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econservationthe online magazine No. 23, March 2012
4 On Disinvestment of Cultural Heritage
By Rui Bordalo
A Decade of Disorder: Conservation and the Digital Revolution
By Daniel Cull
Pragmatism and Compromise in Conservation
By Peter D. Verheyen
News on e‐conservation magazine
By Rui Bordalo
Urban Conservation in High Asia.
The work of André Alexander and Tibet Heritage Fund
By Pimpim de Azevedo and Yutaka Hirako
Faces of Memory: the Newest Technology of Preservation and
Restoration of Hand‐Written and Printed Heritage
Review by Tatyana Krupa
Back to the Roots ‐ Workshop on Textile Dyeing with Natural Dyes
Review by Anna Karatzani
XTACH 2011
Review by Mark Beech
The Boxes for the Housing and Protection of Books:
Observations on their History and Development
By Gianlorenzo Pignatti
Lining, Relining and the Concept of Univocity
By Cecil Krarup Andersen
Salt Damage on the Wall Reliefs of Dendera Temple, Egypt
By Hesham Abbas Kamally
Security of Cultural Property: U.S. Engagement and
Potential for Improvement
By Erik Nemeth
First Aid of Rare Ptolemaic Textile in Tuna el‐Gebel Excavation, Egypt
By Harby E. Ahmed
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47
22
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ARTICLES
NEWS & VIEWS
EDITORIAL
inde
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lOn Disinvestment of Cultural Heritage
History has shown time and time again that (r)evolution is the only constant.Nevertheless, we seem always to be attracted to stability and we continually seek tomaintain the status quo. The dictionary defines status quo as "the existing state ofaffairs (at a particular time)" or "the situation as it currently exists". It is hard for us to letgo and to embrace constant change. But, as we will now see, maintaining the status quomay not be a fight worth having, as it may be part of the problem and not of the solution.
Simply put, conservation is nothing more than an attempt at keeping the materialmemories of what has been. One way or another, it has never been more than that,except for our present times. Nowadays, we are trying to achieve more than that bypreserving the perishable, the mundane, the superfluous present, and to keep it for thefuture. This can be seen, for example, in the attempts of archiving content of theinternet, conserving ephemeral art, etc. Cultural heritage is all about our culturalidentity, to know what we are and where we come from in order to understand how weare now. But if we value the material memories from the past, how is it that we are givingmore attention to those of the present? I believe this is because society in general ischanging and becoming more immediate: what is important is what we have now, notwhat we might have later, or what we had once, for that matter.
From this change of paradigm into the search of immediate or short‐term satisfactions,we are starting to no longer pay so much attention to our cultural heritage as we are toour present actions. And of course, we don’t invest in what we don’t value anymore. Thatis becoming a problem, as the unfortunate tendency in recent years is a continuousdisinvestment in cultural institutions. Regrettable examples are conservation coursesand museums being closed everywhere. And those that have managed to survive arehaving their budgets severally diminished. We continue to value cultural heritage but itsimportance is falling behind other immediate interests.
Disinvestment and budget cuts are now shaping the present state of cultural heritageand, hence, of the related professions. Although we should always hope for the better, itis not likely that investment in cultural heritage will become a priority in the near future.Assuming that this state is permanent, it is up to us to raise the continuous awareness socultural heritage is not forgotten during these times of “immediacy”.
Cultural heritage is by definition past and unchangeable. Thus, if we can’t adapt it to oursociety, perhaps we should try to adapt our society to it. At the end of the day, it is onlyby embracing changes that we are going though that we can preserve cultural heritageand enable its present memory to be unaffected.
Rui BordaloEditor‐in‐Chief
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A DECADE OF DISORDER: CONSERVATION ANDTHE DIGITAL REVOLUTION
In 1517 Martin Luther wrote a little tract known
as the ‘Ninety‐Five Theses’, you might have heard
of it? Less famous, though no less significant,
was his friend Christoph von Scheurl, who in 1518
used a printing press to distribute Luther’s ideas.
In many respects it was this new media distribu‐
tion system that caused the chaos of the protes‐
tant revolution, out of which the world we know
was born. Today our world is changing as a result
of another media revolution, we can potentially
date our entry into this revolution from the date
‘conservation‐restoration’ first appeared on
Wikipedia, which it did on 25th February 2002,
with the entry: “The process of halting the decay
and perhaps even renewing to the original state
works of art undergoing change is called Conser‐
vation and Restoration” [1]. From such humble
beginnings the entry has grown, and the site has
even become a location for conservation projects
[2]. We’ve now reached the ten‐year mark of our
entry into the digital revolution, so with this in
mind where do we as a profession stand with the
wiki‐technology that dragged us kicking and
screaming into this new epoch?
First, let’s take a step back. Wiki’s can be traced
back to 1994, when computer programmer Ward
Cunnigham was working on what he called wiki‐
wikiweb, named after the airport shuttles at
Honolulu airport. What Cunningham had develo‐
ped was a simple system that allowed anyone to
make additions and edits to a webpage, and cru‐
"Revolution is but thought carried into action"
Emma Goldman
By Daniel Cull
cially for those additions to be
tracked, and easily reverted. This
turned the consumer into a creator
fundamentally changing everything.
In 2001 Jimmy Wales and Larry
Sanger embraced this idea to launch
their new online encyclopedia, Wiki‐
pedia. The site was launched with the
following statement: “http://www.
wikipedia.com. Humor me. Go there
and add a little article. It will take
all of five or ten minutes. ‐‐Larry” [3]
Looking back, especially after the
SOPA‐inspired web "black out" [4],
it is somewhat incredible to think
that the website was launched with
so little fanfare, and amazing to re‐
member that the site didn't exist in
the twentieth century! The crucial
factor behind Wikipedia’s success is
the community, and sense of collec‐
tive ownership, that developed to
contribute to, and to fight to keep
it free from commercial activity. It is
this community that cares for the
site, guaranteeing its longevity and
continued growth; in terms of
quantity and quality.
Wiki‐technology is of course not the
exclusive domain of Wikipedia, far
from it. The conservation field is
e‐conservatione‐conservation
increasingly awash with wiki‐based projects
whether it is material specific research projects
[5], or institutional wide efforts to use wiki‐tech‐
nology [6]. The success, or failure, of these pro‐
jects will very much relate to the extent that the
institutions behind them forgo the traditional
institutional role and come to terms with the
new collaborative co‐ordination model at the
heart of this revolution. The social‐media theor‐
ist Clay Shirky stated that “when institutions are
told [...] there are other ways of coordinating
the value; they go through something a little bit
like the Kübler‐Ross stages of reaction” [7]. It
seems that many conservation institutions have
gone through denial and anger, and have cur‐
rently reached bargaining, it’s difficult to find
any that have yet truly accepted the chaotic col‐
laborative systems of the digital world. As we
consider how our field is being re/defined by the
social‐media revolution, it is worth remembering
A print screen of the English‐language Wikipedia page on 18 January 2012, illustrating its worldwide blackout in opposition toU.S. legislation such as SOPA and PIPA. Image by Wikipedia (some rights reserved).
that Clay Shirky predicted 50 years of chaos, so if
this is where we are after 10 years, I wonder
where we’ll be in 40 years’ time.
Notes:
[1] Wikipedia Contributors, “Conservation‐restora‐
tion”, Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, Date of
Revision: 25 February 2002 15:51 UTC, Available
online permanent link: URL
[2] D. Cull, “Wikipedia Saves Public Art: An interview
with Richard McCoy and Jennifer Geigel Mikulay”,
e‐conservation magazine 14, 2010, pp. 19‐27, URL
[3] L. Sanger, “The Early History of Nupedia and
Wikipedia: A Memoir”, Posted by Timothy on
Slashdot, April 18 2005, URL
VIEWS
6 e‐conservation
DANIEL CULLConservatorThe Musical Instrument Museum
Daniel Cull is from the West Country of the British
Isles. He trained at the Institute of Archaeology,
University College London, where he received a
BSc in Archaeology, MA in Principles of conser‐
vation, and an MSc in Conservation for Archae‐
ology and Museums. He was later awarded an
Andrew W. Mellon Fellowship at the National
Museum of the American Indian/Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, DC. He currently works as
a conservator at the Musical Instrument Museum
and as a collaborator with e‐conservation
magazine.
Website: http://dancull.wordpress.com
Contact: [email protected]
[4] L. Davies, “Wikipedia begins blackout in protest
against US anti‐piracy laws”, The Guardian, January
18, 2012, URL
[5] Salt Wiki, http://www.saltwiki.net
[6] Collaborative Knowledge Base, American
Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic
Works, http://www.conservation‐wiki.com/
[7] C. Shirky, “Institutions vs. Collaboration”,
TED Talk, July 2005, URL
e‐conservation
VIEWS
7
The News section is bringing up‐to‐dateinformation on cultural heritage topics such ason‐site conservation projects reports, reviews
of conferences, lectures or workshops andany other kind of appropriate
announcements.
If you are involved in interesting projects andyou want to share your experience with
everybody else, please send us your newsor announcements.
For more details, such as deadlines andpublication guidelines, please visit
www.e‐conservationline.com
By Peter D. Verheyen
PRAGMATISM AND COMPROMISE IN CONSERVATION
The ideas for this guest editorial began gestating
several months ago when I was first invited to
contribute it. In addition to my current experi‐
ences working as the head of a research library
preservation department, I had the good fortune
to work with interns and engage in professional
development activities. More recently, the 2011
American Institute of Conservation (AIC) confer‐
ence was especially thought provoking.
