Early Childhood Education Teachers' Perspectives

EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD

EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

TEACHERS' PERSPECTIVES, EFFECTIVE PROGRAMS

AND IMPACTS ON COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

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EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

TEACHERS' PERSPECTIVES, EFFECTIVE PROGRAMS

AND IMPACTS ON COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

KRISTINA VANN EDITOR

New York

Copyright 2015 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: [email protected]

NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

ISBN: (eBook)

CONTENTS

Preface vii

Chapter 1 Both Together: Social-emotional Learning and Cognition Promote Academic Achievement in Early Childhood Classrooms 1Katherine M. Zinsser, Claire G. Christensen and Abby G. Carlson

Chapter 2 Assessing Self-Regulated Learning and Its Relation to Cognitive Performance in Early Childhood Education 13Jess de la Fuente, Jorge Amateand Mari Carmen Gonzlez-Torres

Chapter 3 Teaching and Learning in Natural Environments 37Brent Mawson

Chapter 4 The Shift from Factual Teaching to Conceptual Understanding in Early Childhood Education: Challenges in Lesson Planning 67Maria Birbili

Chapter 5 Metacognition and Student-Centered Teaching Styles in Early Childhood 93Chatzipanteli Athanasia

Contents vi

Chapter 6 Reciprocal Teaching Style and Metacognition in Early Childhood 109Chatzipanteli Athanasia and Dean Richard

Index 121

PREFACE This book assesses self-regulated learning and its relation to cognitive

education; teaching and learning in natural environments; factual teaching and conceptual understanding in early childhood education; metacognition and student-centered teaching styles; and reciprocal teaching.

Chapter 1 - While current education policy emphasizes academic achievement, the authors argue for the importance of social-emotional learning (SEL) and cognitive abilities as foundations of early academic success. This chapter reviews positive interrelationships among social-emotional learning (SEL), cognitive abilities, and academic achievement in early childhood. The authors first discuss how specific social-emotional competencies promote and are promoted by cognitive abilities. The authors then explore how SEL and cognition work in concert to promote academic achievement. In conclusion, the authors describe two promising preschool SEL programs: and review teaching strategies known to support SEL in preschool.

Chapter 2 - Assessment of cognitive skills and metacognitive self-regulated learning strategies is important in order to discover students level of cognitive processing, and be able to intervene through the teaching process to mitigate any existing problems. The objective of this study was to assess the use of metacognitive, cognitive and motor strategies on a given task. A total of 68 five-year-old pupils enrolled in Early Childhood Education participated in the study. The assessment was carried out with an ad-hoc instrument based on the think-aloud technique, and having adequate reliability and validity values. Descriptive, associative and inferential analyses were performed. The results showed greater use of cognitive and motor strategies than of metacognitive strategies. A significant association was also found between the use of strategies at each moment of the task and final performance. Implications are

Kristina Vann viii

discussed for the teaching of cognitive skills and meta-skills during this stage of education.

Chapter 3 - In this chapter the author discusses his findings from an eighteen-month research study of the experiences of young children and early childhood teachers involved in out-of-centre nature adventure programmes. This is an area of growing interest in early childhood education that has developed out of the Forest Schools movement. Little comparative data is available on how the affordances offered by different natural environments impact on teachers practice and childrens learning. The study involved spending six months as a participant observer in each of three distinctive environments; a forested area, a sub-tropical bush setting, and a tidal harbor beach location. The author describes the particular intellectual and social learning that these experiences and natural environments afforded the children and also how teachers perceived the programme influenced their pedagogy. The author examines how teachers confidence and risk-taking developed over time and the manner in which their interactions with the children assumed a different character than the interactions within the early childhood setting. In conclusion the author suggests some strategies for centres and teachers interested in developing an out-of-centre nature experience for the children.

Chapter 4 - An increasing number of early childhood curricula around the world place greater emphasis on the development of conceptual understanding than they did in the past. Teaching from a conceptual framework helps students make connections by focusing on the powerful ideas that underpin the content. An emphasis on conceptual learning also gives meaning to factual knowledge, the kind of knowledge that school education traditionally favors.

The shift from teaching factual knowledge to a more conceptual way of teaching is easier said than done. Enculturated in the traditional fact-based approach to learning, teachers feel more comfortable with teaching and assessing knowledge that is typically learned faster. Both anecdotal evidence and the few studies that exist about Greek early childhood teachers practices indicate that, like colleagues in other countries, Greek teachers are more concerned with coverage of facts and skills than with students developing conceptual understanding of topics and curriculum subjects. The study presented here recorded the efforts of a group of early childhood teachers to develop lesson plans using a concept-based model. Teachers attempts were made in the context of a professional development course which aimed to introduce practitioners to a new early childhood curriculum. According to the model of developing concept based teacher, proposed by Erickson & Lanning (2014), the course aimed to help teachers understand the difference

Preface ix

between working at the knowledge level and working at the conceptual level and see what concept-based instructions looks like in practice. It involved a combination of theory and practice using models, examples and exercises.

The results suggest that shifting from factual teaching to conceptual teaching is a process that needs time and has to overcome a number of challenges that relate closely to teachers past practices and beliefs about teaching and learning. In their effort to teach conceptually, the teachers of the sample faced the following conceptual obstacles: a difficulty to actually see key concepts and generalizations related to the topic they had selected, a difficulty to express clearly what they felt was important for children to learn and a difficulty visualizing learning as a sequenced process. The chapter ends with a discussion of the implications of the findings for teacher education and professional learning.

Chapter 5 - Metacognition is considered essential in the acquisition of learning skills and knowledge transfer. This chapter reviews of literature on metacognition in early childhood for the primary reason that fundamental forms of metacognition are developed after the age of 3. An effective way of developing metacognitive skills in this age is via participation in physical education and sports program. Preschoolers use movement to learn concepts, to express their feelings and thoughts, and to communicate with others. Physical education activities particularly the use of student-centered teaching styles such as reciprocal, self-check, convergent and divergent style could help students to learn, think and solve problems, to develop basic elements of metacognition such as planning, monitoring and evaluating their actions.

At the end of the chapter physical activities are presented during student-centered teaching styles. These teaching styles help young students to reflect on their own learning, and by implication, helping them to become autonomous and effective individuals throughout their entire life.

Chapter 6 - The aim of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the reciprocal teaching style in promoting metacognition in early childhood. Thirty eight students aged 7 years old participated in the present study. Students were divided into two groups: (i) the experimental group consisted of 22 students (9 boys and 11 girls) and (ii) the control group of 21 students (8 boys and 10 girls). Teachers in the intervention classes used the reciprocal teaching style during the execution of physical education activities and within the control group the command style, was used. Metacognition was assessed pre and post-intervention through interviews. The results imply that reciprocal teaching style is an effective way to improve metacognitive processes in early childhood.

