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7/30/2019 Early History of Aviation Lecture3
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/early-history-of-aviation-lecture3 1/8
• Greek mythology: Daedalus and Icarus
– Escape from Crete
• 863 BC: Bladud (King Lear!s father)
– 9th king of England
– First tower-jumper
– Wings of feathers
– Died of a broken neck
Early History of AviationRobert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics,
MAE 331, 2008
Copyright 2008 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For education al use only.http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html
The Natural Philosophers
• 350 BC: Aristotle
– Continuum model
– Suggests that a bodymoving through continuum
would encounter resistance
• 250 BC: Archimedes
– Fluid set in motion bypressure differential
• 1490: Da Vinci
– Cross-sectional area timesVelocity = constant(continuity)
– Sketches of flow patterns
– Ornithopter and helicopterconcepts
Experimentalists and Theorists
• 1732: Pitot tube (Henri Pitot)
• 1669-87: Newton
– Newton's Laws
– Newtonian flow, sin2 force
dependency
• 1738: Bernoulli
– Pressure-velocity relationship
• 1752: Euler
– Equations for fluid flow
• 1788: Lagrange
– Velocity potential and stream function
• 1742: Whirling arm "wind tunnel"(Benjamin Robins)
Sir George Cayley
• Sketches "modern"airplane configuration(1799)
• Hand-launched glider(1804)
• Papers on appliedaerodynamics (1809-1810)
• Triplane glider carrying 10-yr-old boy (1849)
• Monoplane glider carryingcoachman (1853) – Cayley's coachman had a
steering oar with cruciformblades
7/30/2019 Early History of Aviation Lecture3
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Visionaries
• 1831: Thomas Walker
– Various glider concepts
– Tandem-wing design influenced
Langley
•
1843: William Henson & JohnStringfellow
– Aerial steam carriage concept
– Vision of commercial airtransportation (with Marriott and
Columbine, The Aerial Transit
Company )
Late 19th Century Developments
• 1860-1900: Theoreticalaerodynamic contributions byHelmholtz, Kirchhoff, LordRayleigh, Reynolds,
Lanchester, and others• 1866: Aeronautical Society of
Great Britain founded (LordBaden-Powell secretary andlater president)
• 1874: Felix du Temple's hot-airengine manned monoplaneflies down a ramp
• 1884: Alexander Mozhaisky'ssteam-powered mannedairplane makes a brief hop offthe ground; flat-plate wings
19th Century Flyers• 1868: Jean Marie Le Bris!s
Artificial Albatross glides a shortdistance
• 1890: Clement Ader's steam-
powered Eole hops off ground• 1891-96: Otto Lilienthal's hang-
glider flights, plus others(Chanute, Pilcher, ...)
• 1894: Sir Hiram Maxim's steam-powered biplane hops offground; vertical gyroscope/servocontrol of the elevator
Stability vs. Control OR Stability and Control?
• Prior to 1903, it was thought that an airplane should hold its course alone
– Pilot could steer by deflecting the rudder
• This suggested:
– Aft-mounted tail
– Wing dihedral or high wing
– Proper center-of-mass location
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Early Aircraft Control• Lillienthal shifted center of mass in
hang gliders• Langley's plane had movable
cruciform tail
• Wright brothers used wing warpingand movable rudder and elevatorsurfaces
• Glenn Curtiss invented aileronsurfaces
Stability and Control Analysts
• Frederick Lanchester (1868-1946)
– Model gliders
– Two books, Aerial Flight and Aerodynetics , 1907
– Identified the phugoid mode – Mechanical engineer, built innovative
motor cars
• George H. Bryan (1864-1928)
– Longitudinal equations of motion (withW.E. Williams, 1903)
– Full equations of motion and linearized equations (1911)
• Problems
– No computers
– Difficulty in determining forces andmoments of real aircraft
Samuel Pierpoint Langley
• Astronomer supported bySmithsonian Institution
• Whirling-arm experiments
• 1896: Langley's steam-powered Aerodrome modelflies 3/4 mile
• 1903: Manned aircraft flightends in failure
The Wright Brothers
•
Wilbur and Orville were bicyclemechanics from Dayton, OH
• Careful self-taught, empirical
approach to flight
• Wind-tunnel, kite, and glider
experiments
• 1903: Powered, manned aircraft
flight ends in success – http://www.thewrightbrothers.org/fivefirstflights.html
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Wright Brothers’
Technical Contributions• Wrights recognized
importance of balance andsteering
– Bank to turn was preferable to
a “skid turn” – Roll control induced yaw
– Too much stability hinderscontrol and increasesresponse to gusts
– Wings can stall
• Two experimental gliders
– Wing warp controlled roll andforeplanes controlled pitch
– 2nd glider had moving verticaltail coupled to the wing warpto suppress adverse yaw
The Early Wright Flyers
• 1903 Wright Flyer wasvery unstable, almost
unmanageable• In 1904-5:
– Removed wing anhedral(negative dihedral)
– Increased rudder andelevator area
– Rudder controlled byseparate lever
– Center of mass movedforward
After Kitty Hawk• 1906: 2nd successful aviator: Alberto Santos-
Dumont, standing!
– High dihedral, forward control surface
• Wrights secretive about results until 1908; few
further technical contributions• 1908: Glenn Curtiss et al incorporate ailerons
– Wright brothers sue for infringement of 1906 US
patent (and win)
• 1909: Louis Bleriot's flight across the EnglishChannel
Glenn Curtiss• 1908: Glenn Curtiss becomes dominant US aviation inventor
• 1914: Langley!s Aerodrome finally flies
– Curtiss et al modify and fly Langley Aerodrome in unsuccessful effort to discreditWright patent, with Alexander Graham Bell!s support.