I write this from the perspective of an apprentice‐
trained bookbinder and conservator who has
spent most of his career working in academic re‐
search libraries in the US, work that has included
working primarily with special collections, but
also heavily used circulating collections and di‐
gitization. During this time I have also worked
with many other conservators, interns from con‐
servation/preservation programs and students
of museum studies and librarianship. While the
mission ensuring the long‐term health of and
continued access to the Library’s collections has
not changed, how we do that work and prioritize
activities has. This has been a result of changes
in staffing, funding, and the priorities of the or‐
ganization writ large.
The past year has seen a number of changes in
conservation education in the US. The closure of
the Preservation and Conservation Studies pro‐
gram at the University of Texas at Austin (founded
in 1981 at Columbia University) is perhaps the
most significant. The Mellon Foundation funded
coordination effort among the three remaining
major conservation programs (Winterthur, New
York University and Buffalo State) will seek to
ensure that conservators can continue to receive
formal training in book conservation. Unlike a
dedicated program for library/book conservators,
students in these programs will receive a more
fragmented experience with less time at the bench
than they received before. This will require greater
effort to obtain the additional training, in addi‐
tion to their other coursework. These changes
have led to a reexamination of alternative paths
to becoming a conservator including a renewed
interest in the apprenticeship model, programs
such as the North Bennet Street School in Boston,
and study abroad at programs such as West Dean
(UK). There are advantages and disadvantages to
the academic model and alternatives – greater
theory vs. hands‐on time at the bench – but with
a commitment to life‐long learning these can be
balanced. However, given the decline in available
positions, where can these graduates find em‐
ployment? This is one area where pragmatism can
make a significant impact.
What has always been missing are entry‐level
“assistant” conservator positions that enable a
recent graduate to work besides a more experi‐
enced conservator to develop their skills and re‐
ceive mentorship. Without these positions many
new professionals found themselves thrust into
leadership positions before they had an opportu‐
nity to mature their skills. “Technician” positions
are more often available, and seem to be increas‐
ingly calling for more experience and training.
Yet, these positions are deemed “beneath” inap‐
propriate to graduates of these programs. Perhaps
a realization that even routine benchwork is es‐
sential for building the treatment skills of trained
conservators, journeyman years if one will, will
lead to a perceptual upgrade of these positions,
VIEWS
8 e‐conservation
VIEWS
especially those calling for more developed skills.
This would also benefit those coming from alter‐
native training paths and give them a career path
that allows for upward mobility providing they
meet the other criteria. Could this be a win‐win
for the profession?
At the same AIC conference, Barbara Appelbaum
presented a very compelling paper entitled "Con‐
servation in the 21th Century; Will a 20th Century
Code of Ethics Suffice?" [1]. In it, she asked us to
think about AIC’s code of ethics and the concepts
of cultural heritage and personal property. In
particular she noted that “Thorough training is
required to practice in an ethical manner. Ethics
and guidelines for practice require substantial
knowledge in order to use them appropriately.
Another reason that ethics cannot be the ultimate
guide to conservation is that many different solu‐
tions to a problem can be equally ethical. As the
author of a rather long book on decision‐making,
I can attest to the fact that treatment choice is
not primarily a matter of ethics, but of judging
the large number of factors that come under the
term “appropriateness”.
Mary Striegel (Chief of Materials Conservation at
the National Center for Preservation Technology
and Training) wrote commenting on Appelbaum
on AIC’s Conservators Converse blog, “We must
realistically evaluate all that is going on around
us and understand the needs of the museum,
private collectors and the public“ [2].
Other presentations, in particular “Digitization
and Its Effect on Conservation Treatment Deci‐
sions: How Has Wide‐spread Digitizing and Col‐
lections Changed Our Approach to Treatment?”
[3] focused on the compromises conservators
have to make in support of large‐ and small‐scale
digitization. As conservators we enjoy being able
to give an item all the attention it requires,
becoming lost in the nuances and details until we
are done. However when working on a collection
level, especially in support of something like di‐
gitization we must change how we approach the
work, organize sustainable workflows, and often
make compromises in how far we take the work.
In the end, we find ourselves doing just enough
to stabilize the piece without compromising the
ability to properly treat it at a later date, all in
high‐volume production environment. Perhaps
frightening, these kinds of projects are only go‐
ing to become more common and important as
libraries and similar organizations with extensive
holdings begin to digitize for access. With the
attention given to these projects, conservators
must ensure that they become part of the plan‐
ning process as well and educate all involved on
issues of care and handling, as well as safe stor‐
age of the originals. As our budgets continue to be
cut, we must apply the same large‐scale method‐
ology towards improving storage and creating
enclosures and even treatment, ensuring that we
can make the maximum impact with the resources
we have. At the same time we must continue to
treat those items of greatest significance – they
will be the ones to receive the most attention and
handling – something that will nurture our need
for challenges and keep our skills sharp.
In the end, as our field changes in all respects –
from education, to employment, to the work we
do – we must ensure that we respond positively
and proactively, adapt to new situations and
demonstrate our continued value and the neces‐
sity of our work.
References
[1] B. Appelbaum, “Conservation in the 21th Cen‐
tury; Will a 20th Century Code of Ethics Suffice?”,
Ethos, Logos, Pathos: Ethical Principles and Critical
9e‐conservation
FREE
CONSERVATION
RESOURCES
Art Conservation Research
conservationresearch.blogspot.com
Thinking in Conservation, 39th Annual Meeting of
the American Institute for Conservation of Historic
and Artistic Works, Philadelphia, May 31‐June 3,
2011, URL [pdf]
[2] M. Striegel, “39th Annual Meeting – General
Session, June 1, “Conservation in the Twenty‐First
Century: Will a Twentieth Century Code of Ethics
Suffice?” By Barbara Applebaum”, in AIC Blog,
American Institute for Conservation of Historic and
Artistic Works, URL (accessed 19th February 2012)
[3] B. Doyle, “AIC 2011, Day Two Notes”, in Preser‐
vation & Conservation Administration News, URL
(accessed 19th February 2012)
PETER D. VERHEYENConservatorContact: [email protected]
Peter D. Verheyen began his involvement in pre‐
servation and conservation while a work‐study
student in the conservation lab at the Johns
Hopkins University Library. He interned in the
conservation lab of the Germanisches National‐
museum in Nuremberg, Germany, and completed
a formal apprenticeship in hand bookbinding at
the Kunstbuchbinderei Klein in Gelsenkirchen,
Germany. He also studied at the Professional
School for Book Restoration at the Centro del bel
Libro in Ascona, Switzerland and completed a
Mellon internship in book conservation at the
Folger Shakespeare Library. He has worked with
conservators in private practice and in academic
libraries, establishing the rare book conservation
lab at the Syracuse University Library where he is
now head of Preservation and Conservation. He
maintains Book_Arts‐L and the Book Arts Web.
From 2004 to 2012 he published The Bonefolder:
an e‐journal for the bookbinder and book artist.
VIEWS
10 e‐conservation
e
NEWS
e‐conservation
NEWS ON E‐CONSERVATION MAGAZINE
By Rui Bordalo
e‐conservation magazine started back in 2007as an innovative project to cover the lack ofconservation publications freely available on theinternet. Focused on conservation and culturalheritage, it was published five times per yearreaching 23 issues so far. In these past years, wewere able to disseminate free knowledge to theconservation world by publishing more than 80articles and dozens of case studies and confer‐ence reviews among our sections. The magazinealways offered peer‐reviewed articles in orderto meet the high standards of its readers.
The publication of e‐conservation is only pos‐sible due to the group effort of our volunteers,who, along with their daily jobs have continu‐ously donated their free time and expertise toprovide the best publishing experience. Withoutthem, the magazine would not exist and theyare greatly acknowledged and appreciated.
In 2012 e‐conservation starts a new phase andwill go through some important changes. Per‐haps the most significant is that from now onthe magazine will be published bi‐annually,always in March and September of each year.This new periodicity will allow us more time toprepare it and thus it will add value both to itscontent and its quality. Issues will offer morecontent and diversity than before in the sameformats you already got used to ‐ pdf and htmlversions. As a consequence, part of the infor‐mation we regularly provide, such as news,
announcements, events and much more, will betaken over by our website and presented to youin a more updated and interactive manner.
Another major change is that the domain ofour website will change its actual name from“e‐conservationline.com” into the more simpleand user‐friendly “e‐conservation.org”. Thisnew domain was recently donated to us by Greekconservator Panagiotis Galatis to whom we wishto thank for his kind support. This change willallow us to reorganize the entire website whichwill be reformulated and enhan‐ced for a moreactual and interactive user experience.
Given the magnitude of these changes, we intendto implement them in different stages over theyear. We hope to do it smoothly and withoutcausing problems to our authors, readers andvisitors of the website. In case you would like toparticipate in the makeover of the magazinewith ideas or suggestions please contact us atgeneral@e‐conservationline.com or commentthis on our blog.
Thank you for yourcontinuoussupport!
12 e‐conservation
NEWS
When rapid urban development swept China in
the 1990's, traditional buildings in the old city of
Lhasa began to be demolished and replaced by
new construction. In the early 90’s, the old city
still retained some of its magic, the layout and
shape of the Tibetan quarter unchanged. One
could walk through its courtyards to the barking
of Apsos and stray dogs, become lost in the laby‐
rinthine alleys, suddenly emerging to find some
mysterious house, person or holy place.
