Earliest Hunters Gatherers South America - Dillehay Et Al

7/27/2019 Earliest Hunters Gatherers South America - Dillehay Et Al

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Journal of WorldPrehistory, VoL 6, No. 2, 1992

E a r l ie s t H u n t e r s a n d G a t h e r e r s o f S o u t h A m e r i c aT o m D . D i l l e h a y , 1'5 G e r a r d o A r d i l a C a l d e r 6 n , z G u s t a v o P o l i ti s , 3 a n dM a r i a d a C o n c e i c a o d e M o r a e s C o u t i n h o B e l t rf io 4

Traditional syntheses of the archaeology of the late Pleistocene period in SouthAmerica have focused primarily on the peopling of the continent by North Amer-ican cultural groups and on identifying associations among regional sites. Thisfocus has tended to ignore the widesplead culture diversity of the period andthe possible effects of different paleolandscapes on human migration and col-onization, such as the presence of unglaciated tropical and temperate environ-ments in the northern lowlands, the gateway to the interior. The earliest knowncultural assemblages ate characterized by various unifacial and bifacial lithicindustries that may represent regional processes reminiscent of an Archaic life-way. The major archaeological sites and associated artifact assemblages areexamined in terms o f regional and continental patterns of environmental andcultural change. Results suggest that the Pleistocene archaeological record ofSouth America must be explained in its own terms and that the events andprocesses producing this record either occurred earlier than previously thoughtor are very different from those in North America.K EY W O R D S: hum an colonization; Pleistocene; hunter-gatherers; South Am erica; tithic analysis;paleoecology; animal extinction; Andes; Amazonia~

Universidad Austmt de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.2Departamento de Antropologfa, Universidad N aionat de Colombia, Apartado 135 20, B og o~ ,Colombia.3Division d e Arqueologfa, Facnltad d e Humanidades y C iencias, Museo Nacional de Historia Nat-uraI, Universidad N ation al de La Plata, Bosque det Paseo, 190 0, La Plata, A rgentina.4Seto r de Arqueologfa, Museu Nacional, U niversidad Federal do R io De Janeiro, Rfo De Janeiro,Brazil.5To who m correspondence should be addressed at Department o f Anthropology, University ofKentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506.t45

0892-7537/92/0600.0145506.50/0 1992 Plenum Publishing Corporat ion


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146 D i l l e hay , A r d i la C alde r 6n , Po l i t i s , and Be l tr fi o

I N T R O D U C T I O NThe in i t ia l movement of people in to the New World involved a dynamic

process by w hich human populations successfully spread from on e uninhabitedregion to another and grew both in s ize and cultural divers i ty. Much effort hasbee n expen ded trying to dev ise conceptual and m ethodological means to deter-mine the origin and divergence of late Pleis tocene cultures in the Americas ,often with l imited and controversial results . M ost deba te has foc used on dateso f migration, on cultural continuity and discontinuity o f certain traits, and onthe quali ty and validity o f early archaeological records (e.g. , H ayn es, 1969;Lynch, 1983, 1990b; Meltzer , 1989; Moran, 1988; Dincauze, 1984; Greenberge t a t . , 1986; Schobinger, 1988; A rdila and Politis, 1989; Dille hay and M eltzer,1991). These issues have been extremely resistant to empirical resolution andto hem ispherical and continental m odeling.

Late Pleis tocene research in South America began with the question ofwh en the firs t Am ericans appea red (see Am eghino, 1880, 1915; Htd licka, 1912,1918). Wh en this problem was apparently resolve d in the 1930s and 1940s bythe research o f Jun ius B. Bird (1938, 1969, 19 83) in southern Patagonia, emph a-sis gradually shifted to qu estion s of local seq uen ces and cultural continuity(Willey, 1971), that is, whether the first South Americans were southerly Clovis(i.e . , Paleoindian) big -gam e hunters (L ync h 1974, 1980; 1990b) or diversifiedpre -C lov is hunter-gatherers (Krieger, 19 74; Bry an, 1973, 1978, 1986).

To day , the dispute ov er the origin of New W orld cultures has reached ahigh pitch. This is not the place to review th e dialogu e, b ut the issue is relevantto cultural ch ron olo gy and diffusion and, esp ecia lly, to the archaeological criteriaemployed to character ize the init ial peopling of South America. Such cri ter ia,borro we d uncri tically from the North Am erican Clov is horizon, include pref-erence for f lu ted lanceola te pro ject i le poin ts and the hunt ing of "b ig-game"animals. The hor izon approach has been advoca ted a lmos t exclus ively by L ynch(1974, 1983, pp. 96 -10 8), w ho presum es that northern hemisphere big -gam ehunters, equ ippe d with f luted points , pass ed through Pan am a and followe d thehigh tundra-s teppe dow n the sp ine of the Andes to reach the t ip of South Am er icaearly in the 1 t th millennium B .P.

This scenario presents problem s. A lthough f luting is present in South Am er-ica , Clovis pro ject ile poin ts have not ye t been found further south than Cos taRica and pos sibly Panama. Furthermore, f lut ing in the south appears almostexclu sively on s te m m ed points, not lanceolate forms, and dates as early as itscounterpart in the north, leav ing us to explain ho w the fluting technique appearedab ou t the sam e tim e in bo th continents. It is also important that several appar-ently contempo raneous regional varieties o f stem m ed, stemless, and lanceolatepoints, as we ll as unifacial c om plex es, are radiocarbon dated as early as or


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Ear l i e s t Hu n ters an d Gath erers o f S ou th Am er ica 147

ear l i e r t han f l u t es i n S ou th Amer i ca . An a l t e rna t i ve s cenar io i s t ha t humansreached S ou th A m er i ca ea r l ie r , b r i ng ing w i th t hem a d i f f e ren t and l e s s spec i al -ized pre-Clovis cu l ture , and that the f lu t ing technique spread la ter across anextan t pop ula t ion (e .g . , Ro use , 1976; Bry an , 1983, 1986; M ayer-O akes , 1986).This v iew i s 'a lso prob lema t ic beca use there s t il l is no g enera l ly accepted reco rdof p re -C lov i s ac t i v i t y i n Nor th Amer i ca , and t he re a re no o the r apparen t t r a i tl inkages bes ides f lu t ing .

A dm i t t ed ly , com par i son o f ea r ly a rchaeo log i ca l r eco rds i n bo th con t inen tsi s d i f f icu l t because o f t he p auc i t y o f i n fo rm at ion , t he app l i ca t ion o f d i f f e ren tresea rch approache s , and t he va ry ing re l i ab il it y o f ava i lab l e da t es. In ad d i t ion ,t he wide va r i e ty o f env i ronmen t s where s i t e s a re l oca t ed sugges t s d i f f e ren tpa l eoenv i ronmen ta l s equences , d i f f e ren t unders t and ings o f t r a i t l i nkages , anddi f ferent cu l tura l in terpre ta t ions (Bry an , 1973; Ro use , 1976; L yn ch , 1974, 1983;Scho binger , 1988; Ard i la and Pol i t i s , 1989) . Th ese problem s are accen tuatedeven m ore i n S ou th Am er i ca , whe re a rchaeo log i ca l r e sea rch on la t e P le i s tocenecul tures i s s t i l l in i t s infancy . In fac t , i t i s probably our ignorance of the ear lya rchaeo log i ca l r eco rd t ha t has l a rge ly l e f t u s wide open fo r ex te rna l causa t ionand mo de l ing . Ye t , a s l oca l a rchaeo log i ca l s equences have becom e be t te r doc-umen ted i n r ecen t yea r s , t he re has been g rowing c r i t i c i sm , main ly by La t i nAm erican researchers (e .g . , A rdi la and Pol i ti s , 1989, pp . 35-4 0; B orrero , 1980),o f t he uncr i t i ca l app l i ca ti on o f a C lov i sq ike m ode l i n t he sou the rn hemisphere .Th e cu r ren t t ende ncy am ong som e resea rcher s i s to adm i t l im i t ed cu l tu ra l con -t i nu i t y be twe en t he no r the rn and t he sou the rn hemispheres a t t he t ime o f i n it ia lhum an m ig ra t i on and t o v i ew t echno log i ca l and econom ic change and va ri a ti onin S ou th A m er i ca m ore as a d i rec t r e sponse t o loca l na tu ra l and soc i a l env i ron -men t s . A t p resen t , we do no t know how to mode l t hese changes , bu t cu l t u ra lva r i a t ion seem s to hav e been a deve loped (and con t inuous ) p rocess t ha t invo lvedd i f fe ren t modes o f mob i l i t y , soc i a l and economic o rgan i za t i on , and env i ron -m en ta l pa ramete r s (Brya n , 1973), a s ev idenced by t he p resence o f d is t inc t i veregional pat terns by a t l eas t 11 ,000 to 10 ,500 B .P . I t is poss ib le that the greatervar ia t ion in South America i s associa ted wi th a t ime depth greater than 12 ,000B . P . and /o r wi th r a t es o f cu lt u re change and deve lopm en t d if f e ren t f rom thosefo r t he C lov i s ho r i zon i n Nor th Amer i ca .

S ince so l i tt l e is kno w n abou t t he a rchaeo logy o f t he ea r l i e s t hun t e r s andgatherers , a l l we propose to do in th i s paper i s (1) to recognize the d i s t inct iveregion al fea tures and pat terns o f prehis tor ic cu l tures and the i r re la t ions to var ioust echno log i ca l and env i ronmen ta l fo rms and (2 ) t o specu l a t e on t he i n fe r redme an ing o f these r e l a ti ons and fo rm s . T h i s paper does no t p re t end to p rov ide ahol i s t i c rev iew of the archaeological perspect ive of a l l s i t es and in terpre ta t ionsin S ou th Am er i ca , no r does i t p re t end t o o f fe r com ple t e pa l eoenv i ronm en ta l o rch rono log i ca l comprehens ivenes s .


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148 D i l l e ha y , A r d i la C alde r 6n , Po l i t i s , and Be l tr .~ o

R E S E A R C H P R O B L E M S A N D Q U A L I T Y O F D A T AThe r e a r e s e ve r a l p r ob le ms w i th t he da t a t ha t l imi t t he de p th o f c ove r a ge

o f t he e a r ly p r e h i s to r y o f S ou th A me r i c a . I n t e r p r e ta t i on d i ff i cu l ti e s a r is e f r omthe sma l l s a mp le o f s i t es a va i l a b le f o r s tudy a nd the ne c e s s i t y o f lump ing toge the rhe t e r og e ne o us a r c ha e o log ic a l r e c o r ds to syn the s i z e t he e a r ly r e c o r d . I de a l ly , wewo u ld l i ke t o d e sc r ibe a ll s i te s a nd to r e c ons t r uc t a nd e xp la in a s ma ny r e g iona lda t a s e t s a nd pa t t e r n s a s pos s ib l e . W e c a n c ompi l e a bou t 95 known s i t e s a nds i te c omp one n t s , o f wh ic h 35 to 40 ha ve be e n pa r t i a ll y e xc a va te d , a nd o f t he seon ly 10 to 15 a re c ons ide r e d to be f i rmly r a d ioc a r bon da t e d . I t i s imposs ib l e i nth i s b r i e f a c c oun t , ho w e ve r , t o e num e r a t e a l l t he se l oc a li t ie s . N or i s i t ne c e s sa r yf o r t he ob je c t ive s o f t h is pa pe r ; a f e w se l e c t e d s it e s a nd s i t e c omple x e s r e ve a lthe g e ne r a l c ha r a c t e ri s t ic s a nd p a t t e rn s o f t he a r e a s r e p r e se n te d . F igu r e 1 showsthe m a jo r s i t es d i s c us se d in the t e x t .

