
than 10 meters,
only a blue-green
light from the
sun can be seen
a. all other
wavelengths or
colors of light
usually present
in sunlight
have already
been absorbed
2. large bodies of
water appear
blue because it is
the last color to
be absorbed
3. light rays which
strike the water at
an angle are
1.12 Describe the effects of
longshore currents, storms,
and artificial structures
(e.g., jetties, sea walls) on
coastal erosion in
Massachusetts.
1.13 Explain what causes
the tides and describe how
they affect the coastal
environment.
3.5 Describe how the
oceans store carbon dioxide
dissolved as a precipitate.
3.6 Explain how water
flows into and through a
watershed, e.g., aquifers,
wells, porosity,
permeability, water table,
capillary water, runoff.
3.7 Compare and contrast
the processes of the
hydrologic cycle including
evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, surface runoff
and groundwater
percolation, infiltration, and
transpiration
Chemistry
1.1 Identify and explain
Page 3 of 11
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
reflected rather
than absorbed
4. no light of any
kind can
penetrate the sea
at depths below a
few hundred
meters
5. all but the upper
layers of the sea
are in total
darkness
II. Surface Temperature of
The Sea
A. Sea water capable of
absorbing the longer
infrared wavelengths
(heat)
1. infrared rays are
completely absorbed
within the upper
layers of the sea
water (which means
only the upper part of
the oceans gets
heated)
a. deeper parts of sea
are always close to
freezing
2. more heat falls on the
surface at the equator
some of the physical
properties that are used to
classify matter, e.g.,
density, melting point, and
boiling point.
1.2 Explain the difference
between mixtures and pure
substances.
1.3 Describe the four states
of matter (solid, liquid, gas,
plasma) in terms of energy,
particle motion, and phase
transitions.
1.4 distinguish between
chemical and physical
changes.
4.1 Explain how atoms
combine to form
compounds through both
ionic and covalent bonding.
4.3 Relate electro-
negativity and ionization
energy to the type of
bonding an element is
likely to undergo.
4.4 Predict the geometry of
simple molecules and their
polarity (valence shell
electron pair repulsion).
4.5 Identify the types of
intermolecular forces
Page 4 of 11
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
than at the poles
equator than at the
poles
a. at higher latitudes,
the sun’s rays strike
the earth at an
angle, which makes
it very difficult to
be absorbed
b. freezing
temperature of sea
water if -2 C due
to dissolved salts
1. large areas of ice
exist in the
Arctic and
Antarctic that
covers the
surface
a. pack ice
1. pack will
break and
buckle under
pressure from
wind and
currents
a. ice floes
1. broken
pieces of
pack
present based on molecular
geometry and polarity
7.1 Describe the process by
which solutes dissolve in
solvents.
7.2 Identify and explain the
factors that affect the rate
of dissolving (i.e.,
temperature, concentration,
and mixing).
7.3 Describe the dynamic
equilibrium that occurs in
saturated solutions.
7.5 Use a solubility curve to
determine saturation values
at different temperatures.
7.6 Calculate the freezing
point depression and
boiling point elevation of a
solution.
8.2 compare and contrast
the nature, behavior,
concentration and strength
of acids and bases.
a. acid-base neutralization
b. degree of dissociation or
ionization
c. electrical conductivity
Page 5 of 11
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
3. in tropical waters,
temperatures reach
86 F.
a. leads to rapid
evaporation
1. process of water
molecules leaving
liquid water and
becoming water
vapor in the air
2. results of
evaporation
a. liquid water is
lost by the sea
and taken into
the atmosphere
as water vapor
b. heat energy is
transferred
1. when water
molecules
leave the
surface, they
take heat with
them
3. during
evaporation, only
water molecules
are removed
leaving dissolved
salts behind,
Page 6 of 11
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
increases salinity
III. Temperature and Depth
A. Factors that have a
major affect on the
density of water in
oceans
1. dissolved salts
a. add mass
2. temperature
B. In most place in the
sea, measurements
indicate a sudden drop
in temperature not too
far below the surface
1. thermocline
a. zone of rapid
temperature change
b. marks distinct
separation between
a warm surface
layer and colder
deep water
c. exists because there
is a density
difference between
warmed waters
from the heat of the
sun and the deeper,
less heated waters
below
d. water cannot mix
Page 7 of 11
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
easily
e. established at the
boundary zone
between upper and
lower layers of
water
f. changing conditions
can alter the depth
of the thermocline
or cause it to
disappear
completely
IV. Chemical Properties of
Water
A. Each year, rivers carry
about 400 million tons
of dissolved minerals,
including salts into the
ocean
B. Mineral from
1. weathered rocks
2. volcanic eruptions
3. atmospheric gases
that have dissolved in
the water
C. Some minerals used by
animals to create
1. shells
2. bones
D. formation of sediments
on the sea floor
Page 8 of 11
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
removes millions of
tons of material each
year
1. there is a balance
between the amount
of minerals coming
in and the amount
being removed.
E. Salinity
1. total amount of
dissolved solids
present in a sample of
water
a. oceans have a
salinity of 3.5%
with a range of 3.3
to 3.6%
1. when water
evaporates,
salinity
increases
2. when there is
heavy rainfall,
salinity decreases
b. not only are
minerals well
mixed throughout
the oceans,
pollutants can also
be found
everywhere
Page 9 of 11
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
1. DDT
2. lead materials
3. nuclear residue
2. dissolved gases in sea
water
a. same gases that
appear in
atmosphere are
dissolved in ocean
1. nitrogen
2. oxygen
3. argon
4. carbon dioxide
b. temperature has a
strong affect on the
amount of gas that
dissolves in water
1. cold water can
dissolve gases
better than warm
water
2. when there is an
excess of
dissolved gas in
water, it returns
to atmosphere
V. Sea Life
A. Plankton
1. free-floating
2. microscopic animals
a. phytoplankton
Page 10 of 11
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
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1. microscopic
plants
b. zooplankton
1. microscopic
animals
B. Nekton
1. swimming organisms
C. Process that cause
deep water to move
upward
1. upwelling
a. when wind blows
steadily away from
shore along a
coastline, surface
water is moved out
to sea causing deep
water to replace it
2. overturn
a. when surface water
is chilled it
becomes dense and
sinks causing the
warmer water that
is underneath to
float
3. mixing
a. in shallow water,
wave action on the
shore may be
powerful enough to
Page 11 of 11
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
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cause deep water to
mix with surface
water (can be done
by tides)
Page 1 of 7
Curriculum for Earth Science 16 Motions of The Sea
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
I. Motions of the Sea
A. Winds are created in
the lower atmosphere
by the sun’s energy
and are affected by
the Earth’s rotation
1. push the surface
waters of the ocean
into an ever
-changing pattern of
currents
a. gyres
2. gravitational forces
of the moon and sun
add to swirl the
waters through the
rhythm of the tides
3. difficult to trace
many of the motions
because they are
complex
B. Moving masses of
water can be identified
by their physical and
chemical
characteristics
C. Liquid water can only
be set into motion if it
receives energy
1. sun
a. heats up gases in
Earth Science
1.5 Explain how the
transfer of energy through
radiation, conduction, and
convection contributes to
global atmospheric
processes, e.g., storms,
winds.