André Alexander walked the old city as if he was
born there, knew every corner and shortcut, every
temple and teahouse. The replacement of the
traditional low rise residential buildings with four‐
storey concrete‐frame blocks was something he
could not bear to see. From that moment on he
devoted himself to the protection of the old city
and the study of Tibetan architecture. André first
put together a booklet about the old city demoli‐
tion and used it to network with international
scholars to solicit their support, and to reach out
to Tibetan scholars and citizens with influence
who thought that Tibetan architecture was worth
preserving. He had discussions with diplomat and
Tibetologist Hugh Richardson and with writer
Heinrich Harrer, ran around Lhasa with Tibetolo‐
gist Heather Stoddard, and held long discussions
with Sonam Wangdu, the first Tibetan archaeolo‐
gist, and other Tibetan scholars and retired politi‐
cians. He also had great admiration for Peter Aufs‐
chnaiter who surveyed the city of Lhasa in 1948 and
produced a map that André always carried with him.
At that time he founded the Lhasa Archive Project
with Andrew Brannan to document the old city,
the starting point of preservation efforts. André
invited his friend Pimpim de Azevedo to contri‐
bute drawings and maps of old Lhasa.
André kept up his persuasion, and never stopped
talking to anyone who could help to make a
change. In 1996, Tibet Heritage Fund (THF) was
founded, and that same year secured permission
to undertake the first house rehabilitation project,
using a municipal government construction com‐
pany. This house, an old residential building on
the Barkor street beneath the walls of the great
temple, was a first step, and showed what could
be done, but THF was not completely satisfied
with the quality of the building work.
The big challenge for André and his colleagues
was to persuade the old builders or craftsmen
masters that were still alive to join the projects
and pass their knowledge to the new generation
and to make them understand how valuable still
URBAN CONSERVATION IN HIGH ASIATHE WORK OF ANDRÉ ALEXANDER AND TIBET HERITAGE FUNDPimpim de Azevedo and Yutaka Hirako
From left to right: Yutaka Hirako, Pimpim de Azevedo andAndré Alexander, Tibet Heritage Fund core team in Bonpuripeak, Lhasa, 1998. Photo by Masaaki Kuwahara.
In memoriam of André Alexander (1965‐2012)
eNEWS
13e‐conservation
André with his cat in Leh, 2011. Photo by THF team.
their skills are. After months of discussions and
André repeating that it was “now or never” first
old craftsmen came to join the projects bringing
lot of excitement and challenge together with
the needed skills.
The first job done by these master craftsmen was
the reconstruction of the Labrang Nyingba toilet.
The Labrang Nyingba house is an elaborate stone
construction on foundations that go back to the
early 15th century. One of the dry toilet towers
was damaged and in need of urgent restoration.
The craftsmen took it as a chance to prove that
they had the skills THF was looking for. Big stones,
small stones, compacted earth, layer by layer the
walls were built up, the rafters placed and the
walling continued. The elaborate stone work was
of extremely high quality, matching the original
wall of the house. It was a time of tension, but that
job turned out to be the beginning of a long rela‐
tionship between André, the craftsmen, and THF.
For André and THF, the involvement of communi‐
ties and residents was crucial. More than anyone
they needed to be won over. André had a way of
discussing everything with the residents, finding
out what they wanted and developing solutions,
and involving them in every stage of the conser‐
vation process.
In 1996, after some consultation with the Lhasa
City Mayor and various government offices the
Lhasa Old City Protection Working Group (LOCP‐
WG) was founded with the Mayor as chairman and
André as vice‐chairman. In cooperation with the
Lhasa prefecture government’s Cultural Relics
Bureau, 13 residential buildings and a monastery
were restored in Lhasa. During these projects,
more than 300 people were trained in masonry,
carpentry, painting, mural conservation, metal‐
work, water and sanitation, design and planning,
architecture survey and management. In 1998,
following a proposal by THF, 93 buildings were
14 e‐conservation
REVIEWS
officially listed as “Protected” sites by the muni‐
cipality and the Cultural Relics Bureau. In 2000
the local authorities notified THF that henceforth
the Cultural Relics Bureau would continue the reha‐
bilitation work, following the path beaten by THF.
THF then expanded its rehabilitation and conser‐
vation projects to other areas of the Tibetan cul‐
tural realm: China, Mongolia and India. In 2003,
André visited Ladakh, and in the old city of Leh,
immediately recalled old Lhasa. The conditions
were different, the houses were not public (gov‐
ernment) properties like in China but the private
owners were moving out of the old city and letting
their houses decay through neglect.
Again, André could not let the old town die. Using
his experience and knowledge of Tibetan archi‐
tecture and city planning, he developed a conser‐
vation plan based on the active involvement of
the residents and local government. The initiative
grew into a local NGO, the Leh Old Town Initiative
(L.O.T.I.). Before long they had repaved the streets
and put in drainage. The work was not limited to
residential buildings, it included temples and mu‐
ral conservation, and the team was contracted to
build a new monument in Leh, the Central Asia
Museum and Library in Tsal Soma. Recently, André
had also begun working on temple restoration in
Sikkim. Through involvement in these projects
many local people were trained in building skills
and conservation, but also in mural conservation,
management and architectural surveying. Many
students and international volunteers took part
in his projects and learned under his guidance
about Tibetan and Himalayan architecture and
culture.
André loved the Tibetan land of snow, he was
passionate about the beauty of its architecture
and art, people and environment. He dedicated
his life to protecting these beautiful, dignified
buildings, together with anyone who shared the
same dream. André’s vision, passion and dedica‐
tion to preserve Tibetan architecture and culture
will be carried on by Tibet Heritage Fund.
Tibet Heritage Fund work team in Lhasa, 2000. Photo by Tibet Heritage Fund.
15e‐conservation
REVIEWS
FACES OF MEMORY: THE NEWEST TECHNOLOGY OF PRESERVATIONAND RESTORATION OF HAND‐WRITTEN AND PRINTED HERITAGE
24‐28 October 2011Yerevan, Armenia
Review by Tatyana Krupa
Organised by:“Matenadaran” Mesrop Mashtots Institute ofAncient Manuscripts
On last 24‐28 October, the seminar “Faces of me‐
mory: the newest technology of preservation and
restoration of hand‐written and printed heritage”
was held in Yerevan, the Republic of Armenia. The
seminar was organized by the “Matenadaran” Mes‐
rop Mashtots Institute of Ancient Manuscripts
State Non‐Commercial Organization (Yerevan,
Armenia) with support of the Ministry of Culture
of the Republic of Armenia and the Intergovern‐
mental Foundation for Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Cooperation (IFESCCO) of Commonwealth
of Independent States (CIS) countries.
Representatives from 16 countries, namely Austria,
Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Italy, Kazakhstan, Kyr‐
gyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajiki‐
stan, Uzbekistan, Ukraine, France and Estonia,
took part in this significant scientific‐practical
forum.
The first day was opened by a press‐conference
where the participants were introduced to the
basic tasks and topics of the meeting. The leaders
of the workshops, master‐classes and round tables
were introduced, as well as the new scientific staff
of the Matenadaran. Having received new staff
and a restoration laboratory, the Matenadaran
can now become a base for the preservation and
study of the archeological heritage of Armenia.
Next, Armenian Deputy Minister of Culture Arev
Samuelyan greeted the guests and the hosts of
the Matenadaran emphasizing the importance of
such significant events on a large scale in the
framework of the cultural‐historical heritage of
CIS countries, especially in Armenia as it is on the
threshold of the 500th anniversary of Armenian
book‐printing and the 20th anniversary of its
independence.
According to Mr. Hrachya Tamrazyan, director of
Matenadaran, the main task of the workshop was
the necessity of enhance the scientific‐creative
communication between the participant countries
of the forum and making joint efforts to preserve
the world printed and manuscript heritage.
I think it is important to mention that the post‐
soviet countries experienced during the last 20
years a breakdown of the restoration system and
the lack of the training of restorers that existed
during the USSR. As result, the level of profes‐
sional training was reduced. Among the problems
that contemporary Ukraine faces, in particular,
there is the lack of a complete training system
for restorers. Therefore, the organization of this
international workshop in Yerevan was a great
contribution to the revival of the position and fur‐
ther professional development in these countries.
During the other three days, the workshop work
was organized in three simultaneous sections:
restoration, fund keeping and technology. These
three sections are high priorities in any serious
Matenadaran's new storage facility.
16 e‐conservation
NEWS
institutions that preserve and study printed and
manuscript heritage.
The restoration section started with a workshop
on “Problems of preserving and studying archeo‐
logical silk in Ukraine” given by Tatyana Krupa.
Although the workshop was focused on printed
and manuscript heritage, it should be kept in mind
that most ancient printed works and manuscripts
contain textiles, which also requires research and
preservation.
Patricia Engel (Austria) presented an interesting
master‐class on “Practical bases of neutralization
of medieval manuscripts” where she spoke about
the stabilization of corrosion of ferrous iron in
manuscripts, which is one of their main problems.
The seminar “Historical and technical methods of
restoring ancient stamps” given by Dayna Yoninaite
(Lithuania) was especially impressive. Ancient
stamps are one of the most difficult objects for
restorers. The Lithuanian methods that were pre‐
sented were based on their experience and during
the seminar the participants assisted to demons‐
trations with hanging stamps, pressed stamps and
stamp cases. Wax mixtures of stamps, lacquers
and techniques of making medieval stamps were
also analyzed during the seminar. It was especi‐
ally interesting to see the demonstration of fixing
cracks with the use of an electric soldering iron
with a thin tip.
Natalie Palamar (Russia) presented a master‐
class on “Scientific Research and Restoration of
Archive Documents and Ancient Photos” where
she summed up her 35 years of experience. The
participants were able to get acquainted with the
recent requirements and materials for the resto‐
ration of archive documents and old photos, and
for creating a stable environment to preserve the
objects.