Ano the r p r ob le m i s t ha t l i t t l e sy s t e ma t i c r e se a r c h ha s be e n c a r de d ou t i nse ve r a l a r e a s , i nc lud ing the Or inoc o a nd Ama z on r ive r ba s in s , t he Ec ua dor i a na nd n o r the r n P e r uv ia n h igh la nds , a nd the a r c h ipe la gos o f sou the r n C h i l e . L i t t l eo r no sys t e ma t i c wor k ha s be e n c a r de d ou t i n B o l iv i a ( Ar e l l a no , 1987) , P a r a -gua y , a n d the Guy a na s . F u r the r , m os t o f t he s it e s c ove r e d in th i s pa p e r ha vebe e n f ound by i so l a t e d e nde a vor s o r a c c ide n t s i n he a v i ly popu la t e d a r e a s o r i nope n e nv i r on m e n t s , no t by sys t e ma t i c su r ve y . F o r t he mo s t pa r t , t he se s it e s a r ethose wh e r e a c om bina t ion o f fa vo r a b le c ir c ums ta nc e s , c h a nc e p r e se rva t ion , a nda r c ha e o log ic a l e xc a va t ion g ive in s igh t f u l i n f o r ma t ion on c h r ono logy a nd c u l -tu r a l pa t t e r n ing . I n c ombina t ion , t he se l imi t i ng c ond i t i ons ha ve c r e a t e d a b i a sin the s i te da ta base : most loca l i t ie s a re s i tua ted in a r id or semia r id and opene nv i r onm e n t s w i th op t ima l su r f a c e v is ib i li t y a nd in so i ls t ha t do no t f o s t e r p r e s -e r va t ion o f o r ga n ic re ma ins . Un f o r tuna t e ly , t he se c ond i t ions a nd the a bse nc e o fr e ma ins o the r tha n bo ne a nd l i th i c de b ri s ha ve sk e we d the a r c ha e o log ic a l r e c o rdtowa r d hun t ing e c onomie s i n ope n e nv i r onme n t s ( Lync h , 1983 , p . 91 ) . Thus ,l i tt l e is kno wn a bou t e a r ly hum a n u t i li z a t ion o f p l a n ts i n f o r e s t a nd sa va nnae n v i r o n m e n t s .

As f o r r e c ons t r uc t ing a c t iv i ty ar e a s , t he r e a r e ve r y f e w s i te s i n wh ic h thee xc a v a te d spa c e s a r e l a r ge e no ugh to p r ov ide c lue s a b ou t i n t ra s it e va r i at i on a ndthe ov era l l a r t if ac t conten t . S im i la r ly , e s t ima tes o f too l type ra t ios (sensu Me l tz e r ,1988 , p . 29 ) c a n no t be u se d r e l i a b ly t o c om pa r e a r t i fa c t a s se mbla ge va r i ab i l it ybe c a use ve r y f e w de t a i l e d s i t e r e po r t s a r e pub l i she d a nd be c a use the r e i s noa g r e e me n t on de sc r ip t ive t e r ms a nd min imum r e c o r d ing s t a nda r ds o f a r t i f a c ttype s . S uc h qua l i t a t i ve t e r ms a s l a r ge a nd sma l l , a nd d e nse a nd spa r se , o f t e nc a r r y d i f f e r en t m e a n ings f o r d i f fe r e n t r e se a rc he r s . A l l o f t h is me a ns tha t we a r es t il l i n t he s t a ge o f r e c o r d ing a s soc i a t ions a mo ng d i f fe r e n t t ype s o f e c o log ic a land a r t i f ac tua l ma te r ia l s a t ind iv idua l s i te s and a t tempt ing to recognize regula rpa t t e r n ing a m ong f o r ma l t a xonom ic un i ts , pa r t i c u l a rly p r o j e c t i l e po in t s . W i thou t


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~ ~ t OO a O 0 t 2 0 0 1 6 0 0 K mI i i PFig. 1. Map showing the major s i tes di scussed in the text . (1) Taima-Taima. (2) RioPed rega l , Cucuruchu. (3) El Ab ra, Tequ end am a, Tibi tE. (4) Popay~in. (5) El Inga. (6) LasVe gas. (7) Siches, A m oto pe, Talara. (8) Paijfin. (9) Guitarrero Cav e. (10) Lauricocha. (11)Telarm achay, Pach am achay , Uchum achay , Panalauc a . (12) Pikimachay. (13) Ring Si te .(14) Int ihuasi Cav e . (15) Gru ta de l Indio. (16) Ag ua de la Cueva . (17) Inca Cuev a IV.(18) Huac hicho ana III. (19) Quebrad a Seca 3. (20) Toca do Si tio do M eio, Toca doBoqueir~o da Pe dra F urada . (21) Min as GErais State . (22) Lap a Ve rme lha IV. (23) Gio~issi tes. (24) Itaborai sites. (25) Alice BoE r. (26) Catalaen se and Tan gur upa complexes. (27)Cerro La China , Cerro El Sombrero, La Mod em a, Arroy o Seco 2. (28) Los Toldos. (29)Fel l s Cave , Pa l l i Aik e , Cerro Sota. (30) M ylodo n Cave , C ueva de l Medio. (31) TresArroy os . (3 2-3 3) Va rious s ites in north ern Chi le . (34) Quereo. (35) Tagna-Tagua . (36)M onte Verde . (37) E1 Ceibo . (38) Chob shi Cave . (39) Cubil~in. (40) Asana . (41) U bicuiand Uruguai phase s i tes .


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1 5 0 D i l l e h a y , A r d i l a C a l d e r 6 n , P o l i t is , a n d B d t r f i o

mo re de t a i led ana lys i s and pub l i ca t ion o f l it h i c and o the r cu l tu ra l ma t e r ia l s , andm ore ag reem en t on t e rms an d de f i n i ti ons , w e can no t i den t i fy l a rge r a s semblagepa t te rns i n a con t i nen t a l con t ex t . N or ca n w e d iv ide t he un i fac ia l , b i f ac i a l, andf lu ted indus t r ies in to subva r ie t ies in ord er to s tud y local eve nts .

A no ther p rob l em i s f i tt ing a l l a spec ts o f t he ea r l y a rchaeo log i ca l r eco rd t op reconce ived no t i ons o f a focused P a l eo ind i an hun t i ng l i f eway . As d i s cus sedear l i e r , t he l a t e g l ac i a l pe r i od i n S ou th Amer i ca has become more genera l l yrecogn i zed as a s t age charac t e ri zed by i nc reas ing ly d ive rse and e f f i c ien t adap -t a t ions t o l oca l env i ronm en t s and b y t he adm ix tu re o f l a t e P l e i s tocene and ea r l yArcha i c t echno log i es and l i f e - s t y l es . These i nc lude r educed mob i l i t y , a mored ive r s i f i ed economy, and p robab ly dwind l i ng communica t i on i n some a reas .F o r exam ple , p re -10 , 000 B . P . ea r l y Archa i c - li ke subs i st ence pa t te rns have nowbeen recogn i zed i n t he a r i d Atacama reg ion o f no r the rn Ch i l e (Lynch , 1990b ,pp . 12-15; Santoro and Nt l f iez , 1987) , the cool , t emperate fores t in southernCh i le (Di l lehay , 1981, 1984, 1989) , the semi t ropical areas of nor thern Co lom bia(Ardi la , 1987) , the t ropical coas t of southwes t Ecuador (S to ther t , 1985) , andthe ar id reg ions of eas tern Brazi l (e .g . , Sc hm i tz , 1987, pp . 55-6 2) . Tak ing thesepa t te rns i n to cons ide ra t ion , t he P a l eo ind i an s tage s eems t o hav e m ean ing on lyin a res t r i c ted cu l tura l , geographical , and temporal sense , where the archaeo-log i ca l ev idenc e show s t he em ploym en t o f symm et r i ca l p ro j ec ti le po in ts o f b if a -c i a l manufac tu re t o hun t b ig -game an imal s , p r imar i l y i n open env i ronmen t s(e . g . , An dean pun a , g ras s lands o f the P am pa and P a t agon ia ) i n te rmina l P le is -t ocene t imes . The mo sa i c pa t t e rn o f P l e i s tocene and ea r l y Archa i c - l i ke cu l tu resac ros s t he con t i nen t sugges ts t ha t t he fo rm er does no t accu ra t e ly and fu l l y po r t raythe fu l l r ange o f l a t e P l e i s t ocene soc i e t i e s i n S ou th Amer i ca . Thus , t o avo idposs ib l e con fus ion , we s imp ly r e fe r t o t he f i r s t Amer i cans , l a t e P l e i s t ocenepeop l e , and e a r l y hun t e r -ga the re r s i n th i s paper .

W e a l so have dec ided no t t o emph as i ze t he p re -C lov i s deba t e and pos s ib l eea r l y ch rono logy o f peop l e i n S ou th Am er i ca . S o me a rchaeo log i s ts ( i nc lud ingone o f t he coau tho rs he re - -Be l t r~o ) a re conv inced t ha t humans were i n t heA m ericas pr ior to 40 ,00 0 B .P . (e .g . , M acN eish , 1976; Belt r~o , 1974a; Belt r~oe t a l . , 1982 ; Gu id on and De l i b r i a s, 1985 ; de L um ley e t a l . , 1988). A few si teso r s i t e com ponen t s , such as Toca da Esperanca and P edra F u rada i n B raz il andMonte Verde i n Ch i l e , m igh t da t e l ong be fo re 12 , 000 B . P . , bu t un t i l t he da t af rom these l oca l i ti e s a re exhau s t ive ly and c r i ti ca ll y ana lyzed and p ub l i shed , w ere f ra in f rom judg ing t hem here . In s t ead , w e re fe r r eader s to s evera l r ecen tpubl ica t ions by South American specia l i s t s for d i scuss ion of these s i t es (Ardi laan d Pol i t is , 1989; L yn ch , 1983, 1990b, 1991; Nttf iez an d San toro, 1990; Dil -l eha y and Col l ins , 1988, 1991; Bed nar ik , 1989; Del ibr ias and Guido n, 1986;Gruhn and Bryan , 1991) . W e focus p r imar i l y on l oca l i t i e s r ad ioca rbon da t edbe tween approx im ate ly 13 ,000-12 , 000 and 10 ,000 B . P . Inc luded are a fewlocal i t ies dat ing to the 12th m i l lennium or o lde r that appear to hav e val id ar t ifac t s


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and g eochrono log i ca l con t ex ts . T hese s it es a re Ta ima-Ta ima , E1 Abra , T ib i t6 ,Teq uend am a, M on te Ve rde , and s it e s o f the Ub icu i and I tapa r i ca phases .Al though the g lacia l per iod ends around 10 ,000 B.P . , severa l P le i s tocene l i th ict r ad it ions con t i nue i n to t he Ho locene pe r i od .

Regard ing abso lu t e ch rono logy , we canno t i nc lude a t ab l e o f t he r ad io -me t r ic assays for a l l l a te P le i s tocene s i t es . Such a t ab le w ould requi re a l engthyand d e t a i led ana lys i s and eva lua t i on o f t he qua l i t y o f da t ed mate r ia l and o f t heme an ing o f each d a t e , an e f fo r t t ha t wou ld su rpas s t he ob j ec ti ves and spacel imi t a t i ons o f t h i s paper . In s t ead , w e p rov ide t he r ange o f r ad iomet r i c measu re -men t s pub l i shed fo r s i t e s , w i th more emphas i s p l aced on t he l a t e r s i de o f t het ime scale .