In: Early Childhood Education ISBN: 978-1-63463-984-2 Editor: Kristina Vann 2015 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

BOTH TOGETHER: SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL LEARNING AND COGNITION PROMOTE

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD CLASSROOMS

Katherine M. Zinsser1,, Claire G. Christensen1 and Abby G. Carlson2

1University of Illinois at Chicago, US 2Apple Tree Institute for Education Innovation, US

ABSTRACT

While current education policy emphasizes academic achievement, we argue for the importance of social-emotional learning (SEL) and cognitive abilities as foundations of early academic success. This chapter reviews positive interrelationships among social-emotional learning (SEL), cognitive abilities, and academic achievement in early childhood. We first discuss how specific social-emotional competencies promote and are promoted by cognitive abilities. We then explore how SEL and cognition work in concert to promote academic achievement. In conclusion, we describe two promising preschool SEL programs: and review teaching strategies known to support SEL in preschool.

Address correspondence to: Katherine M. Zinsser, Department of Psychology, University of

Illinois at Chicago, MC 285, 1007 W. Harrison St, Chicago, IL 60607, USA. E-mail: [email protected].

Katherine M. Zinsser, Claire G. Christensen and Abby G. Carlson 2

The current early childhood educational climate emphasizes early academic skills such as pre-literacy and early numeracy. Meanwhile social-emotional skills and early cognitive competencies are also foundational to whole-child education. Programs that aim to promote social-emotional skills also confer academic benefits, both directly and indirectly (Denham, Brown, & Domitrovich, 2010; Durlak et al., 2011). Social-emotional teaching enhances early cognitive abilities that support classroom learning, including executive skills such as working memory and attentional and inhibitory control (Bierman, Nix, Greenberg, Blair & Domitrovich, 2008; McClelland et al., 2007). It is important to understand how these associations play out in early childhood settings. How does making friends support learning? In what ways do childrens emerging self-regulation skills support the acquisition of classroom-based skills and learning behaviors? How do teachers support academic performance and learning through their social-emotional teaching practices?

This chapter will explore elements of social-emotional learning (SEL) that positively impact, and are positively impacted by emerging cognitive skills. Then we will briefly review how both SEL and cognition work in tandem to support early achievement. In conclusion, we describe two promising preschool SEL programs and review teaching strategies known to support SEL in preschool.

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING IN PRESCHOOLERS SEL is the process through which children and adults develop skills to

effectively manage themselves and their relationships with others (Zins et al., 2007). Childrens social-emotional competencies prepare them to meet the demands of the classroom, engage in learning, and benefit from instruction (Campbell & Stauffenberg, 2008; Denham, Brown, & Domitrovich, 2010), ultimately enhancing well-being and school performance (Greenberg et al., 2003). Core SEL competencies also indirectly support childrens emerging literacy and numeracy skills (e.g., Blair & Razza, 2007; Bull, Espy & Wiebe, 2008; Ladd, 1990). According to the Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL, 2012), SEL comprises five core competencies: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationships skills, and responsible decision-making. While the process of SEL is life long, it is import to know what these emerging skills look like and what can reasonably be expected of young children in early childhood classrooms.

Both Together: SEL and Cognition 3

Self-awareness describes the ability to accurately recognize how you feel and how those feelings influence your behavior. For a preschool-aged child this will include learning new words to describe how he feels and the antecedents of those feelings. Additionally, children of this age are developing a sense of self that will include likes and dislikes, strengths and weaknesses.

Self-management describes the ability to regulate ones emotions, thoughts and behaviors effectively in different situations and to set and work toward short and long-term goals. Some young children may be very aware of how they are feeling but most will still be learning how to control the expression of and reaction to those feelings. At this age children are actively learning about social norms for behavior in different situations (social awareness, below) and how to regulate their behavior and emotional expression to match those expectations.

Social awareness describes the ability to take the perspective of and empathize with others and the knowledge of what behavior is socially acceptable in different situations (e.g., different rules about laughing loudly in the classroom, on the playground, and at church). Through interactions with peers and caregivers, children learn how to interpret others facial and bodily expressions of emotion and come to understand that others may feel differently from them.

Relationship skills allow the individual to establish and maintain healthy and rewarding relationships. Preschoolers are learning what it means to be a good friend; how to offer help, cooperate, and share; and how to negotiate simple conflicts. As with many of these competencies, developing relationships skills requires several other emerging skills, particularly social awareness.

Responsible decision-making refers to childrens ability to make constructive and respectful choices about personal behavior. From making choices based on personal opinions (e.g., what area of the classroom to play in) or rules (e.g., how to respond to someone taking your toy) children in preschool can begin to weigh the consequences of various actions, especially with the help of a caregiver.

In early childhood, mastery of SEL and cognitive development are intertwined. Learning relationship skills can help children form stronger friendships and feel comfortable with their teachers, which in turn makes them more likely to ask for and receive help when faced with academic challenges (Ladd, 1990). In the next section we will describe some of the cognitive competencies which preschoolers are working to master.


COGNITIVE MILESTONES AT PRESCHOOL AGES Just as with SEL, cognitive development in preschoolers is rapid and

varied, with each child achieving developmental milestones at slightly different times. During the preschool years, major cognitive developments occur in the areas of working memory, language, and attentional and self-regulatory abilities. These skills, in tandem with childrens SEL, lay the framework for classroom learning in early language, literacy, and numeracy.

Working memory refers to the amount of information that a child can hold in mind and manipulate at any given time (Baddeley, 1992). This impacts childrens ability to do many things in the classroom, such as copy a picture, retain information from a storybook reading, or learn their ABCs. This growing working memory also lays the foundation for children to learn core SEL competencies. For instance, responsible decision-making requires children to weigh different options and remember numerous social norms and concrete rules, all of which draw on working memory capacity.

Language development in preschool is rapid, with huge increases in expressive vocabulary and continued expansion of receptive vocabulary. Children at this age are also beginning to understand conventions of formal speech, including syntax and phonology. Language and SEL work in tandem, as social interactions with teachers and peers serve language development and language skills promote relationships with others. Additionally, expanding receptive vocabulary helps children learn the social language associated with self-awareness, self-management, and social awareness.

Attention and self-regulation are both strongly related to classroom adjustment and school achievement (Bierman et al., 2008; Blair & Diamond, 2008; Denham et al., 2003). Attention refers to a childs ability to remain focused on a task. Self-regulation involves controlling and maintaining this attention, as well as controlling behaviors and emotions. Self-regulation is closely tied to self-management, a core SEL competency. Struggling with negative emotions may detract from childrens abilities to focus on learning. Conversely, remaining relatively calm and positive can help children engage with classroom tasks (Trentacosta & Izard, 2007).