Ann Tskhai’s (Russia) spoke about the “Restora‐
tion of the Two Armenian Manuscripts from Rus‐
sian State Library” during which she described
the badly preserved late medieval Armenian
manuscripts and how they were restored.
The restoration section ended with Gayane Eli‐
zyan’s (Armenia) master‐class on “Working with
Modern Equipments”. Her presentation introduced
the participants with the newest professional
equipments from the Matenadaran, such as the
Demonstration of the work on fixing cracks in wax objects byDayna Yoninaite, Lithuania.
17e‐conservation
NEWS
vacuum table used for cleaning and the stuffing
machine. This center of research and preservation
of manuscripts has now everything to develop
professional work, including a fine group of young
restorers with ambition to learn.
Aside the interesting master‐classes and practical
seminars, the participants had the opportunity
to visit the Matenadaran deposits and an exclusive
exhibition on ancient manuscripts from the Mate‐
nadaran funds. The legendary Echmiadzin Cathe‐
dral, the museum and treasury of Armenian Catho‐
lics were also visited. The remarkable town of
Garni, which it was also visited and was once one
of the capitals of ancient Armenia, was recently
awarded by UNESCO with the Melina Mercouri In‐
ternational Prize. Having spent 20 years on archae‐
ological research and 10 years on architectural‐
archaeological conservation of Chersonese
(Sevastopol, Crimea), I couldn’t help admiring
the temple of Garni, built in the 1st century BC.
The temple is considered to be a classical example
and it was restored in the Soviet times of Armenian
history. Although there are some problems with
open air sites of the world archeological heritage
of Garni and Erebuni, I could see improvements
such as neat towns, multilingual tables, profes‐
sionally restored roads for tourists and covered
pavilions under the thermaes.
At the end, this workshop led by the head of the
project Mr. Ara Khzmalyan was implemented as a
creative and uniting project. Personally, I have
taken back to Ukraine renewed knowledge and
books to use them in my native university.
I would like to express, on behalf of the partici‐
pants, my gratitude to the organizers of this event
for providing an opportunity to participate on
this remarkable forum. I would like to express my
special gratitude to the Intergovernmental Foun‐
dation for Educational, Scientific and Cultural Co‐
operation (IFESCCO) of CIS countries (Moscow,
Russia) for organizing this project.
TATYANA KRUPAConservator
Contact: [email protected]
Tatyana Krupa is Head of the restoration studio of
the Museum of Archeology and Ethnography of
V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, Ukraine.
Patricia Engel (Austria) and Gayane Elizyan’s (Armenia)during the demonstration of the methods of stabilization offerrous iron corrosion in manuscripts.
18 e‐conservation
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Review by Anna Karatzani
30 November ‐ 2 December 2011Brussels, Belgium
BACK TO THE ROOTSWORKSHOP ON TEXTILE DYEING WITH NATURAL DYES
Organised by:Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage (KIK‐IRPA)
Between the 30th of November and the 2nd of
December 2011 the Royal Institute for Cultural
Heritage (KIK‐IRPA), Belgium organized “Back to
the Roots ‐ Workshop on Textile Dyeing with Natu‐
ral Dyes” under the auspices of the European
CHARISMA project (Cultural Heritage Advanced
Research Infrastructures: Synergy for a Multidis‐
ciplinary Approach to Conservation/ Restoration).
Ina Vanden Berghe from (KIK‐IRPA) together with
Jo Kirby (the National Gallery, London), Maarten
van Bommel (Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erf‐
goed, Amsterdam) and André Verchecken (inde‐
pendent expert, Antwerp) were coordinating the
workshop. A total of 10 participants (conservators,
conservation scientists and an archaeologist)
from seven European countries attended the
workshop. The three‐day workshop was divided in
lectures given by the coordinators and practical
sessions on dyeing experiments with a wide range
of natural dye sources.
On Wednesday morning, after welcoming the
participants Ina Vanden Berghe introduced the
speakers and presented the outline of the work‐
shop. Then, Jo Kirby gave the first lecture on
“Natural organic dyes: biological sources and
historical background” followed by Maarten van
Bommel on “Principles of textile dyeing / histo‐
rical recipes and lab recipes”. Jo gave a detailed
speech about the various natural dyes, their
sources (plants, insects and shells) and origin,
trying to explain the importance and value of
some natural dyes and the long distance trade
that was involved for their transportation at the
known dyeing centres of Europe. She used infor‐
mation from custom records (London and Florence)
to show the quantity of the different dyes that
were imported to Europe and their costs according
the place of origin and talked about the regulations
that were applied on the use of specific dyes for
high or less valued textiles. She also explained the
methods of application of the different types of
dyes to textiles with special reference to mordant
dyes and the various mordants that have been
used through time.
Maarten talked about the types of natural dyes
according to their application method (direct,
mordant and vat dyes) and the bonds that are
achieved between the fibres and the dyes in each
case. Then, he explained how the various dyes are
extracted from the plants and insects and what
the procedures were for obtaining the actual dye
and for preparing the dye bath. Finally, he gave
examples of various historical dyeing recipes in
order to confirm the difficulties that arise while
trying to apply the instructions of such a recipe
today, not only because the information given is
not clear but also because some of the ingredients
are difficult to identify.
Before the lunch break, Ina gave the outline of the
afternoon practical session. This first practical
e‐conservation 19
REVIEWS
session was entitled “Dyeing with a wide range
of historical relevant biological dye sources”. The
aim of this session was to examine the difference
in the final colour achieved by using different
mordants and the influence of the addition of
potash to the final colour. Each participant was
asked to apply two dye recipes with the same dye
source to five wool samples. Four of the samples
were pre‐mordanted with the alum, iron, copper
and tin while the last sample was unmordanted.
The two recipes were performed with and without
the use of potash, while one of the participants
used also saffron on silk.
The second day started with the discussion of the
results of the practical session with special refe‐
rence to the differences observed on the colour‐
hue achieved in each case. Then, André Verhecken
gave a lecture on “Historical recipes” where he
spoke about the historical sources of dyeing reci‐
pes from antiquity onwards at different geographi‐
cal areas. During his lecture, he tried to explain
the difficulties in the interpretation of the infor‐
mation given in the historical recipes, not only
because some of them are incomplete but also
because since the authors of the recipe books
were not dyers they were not able to give all the
necessary details. He also talked about the various
dye sources, their introduction to Europe and their
use for specific textiles.
Maarten’s second lecture, “Analytical identification
of natural organic dyes/case studies”, was about
the analytical methods that can be used for the
identification of organic colorants. After explain‐
ing the application of the various spectroscopic
Top to bottom. The participants working on the preparation ofthe dyeing recipes; preparation of the two dyeing baths forannatto (Bixa Orellana L.); and André Verchecken showingthe procedure for obtaining the yellow dye from safflower.
20 e‐conservation
A card with the wool samples after dyed with Persian berries(Rhamnus sp.).
REVIEWS
and chromatographic techniques and the results
obtained, he showed examples of the analysis
that his team has performed on many different
archaeological and historical textiles.
Once again, Ina gave the outline of the second
practical session entitled “Refining of dyeing:
Biological source – various process parameters”.
Each participant would execute two different dye
recipes on wool samples, one with madder and
one with weld by changing the dyeing parameters.
The variations were referred to extraction time
and temperature, dyeing time and temperature,
influence of potash and soap, consecutive dyeing
and the use of different mordants. The aim of this
practical session was to examine and evaluate
the influence of these parameters on the final
colour of the textile.
During the second practical session André demon‐
strated a dyeing with safflower on silk in order to
show us the whole procedure to obtain two differ‐
ent colours (yellow and red) from safflower.
For the evening of the second day Ina had orga‐
nized a dinner at a local restaurant and we all had
the opportunity to relax in a very warm and elegant
place, taste some local recipes and discuss.
The last day was dedicated to practical sessions.
The aim was to produce green, purple and black
shades using two consecutive dyeings, one with
indigo and other with a mordant dye (madder,
weld and redwood). Each participant performed
two dyeings on the same premordanted wool
sample (mordanted with either tannin, iron or
alum); the only difference was the order of the
dyeing baths. Five participants applied the indigo
dye first and five the mordant dye first. The second
dyeing was performed in the afternoon and after
the samples were dried the results of this and the
previous practical session were discussed.
During the lunch break we also had a tour at the
textile conservation laboratory of the institute
and we had the opportunity to see some of the
objects that were treated at the time as well as
the facilities available.
The workshop closed with a joined discussion and
the evaluation of the three day program while
reference cards with all the samples that had been
dyed during the four practical sessions were pre‐
pared for each participant.
The participation at this workshop was very
important for me because this was a unique
Participants during the preparation of the dyes.
21e‐conservation
REVIEWS
opportunity to obtain practical experience on
dyeing with natural dyes. During this three day
workshop I had the chance to perform various
dyeing recipes and to understand how the various
mordants and dyeing parameters affect the results
of each recipe. At the same time the lectures, the
discussions during the practical sessions and the
evaluation of the results helped me to acquire
valuable knowledge which I can disseminate to my
students at the TEI of Athens. I enjoyed the lec‐
tures very much and I have appreciated the fact
that all the speakers gave us their presentations
as well as detailed reading list and all the dyeing
recipes we performed in the laboratories of KIK‐
IRPA. Ina Vanden Berghe, the three coordinators
and the members of the KIK‐IRPA staff were ex‐
tremely helpful throughout the three day period
and ready to answer all our questions and find
solutions to any problem arising. I believe that
all the participants have enjoyed the workshop,
the discussions during the lunch and coffee‐
breaks at the restaurant of KIK‐IRPA and we all
hope that we will have the opportunity to
attend another one in the near future.