F igu re 1 shows t he l oca t i on o f ma jo r s i te s d i s cus sed i n t he t ex t, F igu re 2i s a s chemat i c r econs t ruc ti on o f t he p a l eoenv i ronme n ta l zones du r ing t he l a t eP l e i s tocene pe r i od , and Tab l e I p resen ts t he ch rono logy o f ma jo r p ro j ec ti le po in tt ypes and un i fac i a l a s semblages i n S ou th Am er i ca .

L A T E P L E I S T O C E N E L A N D S C A P E SAl though t he l andscape and b io t i c compos i t i on o f S ou th Amer i ca were

d i f f e ren t i n l a te P l e i s t ocene t imes , pa r t s o f t he b roader ecosys t em m ay no t haved i f fe red app rec i ab ly f rom the H o locene , w i th the exce p t i on o f the p resence o fm ega faun a in the ear l i er per iod . F rom 14,000 to 10 ,000 B .P . , the h igh in ter -mon tane va l l eys and p l a t eaus o f t he Andean moun ta ins , t he wes t e rn f l anks o ft he And es , f rom n or the rn P eru t o cen t ra l Ch i l e , and t he a r id r eg ions o f eas te rnand sou the rn Braz i l and mos t o f Argen t i na and sou the rn Ch i l e were genera l l ycharacter ized by t ree less l andscap es , covere d wi th grass lands , savann as , deser t s ,or tundra-s teppes (F ig . 2) . T hese landsca pes probably fac i l i ta ted the southwa rdexpans ion and d i s t r ibut ion of herb ivorous an imal species (Ochsenius , 1986;Bigare l la e t a l . , 1984) . O ther par ts o f the cont inent were covered w i th park land ,s avanna-wood land , and fo res t s .Al thoug h l i t tl e pa l eoenv i ronm en ta l o r a rchaeo log i ca l ev idence i s ava i lab l ef rom Cen t ra l Amer i ca , b r i e f men t i on shou ld be made o f t he coas t l i nes and ,pa r t i cu l a r ly , t he P ac i f i c coas ta l p la in i n P anam a, wh ich has been c ons ide red asthe poss ib le poin t of en t ry in to South Am erica (G ruhn, 1988) . Both the Paci f icand t he Car ibbean p l a ins were cons ide rab ly wider and d r i e r du r ing t he l a t eg l ac i a l ( ca . 14 , 000-12 , 000) . S om e a reas were coo l e r and more open , w i th t het empera t e vege t a t i ona l zones i n t he h igh l ands as much as 1000 m lower t hantod ay (Ran ere , 1977; P iperno e t a l . , 1990) . Betw een appro xim ately 11,500 an d10 , 500 B . P . , a t r ans i t i on t o t he p resen t -day t empera tu re and env i ronmen toccu r red .

In no r thw es t e rn S ou th Am er i ca , t he d r i e s t and co ldes t pe r i od was be tw eenapprox im ate ly 21 , 000 and 14 ,000 B . P . , w hen g lac i e rs r eached t he i r m ax im um


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152 D i l l e h ay , A r d i la C a lde r 6n , Po l i t i s , and Be l tr ~ o

~ r o v e Swamp~no Gree~tandGreen land, te l De=ar tTernpefe~ Rain Forest

~ a Grassland " ~ ~ T , 'o p i ca l S a v a n n a a n d T h o r n y S c r u b

[ ] P a c h y T r o p ic a l R a in Forest[ ] S h r u b G r a s s l a n d[ ~ ] T r o p i c a t P a r k la n d

Fig . 2 . Map showing a schem atic reconstructionof paleoenvironmentalzones duringthe late Pleistoceneperiod, ca. 14,000-11,000 B.P.

e x te ns ion . A t t h e e nd o f t h i s pe r iod , t he g l a c i er s r e tr e a t e d a nd the h igh in t e r-m o n t a n e v a l l e y s i n C o l o m b i a a n d n o r t h e r n E c u a d o r d e v e l o p e d g r a s s l a n d s a n dparamos ( p r a i r i e ) ( V a n d e r H a m m e n a n d C o r r e a l , 1 9 7 8 ; V a n d e r H a m m e n ,1978 , 1985 , 1986a , pp . 248 - 25 0 ; A r d i l a , 1987). In the su r r ound ing lowla ndsa nd h i l l y f l a nks o f t he C o lombia n Ande s , pa t c he s o f s e mi t r op ic a l a nd t r op ic a lf o r e s t s be ga n to ma ke c on ta c t w i th the sa va nna s o f t he t r op ic a l llanos i n C o -l o m b i a a n d V e n e z u e l a . B e t w e e n a p p r o x im a t e l y 1 4 , 0 0 0 a nd 1 2 , 00 0 B . P . , m o r e


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10/60

1 5 4 D i l l e h a y , A r d i l a C a l d e r 6 n , P o l i t is , a n d B e l t r i o

humid and warmer conditions prevailed, possibly reaching an "optimum" by1 ,000 B.P. It was then apparently very cold until around 10,000 B.P., whenthe Andean forest developed extensively and large game animals became extinct(Van der Hammen, 1981, 1985, 1986c). Little is known of the late glacialperiod in the central and southern highlands of Ecuador and northem Peru. Itis likely that the climatic and environmental episodes in these areas are similarto those described for Colombia and that glacial fluctuations in these regionswere fairly synchronous events (Clapperton, 1983; Clapperton and Sugden,1988).Information on the eastern tropical lowlands is generally scarce. Changesin rainfall and temperature patterns suggest that the late Pleistocene was cli-matically and environmentally dynamic and different from the tropical forestsetting of today, with grass savannas developing during cold periods and denseforests during warmer periods (Absy, 1979; Colinvaux, 1987; Whitmore andPrance, 1987). In the northern and eastern lowlands of Colombia and throughoutmost of Venezuela, there is some evidence of fossil sand dunes, suggesting dry,desert-like conditions throughout most of the late Pleistocene (Ochsenius, 1986).During the period from approximately 18,000 to 13,000 B.P., lower tempera-tures and increased aridity produced little vegetation, especially near the equator.In the southern Amazonia area of Brazil, recent studies (Colinvaux, 1987) oflake sediments show extensive savanna and savanna-woodland environmentsfrom approximately 22,000 to 14,000 B.P. and possibly earlier. In southernBrazil extensive patches of forests dominated the uplands, with dry steppes inthe lowlands (Ab'Saber, 1977). In southeast Amazonia, the research of Absyand her colleagues (1991) has revealed several dry periods, one around 60,000B.P., another shortly before 40,000 B.P., and a later one from 21,000 to 11,000B.P. Ab'Saber (1977, 1980) suggested that by approximately 18,000 B.P. theclimate of northeast Brazil was already semiarid, with a dry-steppe vegetationof c a a t i n g a - l i k e tropical thorny shrub. With extensive arid regions in north-eastern and southern Brazil in late Pleistocene times, it is likely that rainforestswere patchy and confined largely to the lowlands in northwestern and westernColombia and to parts of the northern and eastem areas of the Brazilian low-lands.In central Peru, the maximal glacial advance is estimated as betweenapproximately 28,000 and 20,000 B.P., followed by a series of recessions andreadvances. Some evidence suggests a glacial advance around 14,000 B.P.(Mercer, 1983b), with deglaciation probably occurring between 14,000 and12,000 B.P., most likely around 12,000 B.P. (Birkeland e t a l . , 1989). A pos-sible readvance occurred from about 11,500 to 11,000 B.P. (Br/iggen, 1950;Paskoff, 1970; Mercer and Palacios, 1977). Pollen data from the central AndeanJunin area at 4100 m, collected by Wright (1983, 1984) and his colleagues(Wright e t a l . , 1989; Hanson e t a l . , 1984; Seltzer, 1990), suggest a glacial


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advance between 12,000 and 11,000 B.P. and modem climatic conditionsappearing sometime between 12,000 and I0,000 B.P.

Farther south, in the Atacama puna of northern Chile, there is evidence ofa pluvial maximum around 14,000 B.P. and of higher lake stands between12,500 and 11,000 B.P., which probably correspond to glacial retreat (Lynch,1986). Pollen studies in this region suggest higher temperatures, associated withgreater summer rainfall from 11,500 to perhaps 10,000 B.P.

Evidence of fossilized animal excrement (Phillipi, 1893) and coastal sandsheets suggest that desert-like conditions prevailed at lower altitudes in bothcoastal Peru and northern Chile for most of the late Pleistocene. Independentof land-based factors are the effects of E1 Nifio, which may have brought rainfallto the Peruvian coast and marine bioturbation to northern Chile (e.g., Radtke,1987; Rollins e t a l . , 1986). At these times, vegetation might have flourishedand herbivorous animals (especially wild camelids) probably appeared (Craig,1984).In central Chile, most paleoenvironmental information is derived from theLaguna de Tagua-Tagua site, where the environment was characterized by asemiarid, broad woodland vegetation at the time of the last glacial maximum,25,000-14,000 B.P. and earlier (43,000 and 34,000 B.P.). After 14,500 B.P.,an over~l increase in temperature and an interval of desiccation occurred, asevidenced by an increase in amaranths and chenopods (Heusser, 1983, 1990).Villagran and Varela (1990) have found pollen a few hundred kilometers to thenorth, which indicates wet conditions before 11,400 B.P.The last glacial maximum in southern Chile was 25,000-14,000 B.P.,preceded by a moderate interstadial that lasted from at least 43,000 to about30,000 B.P. A cold, wet climate prevailed from 26000 to 20,000 B.P. Reces-sion from this stage was gradual, with the climate warming abruptly before13,000 B.P. and rapid deglaciation taking place after this period (Mercer, 1976,1983a, b; Ashworth and Hoganson, 1987; Dillehay, 1989). Villagran (1985)concludes from pollen evidence that the climate of Chilo6 Island in the northernChilean archipelago was already warm, in fact wanner than it is today, by12,000 B.P.Permanent glaciers and very cold and wet climatic conditions existed inextreme southern Chile and Argentina from approximately 18,000 to 12,000B.P. (Mercer, 1976, 1983a; cf. MarkgraL 1987, 1989). After 12,000 B.P.,glaciers receded and conditions ameliorated. Farther north in the ArgentinePampa, cool, wet conditions characterized most of the late Pleistocene untilabout t l,000 B.P., when a warming trend occurred (Markgraf, 1983; Fidalgoand Tonni, 1978; Tonni and Fidalgo, 1978; Politis, 1984b, pp. 46-57, 1985).In sum, not all major regions of South America have been studied in termsof their paleoenvironments. Even in areas where studies have occurred, the dataare difficult to evaluate. Despite the paucity of data, we can detect short, warm


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1 5 6 D i l l e h a y , A r d i l a C a l d e r 6 n , P o l i t is , a n d B e l t r~ o

i n t e rva l s du r ing the l a st g l a c ia t i on a t a pp r ox im a te ly 60 ,000 , 4 5 ,000 , a nd 33 ,000B . P . T h e c o l d e st co n d i ti o n s o c c u rr e d b e t w e e n 3 0 , 0 0 0 a n d 1 4 , 0 00 B . P . T h ec l ima te wa s p r oba b ly subs t a n t i al l y d r i e r a nd c o o le r ove r t he ung la c i a t ed pa r t so f the cont inen t , inc luding the coas ta l f ringes a long the Pac i f ic she l f . As exp ec ted ,the moun ta inous Ande a n r e g ion wa s mor e s e ns i t i ve t o g l a c i a l - i n t e r g l a c i a l f l uc -tua t ions t ha n the e a s t e r n l owla nds , wh e r e sub t r op ic a l o r a r id c ond i t i ons p r e dom-ina t e d th r oughou t . I t a l so c a n be su r mise d tha t f e w a r e a s we r e b loc ke d f r omhum a n ha b i t a t ion by g l a c ie r s . I t is no t ye t known wh e the r t he p a r a m o an dgr a s s la nd e xp a ns ion w a s d ue l a r ge ly t o i nc r e a se d a rid i ty o r h igh t e m pe r a tu r e .