These underlying cognitive competencies are necessary for SEL and they also benefit from improved SEL. Paired together, childrens increasing cognitive and social-emotional competencies serve as the foundation for academic learning in the classroom.


THE INTERSECTION OF SEL AND COGNITION IN CLASSROOM SETTINGS

SEL and cognitive development go hand in hand, with linkages found at

the neurobiological level (Blair, 2002; Huttenlocher, 2002). Developing cognitive and social-emotional skills set children up for success in the classroom, allowing them to function effectively and absorb information in a learning environment (Blair, 2002). For instance, self-regulation and self-management, both SEL and cognitive skills, are essential for learning difficult academic content associated with literacy and numeracy (Dickinson, McCabe, & Essex, 2007). Additionally, initial social competence and improvements in social competence (i.e., cooperation, self-control, and assertion) predict third graders end-of-year grades in reading and mathematics (Elias & Haynes, 2008).

How children approach learning is inherently intertwined with their SEL. A childs motivation, persistence, and attitude toward learning in the classroom play a key part in school readiness and long-term academic success (Fantuzzo, Perry, & McDermott, 2004; Li-Grining, Votruba-Drzal & Maldonado-Carreno, 2010). The outcomes of strong SEL - management of ones own emotions and behaviors and resulting positive relationships - make the classroom a happy place where children are more likely to feel motivated and positive toward classroom learning. For instance, Fantuzzo and colleagues (2004) found that preschoolers who showed a lack of motivation and persistence in the classroom also had poor social relationships at school, which is linked to decreased achievement (Ladd, 1990).

A childs ability to understand the social and emotional cues of their classmates (i.e., social awareness) also plays an important role in concurrent and later academic success. Children with poorer relationship skills are more likely to have social difficulties, and thus will find school less enjoyable and may struggle in the transition into kindergarten. Denham and colleagues found that childrens executive control contributed to their social cognition and emotionality, which in turn were related to later teacher report school adjustment and kindergarten readiness (Denham, Bassett, Zinsser, & Wyatt, 2014). This longitudinal relationship continues; Normandeau and Guay (1998) have found that kindergartners prosocial behavior predicts their cognitive self-control in 1st grade, which then predicts 1st grade achievement.

Similarly, childrens self-awareness, their knowledge of their own strengths and weaknesses and sense of self-efficacy, will impact their


likelihood of asking for assistance from teachers and peers during academically challenging tasks. Help-seeking is an important contributor to students learning. In older students, avoidance of help seeking negatively predicts academic efficacy (Ryan, Gheen, & Midgley, 1998).

EVALUATION OF SEL PROGRAMS Given the evidence of interconnections among SEL and early cognition

and their joint support of academic achievement, there is surprisingly sparse evidence that preschool SEL curricula boost academic achievement. Although there are some exceptions to this trend (e.g., Bierman et al., 2008), this gap in research is likely attributable to the scarcity of effective preschool social-emotional curricula. Compared with subjects like literacy, there are relatively few programs that promote SEL during early childhood in accordance with the guidelines set out by Durlak and colleagues (2011). Fewer still have been rigorously and systematically evaluated, and only some of these can be seen as effective (CASEL, 2013). Although evidence of academic gains associated with SEL curricula is limited, we will briefly describe a recent study that evaluated three SEL curricula.

Head Start CARES The recently completed Head Start CARES (Classroom-based Approaches

and Resources for Emotion and Social skill promotion; Morris, Mattera, Castells, Bangser, Bierman, & Raver, 2014) Demonstration Project tested the effects of three classroom-based approaches to improve childrens SEL in 100 randomly assigned Head Start Centers. We will discuss two of these programs, Preschool PATHS and The Incredible Years Teacher Training Programs, which showed consistent impacts on childrens social-emotional outcomes. The third program evaluated in Head Start CARES, Tools of the Mind, did not show expected impacts on childrens self-regulation.

Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (Preschool PATHS; Domitrovich, Greenberg, Cortes, & Kusch, 2005) is a scripted curriculum that combines short circle time lessons with extension activities to support childrens awareness of their own and others emotions, self-control, self- concept, peer relations, and problem-solving skills; and to create an overall positive classroom environment. Both the preschool and elementary versions


of PATHS are based on the theoretical understanding that SEL is dependent on interactions with the environment and that variations in childrens competencies are based on different experiences at home and in early childhood settings.

In the CARES demonstration, children in PATHS classrooms showed small to moderate improvements in their knowledge and understanding of emotions, social problem-solving skills, and social behaviors. Furthermore, although the one year intervention did not significantly impact childrens observed executive function skills, Preschool PATHS teachers ratings of their childrens learning behaviors did significantly improved when compared to the control group.

The Incredible Years Teacher Training Program uses teacher training workshops on classroom management and support techniques to improve the classroom climate and impact childrens social-emotional competence. The curriculum is grounded in social learning theory and recognizes the developmental value of adults modeling appropriate interactions and behaviors (Posthumus et al., 2012). The CARES demonstration showed that Incredible Years significantly improved teachers classroom management when compared to controls, but did not significantly decrease childrens behavior problems. Positive effects of the program included improvements in childrens emotion knowledge, problem-solving, social behaviors, and teacher-rated learning behaviors.

Additionally, in the highest-risk children, Incredible Years had a small but significant positive impact on teachers ratings of childrens attention and engagement in learning when compared to the control group.

The primary focus of the CARES demonstration was to test impact of these programs on childrens social-emotional learning, so the limited findings related to cognitive and academic gains are not terribly surprising. Additionally, children participating in the intervention groups only received the full dosage of the intervention for the final few months of the school year. In other intervention studies that have intentionally combined SEL and academic skills promotion, such as the REDI project (Bierman et al., 2008), children have shown significant improvement in academic skills (vocabulary and emergency literacy), SEL skills (emotion knowledge, social problem solving, and behavior) and in learning behaviors such as engagement.


SUPPORTING SEL AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN CLASSROOMS CONCURRENTLY

The role of teachers promoting social emotional skills has received

increasing recognition (Denham, Bassett & Zinsser, 2012). Social-emotional teaching describes a variety of activities and practices: some purposeful and planned, some naturally occurring that can promote SEL in students (Zinsser, Denham, & Curby, in press). Teachers may provide direct instruction in social-emotional content when opportunities arise, or as part of a social-emotional curriculum. However, social-emotional teaching is more effective when it is not limited to the 15-minute lesson prescribed by a curriculum (Denham & Burton, 1996). Some research even indicates that social-emotional teaching may be most effective when integrated in to academics (Massetti & Bracken, 2010).