1.6 Explain how the layers
of the atmosphere affect the
dispersal of incoming
radiation through reflection,
absorption, and irradiation.
1.7 Provide examples of
how the unequal heating of
the earth and the Coriolis
Effect influence global
circulation patterns, and
show their impact on
Massachusetts weather and
climate, e.g., convection
cells, trade winds,
westerlies, polar easterlies,
land/sea breezes,
mountain/valley breezes.
1.8 Explain how the
revolution of the earth and
the inclination of the axis of
the earth cause the earth’s
seasonal variations
Students should be able to:
1. Identify the causes of sea
water movements.
2. Describe the patterns of
circulation near the sea
surface.
3. Describe the
characteristics and effects
of the gulf Stream.
4. Compare deep currents
with surface currents.
5. Describe the
characteristics of ocean
waves.
6. Explain how ocean
waves change near shore.
7. Identify the causes and
effects of a tsunami and
tides.
Page 2 of 7
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
the atmosphere
creating wind
patterns
b. winds are
responsible for
almost all the
surface currents
2. types of water
movement
a. vertical
1. up and down
movement caused
by changes in
salinity and/or
temperature
b. horizontal
1. surface currents,
usually caused
by winds
3. causes of water
movements
a. wind = surface
currents
b. density = deep
water currents
c. landslides (rare) =
turbidity currents
II. Patterns of Circulation
Near the Surface
A. Affects current
patterns
(equinoxes and solstices).
1.9 Describe how the
inclination of the incoming
solar radiation can impact
the amount of energy
received by a given surface
area.
1.10 Describe the various
conditions associated with
frontal boundaries and
cyclonic storms (e.g.,
thunderstorms, winter
storms [nor’easters],
hurricanes, and tornadoes)
and their impact on human
affairs, including storm
preparations.
1.11 Explain the dynamics
of oceanic currents,
including upwelling
density, and deep water
currents, the local Labrador
Current and the gulf
Stream, and their
relationship to global
circulation within the
marine environment and
climate.
1.12 Describe the effects of
longshore currents, storms,
and artificial structures
Page 3 of 7
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
1. winds
2. landmasses =
barriers
3. Coriolis Effect =
caused by rotation of
earth
B. Equatorial Current
1. westward current
found along the
equator
a. North Equatorial
Current
1. northern
hemisphere
(turns right toward
North Pole)
b. South Equatorial
Current
1. southern
hemisphere
(turns left toward
South Pole)
2. In the North, warm
waters move up the
east coast of the US
via the Gulf Stream
a. clockwise motion
III. Waves
A. Energy sources of
Waves
1. earthquakes
(e.g., jetties, sea walls) on
coastal erosion in
Massachusetts.
1.13 Explain what causes
the tides and describe how
they affect the coastal
environment.
1.14 Explain how scientists
study the earth system
through the use of a
combination of ground-
based observations, satellite
observations, and computer
models of the earth system,
and why it is necessary to
use all of these tools
together.
3.1 Explain that weather is
the most significant source
of erosion and how both
physical and chemical
weathering lead to the
formation of sediments and
soils, affect the shape of
rocks, and create specific
landscapes depending on
what weathering process is
dominant under a specific
climate.
3.2 Describe how glaciers,
gravity, wind, temperature
Page 4 of 7
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
2. underwater landslides
3. gravity of moon and
sun
4. changes in
atmospheric pressure
5. movement of ships
6. WIND
B. Swells
1. groups of large
waves that are alike
in size
a. can travel a
thousand miles
b. can determine
source
C. Characteristics of an
Ocean Wave
1. crest
a. elevated ridge
2. trough
a. depression on the
sides of a crest
D. Wave Description
1. Height
a. distance from the
bottom of the
trough to the top of
the next crest
2. wavelength
a. distance between
2 crests or troughs
changes, waves, and rivers
cause weathering and
erosion. Give examples of
how the effects of these
processes can be seen in
our local environment.
3.4 Describe the evolution
of the atmosphere.
3.5 Describe how the
oceans store carbon dioxide
as dissolved precipitates.
3.19 Trace the development
of a lithospheric plate from
its growing margin at a
divergent boundary (mid-
ocean ridge) to its
destructive margin at a
convergent boundary
(subduction zone). Explain
the relationship between
convection currents and the
motion of the lithospheric
plates.
Physics
1.6 Interpret and apply
Newton’s first law of
motion.
1.7 Interpret and apply
Newton’s second law of
Page 5 of 7
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
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Prerequisite Skills
3. period
a. time it takes for 2
consecutive crest to
pass a given point
1. wave speed =
wavelength/period
4. wave does NOT
carry water particles
with it
a. circular motion of
particles
b. only energy moves
forward
E. Waves Near Shore
1. when a wave reaches
shallow waters
a. the movement of
the particles slow
down as they rub
against the sea floor
b. path of the wave is
now approaching
at an angle
1. refracted
a. refraction
causes the
incoming waves
to line up
parallel to the
shore
c. circular motion gets
motion to show how an
object’s motion will change
only when a net force is
applied.
1.10 Interpret and apply
Newton’s third law of
motion.
1.11 Understand
conceptually Newton’s law
of universal gravitation.
1.12 Identify appropriate
standard international units
of measurement for force,
mass, distance, speed,
acceleration, and time, and
explain how they are
measured.
2.1 Interpret and provide
examples that illustrate the
law of conservation of
energy.
2.2 provide examples of
how energy can be
transformed from kinetic to
potential and vice versa.
2.3 apply quantitatively the
law of conservation of
mechanical energy to
simple systems.
2.4 Describe the
relationship among energy,
Page 6 of 7
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
squeezed upward
creating a taller
wave-height
1. crest rises and
tumbles forward
into the trough
2. wave now called
a breaker
2. factors that determine
wave size
a. speed at which the
wind blows
b. length of time the
wind blows
c. distance the wind
blows across the
open water
1. fetch
3. stronger the wind, the
larger the wave
4. tsunamis
a. waves produced by
earthquake or
seismic
disturbances on the
sea floor
b. most destructive
wave type
c. not very tall
d. very long
wavelength
work, and power both
conceptually and
quantitatively.
2.5 Interpret the law of
conservation of momentum
and provide examples that
illustrate it. Calculate the
momentum of an object.
2.6 Identify appropriate
standard international units
of measurement for energy,
work, power, and
momentum.
3.1 Relate thermal energy
to molecular motion.
3.2 Differentiate between
specific heat and heat
capacity.