E X P L O I T A B L E R E S O U R C E SLy nc h ( 1983 , pp . 112 - 11 3) ha s p r e se n te d a ge ne ra l su r ve y o f t he p rinc ipa l

a n ima l spe c i e s know n f r om a r c ha e o log ic a l s it e s da ting to t he P l e i s toc e ne pe riod .M o s t o f o u r k n o w l e d g e c o m e s f r o m w e s te r n a n d s o u t he r n S o ut h A m e r i ca . A m o n gt h e m a j o r m e g a f a u n a a r e m a s t o d o n (Cuvieronius) , Paleolama, h o r s e (Hippidiuman d E q u u s ) , gr ound s lo th (Mylodon a n d M eg a t h er i u m ) , g lyp todo n ( g i an t a r ma -di l lo ) , and dee r .

Th e e x t inc t ion o f m e ga f a una l spe c i e s ma y be the r e su l t, i n pa r t , o f hun t ingp r e s su r e i n som e a r e a s, bu t a s P o l i ti s a nd h i s c o l l e a gue s ( 1989) no te f o r t heAr ge n t ine P a m pa , t he c o inc ide n c e o f e x t inc t ion a nd a wa r ming t r e nd a t t he e ndof t he P l e i s toc e ne i s ha r d to ove r look . I t s e e ms l i ke ly t ha t e nv i r onme n t p l a ye da s ign if ic a n t pa r t i n t he d i s a ppe a r a nc e o f a l a rge n um be r o f spe c ie s ( Oc hse n ius ,1985 ; Va n d e r H a m m e n , 1986a , b , P o l i t is and S a l e mm e , 1989 ; P o l i ti s e t a l . ,1989) , pe r ha ps c o r r a l l i ng the m in to c e r t a in c i r c umsc r ibe d z one s , a l t e r ing the i rb r e e d ing ha b i t s a nd de mogr a ph ic s t r uc tu r e , a nd ma k ing the m mor e p r e d ic t a b l et a r ge ts f o r hum a n hun te r s . I t i s a l so pos s ib l e tha t e x t inc t ion o f so m e spe c i e s wa sde la ye d in some a r e a s by the l a t e de ve lopme n t o f a r id i ty o r o the r de va s t a t i ngc ond i t i ons ( Oc hse n ius , 1985 ; P o l it i s e t a l . , 1989b) o r by the " l a t e a r r iva l o fhun te r s " ( Lync h , 1990a , p . 213 ) .As f o r ve ge t a l r e sou r c e s , s e ve r a l a r e a s p r ov ide d a w ide r a nge o f p l a n t s ,i nc lud ing tube r s , r h i z om e s , nu t s , be r r i e s , a nd so f t l e a f y ve ge ta b l e s ( s e e Ly nc h ,1983 , pp . 133 - 136) . The se mi t r op ic a l a nd de c iduous f o r e s t s a nd we t l owla ndso f P a na m a , C o lom bia , V e ne z ue la , t he ea s t e r n l owla nds o f B r a z i l a nd a d j a c e n ta r e a s, c e r t a in ar e a s o f t he And e s , a nd the c oo l t e mpe r a t e r a in fo r e s t o f sou the r nC h i l e wo u ld ha v e be e n su i ta b l e ha b i t a ts f o r t he c on t inue d de ve lop m e n t o f b r oa d -s p e c t ru m e c o n o m i e s .

W e m us t ke e p in mind tha t it wa s mo s t l ike ly the i n t e r a c tion be twe e n hum a npopu la t ions a nd va r ious p l a n t c ommuni t i e s i n d ive r se s e mi t r op ic a l a nd t r op ic a le nv i r onm e n t s t ha t g r a dua lly s e t t he s c e ne f o r t he dom e s t i c a t ion o f a w ide a r r a yo f f o o d c r o p s p o s s i b ly e a r l ie r t h a n 8 , 0 0 0 B . P . , a s s u g g e s t ed b y t h e p r e s e n c e o fc u l t ige ns i n t he l ow e r le ve l s o f Gu i t a r r e r o C a ve ( Lyn c h , 1980) a nd a t s e ve r a l


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Earliest Hun ters and Gatherers of South Am erica 157e a r ly a nd midd le Ar c ha ic s i t e s s c a t t e r e d th r oughou t t he Ande s a nd su r r ound inga r e as ( La th r a p , 1970 , 1973) . Unf o r tun a t e ly , muc h o f ou r unde r s t a nd ing o f t h isin t e r a c t ion de pe nds upon the p r e se nc e o f o r ga n ic r e ma ins i n t he a r c ha e o log ic a lr e c o r d . W h e r e p r e s e r v a t i o n i s g o o d ( e . g . , G u i t a r r e r o C a v e , M o n t e V e r d e ,Hua c h ic hoc a na C a ve , a nd some I t a pa r i c a P ha se s i t e s i n e a s t e r n B r a z i l ) , p l a n t sh a v e b e e n r e c o v e r e d .

The e v ide nc e f o r c l ima t i c a nd e nv i r onme n ta l c ond i t i ons du r ing the l a t eP le i s toc e ne in va r ious pa r t s o f t he c on t ine n t , a s b r i e f ly i nd i c a te d in t h i s pa pe r ,sugge s t s t ha t mos t o f t he c on t ine n t unde r we n t a s e r i e s o f ma jo r c ha nge s w i ththe mos t d r a ma t i c oc c u r r ing in t he Ande a n mo un ta in s . T he e x t e ns ion a nd in te n -s i f i c a t ion o f a r id c ond i t i ons t ha t t ook p l a c e du r ing the pe r iod o f a me l io r a t iontha t f o l low e d de g la c i a t i on mu s t ha ve r e su l te d in s ign if i ca n t sh if ts a nd f o r ma t ionso f d i f f e re n t ve ge t a t i ona l a nd f a una l r e g ime s . W i th c ha ng e s i n t he d i s t ri bu t iona n d c o m p o s i t io n o f a n i m a l p o p u l a t io n s , p e o p l e p r o b a b l y m o v e d i n to n e w h u n t in gg r ounds , suc h a s t he Ande a n puna, a nd in to mo r e p r oduc t ive p l a n t z one s , suc ha s t he e a s t e r n l owla nds o f B r a z i l.

R E G I O N A L A R C H A E O L O G I C A L P A T T E R N S A N D C U L T U R A LM E A N I N G

L o w l a n d T r o p i c s a n d S a v a n n a s a n d H i g h l a n d P a r a m o o f t he N o r t h w e s tThe c ha r a c t e r i s t i c p r oduc t s o f l a t e P l e i s toc e ne l i t h i c c omple xe s i n no r th -

we s t e r n S ou th A m e r i c a a r e un i f a c i a l too l s a nd va r ious f o r ms o f b i f a c ia l l y fl a ke dpo in t s . F o r t he pe r iod 12 ,000 to 10 ,500 B .P . , t he r e is c ons ide r a b le va r i a t ionf r om s i t e t o s i t e a nd f r om r e g ion to r e g ion , bu t c omple xe s ge ne r a l ly c ons i s t o ff l ake s , s c r a pe r s , c hopp e r s , g r ind ing s tone s , a nd in f r e que n t ly , p r o j e c ti l e po in t s ,mos t o f wh ic h a ppe a r t o da t e l a t e r t ha n the un i f a c i a l t oo l c omple xe s . The r e i sa l so a s imp le bone indus t r y , ma in ly r e s t r i c t e d to a w l s .Th e e a r l i e s t know n d i s t inc t ive l it h ic t ype s a r e t he E1 Jobo id t r a d it i on , t heT e q u e n d a m i e n s e , a n d t h e A b r i en s e c o m p l e x e s . T h e E1 J o b o p r o j e ct il e p o i n t t y p ei s a n e a r ly l a nc e o la t e f o r m ( F ig . 3 ) f i r s t de f ine d by C mxe n t ( 1967 , 1970) a ts e ve r a l t e r r a c e s i t e s a long the R f o P e d r e ga l i n we s t e r n Ve ne z ue la a nd l a t e rd i sc ove r e d in bu r i e d c on te x t w i th me ga f a una l r e ma ins a t t he Ta ima - Ta ima ,M ua c o , a nd C uc u r uc hu s i te s ( C r uxe n t , 1967 , 1970) . The mos t c onv inc ing e v i -de nc e o f a d i r e c t a s soc i a t ion be tw e e n E1 Job o po in t s a nd a n ima l r e ma ins i s atT a i m a - T a i m a , w h e r e t h e s e m i a rt ic u l at e d r e m a i n s o f m a s t o d o n s w e r e a s s o c i at e dwi th f r a gm e n ta r y E1 Jobo p o in t s ( Gr uhn , 1979) . One po in t f r a gme n t wa sr e c ove r e d f r om the pub ic c a v i ty o f one ind iv idua l . O the r l i t h i c s f ound a t t hes i te a r e fl a ke too l s , i nc lud ing sc r a pe r s, a nv i l s , a nd " to o l s o f e x pe d ie nc y" ( C r ux -e n t , 1979 , p . 79 ) . T he t i gh t e s t c lu s t e r o f a s soc i a te d r a d ioc a r bon da t es a t Ta ima -


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158 Dilleh ay, Ardila Calder 6n, Politis, and Beltrfio

Fig. 3. (A) M onte Verde points; (B) E1 Jobo points. [B modified from Bryan (1983, Fig.10.3).1

Taima suggests an age between 13,400 and 12,600 B.P. (Bryan and Gruhn,1979, pp. 56-57) . Cut marks , abrasions , and fractures are reported on severalmas todon bones .

Al though the contex t and age o f the T aima -Taim a s ite have been ques t ioned(Lynch, 1974, p. 373, 1990a, p . 20) , i t seems certain that humans were at thewater hole around 13,000 B.P. , or short ly thereafter , when i t was used bymastodons, and that people ei ther ki l led or scavenged the animals there. Theoverlying s trata, dated between 11,000 and 10,000 B.P. , do not contain mas-todon remains , suggesting that these animals had abandoned the area in favor


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E a r l ie s t H u n t e r s a n d G a t h e r e r s o f S o u t h A m e r i c a 1 59

of more humid areas to the south or that they had become extinct in the region.The bones of other species (e.g., E q u u s , G l o s s o t h er i u m , glyptodont) at the sitedo not show clear evidence of human exploitation.One of the best-documented archaeological sequences of late Pleistocenecultural evidence is reported at several sites in the Plateau de Bogot~i in thenorthern highlands of Colombia at approximately 2570-m elevation. Most ofthe artifacts from these sites have been assigned to the Tequendamiense toolcomplex or Abriense tool complex (Correal and Van der Hammen, 1977, p.167; Correal, 1986; Ardila, 1987), the latter more commonly known as theedge-trimmed tool complex (Fig. 4) (Hurt e t a l . , 1977). Both complexes arecharacterized by small, amorphous chert flakes, small tools probably used toproduce wood and bone tools. It is most likely that these complexes belong toa geographically wider unifacial culture that spans parts of the northern half ofSouth America and includes the Itaparica complex of eastern Brazil, the laterLas Vegas complex (10,000 B.P.) of southwest Ecuador, and possibly, unifacialcomplexes in northern Peru (Siches, Honda, Amotope). Both the Tequenda-miense and the Abriense complexes are found in the deeper levels of the Tequen-dama rockshelters and correspond to the late glacial period of the GuantivaInterstadial and the E1 Abra Stadial (ca. 12,400 and 11,000 B.P.).