Teachers can engage in social-emotional teaching throughout academic instruction, free-play, outside play, and meals. For example, there are numerous opportunities for social development during a group-based science activity, such as exploring scientific phenomena, making hypotheses about what may happen, and sharing results (Greenfield, 2014). Below we describe three approaches known to support childrens SEL beyond the adoption of evidence based SEL curricula like PATHS and Incredible Years.

Social-emotional teaching includes modeling. Teachers model emotional expressiveness, which implicitly teaches children which emotions are acceptable and how to appropriately express and regulate them (Valiente et al., 2004). Through their contingent reactions to childrens emotions, teachers (and parents) encourage or discourage childrens emotional expression. Such encouragement helps children learn to tolerate and control their own emotions and promotes expressiveness and emotion knowledge (Gottman et al., 1997). Additionally, teachers set the emotional climate of the classroom, which has direct implications for social-emotional learning. In more positive classrooms, teachers and students smile, laugh, high-five, beam with pride, and hug (Pianta et al., 2008). In more negative classrooms, teachers and students aggress, yell, threaten, frustrate, and disrespect one another (Pianta, la Paro, & Hamre, 2008). Positive climate, as measured using the CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008), is associated with favorable academic outcomes (Curby & Chavez, 2013).


CONCLUSION There is substantial momentum among educational and developmental

research scientists to explore the intimate connections among SEL, cognitive development, and academic achievement in our youngest learners. However a great deal of interdisciplinary work remains to be done, especially with regards to the assessment of SEL and the identification of children or groups of children needing additional support. Further, it is critical that teachers are supported in their efforts to promote development in all of these critical competencies. If public policy is to support early social-emotional competencies, educators and researchers will need to continually communicate with policy makers about their importance. We hope that the information provided above will help all stakeholders understand the interconnectedness of childrens social-emotional and cognitive development, viewing it not as an either/or but rather a both together approach to enhancing childrens academic success.

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Chapter 2

ASSESSING SELF-REGULATED LEARNING AND ITS RELATION TO COGNITIVE

PERFORMANCE IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Jess de la Fuente1, Jorge Amate2 and Mari Carmen Gonzlez-Torres3

1University of Almera 2Teacher of Early Childhood Education. Almeria

3University of Navarra, Spain

ABSTRACT

Assessment of cognitive skills and metacognitive self-regulated learning strategies is important in order to discover students level of cognitive processing, and be able to intervene through the teaching process to mitigate any existing problems. The objective of this study was to assess the use of metacognitive, cognitive and motor strategies on a given task. A total of 68 five-year-old pupils enrolled in Early Childhood Education participated in the study. The assessment was carried out with an ad-hoc instrument based on the think-aloud technique, and having adequate reliability and validity values. Descriptive, associative and inferential analyses were performed. The results showed greater use of cognitive and motor strategies than of metacognitive strategies. A significant association was also found between the use of strategies at

Jess de la Fuente, Jorge Amate and Mari Carmen Gonzlez-Torres 14

each moment of the task and final performance. Implications are discussed for the teaching of cognitive skills and meta-skills during this stage of education.

Keywords: Early childhood education, self-regulated learning, metacognitive strategies, performance, assessment of cognitive processes

INTRODUCTION Learning today means constructing knowledge. In the case of scholastic

learning, the knowledge to be learned is intentionally determined in advance. This construction process, in turn, necessarily requires the mental activity of the pupil, who ultimately gives sense and significance to what is learned. Therefore, we turn from the idea of learning as merely the accumulation of things known; instead, learning is conceived as the subjects continuous modification of his or her own knowledge schemata. Involved in this process is the use of metacognitive skills that enable ones personal control over ones own knowledge and learning processes.

Explanatory Models of Self-Regulated Learning To Zimmerman we owe the appearance of self-regulated learning as a

concept, as well as the initial research that sought to identify and understand self-direction processes in acquiring knowledge (Bembenutty, Cleary, & Kitsantas, 2013: de la Fuente & Eissa, 2010; Zimmerman, 1986, 1990; Zimmerman, & Labuhn 2012; Zimmerman & Schunk, 1989). This perspective originates from metacognitive research and holds important implications. Some examples include: considering students as active participants from the metacognitive point of view, and factors that influence students decisions on how and why they decide to use a certain strategy (Gonzlez, Escoriza, Gonzlez & Barca, 1996).

The Pintrich model (2000) is to be noted as one of the most important attempts to synthesize the different processes and activities that help increase self-regulation while learning (Torrano & Gonzlez, 2004). It is based on a socio-cognitive perspective and organizes the different regulatory processes into four phases: forethought, self-monitoring, control and reflection. Within each phase we find four areas: the cognitive, motivational-affective,

Early Childhood Education 15

behavioral and contextual. All these phases and areas interact with each other, and are activated also in relation to the demands of the task.

Finally, the DEDEPRO Model (De la Fuente & Justicia, 2007), a further development from a previous model (De la Fuente & Martnez, 2000), attempts to synthesize the former two: the Justicia and Cano (1996) model and the Pintrich (2000) model. From the former he primarily draws the typology of strategies, while, based on contributions from the latter, he adopts a line of three major moments at which students apply their strategies in self-regulated fashion: before, during and after the task (Martnez & De la Fuente, 2004):

At the first moment (before), the student is to become aware of and

plan the activity that is to be performed. Awareness requires, at a minimum, reflection on the characteristics of the task, ones personal way of learning, and the particularities of the cognitive process and strategy used. These three elements are similar to those alluded to above, when speaking of metacognitive strategies (Flavell, 1987).Forethought will guide the rest of the task performance process. At this point it is important for the student to reflect on the objectives of the task, and to set learning goals.

The second moment (during) involves knowing what to do, how to do it, when and where to do it, while carrying out the learning process. The objective is for the student to be able to regulate himself or herself at this phase of execution. For this purpose, aside from cognitive activity, thought should also be given to maintaining ones motivation.

At the third moment (after) the student should carry out an evaluation of the entire process followed until that point. This phase is the time to reflect on what has been learned and on aspects that should be improved in similar situations that may be encountered later.

The PRO-REGULA program (De la Fuente & Martnez, 2000) is a tool

based on this model, designed to work on self-regulation by incorporating it into the stage of Primary Education. The empirical study that we present here is also based on this model.


Self-Regulation Strategies in Early Childhood Education There is clear evidence of a correlation between self-regulation at an early

age, and self-regulation throughout the school years and the individuals life (Eisenberg et al., 1996, 1997). In this line, Flavell (1977) emphasizes the importance of self-regulated learning in Early Childhood Education, affirming that its significant growth during this period constitutes a key point of inflection for the childs development. Recently, other authors have reached research conclusions that self-regulation strategies do exist in preschoolers (Sperling, Walls & Hill, 2000). Along the same line, studies from Das, Kar and Parrilla (1998) on the childs capacity for planning (understood as regulation of cognitive processes), attribute a true planning ability to children at the age of five.