3.3 Explain the relationship
among temperature change
in a substance for a given
amount of heat transferred,
the amount (mass) of the
substance, and the specific
heat of the substance.
3.4 Recognize that matter
exists in four phases, and
explain what happens
during a phase change.
4.1 Differentiate between
wave motion (simple
Page 7 of 7
Curriculum for
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
F. Tides
1. Occur due to the
gravitational pull of
sun and moon
2. follow a basic pattern
of 2 high and 2 low
tides every 24 hours
50 minutes
3. other conditions can
determine tides
a. unevenness of sea
floor
b. position of the
continents
c. size and depth of
basin
4. rise and fall of tides
produce strong
currents
a. tidal currents
5. when a wave of water
passes up a river
from the ocean
a. tidal bore
b. may be used as an
energy source
harmonic nonlinear motion)
and the motion of objects
(nonharmonic).
4.2 recognize the
measurable properties of
waves (e.g., velocity,
frequency, wavelength) and
explain the relationships
among them.
4.3 distinguish between
transverse and longitudinal
waves.
4.4 distinguish between
mechanical and
electromagnetic waves.
4.5 Interpret and be able to
apply the laws of reflection
and refraction
(qualitatively) to all waves.
4.6 Recognize the effects of
polarization, wave
interaction, and the Doppler
effect.
4.7 Explain, graph, and
interpret graphs of
constructive and destructive
interference of waves.
4.8 Explain the relationship
between the speed of a
wave and the medium it
travels through.
Page 1 of 7
Curriculum for Earth Science 17 Rock Record
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
Framework Standard(s)
Concept Objective Associated Mathematics
Skills
Prerequisite Skills
I. Rock Record
A. Due to erosion and
weathering,
sedimentary rocks are
our best clues to
Earth’s history
B. Principle of
superposition
1. states that the rock
layers at the bottom
are older than the
rocks above
a. does not give age
2. revolutions
a. periods of
disturbance
1. folding
2. faulting
3. cause rock layers to
be distorted, twisted,
or turned upside
down, older layers
get pushed through
younger layers
4. uniformitarianism
a. same earth
processes directly
observed today
have occurred in
the past
b. processes are
Earth Science
3.1 Explain that weather is
the most significant source
of erosion and how both
physical and chemical
weathering lead to the
formation of sediments and
soils, affect the shape of
rocks, and create specific
landscapes depending on
what weathering process is
dominant under a specific
climate.
3.2 Describe how glaciers,
gravity, wind, temperature
changes, waves, and rivers
cause weathering and
erosion. Give examples of
how the effects of these
processes can be seen in
our local environment.
3.8 Describe the rock cycle,
and the processes that are
responsible for the
formation of igneous,
sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks.
Compare the physical
properties of these rock
types.
Students should be able to:
1. Explain the principle of
superposition.
2. Describe how this
principle relates to
conformity, unconformity,
and disconformity.
3. Explain how the half-life
of a radioactive element is
used to learn the age of a
rock.
4. Describe three means
other than radioactivity
used to measure geologic
time.
5. Describe several ways
fossils are formed.
6. Explain how fossils can
be used to relate rock layers
to one another.
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uniform, or the
same throughout
time
5. cross-bedding
a. movement of
sediments
horizontally via
wind or water
producing angled
layers
6. conformity
a. boundary between
two layers of rock
7. unconformity
a. when there are
faulted, or folded
layers eroded and
then covered by
new sediments
8. disconformity
a. when the older rock
layers have been
eroded and covered
by new sediments
1. means there is a
gap in the rock
record
2. examination of
sedimentary
rock composition
can give info on
3.9 compare the physical
properties and the mineral
combinations found in
rocks.
3.10 Explain how the
composition and
arrangement of atoms
determine a mineral’s
physical and chemical
characteristics.
3.11 Describe the absolute
and relative dating methods
used to measure geologic
time, e.g., index fossils,
radioactive dating, law of
superposition, and cross-
cutting relationships.
3.12 Describe the evolution
of the solid earth in terms
of the major geologic eras.
3.13 Explain how seismic
data is used to reveal the
interior structure of the
layered earth.
3.14 Explain how seismic
data is used to locate an
earthquake epicenter.
3.15 Recognize the
magnitude values of
earthquakes as measured by
the Richter Scale and give
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the conditions that
existed at the time
of deposition
3. igneous rocks are
also helpful in
determining
sequence of rock
formation
9. cross-cutting
relationships
a. principle stating
that a fault or
intrusion is younger
than the rock it cuts
across
II. Measuring Geologic
Time
A. Methods based on
Radioactivity
1. one of the most
accurate ways to
determine the
absolute age of rock
is based on the rate of
radioactive decay of
certain kinds of
atoms
2. some chemical
elements have
unstable nuclei, they
go through changes
examples of relative
damage that would be
incurred at each magnitude.
3.16 Explain how the
magnetic field of the earth
is produced.
3.18 Explain how
paleomagnetic patterns,
preserved in rocks, provide
evidence of the earth’s
magnetic field over
geologic time.
3.19 Trace the development
of a lithospheric plate from
its growing margin at a
divergent boundary (mid-
ocean ridge) to its
destructive margin at a
convergent boundary
(subduction zone). Explain
the relationship between
convection currents and the
motion of the litlhospheric
plates.
Chemistry
2.3 Identify the major
components of the nuclear
atom (protons, neutrons,
and electrons) and explain
Page 4 of 7
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by emitting some
electrically charged
particles along with
electromagnetic
energy
3. some elements lose
an “alpha particle”
which contains 2
protons and 2
neutrons
a. every time an alpha
particle is lost from
an element its mass
and atomic #
change
1. Uranium (U) has
an atomic # of
92 and a mass of
238, when it
loses an alpha
particle it
becomes
Thorium (Th)
with the atomic
# of 90 and a
mass of 234
b. some elements give
off a “beta particle”
which consists of 1
electron
1. when a beta
how they interact.
2.4 Understand that matter
has properties of both
particles and waves.
2.6 Describe the
electromagnetic spectrum
in terms of wavelength and
energy; identify regions of
the electromagnetic
spectrum.
2.8 describe alpha, beta,
and gamma particles;
discuss the properties of
alpha, beta, and gamma
radiation; and write
balanced nuclear reactions.
2.10 Describe the process
of radioactive decay as the
spontaneous breakdown of
certain unstable elements
(radioactive) into new
elements (radioactive or
not) through he
spontaneous emission by
the nucleus of alpha or beta
particles. Explain the
difference between stable
and unstable isotopes.
2.11 Explain the concept of
half-life of a radioactive
element, e.g., explain why
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particle is lost, a
neutron becomes a
proton, changing
the atomic # by +1
1. thorium has an
atomic # of 90
and a mass of
234, when it
loses a beta
particle, it
becomes
Protactinium
with an atomic #
of 91 and a mass
of 234
b. so, U-238 will
eventually become
lead (Pb-206)
through radioactive
decay
c. it takes 4.5 billion
years for an amount
of U-238 to
decrease by half
and the lost half is
changed to Pb-206
1. the half-life of
U-238 is 4.5
billion years
d. any rock that
contains U can be
the half-life of carbon
fourteen has made carbon
dating a powerful tool in
determining the age of very
old objects.