The Tequendama rockshelters contain well-documented stratigraphic andcultural sequences, with dates for culture-bearing deposits ranging from 1000to 10,000 B.P. A series of preceramic occupation layers, each presumably indic-ative of temporary use episodes, is defined by variable lithic and bone material.The lithic tools include convex-plane (keeled) scrapers and a few blades of lidite,quartzite, liorite, or basalt. The lithic assemblage is associated with two work-shops, two fire pits, and the bones of several modern species (deer, mouse,guinea pig, rabbit, armadillo). In addition to the technological differencesbetween assemblages, Tequendamiense tools are made of exotic material pos-sibly brought back from the Magdalena River, while the Abriense tools are oflocal materials.The Abriense complex is a percussion-flake tool assemblage that lastedfrom late Pleistocene to European times. Diagnostic tool types are simple scrap-ers, knives, and spokeshaves with percussion-struck retouch along the edges, atool group suggestive of woodworking. In the deeper levels of the E1 Abra site(C1/2 level) were recovered two choppers and some flakes that correspond tothe Frequene Stadial, dated between approximately 21,000 and 14,000 B.P.These materials have led Van der Hammen (1985, p. 12) to suspect a possibleearlier human presence.

Other Pleistocene sites possessing core and flake tools are Sueva and Tibit6.Sueva is associated with deer, guinea pig, and armadillo and is radiocarbondated between 13,000 and 11,000 B.P. (Correal, 1981). Calcined and frag-mented bones of mastodon, horse, and deer were recovered in association with


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160 Dillehay, Ard ila Calder6n , Politis , and Beltr~o

!

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I

IEu

J

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17/60


discrete clusters of more than 120 cores and flake artifacts, dated to 11,740 +110 (Correal, 1981, p. 42), at the open-air site of Tibit6, located near E1 Abra.

It should be noted that since most of the Plateau de Bogot~i sites have beenexcavated extensively, it is unlikely that sampling bias accounts for the absenceof projectile points and bifacially thinned flakes. These tithic assemblages indeedappear to be unifacial in nature.

Other sites of the edge-trimmed tool complex are of the Las Vegas Phase,dating to terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene times (ca. 10,000 to 8000B.P.), from the Santa Elena peninsula of coastal Ecuador (Stothert, 1985). Thefew pebble tools in the deepest levels of the Las Vegas site are possible pre-cursors to the unifacial assemblage of the succeeding Las Vegas phase. Thislater phase is represented by an Archaic-like hunter-gatherer economy focusedon small terrestrial animals and marine resources from coastal environments.Stothert believes that this phase has its roots in an early Tropical Forest traditionin northwestern South America. Both the pre-Las Vegas and the Las Vegaslithics are possibly related to unifacial complexes (e.g., Siches, Amotope, andHonda) of the north coast of Peru (Richardson, 1973).Fluted fishtail points (Fig. 5, a-c) are found at eroded surface sites inPanama [Madden Lake site (Bird and Cooke, 1978)] and Venezuela (Ardila,1987; Oliver and Alexander, 1989). Based on the radiocarbon age of these pointsat other sites in South America (see later discussion of Argentinean and Chileansites), it is probable that they date later than the E1 Jobo points, probably after11,000 B.P. More recently, several new point types have been defined at variouslocalities in Colombia, primarily the Popoy~in area (Bray, 1984; Illera andGnecco, 1986; Ardila, 1986, 1987). One new type from Popoy~in (Restrepo)has some similarities to the E1 Inga Broad-Stemmed and E1 Inga Shoulderedlanceolate forms found farther south at the open-air site of E1 Inga in the northernhighlands of Ecuador. This new type probably dates no earlier than 10,500 to10,000 B.P.

Five different projectile point types have been reported from El Inga: Fell'sCave Stemmed, Paij~n, El Inga Shouldered, E1 Inga Broad-Stemmed, andAyampitin. The tools associated with these bifacial points are primarily unifacialblades and burins. With the exception of Paij~in and Ayampitfn, each typeincludes nonfluted and fluted forms. Based on the presence of these coeval pointtypes, Mayer-Oakes (1986) has concluded that a developmental sequenceoccurred from nonfluted to basal-thinned points to fluted and pseudo-fluted points.He also has suggested that because E1 Inga Stemmed (Fig. 5, d and e) pointspredominate over lanceolate forms, the Ecuadorian fluting was invented inde-pendently of North American fluting. The chronology and stratigraphic sequenceof the lithic types at E1 Inga, however, are not developed enough to supportconclusively Mayer-Oakes's interpretations. The earliest radiocarbon dates forthe fluted point at E1 Inga are around 9000 B.P., almost 1500 years later than


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162 Dil lehay, Ar dila Ca lder6 n, Poli t is , and Beltrf io

CI 0 b

wC

5

d e

cn'l3

Og

i;1110 5

Fig . 5. (a) Obverse and reverse sides of two M agellan 1 -type projectilepoints from Fell 's Cave (redrawn from Willey, 1971, p. 44; Emperaire e ta l . , 1963 ). (b, c) Magellan I o r Fe ll 's C ave fishtail-type points from E lInga, Ecuador (redrawn from Willey, 197t, p. 45). (d) Stemmed pointsfrom E1 Inga, Ecuador (redrawn from W illey , 19 71, p. 46). (e) Paij~in pointfrom L a Cumbre, Peru (redrawn from O ssa, 1978, Fig. 10). (f) Paij~in pointfrom Pampa de Fosfles, Peru (redrawn from Chauchat, 1988, p. 55).


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those in southern Patagonia. A late date for the E1 Inga fluted point seems correctin the light of new data obtained from the nearby San Jos6 site. San Jos6 lacksbifacial projectile points and is dated by a series of obsidian hydration assaysbetween approximately 11,000 and 10,000 B.P. (cited by Bryan, 1990).Other than the E1 Inga and San Jos6 sites, little is known from the rest ofthe Ecuadorian highlands. Lynch's excavations at Chobshi Cave in the southernhighlands, radiocarbon dated between 10,000 and 8000 B.P., have yielded dis-turbed deposits of bones of several modem animal species in association withearly stemmed points (Lynch and Pollock, 1981). Farther south in the paramoof Cubil~n, Temme (1982) has recovered leaf-shaped and tanged points datedaround 10,500 B.P. + 130 years. Sal~ar (1979, 1988) believes that ChobshiCave represents a site typical of Willey's Andean Hunting-Gathering Tradition(Willey, 1971, p. 50) and that Cubil~n was a quarry-campsite. Both Salazar(1988, p. 117) and Mayer-Oakes (1986, p. 211) postulate that the resources ofthe paramo and Andean slopes of Ecuador were utilized by hunter-gatherers aspart of a wider network of mobility and exchange across multiple environmentalzones.Little is known about sites and lithic assemblages in the lowlands of Ven-ezuela and eastern and western Colombia and Ecuador. Reichel-Dolmatoff(1986), Ardila (1985, 1987), Correal (t977),' Oliver and Alexander (1989), andJaimes (1990) have found several percussion-struck cores, scrapers, and unifa-cial tool assemblages and a few projectile points at surface sites along the lowerMagdalena and Sinu rivers and at sites in the state of Lara, Venezuela, yet theyhave not been able to establish any secure relationship between megafaunalremains and tools. Virtually nothing is known of late Pleistocene cultures of theOrinoco and Amazon basins.In sum, the temporal and cultural linkages between the northwestern uni-facial and projectile point traditions and the types of environments to which theywere adapted are not weU understood. The first pioneers probably had adaptedto the characteristics of the semidry tropical lowlands during their movementthrough Central America (Ranere, 1977). If these people were in the no~hwestbetween 21,000 and 14,000 B.P., they would have experienced dry conditionsin the lowlands and cold conditions in the highlands. Cooler, drier conditionsoccurred between 14,000 and 12,000 B.P., at about the time Tequendama,Tibit6, and other sites might have been initially occupied. After 12,000 B.P.,once wetter, warmer conditions developed in the highlands, forest growth devel-oped, and open areas and corridors for animal movement were probably reduced.During the latter part of the Guantiva Interstadial (ca. 11,000-t0,000 B.P.), anincrease in precipitation and temperature led to vegetation growth, more region-alized biotic regimes, and perhaps greater cultural diversity, as suggested by theadmixture of the different unifacial and bifacial complexes in Colombia andVenezuela.


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1 6 4 D i l l e h a y , A r d i l a C a l d e r 6 n , P o l i t is , a n d B e l t r f i o

I t is poss ib le that the T equ enda m iense and A br iense com plexes are af f il ia tedwi th a pa t t e rn o f s easona l t r anshumance be tween t he l owlands i n t he l owerM agda l ena R iver V a l l ey and t he P l a t eau de Bogo t~ i i n t he h igh l ands . A l thoughthere i s no hard ev idence to subs tan t ia te such a l inkage, the deepes t l evel s oft he E l Abra s i t e con t a in chopper s and p i ano -convex sc raper s s imi l a r t o t hosefound f rom su r face s i t e s i n t he no r the rn l owlands o f Co lombia and Venezue l a(Ol ive r and Alexand er , 1989; C or rea l , 1983 , 1987 ; Van de r Ham m en , 1985).

C e n t r a l a n d E a s t e r n T r o p i c a l F o r e s t , S a v a n n a , a n d P a r k l a n dP erhaps m os t s i gn i f i can t i n t he P l e i s tocene r eco rd o f B raz i l i s the ev idence

fo r t he ch rono log i ca l sequence o f a un i fac i a l t oo l comp lex (F ig , 6 ) succeededby a b i rac ia l pro ject i l e poin t complex , a pat tern , to date , known only in the

bC

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eo 3 c m 0 . . . . ,S mI I i 1 0 5 c m

F i g . 6 . V a r i o u s u n i f a c i a l s t o n e t o o l s f r o m s i t e s o f t h e I t a p a r i c a T r a d i t i o n .


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E a r l i e s t H u n t e r s a n d G a t h e r e r s o f S o u t h A m e r i c a 1 6 5

h igh l ands o f Co lombia and pos s ib ly a t t he Los To ldos and E1 Ce ibo s i t e s(Card i ch e t a l . , 1987) in southern Argent ina .

S ince 1970, G uido n (1986; Gu idon and Del ibr ias , 1986) and her co l league s(Parent i e t a l . , 1990) have been ca r ry ing ou t ex t ens ive r esea rch i n t he s t a te o fP iaui in nor theas tern Brazi l. E xca vat ion s in severa l rockshel ters , p r ima r i ly To cado S i ti o do M eio and To ca do Boque i~ 'ao da P ed ra F u rada , have exposed asequence o f r ad ioca rbon-da t ed depos i t s ex t end ing back t o more t han 40 , 000B . P . , a s soc i a t ed wi th pos s ib l e a r t i fhc t s and hea r t h s . Gu idon has p roposed asequence o f t h ree ea rl y cu lt u ra l phases : (1 ) ca . 3 5 , 000-1 4 , 000 B . P . , a s soc i a t edwi th u t i l i zed bu t un re touched quar t z an d quar t z i te pebb l e t oo l s and f l akes ; (2)ca . 14 , 000-11 , 000 B . P . , a s soc i a t ed wi th un i fac i a l l y r e t ouched " t im ac es " ( s lugson t h i ck b l ades ), chopper s , pebb l e ham me rs tones , and f lakes o f s i l ts t one , quart z ,or quar tz i t e ; and (3) ca . 10 ,00 0-700 0 B .P . , associa ted w i th l arge fl akes , scrap-e r s , a nd kn ives . U nfo r tuna t e ly , t he p rese rva ti on o f o rgan i c r emains i s no t ve rygood a t t hese s i t e s and no bone o r p l an t ma t e r i a l has been recovered f rom thedeep er l eve l s . Gu id on as sume s t ha t p ro j ec ti le po in t s were m ade o f bone , woo d ,o r b a m b o o .