ANNA KARATZANITextile Conservator
Contact: [email protected]
Anna Karatzani studied conservation of Antiqui‐
ties and Works of Art at the Technological Educa‐
tional Institute of Athens, Greece. She obtained
an MA in Conservation of Historic Objects from
De Montfort University (UK) and a PhD in analy‐
tical investigation of Byzantine‐Greek metal
threads from University College London (UK) in
2007. Since March 2011 she is Assistant Professor
in Textile Conservation at the Technological
Educational Institute of Athens, Greece.
Discussion of the results at the end of the practical session.
22 e‐conservation
XTACH 2011, an international conference on the
use of X‐ray (and related) techniques in arts and
cultural heritage was held on 7th‐8th December
2012 at the American University of Sharjah in the
United Arab Emirates (UAE). The conference was
organized in co‐operation with the National X‐ray
Fluorescence Laboratory (NXFL) and the Interna‐
tional Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
The conference was inaugurated by Dr. Peter
Heath, Chancellor of the American University of
Sharjah and attended by Mr. Kwaku Aning, Deputy
Director General of the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA), and Ambassador Hamad
Al‐Kaabi, Ambassador of the UAE to the IAEA,
university officials, faculty members and students.
The conference covered a variety of topics
including the usage of X‐ray and micro beam X‐ray
analysis, synchrotron based techniques, ion beam
and neutron based techniques, optical imaging
and mass spectroscopy, chromatography tech‐
niques, as well as best conservation practices.
XTACH11 provided an excellent forum for scien‐
tists in the region to interact, exchange ideas and
to initiate collaborations with each other as well
as with the international community. It showcased
some of the latest technical developments in the
field of non‐destructive testing for the diagnosis
and conservation of cultural heritage materials.
In addition to the presentations by the invited
speakers (Rene van Grieken and K. Janssens,
University of Antwerp, Belgium; Thomas Calligaro,
Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées
de France; Stefano Ridolfi, Ars Mensurae, Rome,
Italy, and Andrzej Markowicz, IAEA, Austria), a
total of 25 other research papers were also presen‐
ted and discussed. Participants from 20 countries
participated in the conference: Austria, Belgium,
Egypt, Italy, India, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon,
Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Sri Lanka, Syria,
Thailand, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
A more detailed outline of the conference
programme is as follows.
Day 1 (7 December 2011)
A total of 13 papers were presented on the first
day. The conference began with an invited talk by
Thomas Calligaro (Centre de Recherche et de
Restauration des Musées de France) on “The Merits
of Ion Beam Analysis in Evidencing Art and Archae‐
ological Fakes”, which he demonstrated by showing
some recent investigations of rock crystal skulls.
These were investigated by examining the degree
REVIEWS
Review by Mark Beech
7‐8 December 2011Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
XTACH 2011INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON THE USE OF X‐RAY (AND RELATED)TECHNIQUES IN ARTS AND CULTURAL HERITAGE
Organised by:American University of Sharjah (AUS),National X‐ray Fluorescence Laboratory (NXFL),International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
of water penetration (“Fick’s Law”) at the AMS
facility at Saclay, just to the south of Paris. He
concluded that Ion Beam methods were extremely
useful for the provenance and detection of fakes.
Rene Van Grieken (University of Antwerp, Belgium)
and colleagues then discussed “Atmospheric
Composition in the Alhambra, Granada, in the
Context of Preventive Conservation”. The Alhambra
is a UNESCO World Heritage site which has 3 million
visitors per year. Rene presented a fascinating
insight into the analysis of fine particles from the
site, such as less than 1 micron sized particles of
ammonium sulphate and nitrate, which are acidic
and hydroscopic, resulting from fertilizers in the
soils surrounding the site. He also illustrated the
high quantities of soot resulting from cars being
allowed near the entrances to the site, lamenting
the lack of specific European guidelines for parti‐
cles such as soot.
Martina Griesser and colleagues (Kunsthistorisches
Museum, Vienna) presented the “First Application
of a Newly Developed, Portable, Vacuum‐Chamber
Equipped XRF‐Instrument, Designed for the Sophis‐
ticated Needs of the Kunsthistorisches Museum,
Vienna”. This was a new movable (rather than
portable!) system for carrying out Portable Energy
Dispersive XRF.
Anjana Reddy‐Lingareddy (Historic Environment
Department, Abu Dhabi Authority for Culture and
Heritage) discussed “Pots, Plates and Provenance:
Sourcing Indian Coarse Wares from Mleiha using X‐ray
Fluorescence (XRF) Spectrometry Analysis”, based
on her recent joint‐research on the analysis of
Indian pottery samples from the archaeology site
of Mleiha (Sharjah) using X‐ray fluorescence (XRF)
to determine the provenance or origin of this
pottery dating from the 2nd ‐ mid 3rd century AD.
The paper and presentation were prepared in
collaboration with Dr. Gaffar Attaelmanan (Applied
Physics Department, University of Sharjah) and
Dr. Michel Mouton (CNRS, Paris). The analyses
were conducted on powdered samples collected
from the core of each sherd, which were then irra‐
diated for 1000 seconds using a 1.2 mm diameter
X‐ray beam. The resulting spectra were used for
quantification of the X‐ray intensity and elemental
concentration, and the levels of correlation were
statistically tested using the Chi‐test. Initial review
of the XRF results indicate that the Maharashtra
and Gujarat regions of India are probable source
areas for at least two of the types of wares.
B.S.B. Karunaratne (Postgraduate Institute of
Science, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka) then presented a
paper entitled “Use of X‐Ray Fluorescence and
REVIEWS
23e‐conservation
Dr. Peter Heath, Chancellor of the American University ofSharjah, makes the opening address at XTACH11.
Mr. Kwaku Aning, Deputy Director General of the InternationalAtomic Energy Agency, addresses XTACH11.
Diffraction Techniques in Studying Ancient Ceramics”.
Professor Karunaratne discussed the analysis of
ceramic samples from Anuradhapura, which was
from the 4th century BC until the beginning of the
11th century AD, the capital of Sri Lanka, as well
as from Pinwewa, another 4th century BC site.
This demonstrated that the vessels were similar
to modern pottery today, providing evidence that
some pots had been fired as high as 800 degrees
celcius, because of the presence of mullite, and
also calcite.
M. Abd El Hady (Conservation Department, Cairo
University, Egypt) and M.M. Kotb (Conservation
department, Fayoum University, Egypt) discussed
“Characteristics of Ancient Egyptian Glazed Ceramic
Objects as Revealed by Ion Beam Analysis”. A total
of 9 samples of glazed vessels from the Fatimid
and Mamluk period site of Al‐Fustat (10th‐16th
century AD), were examined by PIXE analysis. This
was carried out in Warsaw, Poland, using the Lech
Van de Graaf Accelerator.
The second invited talk was by A. Markowicz (IAEA,
Vienna, Austria) and colleagues who undertook a
“Review of the IAEA Activities in Support of Charac‐
terization and Protection of Cultural Heritage
Artifacts”. The International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA) is located in Siebersdorf, 35 km south of
Vienna, Austria. The facility houses the Nuclear
Spectrometry and Application Laboratory (NSAL).
He pointed out how the use of XRF was a simple,
fast and flexible method for the investigation of
the inorganic composition of objects, and illus‐
trated some of the Portable XRF spectrometers
they currently utilized.
Najeh Jisrawi (University of Sharjah, UAE) and
colleagues then discussed “Micro‐XRF Mapping as
a Tool for the Investigation of Oriental Paintings
The audience at XTACH11.
REVIEWS
24 e‐conservation
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25e‐conservation
and Manuscripts”. He demonstrated the use of a
XGT‐7200 which has a Si drift detector and dual
vacuum mode (air or partial vacuum), which had
proved very useful for looking at documents,
enabling a scan area up to 10x10 cm. The detection
of pigments like Titanium oxide, only invented in
1921, can help determine if paintings are modern.
Other examples of the analysis of documents from
the Juma Al Majid Center for Culture and Heritage
were also shown.
Jo‐Fan Huang (Conservation Department, Abu
Dhabi Authority for Culture and Heritage) gave a
useful overview of “Data and Interpretation:
Enhancing Conservation of Art and Cultural Heritage
through Collaboration between Scientist, Conservator
and Art Historian”. Following on from the previous
paper, she discussed the use of lead chromate,
which only went into use from the late 19th century
onwards, and Prussian Blue, which was first manu‐
factured in Berlin in 1704, China then monopo‐
lizing its trade from 1820 onwards.
Pisutti Dararutana (Chemical Department, The Royal
Thai Army, Thailand) and colleagues discussed
“Corrosion of Ancient Glass Beads found in Southern
Thailand”. These glass beads were from the ancient
site of Laem Pho. PIXE analysis was used to ana‐
lyse the glass beads using the facilities at Chiang
Mai university. This analysis revealed that they
were low magnesia alkali glass beads with 74‐75%
SiO2.
Eisa Yousif (Directorate of Antiquities, Sharjah)
and Atta Attaelmanan (University of Sharjah) pre‐
sented a paper on the “Role of XRF in the Restoration
of a Prominent Architectural Monument at the Site
of Mleiha”. XRF analysis was used to assist in the
restoration of the important site of Mleiha in
Sharjah emirate. Based on their analysis of local
Some of the conference delegates at XTACH11 standing in the American University of Sharjah.