One of the fundamental reasons for the relative lack of interest in this stage of education, despite the evidence described above, is the concept of the child in Early Childhood Education as a pre, someone who is not yet able to learn complex aspects, and therefore, is not able to make strategic use of procedures, since they have not yet been fully mastered (Olern, 1987). However, as Monereo (2001) explains, this opinion is not only mistaken, but it establishes an unadvisable separation between mastery of a procedure and its strategic use.

As for the research panorama of Self-Regulated Learning in Early Childhood Education, perhaps the best known researcher is Pramling (1988, 1990, 1993). This author explored childrens conceptions of learning from a phenomenological approach, considering their perceptions to be an expression of the different levels of metacognitive awareness. Her work, carried out through semi-structured individual interviews, includes both the referential aspect of learning (what) and the structural aspect (how) (Marton, 1988). Her primary conclusions are presented below (adapted by Ayala & Martn, 1997):

Regarding small childrens conceptions of what they are learning,

children pass through three successive phases, the first of which begins in the first weeks of preschool: - Learning always involves knowing how to do something new,

whether new manual skills (cutting things out) or intellectual (counting). (around age three)

- Learning involves new knowledge about the world. - Learning involves understanding reality.


Regarding childrens conception of how they learn, we may also distinguish three phases: - No distinction between doing and learning to do. - Learning as a consequence of maturing, of getting big. - Learning as a result of experience.

One important contribution from Pramling was categorizing conceptions

about preschoolers learning as deep and surface, as a function of their ability to become aware of their own learning and transfer a specific thing learned to other situations. Finally, Pramling is also attributed the intervention design of discovering conceptions using metacognitive dialogue. This method, roughly speaking, seeks reflection on daily situations in order to transform children's conceptions about learning at three levels: content, structure and learning itself.

Objectives and Hypotheses One reason that justifies realization of this research is the scarcity of

knowledge and instruments currently available on self-regulated learning for children under the age of six, in stark contrast to the importance that this topic has acquired at other levels of education. Specifically, we have two fundamental objectives. First, to describe the self-regulation strategies used by five-year-olds while executing a specific task. Second, to establish association relationships between the strategies used, and between these strategies and task performance. From these study objectives, the following hypotheses were formulated:

Hypothesis 1. Observed frequency of use of the strategies assessed will be low. Hypothesis 2. In the case of metacognitive strategies, the frequency will be

even lower, since they have not been worked on as much at school. Hypothesis 3. There will be significant association relationships among the

total strategies used at different moments. Hypothesis 4. There will be significant association relationships between the

total strategies used at the three moments, and performance. Hypothesis 5. There will be significant association relationships between the

total metacognitive strategies and performance.


METHOD

Participants A total of 68 subjects participated, all of them in the final year of Early

Childhood Education (5- and 6-year-olds), at a public school in Spain. The school was selected through a non-probabilistic procedure, as a function of available access, and subjects included all the pupils from the three class groups of this grade level in the school, except for two pupils who had to be eliminated from the sample due to excess reactivity, and who could not be successfully led through the research protocol. There were 36 girls and 32 boys. As for place of birth, there were six foreign pupils (3 Moroccans, 2 Ecuadorians, and 1 Ghanaian), all of them with full mastery of the language, and most of them enrolled in the same school from earlier grades (T.N. Spanish public school begins at age 3.) No child had been diagnosed with special educational needs.

A pilot run, for the purpose of training the assessors, used a sample of 6 pupils from the same school, but at different grade levels (ECE 4-year-olds and 1st grade of Primary) and 10 five-year-olds from another school, located in downtown Almeria (Spain). They were selected based on ease of access to their respective classrooms, and being considered mainly average-level pupils, with a few low and high cases, according to their mainstream teachers.

Instruments The instrument used for this study is a protocol which is both a guide and

a register (log) for assessment based on a specific task. This protocol is structured along three points in time (before, during and after), and exemplifies the think-aloud technique (Meichembaum et al., 1985) as a variation on the interview. The instrument is described in Appendix 1. The variables measured directly through the student protocol correspond to strategies that the children use while resolving the task. These strategies, summarized in Appendix 1 as a function of their type and moment of use, are as follows:

1. Awareness. The childs response when asked what he or she considers

to be most important about the task, and what others expect them to learn from it, according to protocol instructions as shown in Appendix


1. This variable, in turn, consists of four non-exclusive response levels: Level 1 (I dont know, says nothing, extraneous aspects, etc.), Level 2 (motor aspects), Level 3 (metacognitive aspects) and Level 4 (central aspects). This is considered to be a first-moment strategy (before).

2. Planning. Verbalizations that the child makes about his or her thoughts before performing the task, which may represent a guide for how it is to be done. This variable consists of two response levels, according to whether such verbalizations are observed or not.

3. Cognitive metacognition. The childs verbalizations about his or her thoughts. This variable does not have response options, the observers recorded its appearance when seen. This is considered to be a second-moment strategy (during).

4. Motor metacognition. The childs verbalizations about his or her motor actions. This variable does not have response options, the assessors recorded its appearance when observed. This is considered to be a second-moment strategy (during).

5. Support metacognition. The child's verbalizations that imply certain control over his or her affective-motivational processes. This variable does not have response options, the assessors recorded its appearance when observed. This is considered to be a second-moment strategy (during).

6. Prior organization. The childs verbalizations in anticipation of his or her immediate actions. This variable does not have response options, the assessors recorded its appearance when observed. This is considered to be a second-moment strategy (during).

7. Explicit review. The childs verbalizations that allude to use of this strategy. This variable does not have response options, the assessors recorded its appearance when observed. This is considered to be a second-moment strategy (during).

8. Counting. In this strategy, the observers recorded evidence from their observation of how the cognitive operation of counting was performed. This variable does not have response options, the assessors recorded its appearance when observed. This is considered to be a second-moment strategy (during).

9. Comparing. Evidence was recorded from observing active indication of the cognitive operation of comparing one drawing to another. This variable does not have response options, the assessors recorded its


appearance when observed. This is considered to be a second-moment strategy (during).

10. Information seeking (asking). The childs verbalizations in the form of asking task-related questions of the researchers. This variable does not have response options, the assessors recorded its appearance when observed. This is considered to be a second-moment strategy (during).

11. Reviewing. Evidence was recorded from observing how the child assessed the task or some part of it. This variable does not have response options, the assessors recorded its appearance when observed. This is considered to be a second-moment strategy (during).