3.1 Explain the relationship
of an element’s position on
the periodic table to its
atomic number and mass.
3.3 Relate the position of an
element on the periodic
table to its electron
configuration.
4.1 Explain how atoms
combine to form
compounds through both
ionic and covalent bonding.
4.3 Relate electronegativity
and ionization energy to the
type of bonding an element
is likely to undergo.
4.4 Predict the geometry of
simple molecules and their
polarity (valence shell
electron pair repulsion).
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dated
1. igneous rocks
e. for shorter periods
of time, a
radioactive form of
carbon can be used
1. carbon-14 is
produced in the
upper atmosphere
and living things
absorb small
amounts of C-14
2. half-life of C-14
is about 6000
years
a. when things die,
they stop
absorbing C-14
b. radioactive
dating does not
tell you the
exact age of the
rock, just the
age of the
material in it.
B. Other methods
1. rate of erosion
a. great for recent
geologic features
2. rate of deposition of
sediments
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a. takes 4000 to
10,000 years for a
1’ thick layer of
sedimentary rock to
form
C. Varves
1. definite annual layers
of sedimentary rock
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Curriculum for Earth Science 18 Earth History
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I. Earth History
A. 2 kinds of events make
up earth’s history
1. physical changes
a. include the changes
that altered the
earth and affected
the conditions on it
surface
1. began when the
earth became a
separate body
orbiting around
the sun
2. constant physical
changing of the
earth’s surface
was the cause of
#2
2. evidence of living
things over time
a. living things made
their appearances
b. most flourished for
some time and then
disappeared leaving
only traces of their
existence in the
rock
B. Earth’s calendar can be
constructed by tracing
Earth Science
3.8 Describe the rock cycle,
and the processes that are
responsible for the
formation of igneous,
sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks.
Compare the physical
properties of these rock
types.
3.9 compare the physical
properties and the mineral
combinations found in
rocks.
3.10 Explain how the
composition and
arrangement of atoms
determine a mineral’s
physical and chemical
characteristics.
3.11 Describe the absolute
and relative dating methods
used to measure geologic
time, e.g., index fossils,
radioactive dating, law of
superposition, and cross-
cutting relationships.
3.12 Describe the evolution
of the solid earth in terms
of the major geologic eras.
Students should be able to:
1. Explain how the
divisions of a geologic
calendar are determined.
2. List he names of the
divisions of the geologic
calendar.
3. Describe the events that
occurred during the
Precambrian era.
4. List the periods of the
Paleozoic era.
5. Describe the conditions
and life that existed during
each period of the
Paleozoic era.
6. Describe the tectonic
activity that occurred
during the Mesozoic era.
7. List the 2 periods of the
Cenozoic era.
8. Describe the conditions
and life that existed during
each period of the Cenozoic
era.
1. Climate affects life on
earth.
2. Earth’s history can be
divided into groupings
based on what happened
during a given time.
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the record that physical
changes left in the
earth’s rock
1. the end of one major
time period and the
beginning of another
on this calendar
marks a “geologic
revolution”
a. disappearance of
many living things
b. new forms of life
(better suited for
the new conditions)
replace the old
c. only 1/6 of the
earth’s history is
known well enough
to be included on a
calendar
1. largest unit of
time in the
geologic calendar
a. era
1. one era ends
and another
begins when
there is a
geologic
revolution
that causes a
3.13 Explain how seismic
data is used to reveal the
interior structure of the
layered earth.
3.14 Explain how seismic
data is used to locate an
earthquake epicenter.
3.18 Explain how
paleomagnetic patterns,
preserved in rocks, provide
evidence of the earth’s
magnetic field over
geologic time.
3.19 Trace the development
of a lithospheric plate from
its growing margin at a
divergent boundary (mid-
ocean ridge) to its
destructive margin at a
convergent boundary
(subduction zone). Explain
the relationship between
convection currents and the
motion of the lithospheric
plates.
3.22 Provide examples of
how societies have been
affected by tectonic activity
(e.g., hazards from
eruptions and earthquakes,
bedrock type and soil
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widespread
change in
existing
conditions
2. different eras
are not all the
same length
of time
C. Eras
1. Precambrian era
a. oldest and longest
b. began when the
earth came into
existence
c. ended about
600,000,000 years
ago when fossils
show that life
became abundant
d. is divided into 2
major parts
1. Early
Precambrian
( no record of life)
2. Late
Precambrian
(1st faint record of
life)
e. from the
Precambrian to the
Present, we have 3
conditions, building
designs).
Biology
5.1 Explain how the fossil
record, comparative
anatomy, and other
evidence support the theory
of evolution.
5.2 Illustrate how genetic
variation is preserved or
eliminated from a
population through
Darwinian natural selection
(evolution) resulting in
biodiversity.
5.3 Describe how the
taxonomic system classifies
living things into domains
(eubacteria, archaebacteria,
and eukaryotes) and
kingdoms (animals, plants,
fungi, etc.).