REVIEWS
26 e‐conservation
samples they came to the conclusion that the
source of mud for manufacture of the mud bricks
used at Mleiha was an old lagoon al Al Khatem,
situated about 600m from the site.
Pisutti Dararutana (Chemical Department, The
Royal Thai Army, Thailand), Wanwisa Dhanmanonda
(Prince of Songkla University, Thailand) and Krit
Won‐in (Kasetsart University, Thailand) discussed
the “Characterization of Enameled Glass excavated
from Laem Pho Historical Site, Southern area of
Thailand”. Islamic glass fragments from Laem
Pho were investigated using SEM‐EDS, PIXE and
micro‐XRF.
The final presentation on Day 1 was Benjamin
Marcus (Conservation Department, Abu Dhabi
Authority for Culture and Heritage) who presented
a paper on the “Characterization of Traditional
Building Materials in Abu Dhabi Emirate, UAE”. He
provided an overview of how XRF, XRD, SEM‐EDX,
mortar analysis and chemical tests had been
utilized for current projects relating to the conser‐
vation of various historic buildings in Abu Dhabi.
These included the historic fort at Umm Al Hosn
and Al Hayla Tower in Liwa, the Iron Age site of
Hili 17 and the historic Bin Hadi Al Darmaki House
in Al Ain, as well as the historic buildings in the
old town of Delma Island.
All the delegates then departed in a bus for a tour
of Sharjah Museums. We were taken to the spec‐
tacular Museum of Islamic Civilization, followed
by a tour of the Sharjah Aquarium and a Gala
Dinner on the outdoor terrace of the Aquarium.
A perfect ending to a very interesting day!
Day 2 (8 December 2011)
A total of 16 papers were presented on the second
day. Day 2 began with an invited talk from Stefano
Ridolfi (Ars Mensurae, Rome, Italy) on “Portable
X‐ray Fluorescence Spectrometry for the Analyses
of Cultural Heritage”. He began by stating the
“Golden Rule” that cultural heritage objects are
unique, and so should be treated and respected
accordingly. The advantages of XRF were discus‐
sed: reliable, fast, cheap, simple, multi‐element
capability and concentration range (ppm ‐ %).
XRF is a penetrating technique, which gives
immediate results, therefore iterative sampling
can be undertaken. Its drawbacks are that
although it is non‐invasive, what are we in fact
analyzing? We might feel safe that there is always
a result, and that this is immediate, but is this
giving us false security? XRF provides a qualitative
analysis, but what about everything else? At the
end, he concluded saying that the use of portable
XRF is “simple but never easy!”
Mohammed Roumie (Lebanese Atomic Energy
Commission) presented a paper on “Authenticity
determination of Ag‐Cu Lebanese coins using
combines PIXE and RBS techniques”. A series of
Lebanese coins minted in 1952 were analysed,
combining PIXE and RBS to get better results.
Anjana Reddy from the Abu Dhabi Authority for Culture andHeritage presents her paper at XTACH11.
REVIEWS
27e‐conservation
This indicated that the coins only had a silver
enriched layer on their surface.
Seyed Mohammedamin Emami (University of
Isfahan, Iran) discussed “QXRD, XRF and Optical
Microscopy Applied to Characterization and Prove‐
nance of Ancient Ceramics from Haft Teppeh (1500‐
1150 BC),South‐West Iran”. This confirmed that
the Haft Teppeh pottery was similar to recent
locally produced pottery, but that it had been
produced with a different manufacturing process
and firing temperature.
Ibrahim Odeh (Yarmouk University, Jordan) pre‐
sented a paper on “The Application of Thin Films,
Coatings and Nano‐Materials Technologies in the
Conservation and Restoration of Artworks and
Archaeological Artifacts: Prospects and Possibilities”
where he explained about the importance of thin
films, less than 1 micron in thickness, and their
use as protective coatings.
Martina Griesser (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vien‐
na) and colleagues then discussed the “Application
of X‐Ray and Neutron Tomography to Study Antique
Greek Bronze Coins with a High Lead Content”. The
use of oak wood cabinets can create an acidic
environment for storing coins. A total of 1,200
coins were analyzed in this study using UV‐Fluo‐
rescent microscopy to document corrosion areas,
which are highly fluorescent because of the
presence of carbonates. Twenty coins were then
examined using Neutron Diffraction at the Ruther‐
ford Appleton Laboratory at the University of
Oxford. This revealed that the coins contained up
to 20‐30% Pb and up to 8% Sn. She concluded that
Neutron Diffraction was a better method than
X‐rays for studying coins as more details can be
seen. She also recommended that coins should be
stored in steel cabinets flooded with nitrogen,
where the oxygen concentration is less than 1%.
Alessandro Re (National Institute of Nuclear
Physics, Torino, Italy) and colleagues presented a
paper on “Results of the Italian neu_ART project”.
In this paper he discussed the difficulties involved
in scanning a 3m tall chair ‘Doppio Corpo’ by
Pietro Piffetti, a famous 17th century Italian
furniture manufacturer. X‐Ray Tomography was
utilized to examine the chair.
Atta Attaelmanan (University of Sharjah) then
discussed the “Sensitivity of a Scanning X‐Ray
Fluorescence Analysis System for Archaeological
Applications”. He explained how the use of an X‐
ray analytical microscope can help to analyze
untreated archaeological potsherds. By taking
four fragments from the same pot, taking a single
point and measuring it five times, this enabled
him to monitor any changes in the instrument
performance (chamber temperature, voltage, etc.).
He identified anything between 2‐3% up to 10%
variation in major elements, and up to 20% vari‐
ation in minor elements, in the same sample! It
was suggested that future results should be opti‐
mized by using a longer analysis time, and by
sampling more points (e.g. up to 10).
Professor Nasser Hamdan, Chair of the XTACH11 OrganizingCommittee, and Professor at the Department of Physics,American University of Sharjah.
REVIEWS
28 e‐conservation
Daisy Joseph (Nuclear Physics Division, Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre ‐ BARC, India) and K.B.
Dasari (Institute of Science, GITAM University,
India) presented a paper on “EDXRF and PIXE‐
Investigative Tools for Study of Gemstones and
Pottery Samples”. She discussed the use of EDXRF
on gemstones and the use of internal PIXE for
pottery samples. Her work demonstrated that Fe
is present in naturally occurring gemstones but
is not present in synthetic ones.
Nasser Hamdan (American University of Sharjah)
and colleagues discussed the “Integration of
micro‐XRF, micro‐Raman and FTIR Techniques to
Study Islamic Manuscripts.” He discussed their use
to study pigments and paper structure of various
ancient manuscripts. A number of compounds
were identified including the use of Cu (green
colour) – possibly malachite, Pb (blue colour),
Pb3O4 (red lead), mercury Sulfide (HgS): red
vermilion or cinnabar, copper (green ink), and Fe
(black ink – ‘Iron Gall Ink’). In the 15th‐16th cen‐
tury there were principally four types of ink used:
soot ink, bister, cinnabar and vermilion.
Laxmi Tumung (University of Rovira i Virgili, Tarra‐
gona, Spain) presented a paper “Understanding
Use‐Wear on Non‐Retouched Shells, Mytilus sp. and
Ruditapes, by performing a Wood Working Experi‐
ment: An Experimental Approach”. This concerned
the use of microscopy for detecting structures,
polish, pitting, edge rounding and micro‐fractures.
Koen Janssens (University of Antwerp, Belgium)
gave the final of the series of four invited talks
on “X‐Ray Based Imaging and Spectroscopy of
Cultural Heritage Materials”. He discussed how the
use of new techniques such as a Macro Scanning
X‐Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer could be used
to examine important paintings such as the por‐
trait of Don Ramon Satué, painted in 1823, kept
in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, which hides
a new Goya beneath it. He also presented a fasci‐
nating description of the differences between the
existing copies of Van Gogh’s famous Sunflower
series of paintings. The example retained in the
National Gallery in London has quite bright
yellow flowers, in marked contrast to the much
browner flowers in the example owned by the Van
Gogh Museum in Amsterdam. At the end of the
19th century artists utilized chrome yellow in their
paintings. If one shines UV light onto chrome
yellow it becomes brown after only a few weeks!
This brown layer is a very thin layer, masking the
vivid yellow beneath, and is formed by chromium.
Atta Attaelmanan (University of Sharjah) and
Michel Mouton (CNRS, Paris) presented details
of the “Elemental Composition and Correlation of
Mleiha Potsherds”. Mleiha, located in Sharjah
emirate in the UAE, is an important Late Pre‐Isla‐
mic period settlement dating from the 3rd century
BC – 3rd century AD. Analysis of potsherds of Late
Mleiha black ware using XRF spectrometry ana‐
lysis confirmed the homogeneity of the samples.
A. Tamimi, F. Abed and R. Al Himairee (College of
Engineering, AUS, Sharjah) discussed the “Appli‐
cation of SEM and Image Processing in the Analysis
of Damaged Artifacts”. They discussed how thin
sections set in resin, pre‐cleaned with acetone,
had been investigated to investigate porosity and
particle size. SEM and image processing was used
to provide qualitative and quantitative data.
Ibrahim Odeh (Yarmouk University, Jordan) then
talked about “The Application of Plasma and Ion
Beam Sources in the Restoration and Preservation
of Archaeological Objects and Artifacts”, and his
examination of a jaguar hand rattle.
Massaoud Harfouche (SESAME, Jordan) and
colleagues presented details about the planned
“State‐of‐the‐Art XRF/XAFS Beamline at SESAME
REVIEWS
29e‐conservation
Bronze age and Pre‐Islamic pottery on display in the archaeology exhibition at the American University of Sharjah, prepared bythe Directorate of Antiquities, Government of Sharjah Department of Culture and Information.
for Scientific Research Applications”. There are a
series of synchrotrons around the world. This
presentation concerned the development of this
new facility in Jordan, which by the end of 2015
will be fully functioning, inshallah!