The va l i d i ty o f t he p roposed l it h ic s equence r est s l a rge ly on t he mate r i al sf rom P ed ra F u rad a and , t o a le s se r ex t en t , Toca do S i ti o do M eio . T he s equenceis def ined pr imar i ly by a ser ies of in tac t l ayers conta in ing var ied f requenciesand t ypes o f smal l f l aked t oo l s and smal l f l aked pebb l es , mos t l y o f quar t z ,associa ted wi th the charcoal and ash fea tures repor ted to be hear ths . S ince sol i tt l e m ater ia l has been pub l i shed o n these s i tes , i t i s d i f fi cu l t to evalua te thecul tura l re l i ab i l i ty of the en t i re sequence and especia l ly of the l i th ics and" hear th" f ea tu res . The concern i s whe the r t he l i t h i cs a re a r t i f ac t s o r s imp lyquar t z f r agmen t s t ha t have f a l l en f rom the overhang ing rockshe l t e r wa l l andwhe the r t he " fea tu res " a re na tu ra l . A l though skep t i c i sm has been expres sedabo ut these s i tes (Lyn ch , 1990b; Schm i tz , 19 87) [see Bed nar ik (1989) and Bahnand M t il l e r-Beck (1991) fo r a suppor t ive v i ew] , som e spec imens o f t he ea r l yf lake t oo l a s semblage do s eem to f i t t he t echno log i ca l pa ramete r s o f the b roaderun i fac i a l t oo l t r ad i ti on o f l a t e P l e i s t ocene and ea r l y Ho loc ene age i n B raz il . A tp resen t , w e can on ly ag ree wi th S ch m i t z ' s (1987 , p . 61 ) pos i ti on t ha t " a l t ho ug hthe r e l iab i li ty o f t hese r esu l ts r em ains t o be es t ab l i shed , t hey canno t be i gn or ed . "

F ur the r pos s ib l e ev idence fo r an ea r l y a s soc ia t ion o f m egafau na and hu manar t if ac t s com es f rom several cave s i te s i n t he La goa S an t a a rea o f M inas GEraiss t a te (P rous , 1986b) . Grou nd s l o th r emains f rom Lap a Venn e lha IV rockshe l t e r( L a m i n g - E m p 6 r a i r e e t a l . , 1975; Laming-Emp6rai re , 1979; Prous , 1986a, p .287, 1986b, pp . 176-17 7) are associa ted w i th charco al rad iocarbon datedbetw een 10 ,200 B .P . __. 200 ye ars and 8580 B .P . _+ 200 ye ars . The dee perl eve l s o f t he roc kshe l t e r con t a in quar t z co res and f lakes s tr a t ig raph i ca ll y da t edbe tw een approx im ate ly 15 , 300 and as l a t e a s 6830 B . P . an d , pos s ib ly , a s ea r l yas 25 , 000 B . P . M ore s ecu re ly da t ed a re o the r caves i n t he r eg ion wh ich con t a in


22/60

166 D i l l e ha y , A r d i la C alde r d n , Po l i t i s , and Be l tr ~ o

c u l tu r al de pos i t s w i th f l a ke s , hum a n bone s , he a r th s , a nd o the r c u l tu r a l f ea tu r esda t e d be twe e n 11 ,960 B .P . _+ 250 ye a r s a nd 7900 B .P . One c a ve , t he Gr a nAb r igo de S a n ta na do R ia c ho ( P rous , 1981 , 1986a , pp . 29 2 - 29 5) , c on ta in squa r t z c r y s t a l s a nd f r a gme n t s o f r e d oc he r a s soc i a t e d w i th a he a r th da t e d a t11 ,960 B .P . +_ 250 ye a r s . Ano the r s i t e , La pa do B oque te ( P r ous , 1986a , pp .28 9 - 29 1) , i s a ssoc i a t ed w i th un i f a c ia l t oo l s da t ed a r ound 11 ,000 B .P . +_ 1000years . I t i s r epor ted tha t the basa l cu l tura l laye rs a t the la t te r two s i te s werene v e r e xpo se d ( P r ous , 1986a ).

Nu m e r ous r oc kshe l t e r s in t he Go i~ is r e g ion a l so ha ve y i e lde d e v ide nc e o fhuma n oc c upa t ion , w i th r a d ioc a r bon da t e s r a ng ing f r om 14 ,000 to 9000 B .P .A l thoug h a f e w s it e s ha ve p r e - 11 ,000 B .P . r a d ioc a r bon da t es a nd poss ib l e fl a ketoo l s i n t he i r ba sa l de pos i t s , t he mos t r e l i a b l e a nd be s t - de f ine d oc c upa t ion ,r e f e r r e d to a s t he P a r a na iba P ha se ( c a . 10 ,7 00 - 9 000 B .P . ) o f t he I ta pa r ic aTr a d i t i on , i s a s soc i a te d w i th un i f a c ia l l y r e touc he d a r t i fa c t s o r l i m a c e s . T h e o v e r -a l l l it h i c t oo l t e c h no log y o f t h i s t r a d i ti on o f t e n s t r es se s t he p r oduc t ion o f un r e -touc he d b l a de l e t s a nd c o r e - r e duc e d p i e c e s (pikces esqui l l~es, out i l s (cai l l~s) ,wi th a m a r ke d a bse n c e o f f o r m a l t oo l s a nd the i n f r e que n t t o r a r e oc c u r r e nc e o fb i f a c i a l t oo l s , i nc lud ing sma l l s t e m m e d po in ts ( S c hm i t z , 1987 , p . 62 ) . M os tI tapa r ica s i te s a re loca ted in t rop ica l pa rk land and a re in te rpre ted as tempora ryc a m ps i t e s , t hough a f e w qua r r y s i te s a nd mor e pe r m a ne n t ba se c a mp s ha ve be e ne xc a va te d . T he r oc kshe l t e r si te s , i n pa r ti c u l ar , o f t e n c on ta in a w ide va r i e ty o fga m e a n ima l s , i n a dd i ti on to p l a n t r e ma ins , i nc lud ing f r u i ts a nd l e a f y ve ge ta t ion .Th e p r e se nc e o f num e r ous sm oo th ing a nd g r ind ing s tones a nd d i sk s tone s sug -ge s t s p l a n t o r h ide p r oc e s s ing . The P a r a na iba P ha se i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s a ge ne r -a l ized hunt ing-ga the r ing cu l ture dur ing a pe r iod o f inc reased a r id i ty and dec reasedprec ip i ta t ion .

S t ra t if ied depo s i t s in the o pen -a i r , f ive r te r race s i te of A l ice BoEr (Be l t r~o ,1974a , b ; Bryan and Be l t rSo , 1978; Be l t r f io e t a l . , 1986; Hur t , 1986) in S~oP a n lo S t a t e ha ve y i e lde d c o r e s , a f l a ke un i f a e e e nd sc r a pe r , a nd , i n t he de e pe rl e ve l s ( B e d V) , a t h i c k , un i f a c e e nd / s ide s c r a pe r ma de f r om a b l a de . B e d V i sove r l a id by a t h in , c u l tu r a lly s t e r il e B e d I V . A 2 - m - th i c k c u ltu r a l de pos it ( B e dHI ) ove r l i e s B e d I V a nd i s c ha r a c t e r i z e d by un i f a c i a l , pe r c us s ion - f l a ke d c o r e sa nd f l ake too l s i n i t s l ow e r le ve l s . T he m idd le a nd up pe r l e ve l s o f B e d II I c on ta inbi fac ia l too ls , inc luding s temmed and lanceola te pro jec t i le po in ts in i t ia l ly a sso-c i a t e d w i th a s ing l e r a d ioc a r bon da t e o f 14 ,200 B .P . _ 1150 ye a r s . A mo r er e c e n t s e r i e s o f t he r mo lumine sc e nc e a nd r a d iome t r i c da t e s p l a c e t he B e d I I Icu l tura l depos i t s a round 10 ,950 _+ 1 ,000 B .P . I f th i s rad ioc a rbon assay is cor -r e c t , e a r l i e r da t e s a r e sugge s t e d f o r t he f e w l i t h ic s c on ta ine d in B e d V .

Resea rch a t the I tabora i s i te by Be l t r~o and he r a ssoc ia tes (Be l t r f io , 1970;Be l t r fio and Sarc ia , 1987) has prod uce d edge- t r im m ed flake a r t i fac ts , r e touch edc o r e s , a nd s t e mle s s p ro j e c t i le s e s tima te d to da t e be tw e e n a pp r ox ima te ly 1 2 ,000a n d 9 , 0 0 0 B . P .


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Earliest Hun ters and Gatherers of South Am erica 167Rece n t r e sea rch d i r ec t ed by G u idon (1989) a l ong t he low er R fo Uru guay

and by Mi l l e r (1976) a l ong t he upper R fo Uruguay has l oca t ed s i t e s o f ea r l yper iods . In t he l a t t e r a rea , t he l o w er leve lS o f t he open-a i r s i te o f Y-58 con t a inedcharcoa l , f lakes , and co res r ad ioca rbon da t ed a t abou t 11 , 500 + 500 . N o boneor p lan t remains are preserved a t these s i t es . A few f i sh ta i l po in t s are knownf rom su r face con t ex t s i n U rugua y and t he Rfo C la ro r eg ion o f S ~o P au lo (Be l -t r io , 1974a; Bosch e t a l . , 1980; Schobinger, 1973; Pol i t is , 1987).

On t he Braz i l i an s i de o f t he Rfo Uruguay , Mi l l e r (1987) has l oca t ed 24s i t e s a s soc i a t ed wi th t he Ub icu i and Urugua i phases and wi th open vege t a t i onin t he sou th . The Ub icu i P hase i s p resen t a t t h ree open-a i r s i t e s t ha t con t a inbo th p res su re - and pe rcus s ion - f l aked un i fac i a l t oo l s made o f basa l t and s and-s tone , i n a s soc i a t ion wi th ex t i nc t mega fauna ( c f . Glossother ium robus tum). T h i sphase has on ly two rad ioca rbon da t es , 12 ,690 B . P . _ 100 yea r s and 12 , 770B . P . + 200 yea r s , bo th on bone . The subsequen t Urugua i P hase is de f i ned a t21 s i t es and i s character ized by b i facia l s temmed pro ject i l e poin t s , scrapers ,l anceo l a t e p re fo rms , and b i f aces . E igh t een r ad ioca rbon da t es p l ace t h i s phasebetw een approx ima tely 11 ,555 B.P . __. 230 years and 8585 B.P . + 115 years ,wi th mos t da t es fa l l ing be twee n 10 ,500 and 9500 B , P .