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more eras
(4 total eras since
the beginning of
earth’s existence)
1. broken down into
smaller divisions
a. periods
D. Periods
1. separated from one
another by evidence
of crustal changes
and the presence of
characteristic fossils
a. usually named for
the location where
changes were best
observed
b. broken down into
1. epochs
E. Eras
1. Paleozoic era
a. lasted about
375,000,000 years
2. Mesozoic era
a. lasted about
155,000,000 years
3. Cenozoic era
a. covers the
remaining
70,000,000 years to
the present
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II. Division of Geologic
Time
A. Precambrian Era
1. world’s oldest rocks
show that the
ancestors of today’s
continents did exist 3
billion years ago
2. North America
a. rocks exposed over
a wide area of
eastern Canada and
parts of the US
1. Canadian Shield
a. contains large
deposits of
valuable
minerals
b. represents the
nucleus of the
North American
continent
b. nearly all
continents have a
center of
Precambrian rocks
from which they
formed
1. called “craton” of
a continent
a. can be exposed
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or buried
b. Grand Canyon
has been cut
through
younger rock
layers to reveal
the
Precambrian
rocks below
c. mostly
metamorphic
rock
1. evidence of
many forms of
volcanic
activity in the
rocks
c. glaciers show that
there were at least 2
ice ages in the late
Precambrian era
d. Precambrian rocks
lack fossils,
although simple life
forms may have
existed (those
without hard parts)
e. Precambrian rocks
show that mountain
building processes
took place along
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crustal plate
boundaries
f. at the end of the
Precambrian era,
there was only one
land mass
1. ancient
supercontinent
a. Pangaea
III. Eras and Periods
A. Precambrian Era
1. Early Precambrian
Period
2. Late Precambrian
Period
B. Paleozoic Era
1. Cambrian period
2. Ordovician period
3. Silurian period
4. Devonian period
5. Mississippian period
6. Pennsylvanian period
7. Permian period
C. Paleozoic Era
1. lasted about
375,000,000 years
2. Pangaea remained as
a single land mass
throughout this time
3. slow shifting of
Pangaea produced
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events that allow the
era to be divided into
periods
D. Periods
1. Cambrian period
a. earliest part
b. Pangaea was
mostly covered in
ice
c. almost all fossils
were from sea
dwellers
d. only simple forms
of plant life could
have existed on
land
e. remains of many
kinds of animals
without backbones
were buried, these
animals are called
invertebrates
1. jellyfish
2. snails
3. sponges
4. brachiopods
5. trilobite
a. most common
b. great index
fossil because
it’s span is
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until the
Permian period
2. Ordovician period
a. widespread changes
on land surfaces
1. parts of the
continental shelf
were flooded by
the sea and
much of what is
now North
America was
covered by
shallow seas
b. giant mountain
range grew along
the region that has
become the east
coast of the US
c. sea life continued to
develop during this
period
1. trilobites were
replaced by
mollusks (clams)
as well as
cephalopods
d. first vertebrates
(ancient fish)
3. Silurian period
a. a slow uplift of
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what was to be the
eastern coast of
North America
which changed the
interior land mass
into a large inland
sea
b. sea gradually
evaporated and a
large salt desert
was formed
c. earliest known land
animals first
appeared
1. small scorpions
and millipedes
that could breathe
air
4. Devonian period
a. development of
sea-dwelling
vertebrates that
began in the
Ordovician made
great advancements
during this period
b. some fish
developed the
ability to breathe
air
c. beginning of
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amphibians
d. large land plants
appeared
e. ended with the
formation of
mountains in
northern Maine and
eastern Canada
5. Mississippian and
Pennsylvanian
Periods
a. Pangaea drifted
northward
b. climate of the earth
became warmer
c. swampy forests
grew with large
ferns and horsetails
and the ancestors of
the modern trees
d. coal deposits were
made
e. together these
periods have been
called the
Carboniferous
period
f. land animals
continued to
develop
g. insects first
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appeared
h. reptiles first
vertebrates entirely
on land
i.. fish and sharks
became abundant
6. Permian period
a. most violent in
earth’s history
b. ancient
Appalachian
mountains
c. severe changes in
climate
1. inland sea of
North America
dried up leaving
behind a desert
d. trilobites became
extinct
e. reptiles became
dominant life forms
IV. Mesozoic era
A. Periods
1. Triassic period
2. Jurassic period
3. Cretaceous period
B. Pangaea began to
break up
1. first into
Gondwanaland and
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Laurasia
a. these broke down
further
C. burst in tectonic
activity greatly
influenced life on
earth
1. sea level rose 500
meters causing land
area to become
shallow seas
2. climate became warm
a. caused
disappearance of
many life forms
b. reptiles became
dominant life form
D. Triassic period
1. beginning of
Dinosaurs
E. Jurassic period
1. age of reptiles
2. reptiles were master
of land, sea, and air
3. ended with a
disturbance that
raised a chain of
mountains that
stretched from
Southern California
to Alaska (Rocky
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Mtns.)
F. Cretaceous period
1. dinosaurs still
dominated until the
near end of this
period
2. warm-blooded
animals began to
increase greatly
3. land plants similar to
trees and flowering
plants appeared
4. elevation of the
Appalachian Mtns.
V. Cenozoic Era
A. Tertiary period
1. Paloecene epoch
a. early morning of
the development of
modern mammals
b. mammals generally
small in size
c. first of the primates
thought to have
developed
1. small, tree
-dwelling
2. bushy hair
3. long tail
d. dinosaurs vanished
e. plants resembled
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modern plants
2. Eocene epoch
a. climate stable
b. mammals became
larger
c. rodents appeared
d. hoofed animals
developed
1. ancestor of the
horse made an
appearance
e. birds developed
f. whales developed in
the sea
3. Oligocene epoch
a. volcanic activity
widespread in
North America
b. climate colder
c. growth of grasses,
hardwoods, and
cone-bearing trees
d. first mammals
disappeared
replaced by more
modern forms
4. Miocene epoch
a. golden age of
mammals
b. climate was cool
and dry
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c. left abundant fossils
5. Pliocene epoch
a. closed the tertiary
period
b. series of mountain
-building and
Crustal
disturbances began
c. continued
development of
mammals
d. early forms of
human-like
creatures appear
e. continental glaciers
spread ice sheets
toward equator
1. large amount of
Earth’s water
locked in glaciers
f. widening of
existing bridges
between Asia and
Alaska
B. Quaternary period
1. Pleistocene
a. ice sheets advanced
and retreated at
least 4 times
b. climate colder and
harsher
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c. animals developed
adaptations to cold
Page 1 of 12
Curriculum for Earth Science 19 Air and Its Movement
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
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I. Air and Its Movements
A. Atmosphere
1. layers of gases above
the earth
B. . Meteorology
1 study of the gaseous
region above the solid
earth
C. Greatest challenge in
meteorology
1. understanding the
effects of heat energy
in the atmosphere
II. Air
A. Composition of the
atmosphere
1. nitrogen
a. 78%
2. oxygen
a. 21%
3. aragon
4. carbon dioxide
5. trace amounts of
other gases
6. water vapor
a. influences the
amount of gases
7. solid particles
a. dust
b. smoke
c. salt crystals
Earth Science
1.5 Explain how the
transfer of energy through
radiation, conduction, and
convection contributes to
global atmospheric
processes, e.g., storms,
winds.
1.6 Explain how the layers
of the atmosphere affect the
dispersal of incoming
radiation through reflection,
absorption, and re-
radiation.
1.7 Provide examples of
how the unequal heating of
the earth and the Coriolis
Effect influence global
circulation patterns, and
show their impact on
Massachusetts weather and
climate, e.g., convection
cells, trade winds,
westerlies, polar easterlies,
land/sea breezes,
mountain/valley breezes.
1.8 Explain how the
revolution of the earth and
the inclination of the axis of
the earth cause the earth’s
Students should be able to:
1. List the materials that
make up the earth’s
atmosphere.
2. Describe air pressure and
the instruments used to
measure it.
3. Describe the chemical
balance of the atmosphere.
4. List several types of air
pollution and their effects
on earth.
5. Describe the effect of the
atmosphere on the solar
energy received by the
earth.
6. List the layers of the
atmosphere.
7. Explain how movement
of the air is caused by
heating the atmosphere.
8. Describe how the
rotation of the earth affects
the movement of air.
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III. Air Pressure
A. all gases held in place
by the earth’s gravity
giving it a weight of
14.7 pounds/sq. in.