12. Attitudes and feelings. The childs verbalizations alluding to his or her affective states, both positive and negative. This variable does not have response options, the assessors recorded its appearance when observed. This is considered to be a second-moment strategy (during).

13. Self-stimulation. The childs verbalizations for self-encouragement. This variable does not have response options, the assessors recorded its appearance when observed. This is considered to be a second-moment strategy (during).

14. Drawing. Evidence from observing the action of drawing. This variable does not have response options, the assessors recorded its appearance when observed. This is considered to be a second-moment strategy (during).

15. Coloring. Evidence from observing the action of coloring. This variable does not have response options, the assessors recorded its appearance when observed. This is considered to be a second-moment strategy (during).

16. Self-assessment. The childs response when asked about the results of his or her execution, according to protocol instructions in Appendix 1. This variable in turn consists of three response levels: good, so-so or bad. This is considered to be a third-moment strategy (after).

17. Justification. The childs response when asked about the reasons for his or her self-assessment, according to protocol instructions in Appendix 1. This variable in turn consists of three non-exclusive response levels: justification based on the real objective of the task, allusions to metacognitive aspects and justification based on motor aspects. This is considered to be a third-moment strategy (after).

18. Ways to improve. The childs responses when asked about the changes he or she would make in a hypothetical later situation, according to protocol instructions shown in Appendix 1. This variable in turn


consists of the same three response levels given in the previous case. This is considered to be a third-moment strategy (after). Afterward, subtotals were calculated in reference to each typology and to each moment of strategy use, as well as a grand total. Variables measured directly (nominal type) were converted to scalar measurements, which are more operational for carrying out appropriate statistical analyses. This operation was carried out either based on the design of a scale by degrees (in the case of the awareness variables, or of the total corresponding to before) or using the sum of the points registered for the presence of each variable that made up a given subtotal.

19. Performance. This is the dependent variable. Evaluation of task execution was carried out by an independent judge with a degree in teaching, but not involved in this process, using the criteria shown in Table 1.

As can be observed in this table, a two-fold performance was taken into

account: cognitive and motor. Cognitive performance refers to an assessment of the task according to its cognitive demands. Motor performance refers to an assessment of the task according to its motor demands, which in this case were not the priority in correct execution of the task.

Both aspects were scored on a maximum of four points; in order to obtain the first score it was necessary to first classify the product into one of four categories, while the second score was obtained from the sum of scores obtained according to each criterion.

Finally, total performance was the arithmetic mean obtained from the two subtotal scores. Before assessing the exercises, we ensured that the judge correctly understood the established criteria. The criteria were designed from an analysis of the demands of the task, and from childrens productions in earlier studies.

Table 1. Criteria for task evaluation

TOTAL PERFORMANCE = (COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE +

MOTOR PERFORMANCE) / 2 COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE MOTOR PERFORMANCE Classify each exercise into one of these categories and give it the corresponding score:

Assign each exercise one or zero points as a function of whether each criterion was met, and add up the total points:


Table 1. (Continued)

TOTAL PERFORMANCE = (COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE + MOTOR PERFORMANCE) / 2

COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE MOTOR PERFORMANCE - Total absence of cognitive manifestations (Any apples drawn are simply colored,, and there is no evidence of counting or comparing, etc.) 0 points - Comparison of the relative positions of the apples, without exactly matching the model 1 point - Comparison of the relative positions of the apples, exactly matching the model 3 points - Abstraction of the relative positions, and consideration of the total quantity of apples 4 points

- Not leaving gaps (blank spaces) in the colored elements. - Not coloring outside the lines. - Finishing all the coloring, that is, not leaving elements uncolored. - Correctly sketching the missing apples (if done at all), including the complete detail of the leaf.

Maximum: 4 points Maximum: 4 points

Procedure Once the task was chosen and adapted to the students level and the needs

of this study, some prior studies were carried out in order to help refine the assessment instrument (Appendix 1). The final format of this instrument was submitted to previous evaluation by professionals working with this age group, but not connected with the present research study, that they would judge its suitability for assessing the strategies used by children in this age group; the outcome was positive.

Afterward, the two people responsible for assessing strategies were trained in use of the instrument, until they reached a degree of inter-judge reliability of greater than 85%. Both of them were from the field of Educational Psychology. Before proceeding with the individual assessment, which at all times followed the indications of the protocol-register, the two assessors visited the different classrooms, for the purpose of controlling students possible reactivity.

When strategy assessment was completed, we selected an independent expert in early childhood work, in order to be the judge for assessing performance on the task. This person was training according to the design criteria.


Design and Data Analyses An ex-post-facto design was applied, not experimental in that there was no

control group. The data were subjected to statistical treatment using SPSS for Windows (version 20.0); descriptive and correlational analyses were performed. In the descriptive analyses, the presence of each directly-measured strategy (nominal strategy) was described as a percentage. We also described the mean and standard deviation of the scalar strategies, and finally, the mean and standard deviation of each of the three dimensions into which strategies were grouped after applying a factor analysis. As for the correlational analyses, we analyzed correlations between strategies used at each moment, and we created correlation matrices of the three types of performance (cognitive, motor and total) with the scalar variables and with the empirical dimensions just mentioned.

RESULTS

Descriptive Results In general, one can see how at the first moment (before task execution),

planning is noticeably absent (only 8.8% of pupils show signs of planning the activity). As for awareness, the sample seems to be divided almost equally between those who considered cognitive aspects to be central to the task (13.2%), and those who focused their attention on the motor aspects (14.7%).

At the second moment (during task execution), a low percentage of pupils showed signs of using the metacognitive strategies assessed. Thus, only 10.3% were able to explicitly state their cognitive processes, while a somewhat larger percentage, 35.3% of pupils, were able to state their motor behaviors. As for prior organization, just half the pupils were able to anticipate their actions; while no child stated that he or she was reviewing (checking their work), despite the fact that 7.4% showed signs of doing so. At the cognitive level, a high percentage of pupils counted, in accordance with the task objectives, while a lesser number compared the positions, this strategy not having been asked for specifically. Regarding support for processing, there were only isolated cases of children who referred to any type of feelings or to formulas for motivating themselves. Almost all the children drew round figures, and a mere 20% colored them.


At the third moment (after task execution), all the children rate themselves positively. Practically 30% justify this rating based on the real objectives of the task, while the percentage of those who do so based on motor aspects is only about half. However, when asked for ways to improve, this relation is inverted (10.3% compared to 14.7%, respectively). The children very rarely address metacognitive aspects, either at this moment in particular, or at any time throughout the interview. However, there are a good number of children who, when asked these questions, do not speak at all, remaining silent or speaking some random word. See Table 2.