As a f inal note , th ree aspect s of Brazi l i an archaeology requi re br ief men-t ion . F i rs t , a few archaeologis t s (Guidon, 1981; Bel t r f io and Andrade Lima,1986) bel ieve that rock-ar t hunt ing scenes a t severa l s i t es in P iaui and Bahias t a t es p robab ly da t e t o l a t e P l e i s t ocene t imes and t ha t some o f t he dep i c t edan imal s r ep resen t megafa una l speci es. S econd , t he r em ains o f a f emale ske l e tonfound i n the L apa V ermelha IV s it e (Lagoa S an t a ) a t a dep th o f 11 -13 m poss ib lydates f rom 11,960 to 10 ,700 B .P . (Prous , 1986a). Re cent f inds of skele ta lrem ains a t ear ly s i t es in Bah ia (Car te l l e and Bel tr fio, 1985) and in P iaui (Gu idon,pe r sona l com m unica t i on , 1991) a re under ana lys i s . And t h i rd , eas te rn and sou th -e rn Braz i l p robab ly con t a in t he h ighes t dens i t y o f kno wn l a te P l e i s tocene a rchae-o log i ca l s it e s i n S ou th Am er i ca . Desp i t e t he g row ing num ber o f s i te s i n t hesea reas , a rchaeo log i s t s have no t ye t u sed d i f fe rences i n the occu r rence and num bero f da t ed s i te s a s a pos s ib l e robus t measu re o f t he s i ze and d i s t r ibu t i on o f hun t e r -ga the re r popu l a t i ons and o f va r i a t i ons i n r e sou rce p rod uc t i v i ty ac ros s d i f fe ren teco log i ca l zones , fo r w ha t appear s t o be a w idesp read un i fac i a l t r ad it ion beg in -n ing by a t leas t 12 , 000 B . P .

P a m p a a n d P a t a g o n i a n G r a s s la n d s o f th e S o u t h ea s tLate P l e i s t ocene human occupa t i on i n t he sou theas t and deep sou th was

loca t ed i n t he P ampa g ras s l ands o f Uruguay and eas t e rn Argen t i na and i n t heP a t agon i an s em ia r id s t eppe o f sou the rn Argen t i na and Ch i l e . A lmos t a l l occu -pa t i on i s r epo r t ed f rom open-a i r s i t e s i n t he P ampa and f rom caves and rock -shel ters in Patagonia .


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168 D i l l e ha y , A r d i la C alde r d n , Po l i t i s , and Be l tr ~ o

Very few s t r a t i f i ed s i t e s a re r epo r t ed f rom the f a r no r the rn end o f t heg ras s lands i n U rugua y ne a r the p resen t -day Braz i li an bo rder . T he ch rono log i ca land cu l t u ra l r e l a t i onsh ips be tween s i t e s i n t hese d ive r se env i ronmen t s a re no twe l l under s tood , bu t t he s i te s do r evea l som e pa t t e rns an d p roces ses s imi l a r t othose i n sou the rn Braz il and no r theas t e rn A rgen t ina . On t he bas i s o f ma t e r ia l slargely recovered f ro m open-a i r surface s it es , Ta dde i (1968, 1987) has proposeda s equence o f U ruguay an l it h i c com plexes , t he ea r l i e st o f wh ich i s Ca t a l anense ,es t ima t ed to da t e a s ea r l y a s 9000 B . P . Th i s com plex i s cha rac t e ri zed by l a rgeb l ades an d l a rge e longa t ed f l akes , w i th occa s iona l b if ac i a l too l s . An o the r l i tt le -k n o w n c o m p l e x i s t h e T a n g a r u p a c o m p l e x o f n o r t h w e s t U r u g u a y , a s s o c i a t e dw i th h igh t e rr ace s i te s a l ong r ive r s and w i th a w ide va r i e ty o f b l ade an d f l aketools , b i fac ia l d i scoidal object s , and o the r f l ake var ie t i es (Hu r t , 1989) . A l thou ghno Tang arnpa s i t e s have b een d a t ed by r ad ioca rbon , s i te l oca t ion and l i th i c typesugges t a t e rmina l P l e i s tocene age .

In fo rm at ion regard ing hum an occ upa t i on on t he P amp a g ras s l ands o f p res-en t -day Uruguay and no r theas t e rn and cen t ra l Argen t i na i s s ca rce , w i th t heexcep t i on o f t he Ta nd i l i a and In te r se r rana a reas . H un t ing was p r ima r i ly o f guan -aco ; ex t i nc t ho r se , g i an t g round s l o th , and g lyp todon t appear i n f requen t l y (Men -goni , 1986; Miot t i , e t a l . , 1989; P ol i t is and S alem m e, 1989) .

Ar roy o S eco i s a m u l t i compon en t open -a i r s it e (F ida lgo e t a l . , t986; Pol i t i se t a l . , 1987; Pol i t i s , 1989) . The lower component i s character ized by medium-s ized f lakes wi th uni facia l marginal re touching (F ig . 6 , a and b) . The faunalas semblage o f th i s l eve l cons i s ts o f gu anaco and dee r . T h ree r ad ioca rbon da teson bon es o f ex t i nc t ho r se and g i an t g round s l o th (P o li ti s and Beukens , 1991)are 8890 B.P . ___ 90 yea rs , 8390 B.P . 5- 240 years , and 7320 B.P . + 50 years .Un der ly ing t h is l eve l is a s t r a tum con t a in ing the r em ains o f 20 hu ma n ske l e tonsf rom d i f f e ren t bu r i a l ep i sodes , a s soc i a t ed w i th r ad ioca rbon da t es r ang ing f rom8980 B.P . 5- 100 years to 6880 B.P . 5- 90 years . More rad iocarbon assays arerequ i red f ro m A r royo S eco t o de t e rmine w he the r the l a t e r da t es a re co r rec t andthus whe the r megafauna l spec i es su rv ived i n to ea r l y Ho locene t imes . In com-binat ion , s i t e s t ra t igraphy, paleonto logical ev idence, and l i th ics forms sugges tthat the presen t ser ies of dates i s unre l iab le .

L a M od ern a (Pol i t is , 1984a, 1985; Pol i t is and Olm o, 1986) is ano therm ul t i compon en t open -a i r s i te l oca t ed i n a gu l l y bank , whe re t he ske l e t a l r emainso f g lyp todon t we re foun d i n d i r ec t a ssoc i a t ion wi th f l akes made o f quar t z , quar tz -i t e , and cher t (F ig . 7 , c ) . T w o rad ioca rbon da t es on g lyp tod on t bones a re 12 , 330B.P . 5- 370 yea rs and 6550 B.P . + 160 years . S ince the cu l tura l mater ia l s we reexcavated in l a te P le i s tocene s t ra t igraphic and paleonto logical contexts , Pol i t i sbel ieves that the age of the deeper depos i t s i s c loser to the ear l i er date .F i sh ta i l po in t s are found in secure s t ra t igraphic contexts a t a few mul t i -com ponen t s i te s i n the Cer ro La Ch ina co mp lex i n the Tand i l ia a rea . S i te 1 , asma l l rockshe l t e r, has y i e lded a s eu t e o f an ex t i nc t a rmad i l lo and a f i~gm en t o f


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Earliest Hunter s and Gatherers of South Amer ica 169

Fig. 7. (a, b) Modified flakes fro m the deeper level of Arroyo Seco, Argentina. (c) Edge-trimmed flakes from La Moderna.

a possible fishtai l point fro m the lo west st rat igraphic level (Flegenheimer, 1986,1987), radiocarbon dated betwe en 10,790 B.P. 120 years and 10,700 B.P._+ 300 years. Sites 2 and 3 are open-air localities associated with bifacial l i thiccomplexes, including fishtail points Site 2, which is radiocarbon dated at 10,610B.P . 180 years (Flegenheim er, 1 986-1987). Loc ated nearby is the Cerro E1Som brero si te , which has yielded several surface and subsurface fishtail points.Although the buried contexts of the points has not yet been dated, they areprobably contemporaneous with the Cerro La China fishtai l points.

The earl iest human record in Patagonia might be at Cave 3 (Level 11) of


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170 Dillehay, Ardila Calder6n , Politis , and Beltr~o

Los To ldos i n Argen t i na , where a l i t h i c complex composed o f t h i ck , un i fac i a lf l akes wi th t r imm ed edges i s a s soc i a ted w i th abundan t guanaco bones an d a f ewbones o f ex t i nc t ho r se and ex t i nc t camet id (Card i ch e t a l . , 1973; Cardich andFlege nheim er , 1978; C ardich , 1977) . A s ingle rad iocarbon date p laces th i s deepe rmate r i a l a round 12 ,600 B . P . + 600 yea r s . Over ly ing leve l s con t a in b i f aci a lsub t r iangu l a r p ro jec t il e po in ts a s soc i a t ed wi th gu anaco and o the r game , da t edby rad iomet r ic means be tween 11 ,000 and 10 ,000 B . P . Al though mole r ad io -ca rbon da t es a re r equ i red be fo re t he deeper componen t can be accep t ed , t h i slevel under l i es a To ldens e cu l tura l l aye r , def ined by f lake scrapers , sub t r iangularp ro j ec ti le po in t s , and b i f ac i a l kn ives , da t i ng be tween t he 1 t h and t he 9 th m i l-l enn i a B . P . Other cave s i t e s i n t he v i c in i t y [E l Ce ibo , Cave 2 o f Los To ldos(Card i ch , 1987); C ueva de Los Mano s , A le ro Cardenas , C ueva Grande deAr ro yo F eo (Grad in , 1980; Grad in e t a l . , 1979; Gradin e t a l . , 1987)] have a l soy i e lded To ldense l it h ic m a t e r ia l s , som e o f w h ich a re i n a s soc i a ti on wi th mega-fauna l spec ies and a re r ad ioca rbon da t ed be twee n 9500 and 7500 B . P . (Grad ine t a l . , 1987) . G iven the dates f rom these s i t es, i t i s l ike ly that the deeper L evel11 a t Los To ldos i s be twee n approx imate ly 11 ,000 and 10 ,000 B . P .

In t he sou them P a t agon i an M age l l an a rea , Jun ius B i rd (1938 , 1988) ca r ri edou t h i s p ioneer ing work a t s evera l f amous cave s i t e s . In t he deepes t l eve l o fF e l l ' s Cav e , r ad ioca rbon da t ed be tw een 11 , 000 B . P . + 170 yea r s and 10,080B . P . +__ 160 ye ars , se veral f ishtai l poin ts (Fig . 5, a) w ere a ssoc iated w ith ut i l izedf l akes, co res , g round and peck ed d i sks , and t he bones o f m y lodon , ho rse , guan -aco , b i rd s , and o the r gam e . Hun te r s o f t he F e l l ' s t r ad i t ion a lso occup i ed P a l l iAike cave, where f i sh ta i l po in t s , po l i shed d i sks , and the bones of horse andmylodon were da t ed t o t he n in th mi l l enn ium B . P . In P a l l i A ike she l t e r nea rF e l l ' s Cave , s evera l human ske l e tons excava t ed by B i rd pos s ib ly da t e t o t hen i n th m i l l e n n iu m . C u e v a d e l M e d i o , l o c a te d a b o u t 1 k m f r o m M y l o d o n C a v e ,con t a ins an ea r l i e r cu l t u ra l com pone n t , be long ing t o t he F e l l ' s I cu l t u ra l t r ad it ionand as soc i a t ed wi th f i sh t a i l po in t s and t he bones o f guanaco , ex t i nc t ho r se ,m y lod on , and ce rv ids (Na t a l , 1987 , 1989). F o ur r ad ioca rbon da tes f rom hearth sin the deepe r l evel s range betwe en 12 ,390 B.P . + 180 yea rs and 9595 B.P . __+115 ye ars , p lac ing the in i t i a l occu pat ion of the cave som et ime in the l l th or10 th m i l l enn ium B . P .