B. Barometer
1. instrument that
measures air pressure
a. most common type
is the Torricelli
b. other types
1. mercurial
2. aneroid
IV. Chemical Balance of
Atmosphere
A. gases kept in balance
by biogeochemical
cycles
1. nitrogen cycle
2. carbon dioxide cycle
3. oxygen cycle
V. Air Pollution
A. main types of air
Pollutants
1. gases
a. that irritate
eyes, throats, lungs,
harm plants, and
even attack stone
and metal
2. solids
seasonal variations
(equinoxes and solstices)
1.9 Describe how the
inclination of the incoming
solar radiation can impact
the amount of energy
received by a given surface
area.
1.10 Describe the various
conditions associated with
frontal boundaries and
cyclonic storms (e.g.,
thunderstorms, winter
storms [nor’easters],
hurricanes, and tornadoes)
and their impact on human
affairs, including storm
preparations.
1.11 Explain the dynamics
of oceanic currents,
including upwelling,
density, and deep water
currents, the local Labrador
current and the Gulf
Stream, and their
relationship to global
circulation within the
marine environment and
climate.
3.1 Explain that weather is
the most significant source
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a. especially from
automobiles
B. air pollution becomes
more serious when
weather conditions and
the topography of a
region prevent the
dispersal of pollutants
C. usually, with altitude,
temperature decreases,
when it increases it is
called a temperature
inversion.
1. caused by the warm
air trapping the
pollutants and
holding them close to
the ground.
VI. Atmosphere and the
Sun
A. Almost all of the
energy reaching the
earth from the sun is in
the form of
electromagnetic waves
1. as these waves enter
the earth’s
atmosphere, the very
short wavelengths get
absorbed by nitrogen
& oxygen molecules
of erosion and how both
physical and chemical
weathering lead to the
formation of sediments and
soils, affect the shape of
rocks, and create specific
landscapes depending on
what weathering process is
dominant under a specific
climate.
3.4 Describe the evolution
of the atmosphere.
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a. X-rays, gamma rays
and UV rays
2. only longer
wavelengths of
visible light and the
infrared rays are able
to reach earth’s
surface and the lower
atmosphere
a. because the air is
denser and the gas
molecules crowd
closer together, light
gets scattered
b. some light rays get
turned back to
space
1. our sky is blue
because the blue
light gets most
affected by
scattering
c. infrared rays may
be partly absorbed
by water vapor in
the air and clouds
1. clouds may also
reflect infrared
rays back into
space
d. of the total amount
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of solar energy
which enters the
atmosphere, about:
1. 19% is absorbed
2. 36% is sent back
Into space
3. 46% actually
reaches the
earth’s surface
e. the amount of solar
energy reaching the
ground is affected
by:
1. clouds
2. dust in the air
3. latitude
4. season of the
year
3. 2 things that can
happen to rays that
carry solar energy
a. absorbed
b. reflected
c. this depends on the
type of surface the
rays encounter
4. Albedo
a. ability to reflect
light
b. earth’s albedo .35
1. when materials
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absorb infrared
rays they become
heated
c. water vapor and
carbon dioxide are
responsible for
absorbing the
longer infrared
rays that are
emitted by other
objects
1. this creates the
greenhouse effect
a. process of the
atmosphere
trapping the
sun’s heat over
the earth’s
surface
VII. Layers of the
Atmosphere
A. Each layer is
distinguished by
different temperatures
and composition
B. Layers
1. Troposphere
a. closest to the earth
b. weather occurs here
c. highest level of this
layer is the
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tropopause
1. higher at the
equator than at
the poles
2. Stratosphere
a. has a constant
temperature and
contains the ozone
layer
b. highest level of this
layer is the
stratopause
3. Mesosphere
a. temperature
decreases rapidly
with height until
the upper boundary
called the
mesopause
4. Thermosphere
a. temperature
increases steadily
5. Ionosphere
a. consists of the
upper mesosphere
and the
thermosphere
b. responsible for the
auroras
6. Exosphere
a. outermost layer that
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blends into the
vacuum of space
VIII. Winds
A. Movements of air
caused by heating
1. 3 ways heat can be
transferred to the
atmosphere
a. radiation
1. occurs when the
gases absorb
radiant heat
b. conduction
1. heat flows
directly to the
atmosphere when
the air comes in
contact with
anything that
contains more
heat
c. convection
1. movement of
gases of liquids
when they are
heated unevenly
a. it is the basic
factor
controlling the
movement of air
over the entire
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Earth
b. it is the main
cause of the
planetary
circulation
system
c. movement of
air due to
convection
takes place
when air is
heated by
radiation or
conduction
1. air that is
heated is less
dense and
lighter and
presses down
on the earth
with less
pressure so
there is lower
atmospheric
pressure
beneath a
body of warm
air
2. as cooler
denser air
moves into a
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low pressure
region, the
lighter warmer
air is forced to
rise
3. general
movement of
air is always
towards
regions of
lower
pressure
4. pressure
differences
caused by
unequal
heating and
resulting
convection
creates winds
d. because the
earth receives
more solar
energy at the
equator, the
atmospheric
pressure is
lower
1. pressure
differences
between air at
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equator & the
poles create a
general
movement of
the
atmosphere
e. air moves from
high to low
pressure there is
a general flow
from the poles
to the equator
and at higher
levels, there is a
return flow of
warm air from
the equator to
the poles
IX. Effects of the Earth’s
Rotation on Winds
A. all objects moving
over the earth’s
surface will veer off to
the right in the
Northern hemisphere
and veer off to the left
in the Southern
hemisphere
1. caused by Coriolis
Effect
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X. Earth’s Wind Patterns
A. doldrums
B. trade winds
C. subtropical high
D. prevailing westerlies
E. subpolar lows
F. polar easterlies
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Curriculum for Earth Science 20 –Atmospheric Moisture
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
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I. Atmospheric Moisture
A. How water vapor
enters the air
1. difference between
water as a solid,
liquid, or gas is in
the amount of energy
contained by the
water molecules
a. as heat energy is
added, molecules
are able to move
more freely and as
a gas
1. movement is
independent
2. calorie
a. is the amount of
heat required to
raise the
temperature of
1 gram of water
through 1
degree Celsius
at near freezing
temperatures
3. latent energy
a. heat energy that
is carried with
water vapor as
it enters the
Earth Science
3.7 Compare and contrast
the processes of the
hydrologic cycle including
evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, surface runoff
and groundwater
percolation, infiltration, and
transpiration.
Chemistry
6.4 Describe the conditions
under which a real gas
deviates from ideal
behavior.
Physics
3.4 Recognize that matter
exists in four phases, and
explain what happens
during a phase change.
Students should be able to:
1. Explain how water vapor
enters the atmosphere and
how it is measured.
2. Explain how water
leaves the atmosphere.
3. Describe cloud
formation.
4. List and describe the
various types of clouds.
5. Describe several causes
of precipitation.