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Pilot Inputs to Control: the
Wright Approach
• 1903 Wright Flyer – Prone pilot
– Stick for pitch control
– Hip cradle for wing-warpingroll control
– Aileron-rudder interconnect(ARI)
• 1905 Wright Flyer
– Upright pilot
– Left lever for pitch
– Right lever for roll and yawwith ARI
– Right lever modified toseparate roll (left-right) andyaw (fore-aft) control) w/o ARI
– Feet not used for control
Control Linkages
• Louis Bleriot introduced:
– Rudder bar controlled by feet
– Center stick for pitch and roll control
Bleriot XI
Those Magnificent Men
in Their Flying Machines
• Aircraft Design
– Biplanes and monoplanes
– Thin, cambered wings
– Fore and aft horizontal tails
–
Aft vertical tails
– Wooden frames and struts,wire bracing, canvas covering
– Gasoline engines, improvedefficiency
– Invention of rotary engine
Aviation in The Great War
• 1914-18: World War I changes thecomplexion of flying:reconnaissance, air superiority(dog fights), bombing, andpersonal transport
• Wrights! US monopoly broken bylicensing for war effort
• Aircraft Design
– Biplanes, a few mono- andtriplanes
– Design to serve practicalfunctions
– Multiple engines for largeraircraft
– Aft tails
– Increased maneuverability,speed, g-loads, altitude
– Improved piston engines, tractorpropellers
SPAD S.VII
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Maneuvering World War I Aircraft
• Maneuverable aircraft withidiosyncrasies
– Rotary engine
– Small tail surfaces – Reliability issues
• Maneuvering to stalls and spins
• Snap roll : rudder and elevator
• Barrel roll : aileron
• Cross-control (e.g., right rudder, leftstick)
– glide path control during landing
– good view of landing point
• Unintended snap rolls led to spins andaccidents during takeoff or landing
Barrel Roll
Snap Roll
Sopwith Camel
• Rotary engine induced gyroscopic coupling
• Highly maneuverable
• Aft fuel tank; when full, center of mass was too far aft
for stability
• Vertical tail too small, spin recovery not automatic
with centering of controls
Fokker Dr. 1 Triplane:a response to the Sopwith Triplane
• Red Baron!s airplane
• Rotary engine
• Good rate of climb
• Poor high-altitude performance
• Superseded by Fokker D.VII after one year of service
S.E.-5 Comparison
to Fokker D.VII
• RAF S.E.-5 : theoretical approach to design
–
“Best WWI design from the Royal Aircraft Factory” – Stationary engine
– High dihedral
– Stable spiral mode
– High control forces
– Poor maneuverability
– Aircraft was relatively safe and effective
• Fokker D.VII : empirical approach to design
– Horn balances to reduce control forces
– Stationary engine
– Neutral-to-negative stability
– Good maneuverability
– Aircraft was relatively dangerous
The stationary motor and the marked dihedral
robbed the S.E. of much of t he Camel's power of
rapid manoeuvre, and it was, in fact, disliked by
pilots skilled in the handling of rotary types. On
the other hand, supporters claimed that the
stability provided a steady gun-platform and that
the extra speed, combined with the remarkable
diving and zooming qualities, more than
compensated for the inferior agility.
7/30/2019 Early History of Aviation Lecture3
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The Correct Answer:
Stability AND Control
• Need for better understanding of Flying (orHandling) Qualities (Stability and controllabilitycharacteristics as perceived by the pilot)
• Desired attributes: Stability of the S.E.-5 andcontrollability of the D.VII
Aviation Between the Wars• 1918-38:
– Birth of airlines
– Trophy races
– Aviation firsts(Lindbergh crossesthe Atlantic, 1927)
– Flying boats
– Sport aviation
– Paved runways
– Many small builders
Curtiss R3C-2 Gee-Bee R-1
Ryan NYP
Barnstorming• Surplus WWI aircraft
• Curtiss JN-4 Jenny
• Wing-walkersAir Commerce Act of 1926• Airlines formed to carry mail and passengers:
– Northwest (1926)
– Eastern (1927)
– Pan Am (1927)
– Boeing Air Transport (1927), became United (1931) – Delta (1928)
– American (1930)
– TWA (1930)
Boeing 40
Ford Tri-Motor
Lockheed Vega Air Express
Douglas Dolphin 1
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Air Racers Presage Fighters of
World War II
• Aircraft Design
– Transition to monoplanes
– Metal skins and structure
– Semi-monocoque design – Systematic airfoil design
– Streamlining and improvedaerodynamic efficiency
– Improved in-line, V, andradial engines
– Radiators vs. finnedcylinders
– Increased maneuverability,speed, altitude
– Seaplane faster thanlandplanes (why?)
Supermarine S.6B
Hughes H-1 (replica)
Macchi MC72
V = 566 km/hr
V = 709 km/hr
V = 547 km/hr
Technology of World
War II Aviation• 1938-45: Analytical and experimental
approach to design
– Many configurations designed and
flight-tested
– Increased specialization; radar,
navigation, and communication
– Approaching the "sonic barrier”
• Aircraft Design
– Large, powerful, high-flying aircraft
– Turbocharged engines
– Oxygen and Pressurization
Spitfire
P-51D
B-17