F ar the r sou th on t he i s l and o f T i e r ra de l F uego , more d ive r s i f i ed hun t e rg roups a re r evea l ed a t T res A r royos , da t ed be tween app rox imate ly 10 ,420 B . P .+ 100 yea r s and 10 , 280 B . P . _+ 110 yea r s . The bones o f guanaco , fox , ho r se ,camel id , b i rd s , and roden t s and a l i t h i c a s semblage made up o f edge- t r immedf lakes we re r ecovered f ro m the deep er depos it s (M assone , 1983).

Un t i l t he ea r l y occupa t i on a t Los To ldos i s be t t e r under s tood and da t ed ,we canno t de t e rmine wh e the r a m arked qua l i t a ti ve change occu r red i n the l if e -w a y o f p i o n e e r im m i g ra n t s f ro m t h e w e s t e rn o r C h i le a n A n d e a n s id e o f P a t a -


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E a r l i e s t H u n t e r s a n d G a t h e r e r s o f S o u t h A m e r i c a 1 7 1

gon ia o r whe the r ne w a r r iva l s be a r ing f i sh t a i l po in t s c a me f r om the Ar ge n t ineno r th . I n a dd i t i on to t he f ish t ai l po in t , o the r d i a gnos t i c a r ti f a c ts o f t h is ne w wa yo f l i f e i nc lude sc r a pe r s , kn ive s , c oa r se c h oppe r s , sm a l l fl a ke d too l s , a nd oc c a -s iona l ly , po l i she d d i sc o ida l ( bo la ? ) s tone s . S e ve r a l va ri e t ie s o f e x t inc t a nd m od-e m a n i m a l s w e r e e x p l o i t e d , i n c l u d i n g m y l o d o n , g u a n a c o , h o r s e , b i r d s , f o x ,r ode n t s , a nd r he a . S om e e v ide n c e a lso e x i s t s f o r p la n t ga the r ing , b u t th i s s e e mst o h a v e b e e n s e c o n d a r y t o h u n t in g . D e s p i t e t h e p a u c i ty o f e v i d e n c e , i t s e em sf a i r y c e r t a in t ha t t h is w a y o f l i f e e vo lve d l a t e r t ha n the c u l tu r al c ha nge s de sc r ibe df o r t he no r the r n a nd c e n t r a l a re a s o f S ou th Am e r i c a a nd tha t i t wa s a s soc i a t e dwi th t he de v e lopm e n t o r a dop t ion o f t he f i sh t ai l po in t som e t ime in t he 1 l t hmi l l e nn ium B .P . , a s e v ide nc e d a t s e ve r a l c a ve s i t e s i n sou the r n P a t a gon ia ,i n c lu d i n g F e l l ' s C a v e , P a l li A i k e , a n d C u e v a d e l M e d i o .Dur ing the l l t h a nd 10 th mi l l e nn ia B .P . a nd pe r ha ps l a t e r , P l e i s toc e nee nv i r onm e n ta l c ond i t i ons c on t inue d in mo s t a r e as o f the f a r sou th a s de g la c ia t i onoc c u r r e d . B y the l a t te r pa rt o f t he 1 l t h mi l l e nn ium , m or e e l a bo r a t e li th i c c om-p le xe s a ppe a r e d in a s soc i a t i on w i th a w ide va r i e ty o f f a una , bo th e x t inc t a ndmode m, sugge s t ing inc r e a se d a da p ta t ion to a n a me l io r a t ing P a t a gon ia n e nv i -r onm e n t . Un l ike t he a rid g r a s s la nds a lon g the we s t e r n s lope s a nd p la in s o f P e r ua n d n o r t h e r n C h i l e , w h e r e t h e e x t i n c t i o n o f m e g a f a u n a m i g h t h a v e o c c u r r e d1000 to 500 ye a r s e a r l i e r , my lodon a nd poss ib ly ho r se we r e a bunda n t un t i l t he10 th a nd 9 th mi l l e nn ia B .P . Du r ing th i s pe r iod , pos tg l a c i a l c l ima t i c c ond i ti onsde ve lope d , c ha r a c t e r i z e d by a n inc r e a se i n t e mpe r a tu r e a nd in r a in f a ll ( Ma r kg r a f ,1 9 8 3 ), w i t h a n e n v i r o n m e n t p r o b a b l y m o r e s u i t ab l e t o th e g u a n a c o , w h i c hb e c a m e t h e p r i m a r y f o o d s o u r c e o f t h e e a s te r n a n d s o u t h er n g r as s la n d s d u r i n gt h e H o l o c e n e .

N o e v ide nc e o f ho r se a nd gua na c o ma ss k i ll s o r j um p s it e s ha s be e n r e po r t e df o r t h e o p e n p l a in s o f S o u t h A m e r i c a . W h e r e h o r s e a n d g u a n a c o h a v e b e e nf o u n d , t h e r e s e e m s t o b e e v i d e n c e o f l it tl e e x p l o it a ti o n o f m y l o d o n ( M e n g o n i ,1986 ; B or r e r o , 1980 ; P o l i t i s a nd S a l e mme , 1989 ; Mio t t i e t a l . , 1989) , pe r ha psb e c a u s e i t w a s e a s i e r t o k i ll t h e s m a l le r g a m e o r b e c a u s e m y l o d o n w e r e s c a rc ea f t e r 1 1 , 0 0 0 B . P .

I n s u m , u n t il t h e l o w e r c o m p o n e n t o f t h e L a M o d e m a s it e c a n b e d a t edse c u r e ly , t he r e i s l i tt l e ha r d e v ide nc e to sugge s t t ha t huma n s w e r e on the P a m pagr a s s l a nds be f o r e 11 ,000 B .P . I f a n e a r l i e r oc c upa t ion e x i s t e d , i t i s li ke ly a sso -c i a t e d w i th ge o log ic a l c on te x t s d i f fe r e n t f r om those whe r e t e rmina l P l e i s toc e nea nd e a r ly Ho loc e ne s i t e s a r e c u r r e n t ly f ound . A l t e r na t ive ly , t he a bse nc e o fe a d ie r ha b i t a t i on m a y ind ic a t e a ve r y d i f f e r e n t pa t t e rn o f r e sou r c e u se , pos s ib lyr e l a t e d to c ha ng ing r ive r c ou r se s a nd b io t i c r e g ions a nd to i nc r e a sed a r id i ty a ndthe loc a t ion o f wa te r sou r c e s p r io r to o r du r ing the i n i ti a l de g la ci a t ion . R e sou r c e so f f e r e d by the A t l a n t ic c oa s t a nd c oa s t a l l a goons a l so m a y ha v e a c t e d a s a f oc uso f hum a n a c t iv i ty a nd a s a n e a r ly a ve nue to t he sou the r n ti p o f t he c on t ine n t .


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172 Dillehay, Ard ila Calder6 n, Politis, and BeltrfioR e se a r c h ing A t l a n ti c c oa s t a r e a s migh t be im poss ib l e a t p r e sen t , f o r un l ike t heP a c i f i c C oa s t , t he ve r y w ide c on t ine n ta l she l f , some t ime s e x t e nd ing 100 kmeas t , i s under wa te r .

D e s e r t s , G r a s s l a n d s , a n d F o r e s t s o f t h e C e n t r a l a n d S o u t h e r n A n d e sTh e a r c ha e o log ic a l da t a f r o m the e a r l i e s t s i te s r e ve a l s e ve r a l d i f f e re n t e c o -

n o m i c m o d e s a n d t o o l c o m p l e x e s d e v e l o p e d b y r e g io n a l p o p u l at i o n s d at in g a tl e a s t t o t he 1 l t h a nd 10 th mi l l e nn ia B .P . D i sc us s ion o f t he da t a f r om th i s a re ais accord ing to two major r eg ions : (1) the coas ta l dese r t p la ins s t r e tch ing f romnor the r n P e r u to c e n t r a l C h i l e a nd the c oo l , t e m pe r a t e r a in fo r e s t o f sou th - c e n t r a lC h i l e a nd ( 2 ) t he h igh la nd in t e r mon ta ne va l l e ys a nd puna g r a s s l a nds o f P e r u ,C h i l e , a nd Ar ge n t ina .

C o a s t a l L o w l a n d s . R ic ha r dson ( 1973 , 1978) a nd M a lpa s s ( 1983) ha ve ide n -t i f i e d un i f a c i a l c omple xe s ( Amota pe , S i c he s , Honda ) pos s ib ly da t ing a s e a r lya s 10 ,500 to 10 ,000 B .P . f o r t he no r the r n de se rt c oa s t a l p l a in s o f P e r u . T he sec omple xe s a r e ge ne r a l ly c ha r a c t e r i z e d by a w ide va r i e ty o f po in t e d a nd be a ke dtoo l s , de n t i c u l a t e s , a nd f l a ke f o r ms . S i t e s a s soc i a t e d w i th t he Amota pe c om-p le xe s o f t e n a r e l oc a t e d a r ound t a r s e e ps ( e . g . , Ta l a r a ) , pos s ib ly sugge s t ing aloc a l e nv i r onme n t o f s a va nna - wood la nd o r g r a s sy s a va nna b r oke n by ga l l e r ywood la nds in r i ve r d r a ina ge s . The c omple xe s a r e ve r y t e n t a t i ve ly de f ine d a nda r e pos s ib ly l i nke d to t he l a t e pha se o f t he Te que nda mie nse a nd Abr i e nse un i -f a c i a l c omple xe s o f C o lombia ( E l Abr a ) a nd c oa s t a l Ec ua dor ( La s Ve ga s ) .P r e l imina r y a na lyse s po in t t o l i t h i c t e c hno log ie s , a nd p r e suma b ly c u l tu r a l l i f e -wa y s , d i f f er e n t f r om the h igh la nds .

F a r the r sou th on the no r th - c e n t r a l c oa s t o f P e r u i s t he P a ij~ in c om ple x ,d a t e d b e t w e e n 1 1 , 0 0 0 - 1 0 , 0 0 0 a n d 7 0 0 0 B . P . , w h i c h i n c l ud e s b if a ci a l a n d u n i-fac ia l too ls , pa r t icu la r ly long , s lender po in ts wi th shor t , cont rac t ing s tems (F ig .5 , e and f ) (Cha ucha t , 19 75, p . 90 , 19 78, 1988; Uce da , 1986; Ossa , 1978) .Pa ij~ in s i te s a re conf in ed to the de se r t and coas ta l foo th i l l s o f the A ndes and a rea s soc i a t e d w i th bo th ma r i t ime a nd in l a nd r e sou r c e s . The p r e se nc e o f a P a i j~ inc om ple x in t he c oa s t a l i n t e r io r sugge s ts s e a sona l r ounds be tw e e n c lo se ly j ux -t a pose d a r e as o r s imu l t a ne ous e x p lo i t a t ion o f va r ious r e sou r c e z one s .

The P a i j~ in a nd un i f a c i a l c omple xe s a r e c ons ide r e d c oe x i s t i ng bu t i nde -pe nde n t a da p ta t ions t o s imi l a r e nv i r onme n t s a nd r e sou r c e s ( R ic ha r dson , 1978 ,p . 280 ) o r e ve n d i s t inc t soc i a l g r oups ( M a lpa s s , 1983) . Ho we ve r , t he r e m a y bea g r e a t e r t e c hno log ic a l l i nka ge be tw e e n the m tha n the p

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Earliest Hunters Gatherers South America - Dillehay Et Al