6. Describe the conditions
needed for the various types
of precipitation to occur.
7. Describe several methods
used to measure
precipitation.
1. Elements recycle during
life cycles.
2. Aware that there are
different states of matter.
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atmosphere
b. sea is the main
source of
atmospheric
moisture
(evaporation)
4. transpiration
a. another source
of atmospheric
moisture
1. given off by
plants
2. small amount
of moisture
enters the air
from
volcanoes and
from burning
of fuels
B. Measurement of
atmospheric moisture
1. humidity
a. amount of water
vapor in the air
b. air’s ability to hold
water vapor
changes with
temperature
2. saturation value
a. amount of water
vapor a given
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amount of air can
hold
3. relative humidity
a. amount of water
vapor compared to
the saturation value
1. always given as
A %
4. psychrometer
a. instrument used to
measure relative
humidity using two
thermometers
1. one wet and one
dry
C. Condensation of water
Vapor
1. how water leaves the
air
a. as long as the water
molecule has its
latent energy, it
will remain in the
air
2. as the temperature is
lowered, the
capacity of the air for
holding water is
reduced
3. when relative
humidity is 100%,
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the temperature is also
known as the
a. dew point
1. any temperature
below the dew
point will result in
condensation
a. gas turning into
a liquid
4. dew and frost
a. dew
1. a form of
condensation that
is created when
heat radiates from
the grass and
ground causing
the temperature
to reach the dew
point
b. frost
1. formed when the
dew point is
below freezing
5. two other processes
can cool air
a. if a quantity of air
mixed with a mass
of colder air, a drop
in temperature will
result
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b. an upward
movement of air
(when air rises, it
expands because
pressure is
decreased causing
less collisions
between molecules
meaning less
energy and lower
temperatures
1. a downward
movement has the
opposite effect
6. adiabatic cooling
a. temperature
changes that take
place in air with no
additions or
withdrawal of heat
from the outside
II. Cloud Formation
A. Adiabatic changes are
an important factor in
cloud formation
1. a cloud can only be
formed when a body
of air is cooled below
its dew point
2. individual water
molecules must
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clump together
B. Types of clouds
1. high clouds
a. cirrus
b. cirrocumulus
c. cirrostratus
2. middle clouds
a. altocumulus
b. altostratus
3. low clouds
a. stratus
b. stratocumulus
c. nimbostratus
4. clouds with vertical
Development
a. cumulus
b. cumulonimbus
C. Fog
1. 3 types of fog
a. radiation fog or
ground fog
1. caused by the
radiation heat lost
by the earth
b. advection fog
1. produced by the
horizontal
movement of air
over a cool
surface
c. upslope fog
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1. produced by the
adiabatic cooling
of air as it moves
up a slope
III. Precipitation of
Moisture
A. Causes of precipitation
1. a cloud produces
precipitation when
its droplets or ice
crystals become large
enough to fall as rain
or snow
B. 2 ways to reach the
precipitation stage
1. larger droplets
continue to grow by
coalescence until
they contain several
million times as
much water as a
single cloud droplet
2. each microscopic ice
crystal grows by
capturing and
freezing water which
evaporates from its
neighboring water
droplets
C. Other types of
precipitation
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1. drizzle
a. the only other type
of liquid
precipitation
1. occurs when
cloud or fog
droplets fall to
earth because the
air is very still
2. snow
a. will occur if the ice
crystals fail to melt
before they reach
the ground
b. 3 types of ice
crystals
1. needles
2. plates
3. branching
crystals
3. sleet
a. occurs when rain
falls through a layer
of freezing air
4. hail
a. when raindrops are
frozen into ice
pellets
1. layers of ice
accumulate
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D. Measurement of
Precipitation
1. rain gauge
a. container which
measures the depth
of the rain water it
collects
Page 1 of 14
Curriculum for Earth Science 21 - weather
Content Outline Massachusetts Science
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I. Weather
A. What is weather?
1. sum of all the
properties of the
atmosphere –
temperature,
pressure, humidity,
and winds – at any
particular time
2. almost all weather
changes are the result
of the unequal
heating of the earth’s
atmosphere
3. temperature
differences in the
atmosphere play a
key role in the earth’s
weather pattern
4. many of earth’s
changes in weather
originate at high
altitudes between the
poles and the equator
5. cold air moves from
the poles to the
equator along the
earth’s surface while
warm air moves from
the equator to the
poles at higher
Earth Science
1.5 Explain how the
transfer of energy through
radiation, conduction, and
convection contributes to
global atmospheric
processes, e.g., storms,
winds.
1.6 Explain how the layers
of the atmosphere affect the
dispersal of incoming
radiation through reflection,
absorption, and reradiation.
1.7 provide examples of
how the unequal heating of
the earth and the Coriolis
Effect influence global
circulation patterns, and
show their impact on
Massachusetts weather and
climate, e.g., convection
cells, trade winds,
westerlies, polar easterlies,
land/sea breezes,
mountain/valley breezes.
1.8 Explain how the
revolution of the earth and
the inclination of the axis of
the earth cause the earth’s
seasonal variations
Students should be able to:
1. Describe the origin of air
masses.
2. Name the air masses that
influence North American
weather.
3. Explain how weather
fronts form.
4. Describe the methods
and instruments used to
observe weather.
5. Describe how to make a
weather map and forecast
weather.
6. Explain how local
weather phenomena
develop.
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elevations
6. as cold air moves
along the surface, it
pushes warm air
upward
a. where the 2 bodies
of air collide, storm
centers are
produced
b. weather changes
are largely brought
about by movement
of giant bodies or
masses of air
moving in response
to the earth’s
general wind
patterns
II. Air Masses
A. air mass
1. body of air covering
millions of square
miles of the earth’s
surface with nearly
the same temperature
and humidity
2. an air mass is created
when a large body of
air remains relatively
stationary over a
body of land or water
(equinoxes and solstices)
1.9 Describe how the
inclination of the incoming
solar radiation can impact
the amount of energy
received by a given surface
area.
1.10 Describe the various
conditions associated with
frontal boundaries and
cyclonic storms (e.g.,
thunderstorms, winter
storms [nor’easters],
hurricanes, and tornadoes)
and their impact on human
affairs, including storm
preparations.
1.11 Explain the dynamics
of oceanic currents,
including upwelling,
density, and deep water
currents, the local Labrador
Current and the Gulf
Stream, and their
relationship to global
circulation within the
marine environment and
climate.
1.12 Describe the effects of
longshore currents, storms,
and artificial structures
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for some time
a. if over the arctic
plains of North
America, the air
mass is cold and
dry
b. if over a tropical
ocean, the air mass
is warm and moist
3. air masses are
classified according
to their source
regions
a. a system of letters
is used to designate
the source and
characteristics of
the air mass
1. (P) is polar and
cold
2. (T) is tropical and
warm
3. (m) is maritime
and moist
4. (c) is continental
and dry
b. There are 4 main
types of air masses
based on this
system
1. mP
(e.g., jetties, sea walls) on
coastal erosion in
Massachusetts.