Ziyad Al‐Sarraj and Hasan Damboos (Ministry of
Science and Technology, Iraq) concluded all the
presentations with a short paper on “Characteri‐
zation of Iraqi Archaeological Samples Using Ion
Beam and the Complementary Techniques”.
Samples of pottery from the Iraq National Museum
dating from the Sumerian to Islamic periods were
examined using PIXE, XRF, XRD and SEM techniques.
The conference concluded with a Discussion Panel.
Thomas Callligaro (Centre de Recherche et de
Restauration des Musées de France) introduced
the Cultural Heritage Advanced Research Infra‐
structure (CHARISMA) website, highlighting
some of its components such as ARCHLAB Infra‐
structures (for bibliographies), FIXLAB (for large
instruments) and MOLAB (for mobile instruments).
He explained that CHARISMA was for people
working in Europe (or in associated countries).
There was some discussion then about the need
for a similar sort of network being established
for the Middle East region.
Stefano Ridolfi (Ars Mensurae, Rome, Italy) con‐
cluded the conference by giving a passionate
speech about the dangers of using portable XRF
machines by non‐specialists and how easily
mistakes in interpretation can be made, con‐
cluding that “… people are more important than
machines!”. With that the conference ended.
Other activities associated with XTACH11
Archaeology Exhibition,30 November – 10 December 2011
In collaboration with the Sharjah Department of
Culture and Information (Directorate of Antiqui‐
ties), the American University of Sharjah organi‐
zed an archaeology exhibition from the 30th
November until the 10th December 2011. Special
thanks go to Dr Sabah Jasim and Eisa Abbas from
the Sharjah Directorate of Antiquities for facili‐
tating this event. The exhibition included about
45 artifacts from different sites within Sharjah
emirate, some of which dated back as long as
7000 years ago. These artifacts included: flint
arrowheads, pottery and alabaster vessels, metal
objects including bronze arrowheads and coins,
as well as carnelian bead necklaces.
REVIEWS
30 e‐conservation
Trainers and delegates at the Regional Training Course on the use of X‐rays and related techniques in Cultural Heritage.
Regional Training Course, 3‐8 December 2011
In addition to the XTACH11 conference, the Ame‐
rican University of Sharjah, in cooperation with
the National X‐ray Fluorescence Laboratory and
the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA),
organized a regional training course from 3‐8
December, 2011. This concerned a similar range
of topics to those discussed at the XTACH11 con‐
ference. Participants of the course were trained
in the use of physical and analytical techniques
in cultural heritage. In addition to lectures from
the National X‐ray Fluorescence Laboratory and
from the IAEA, the NXFL team provided the
opportunity for trainees to undertake projects
on ancient pottery samples, metal artifacts and
Islamic manuscripts. The practical part of the
course included experiments on XRF (portable,
and micro XRF), Raman measurements, as well as
other sample preparation techniques. The training
course concluded by a series of presentations of
the results by the participants, attended by the
NXFL team and experts from the IAEA. This trai‐
ning course was organized as part of the activi‐
ties of the IAEA technical cooperation RAS1011
Project: Using Ion Beam Analysis and Complemen‐
tary Nuclear Techniques for Material Characteri‐
zation in ARASIA State Parties. The course was
attended by participants from Iraq, Jordan,
Lebanon, Qatar, Syria, the United Arab Emirates
and Yemen.
MARK BEECHCultural Landscapes Manager
Contact: [email protected]
Mark has been involved in archaeological research
in the UAE for the past 18 years. He is Cultural
Landscapes Manager in the Historic Environment
Department at the Abu Dhabi Authority for Culture
and Heritage since 2006. He is responsible for the
Abu Dhabi database of cultural heritage sites and
the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) as
a cultural heritage management tool. He manages
the Historic Environment Department team dealing
with "Preliminary Cultural Reviews", which form
the cultural component of Environmental Impact
Assessments within Abu Dhabi emirate.
arti
cles
AREAS OF PUBLISHING
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Painting
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Paper / Documents
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Metals
Tile / Ceramic / Glass
Furniture
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Archeological objects
Conservation ScienceScientific research
Material studies and characterisation
Analytical techniques
Technology development
Biodeterioration
State‐of‐the‐art
Reviews
Preventive ConservationTheoretic principles
Case studies
Documentation in ConservationStandardisation
Documentation methods
Data management
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Conservation History
Art History, Iconography,
Iconology, Chemistry, Physics,
Biology, Photography, Cultural
Management, Museology,
Computer Science, Legislation and
Juridical Processes, Conservation
Policies
and any other field applied to
Conservation and Restoration
of works of art.
Find out more: www.e‐conservationline.com
e‐conservation
BOXES FOR THE HOUSINGAND PROTECTION OF BOOKS:
OBSERVATIONS ON THEIR HISTORYAND DEVELOPMENT
ByGianlorenzo Pignatti
Introduction
Boxes and cases for the protection of books are
historical artifacts [1‐2] that only in the 20th
century have become reliable instruments for the
long term preservation of manuscripts and prin‐
ted books.
The design and construction of protective boxes
are today codified procedures. This is the result
of theoretical beliefs and the experience of sci‐
entists, artists, bookbinders and book conser‐
vators who gave important contributions to this
process.
The present work focuses on the British and Irish
cultural and professional environments, which
provided unique contributions to this aspect of
book conservation practice.
This work is not a complete investigation of his‐
torical box styles but aims to provide the reader
with some practical and useful observations on
the history and development of boxes for hous‐
ing and preserving books.
When Daniel Charles Solander designed a case for
storing specimens at the British Museum, he made
a crucial contribution to the development of boxes
for storing movable material, including books.
At the end of the 19th century, the anti‐restora‐
tion position of the printer William Blades and
members of the Arts and Crafts movement sup‐
ported the growing interest in the practice of
conserving the original. This theory led to an in‐
creased attention to box making as a valid alterna‐
tive to the restoration of books.
These considerations became part of the conser‐
vation works of Roger Powell, renowned conserva‐
tor and part of the team who designed the boxes
for the Book of Kells. Several Irish manuscripts
conserved by Powell during his career are today
housed in wooden boxes designed by him and
constructed with the collaboration of Edward
Barnsley’s workshop.
This work describes the wooden boxes designed
by Powell and their main features are discussed.
The final section of this work focuses on the
Phased‐Box, a renowned solution for the storage
of library collections, and provides observations
on the ethos of Phased‐Box making and recent
transformations of its use and function.
Early examples: Daniel Charles Solander andhis legacy
During the years 1768‐1771 the Swedish naturalist
Daniel Charles Solander (1733‐1782) accompanied
e‐conservation 33
Protective boxes and cases for storage of manuscripts and printed books have a long history. Daniel
Solander’s invention at the end of the 18th century was so significant that today his name identifies his
box. The 20th century has seen a great development of the book conservation practice, including box‐
making. Influenced by anti‐restoration beliefs and gifted with remarkable skills, British and Irish
master bookbinders have created wooden boxes that retain their original function many years after their
construction. In this paper, examples of wooden boxes are presented and their features are discussed.
Research into book conservation techniques increased after the Florence flood in 1966. The box‐making
practice was also influenced and the Phased‐Box evolved shortly after the flood. A glimpse into the
history of the Phased‐Box allows one to observe recent changes of this box‐style.
BOXES FOR PROTECTION OF BOOKS
Captain James Cook during a journey in the Paci‐
fic. On his return Solander was appointed head of
the Department of Natural Sciences in the British
Museum where he designed a solid wooden case
for the storage of the specimens collected during
the voyage.
The use of his box (named after him and today
commercially known as Solander box) was then
extended to other types of artifacts. The scarce
bibliographical references and the observation of
early examples can suggest that the style of Solan‐
der in use in libraries did not change much until
recent years.
Niccolo Caldararo quotes three interesting histo‐
rical references on the box [3]. In 1844, a certain
J. Maberby described it as a "[…] a wooden box,
backed with leather, the sides covered with marble
or other paper, having leather corners, so that it has
much the appearance of a book; one of the sides is
made to open as a lid, carrying with it the back
which is attached to […]" [3].
Sixty years after the death of Solander, Maberby
advised collectors of prints and drawings to use
the Solander instead of portfolios [3]. We can
assume that after this moment the use of these
boxes within private collections could have only
34 e‐conservation
GIANLORENZO PIGNATTI
Figure 1. Solander box constructed for Chester Beatty (1875‐1968), Dublin, Chester Beatty Library, MS Is 1466. © The Trusteesof the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin.Figure 2. Solander box constructed for a printed copy of theLeabhuir na Seintiomna (Dublin, Benjamin Iveagh Library, VIIB 6). © The Benjamin Iveagh Library, Farmleigh. By kind permis‐sion of the Governors and Guardians of Archbishop Marsh’sLibrary, Dublin.Figure 3. Solander box in Plenderleith, 1937.Figure 4. Contemporary Solander box for sale. By kind permissionof Talas.
increased (Figures 1‐2). Caldararo also recalls an
extract from the work Fragments of bookbinding
(1937) by Thomas Harrison: "The early boxes in
the British Museum attributed to Solander were
constructed of a wooden base with pine woods
sides and top. The top and base were ‘cabinet
made’ to prevent warping" [3].
In addition to this, Caldararo includes the repro‐
duction of the Solander in use at the British Mu‐
seum since 1937 included in Harold Plenderleith’s
work (Figure 3).