Table 2. Percentages of the presence/absence of each of the strategies

assessed directly at each moment of execution

MOMENT/STRATEGY YES (%) NO (%) MOMENT 1: BEFORE

{0>Conciencia:Awareness:Centrada en aspectos motricesFocused on motor aspectsCentrada en aspectos cognitivos (centrales)Focused on cognitive (central) aspectsAspectos metacognitivosMetacognitive aspectsPlanificacinPlanningMOMENTO 2: DURANTEMOMENT 2: DURINGA nivel afectivo-motivacionalMotivational-affective Estrategias metacognitivas:Metacognitive strategies:Control de la ejecucin:Control of execution:Organizacin previaPrior organizationRevisin (con conciencia)Reviewing (with awareness)Estrategias cognitivas:Cognitive strategies:ContarCountingCompararComparingPreguntarAskingRevisarReviewingEstrategias de apoyo al procesamiento:Strategies to support processing:Actitudes y sentimientos positivosPositive attitudes and feelings


MOMENT/STRATEGY YES (%) NO (%) {0>MOMENTO 3: DESPUSMOMENT 3: AFTERActitudes y sentimientos negativosNegative attitudes and feelingsAutoestimulacinSelf-stimulationAspectos motrices:Motor aspects:DibujarDrawingColorearColoringAutoevaluacin:Self-assessment:BienGoodRegularSo-soMalBadJustificacin:Justification:Basada en el objetivo real de la tareaBased on the real task objectiveBasada en aspectos motricesBased on motor aspectsAspectos metacognitivosMetacognitive aspectsPosibilidades de mejora:Ways to improve:Basadas en el objetivo real de la tareaBased on the real task objectiveBasadas en aspectos motricesBased on motor aspectsAspectos metacognitivosMetacognitive aspects


Table 3. (Continued)

VARIABLE MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION THEORETICAL RANGE

Total motor strategies at the third moment (after)

1.29 (0.52) 1-3

Total strategies at the third moment (after) 1.79 (0.8) 1-7 Total metacognitive strategies 2.28 (1.08) 1-11 Total cognitive strategies 3.19 (1.31) 1-7 Total motor strategies 2.43 (0.70) 1-5 Total strategies 5.87 (1.92) 1-23

Source: Prepared by the authors. One of the most noticeable aspects is the small number of total strategies

used by the children, especially obvious in the metacognitive subtype. This fact is even more clearly visible in the following table, where strategies observed directly were submitted to factor analysis, and thereby grouped into three large dimensions. The mean use of strategies belonging to each of the empirical dimensions was as follows, for our sample:

Table 4. Descriptive statistics for each of the empirical dimensions.

Source: Prepared by the authors

DIMENSIONS MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION THEORETICAL RANGE

Metacognitive 1.59 (0.51) 1-5 Cognitive 1.95 (0.55) 1-4 Motor 1.71 (0.35) 1-3

Association Results

Correlation between Strategies Used at Different Moments The results show that there is only one significant correlation (p


the strategy total. This is especially noticeable in the case of total strategies used during task execution.

Table 5. Correlations between performance on the task and strategies of

each type and at each moment. The upper number in each table cell shows Spearmans rho correlation coefficient, and the lower number shows the

level of significance

Variable Motor performance Cognitive performance

Total performance

Total strategies at the first moment (before) 0.020 .873 0.152 .216

0.119 .332

Total metacognitive strategies at the second moment (during)

0.201 .100

0.028 .818

0.087 .479

Total cognitive strategies at the second moment (during)

0.173 .159

0.427** .000

0.462** .000

Total support strategies at the second moment (during)

--- ---

--- ---

--- ---

Total motor strategies at the second moment (during)

0.386** .001

-0.066 .594

0.121 .325

Total strategies at the second moment (during) 0.306* .011 0.292* .016

0.381** .001

Total metacognitive strategies at the third moment (after)

0.080 .516

-0.051 .681

-0.016 .895

Total cognitive strategies at the third moment (after)

-0.010 .936

0.301* .013

0.241* .047

Total motor strategies at the third moment (after)

0.348** .004

-0.127 .302

0.033 .788

Total strategies at the third moment (after) 0.243* .046 0.102 .408

0.176 .151

Total metacognitive strategies 0.234 .055 0.047 .703

0.115 .350

Total cognitive strategies 0.111 .365 0.471** .000

0.461** .000

Total motor strategies 0.490** .000 -0.125 .309

0.101 .413

Total strategies 0.321** .008 0.325** .007

0.413** .000

Source: Prepared by the authors. ** The correlation is significant at the level of 0.01 (bilateral). * The correlation is significant at the level of 0.05 (bilateral).

Correlations between Strategies and Performance

As can be seen in Table 6, the strategy total has a significant correlation (p


has a very significant correlation (p


cases, first-moment strategies (before) did not significantly correlate with any of the assessed types of performance.

When performing the analysis by empirical dimensions extracted from factor analysis, once again the metacognitive dimension shows no significant correlation with total performance (p=.320), or with cognitive or motor performance (p=.679 and p=.174, respectively) Previous analyses with the cognitive dimension also concur with the present case, where it is significantly associated with cognitive performance (p


minimal differentiation at this age between cognitive and megacognitive strategies can help clarify this situation.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS Although we are satisfied with the contributions made, we are aware of

the need to verify these contributions through replicated studies that are carried out with independent samples, and to compare the results with other results obtained using different instruments. In this process, the instruments and the assessed strategies would need to be further defined. In the case of the direct measurement of support strategies, new formulas must be studied that would contribute significant information. It would also be interesting to explore relationships between specific variables such as planning and awareness, or how variables relate to performance, such as prior organization, which has been shown to have high discriminatory power. We hope that these efforts help to spark interest in this topic from others in the academic or professional spheres.

This investigation is a look at how children learn and what strategies they use when solving a task, and caution should be used in interpreting its conclusions.

Based on this initial study, it would be interesting to look for other activities from different areas (reading/writing, science or social studies, etc.) in order to determine the generalization or specificity of the strategies that pupils use. It would also be valuable to observe whether the patterns of strategies used by particular students show certain stability over time. This aspect could be studied by repeating the experiment at different times.

Aside from all this, when all these observations have been more solidly established, we must inexorably move toward intervention in these same strategies that we have assessed. Without the hope of being able to modify strategy use, there is no use in assessing them.

We would therefore need to design corresponding intervention techniques and instruments for their implementation. A second phase would need to consist of analyzing the impact of training on strategy use and on task execution (De la Fuente, Justicia, Sander, & Cardelle-Elawar, 2014).