3.1 Explain that weather is
the most significant source
of erosion and how both
physical and chemical
weathering lead to the
formation of sediments and
soils, affect the shape of
rocks, and create specific
landscapes depending on
what weathering process is
dominant under a specific
climate.
3.2 Describe how glaciers,
gravity, wind, temperature
changes, waves, and rivers
cause weathering and
erosion. Give examples of
how the effects of these
processes can be seen in
our local environment.
3.7 Compare and contrast
the processes of the
hydrologic cycle including
evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, surface runoff
and groundwater
percolation, infiltration, and
transpiration
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2. mT
3. cP
4. cT
c. once an air mass is
formed, it moves
away from its
source
1. an air mass is said
to be cold if it is
cooler than the
surface over
which it is
moving
2. an air mass is said
to be warm if the
temperature is
higher than the
surface over
which it passes
d. North American
air masses
(those that strongly
affect the weather
of North America)
1. 7 main source
regions
a. Polar Canadian
(cP)
1. formed in
Northern
Canada and
Biology
6.1 Explain how biotic and
abiotic factor cycle in an
ecosystem (water, carbon,
oxygen, and nitrogen).
6.4 analyze changes in an
ecosystem resulting from
natural causes, changes in
climate, human activity, or
introduction of non-native
species.
Chemistry
6.4 Describe the conditions
under which a real gas
deviates from ideal
behavior.
7.3 Describe the dynamic
equilibrium that occurs in
saturated solutions.
Physics
3.1 Relate thermal energy
to molecular motion.
3.2 differentiate between
specific heat and heat
capacity.
3.3 Explain the relationship
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moves
southeasterly
b. Polar Pacific
(mP)
1. formed over
the northern
Pacific Ocean
and moves to
the Pacific
coast
c. Polar Atlantic
(mP)
1. formed over
the northern
Atlantic
Ocean and
moves
eastward
towards
Europe
d. Tropical
Continental
(cT)
1. formed over
Mexico and
Southwest
US and
affects the
US only
during the
summer
among temperature change
in a substance for a given
amount of heat transferred,
the amount (mass) of the
substance, and the specific
heat of the substance.
3.4 Recognize that matter
exists in four phases, and
explain what happens
during a phase change.
4.6 Recognize the effects of
polarization, wave
interaction, and the Doppler
effect.
5.1 Recognize the
characteristics of static
charge, and explain how a
static charge is generated.
5.2 Interpret and apply
coulomb’s law.
5.3 Explain the difference
in concept between electric
forces and electric fields.
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e. Tropical gulf &
Tropical
Atlantic (mT)
1. formed over
the Gulf of
Mexico and
the South
Atlantic and
move north
across the
eastern US
f. Tropical Pacific
(mT)
1. formed over
warm parts
of the Pacific
Ocean and
rarely
reaches the
Pacific coast
of the US
III. Weather Fronts
A. Front
1. a definite boundary
between two air
masses
a. 2 air masses have
different
temperatures or
densities, they do
not mix
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b. colder of the 2 air
masses is denser
and will always lift
the warm air
2. types of fronts
a. cold front
1. when a cool air
mass overtakes
warmer air
b. warm front
1. when warm air
advances over the
edge of a mass of
cold air
3. cold fronts
a. friction against the
ground piles the
cold air mass into a
steep slope
b. cold air mass will
push the warm air
upward creating
cloud formation if
the warm air is
moist
1. cumulus
2. cumulonimbus
c. storms caused by a
cold front are
usually short and
violent (depends on
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the speed and force
of the cold air mass)
1. a long line of
heavy
thunderstorms,
called a squall
line, may be just
in front of the
fast moving cold
front
2. a slowly
moving cold
front lifts the
warm air ahead
less rapidly,
producing a less
concentrated
area of
cloudiness and
precipitation
4. warm fronts
a. slope is very
gradual
b. clouds may extend
far beyond the base
of the front
1. stratus
c. heavy but not
violent
precipitation over a
large area
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5. anticyclone
a. region of high
pressure
1. winds move
outward
2. moves in a
clockwise
direction
3. brings clear
weather
6 polar front
B. Storm centers formed
by fronts
1. wave cyclones
a. storm centers
formed at frontal
boundaries
1. not to be
confused with
tropical cyclones
(hurricanes),
tornadoes
2. consists of a very
large body of air
3. winds blow in a
circular path
toward low
pressure regions
at the center
4. may cover large
parts of an entire
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continent
5. may take 12 – 24
hours to develop
6. in the Northern
Hemisphere, they
move easterly at
30-40 mph
7. follow a well
established path
8. winds circling
into the low
pressure center
provide the
amount of moist
air needed
b. cyclone
1. region of low
pressure
2. winds move
inward toward the
low pressure
3. moves counter
-clockwise (in the
Northern
Hemisphere)
4. brings
Precipitation
C. stationary fronts
1. occur when both a
cold front and a
warm front come to
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a stand still for
several days
2. weather is similar to
a warm front
3. clouds that are
produced are
altocumulus
D. occluded fronts
1. occur when cold air
is replacing cool air
or vice versa at the
surface, with warm
air above
IV. Weather Instruments
A. to study meteorology,
the science of the
atmosphere, you need
to make accurate
observations
1. temperature
a. Celsius
b. Fahrenheit
2. pressure
a. measured in
milibars (mb)
3. precipitation
a. in millimeters (mm)
or in hundredths of
inches
4. wind speed and
direction
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a. anemometer
b. in meters per
second, miles per
hour, or in knots
(1.15 miles per
hour)
c. direction is the
direction from
which it comes
(see p. 467)
d. must get conditions
from ground level
as well as upper
level conditions
e. radiosonde
1. measures upper
atmospheric
temperature,
pressure, and
humidity
f. radar
1. can show location
and extent of
storms
V. Weather Map
A. Station model
1. circle on the map
using symbols and
numbers to describe
weather conditions
2. lines connect areas of
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equal pressure
a. isobars
3. detailed forecasts
cannot be made
beyond 48 hours
4. computers generate
plausible conditions
for up to 30 days
(cannot forecast
accurately for
particular locations)
B. Local weather
1. map shows only
large-scale weather
systems that affect
large areas of the
earth’s surface
2. weather instruments
only register the
slower changes in
atmospheric
conditions
3. breezes
a. land and sea
b. due to unequal
heating
C. Hurricanes
1. develop over warm,
tropical sea water
near the equator
2. resemble the wave
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cyclones, but are
smaller in diameter
3. see p. 473 photo
D. Thunderstorms
1. small-scale upward
movement of warm
moist air
2. 3 stages of
Development
E. Tornadoes
1. smallest
2. most violent
3. short-lived storm
4. most likely to occur
on a warm, humid
day when the sky is
filled with heavy
thunderclouds