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was carried out within the framework of the R&D Project ref.

EDU2011-24805 (2012-2015), and supported by MICINN (Spain) and FEDER Funds (Union European).

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APPENDIX ASSESSMENT OBSERVATIONS

ASSESSMENT OBSERVATIONS: ADAPTATION DIALOGUE (to establish a relaxed, communicative environment)

PRESENTATION OF THE TASK AND AWARENESS ON THIS WORKSHEET, YOU MUST MAKE ALL THE TREES HAVE THE SAME APPLES AS THE TREE IN THE BOX. DO YOU UNDERSTAND?

NOW, LOOK CAREFULLY AT THE WORKSHEET, AND TELL ME: WHAT DO YOU THINK IS MOST IMPORTANT?, WHAT DO I WANT YOU TO LEARN FROM THIS?I dont know / Remains silent or

focuses the objective on extraneous aspects

Motor aspects: drawing, coloring, not going out of the lines Thinking, observing, etc. Central aspects:

counting, comparing, the numbers, etc.

Very good. Now, while youre doing the worksheet, were going to play the microphone game, do you know how it goes? You have to say aloud everything that youre doing and thinking while you do the worksheet. For example: Now Im thinking about what Im going to do, now I am drawing an apple

, OK? So, you can start as soon as you want, and dont forget to say into the microphone what you are doing and what you are thinking. PLANNING

I am thinking, I am looking, I am seeing what I have to do first, etc. Nothing that directly indicates planning

METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES

COGNITIVE STRATEGIES (counting, comparing, etc., but not saying so)

SUPPORT STRATEGIES

MOTOR AS PECTS

(Drawing, coloring, etc., but not saying so)

KNOWING ABOUT ONES KNOWLEDGE (SAYS WHAT HE/SHE IS THINKING OR DOING. E.G. I AM THINKING THAT I HAVE TO COLOR, I AM COUNTING, ETC.)

CONTROL OF TASK EXECUTION

ATTITUDES AND FEELINGS (e.g. I am tired, I like the worksheet, etc.)

SELF-STIMULATION (e.g. Im almost done!)

PRIOR ORGANIZATION (Says before doing: now Im going to )

REVIEWING (Says that he/she is checking it over)

Cognitive Motor Support Counting Comparing + -

Drawing Coloring Asking Reviewing

SELF-ASSESSMENT How do you think it turned out? Good So-so Bad

Why? Justification based on the real objective of the task (e.g. I counted, I compared )

Because I thought, I looked at... Justification based on motor aspects (e.g. I didnt color out of the lines, I didnt leave blank spaces, etc.)

What would you do next time to make it turn out even better?

Cognitive aspects in line with the task Think more, look at it more Motor aspects


Chapter 3

TEACHING AND LEARNING IN NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS

Brent Mawson* Faculty of Education, The University of Auckland

ABSTRACT

In this chapter I discuss my findings from an eighteen-month research study of the experiences of young children and early childhood teachers involved in out-of-centre nature adventure programmes. This is an area of growing interest in early childhood education that has developed out of the Forest Schools movement. Little comparative data is available on how the affordances offered by different natural environments impact on teachers practice and childrens learning. The study involved spending six months as a participant observer in each of three distinctive environments; a forested area, a sub-tropical bush setting, and a tidal harbor beach location. I describe the particular intellectual and social learning that these experiences and natural environments afforded the children and also how teachers perceived the programme influenced their pedagogy. I l examine how teachers confidence and risk-taking developed over time and the manner in which their interactions with the children assumed a different character than the interactions within the early childhood setting. In conclusion I suggest some strategies for centres and teachers interested in developing an out-of-centre nature experience for the children.

* Corresponding author: Email: [email protected].

Brent Mawson 38

INTRODUCTION In recent years concerns of a growing dissassociation with the natural

world in childrens lives has been voiced (e.g.Fjortoft, 2001; Palmer, 2006; Thomas & Thompson, 2005). In England the increasing academic demands are also seen as having a negative impact on childrens access to outdoor play (Waite & Pratt, 2011). Increasingly in recent years, concerns about childrens safety has led to a reduction of the challenges and opportunity for risk-taking in outdoor play (Bilton, 2005; Little & Eager, 2010; Palmer, 2006).

One early childhood response has been a growing adoption of education for sustainability (EfS) programmes. Elliott (2010) argues that access to the outdoors and play in natural environments is an important part of children gaining an awareness and empathy toward the environment. An increasing awareness of the importance of fostering these values and attitudes in young children (Ritchie, 2013) has been building over the last decade as environmental sustainability becomes an increasing global issue in response to climatic and environmental changes. The early childhood sector has responded and more and more centres are engaging in sustainable practices in their programmes (Prince, 2010; Ritchie, 2013a). Davis (2010a) identifies education for sustainability originating from education in, about and for the environment.

Early childhood centres have picked up the challenge to emphasise EfS in their programmes in two main areas. The first is through a notable increase in nature based education (Bullock, 2013) where for part of the day children are immersed in nature (education in the environment). Nature based programmes had their origins in the forest kindergartens of northern Europe and are arguably a response to a growing concern that young children are spending increasing amounts of time indoors and have fewer opportunities to engage in play involving supervised risk opportunities in the natural environment. Richard Louv (2010) coined the phrase nature- deficit disorder as a way of describing this development. The second relevant area involves the increasing focus and visibility on sustainability in the early childhood sector as back grounded above. While still more often associated with the environment, sustainability has more recently taken on a broader meaning which includes social, economic and environmental factors (Pramling Samuelsson and Kaga, 2008; Davis, 2010a) all of which are interrelated.

Many countries have instituted formal programmes to encourage the growth of education for sustainability in their school system. The New Zealand enviroschool programme is one of a number of similar international whole school environmental programmes. These include ENSI Eco-Schools,

Teaching and Learning in Natural Environments 39

FEE International Eco-Schools, Chinas Green Schools Project, Swedens Green School Award Programme, Australian Sustainable Schools programmes and New Zealands Enviroschools programme (Tilbury & Wortman, 2005). A consistent theme in the international literature is that the impact of these programmes appears limited to growth in knowledge without change in childrens practices (Gough, 2006; Krnel, 2009; de Pauw & Van Petegem, 2011).

As indicated above, one response to the estrangement from the natural world by early childhood educators has been to incorporate experiences of natural environments into their curriculum. The move to the greater use of natural environments as a context for early childhood experiences was initiated by the development of forest schools in Germany and the Scandanavian counties. The three nature adventure programmes featured in this chapter are examples of this trend.

The chance to explore and play in natural environments outside the early childhood centre offers a whole new range of affordances for the children and the adults tha

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Early Childhood Education Teachers' Perspectives