Harris does not record any aesthetic feature (e.g.
tooled spine, false bands) of these boxes while
the other sources emphasize this aspect. The rea‐
son for this relates to the change of its use and
display purposes. The introduction of a plain wood‐
en case on a shelf of a library was a disturbing
presence to the eye of the collector and biblio‐
phile. Consequently, the decision to disguise the
shape of the box so that it resembled a book was
the best solution to overcome this aesthetic em‐
passe. With the progress of book conservation
sciences, the aesthetic embellishments were
gradually abandoned. The attention was focused
on the research and use of conservation grade
materials and the introduction of technical solu‐
tions that allowed ideal storage conditions and
safe access to the material. Today, the Solander
is a renowned and reliable instrument for the
storage and transportation of museum collections
and its use amongst institutions is a common
practice (Figure 4) [4‐7]. The technical and de‐
tailed description proposed by Roberts and Eth‐
erington [8] clearly refers to the classic style in
use in historical libraries: "The Solander box,
which is generally of a drop‐back construction, is
made of wood, has dovetailed joints and a back
shaped from a single piece of wood. The top and
bottom are held in place by screws and glue. The
box is secured by two spring catches fixed in the
e‐conservation 35
"fore edge" frames near the head and tail. When
properly constructed the Solander box is very nearly
dustproof and almost waterproof. The box […] is
generally covered in cloth, or, in more elaborate
instances, full morocco. It may even have raised
bands on the back (corresponding to the spine of a
book) and may be tooled".
A vivid description of the box and its advantage
for preserving books was also offered by William
Blades (1824‐1890) in 1881 in his notorious work
“The enemies of the books” [9]: "I remembering
purchasing […] a perfect copy of Moxon’s Mech‐
anic Exercises […]. The volumes were uncut, and
had the original marble covers. They looked so at‐
tractive in their old fashioned dress, that I at once
determined to preserve it. My binder soon made for
them a neat wooden box in the shape of a book,
with morocco back properly lettered, where I trust
the originals will be preserved from dust and injury
for many a long year. Old covers, whether boards
or paper, should always be retained if in any state
approaching decency. A case […] gives even greater
protection than binding. It has also this great ad‐
vantage: it does not deprive your descendants of
the opportunity of seeing for themselves exactly in
what dress the book buyers of four centuries ago
received their volume".
Blades not only described a Solander but also
made interesting observations on the key role of
cases and boxes for the preservation of old bind‐
ings. His empathy for retaining the integrity of
the book is highlighted in the following lines.
The subject of this quotation is William Caxton’s
(c.1422‐1491) book featured with the original
binding and its antagonist is “a well‐known Lon‐
don binder”: "Of course […] it was kept in its ori‐
ginal covers, with all the interesting associations of
its early state untouched? No such thing! Instead
of making a suitable case, in which it could be
preserved just as it was, it was placed in the hands
BOXES FOR PROTECTION OF BOOKS
of a well‐known London binder, with the order,
“Whole bind in velvet”. […] the volume now glows
luxuriously in its gilt edges and its inappropriate
covering and […] with half an inch of its uncut
margin taken off all round" [9].
Guy Peterbridge described Blades as "[…] a pre‐
servation pioneer in stressing the virtues of simple
boxing to protect old bindings, whose gratuitous
rebinding for the sake of a fresh appearance he
discouraged" [10].
Blades had a genuine understanding of old books.
He reflected an ethos and a respect for the evid‐
ence of old books that made him a precursor of
the 20th century theory of the preservation of
books.
Blades however was not the only one to under‐
stand the importance of “preserving the origin‐
al”. At the end of the 19th century, the members
of the international Arts and Crafts Movement,
born under the inspiration of John Ruskin (1819‐
1900), re‐discovered the cultural legacy and the
tradition of medieval craftsmanship. The Move‐
ment supported the anti‐restoration positions of
Ruskin and encouraged the preservation and in‐
vestigation of ancient artifacts. In this sense, it is
meaningful that the expression “would you know
the new, you must search the old” was a maxim
at the London County Council Central School of
Arts and Crafts, founded by Richard Lethaby in
1896 [10]. This theoretical principle influenced
the activity of the Arts and Crafts artists, includ‐
ing print making and book binding techniques.
William Morris (1834‐1896) and Thomas James
Cobden‐Sanderson (1840‐1922) were relevant
figures of the Movement. Morris’ critical positions
against the restoration of old buildings, in line
with Ruskin’s theory, must have reflected in his
approach to codices and early printed books. In
fact, Morris considered the book as if it was an
architectural structure formed by many parts.
The preservation and investigation of the ink,
the font, the decorations, the white margins of
the text block and the binding are essential ele‐
ments in understanding the historical value of
any book [10].
These considerations are relevant for the present
work because soon Douglas Bennett Cockerell
(1870‐1945), pupil of Sanderson, joined the
Movement. Cockerell was a master bookbinder
and executor of the conservation project of the
Codex Sinaiticus in 1935 [11]. Under Cockerell’s
influence Roger Powell established himself as one
of the most influential bookbinders and conser‐
vators of the 20th century.
Roger Powell and the Irish manuscripts
Roger Powell (1896‐1990) was taught by Cocker‐
ell at the London County Council Central School of
Arts and Crafts. From 1935 until 1947, Powell joi‐
ned Cockerell’s studio at Letchworth and in 1947
he opened his own studio in Froxfield in Hamp‐
shire (UK) [12]. Edward Barnsley (1900‐1987),
fine cabinet maker, also had his workshop in
Froxfield. Powell’s studio was a stroll away from
Barnsley’s workshop and this helped the creation
of a long lasting and prolific collaboration between
them: "[…] with the Barnsley and Powell work‐
shops only about ½ mile apart, it was a simple
matter to arrange the ordering from Barnsley of
quarter‐cut oak boards, special cases for books
and also book cabinets from time to time" [13].
In 1954, Powell completed the conservation work
of the Book of Kells (Dublin, Trinity College, MS
58). He was first invited to Dublin in 1952 and
completed several projects on medieval manu‐
scripts belonging to Trinity College and to the
36 e‐conservation
GIANLORENZO PIGNATTI
Royal Irish Academy (RIA). The collaboration
with Barnsley’s workshop was vital for the exe‐
cution of many of his Irish works including his
last project in 1981 ‐ the conservation of the
Cathach of St. Columba, the Psalter traditionally
ascribed to the saint and written between A.D.
560 and 600 (Dublin, Royal Irish Academy, MS 12
R 33).
The four volumes forming the Book of Kells are
housed in four wooden boxes stored horizontally
in a wooden cabinet. The box for the MS 58/2
was examined for this work (Figures 5‐6). Dove‐
tail joints secure the side walls of the base while
16 brass screws ensure a firm adhesion of the
walls to the base. The lid is completely removable
from the base and its opening/closing mechanism
is composed of a brass leaf spring. The rotation of
the leaf spring into metal catches keeps the lid
closed and the volume under slight pressure
(Figure 7). This reduces the risk of deformation of
the vellum sections forming the text block [14].
Powell’s intention was that the leaf spring should
provide the book with a smoother pressure than
the classic metal fastenings typical of the mon‐
astic bindings [15].
A leather strap assists the removal of the box
from the cabinet. To minimize the tension on the
binding structure (e.g. sewing structure, head‐
bands) and on the text block during handling,
the foredge of the book corresponds to the side
with the leather strap: when the box is handled,
the gravity‐force is focused on the spine of the
binding reducing the risk of physical damage to
the book.
37e‐conservation
Figures 5 to 8 (up to down). Wooden box for one volume of theBook of Kells: frontal view; internal base of the box; top view ofthe box with the lid closed, the leaf spring is hooked in the catches;and external side of the base. © Trinity College Library, Dublin.
BOXES FOR PROTECTION OF BOOKS
38 e‐conservation
Figure 9 (top left). Wooden cabinet for the storage of the four boxes housing the Book of Kells. Reproduced by kind permission of theEdward Barnsley Educational Trust, Froxfield.Figure 10 (top right). Wooden box of the Ricemarch psalter. Front view. © Trinity College Library, Dublin.Figure 11 (bottom left). Back view with the releasing system closed. © Trinity College Library, Dublin.Figure 12 (bottom right). Back view with the releasing system open. © Trinity College Library, Dublin.
GIANLORENZO PIGNATTI
The Book of Kells is part of the permanent exhib‐
ition at the Trinity College Library and normally
two volumes at a time are exhibited. The pair are
changed approximately every three months so the
boxes are moved several times a year [16]. Under
visual examination the box looks very solid and
sturdy and the only damage associated with its
use are scratches on the external side of the base,
possibly caused by the sliding of the box on a hard
surface such as metal (Figure 8). Powell and Barns‐
ley also designed the cabinet for the boxes. All
had to be stored in a safe (Figure 9): "Between the
carcase and the walls of the safe there is an air‐space
at the sides of about 1/8 inches [c. 3 mm]. There
is about 1 inch [c. 25 mm] above and below and
1/4 inches [c. 6 mm] behind" [14].
The boxes and cabinet were constructed in 1954
by Roger’s son, David, and Herbert Upton at the
Barnsley workshop. It took 106 hours for a total
cost of £45 [17].
The box structure reproduced in Figures 10‐12 was
designed for both the Ricemarch psalter (TCD, MS
50) and Garland of Howth (TCD, MS 56). It is a box
for vertical storage and the spine of the volume is
fully exposed. The main feature of this box format
is the wooden lever at the back. The lever is hinged
to the box and when rotated it pushes the boards
of the binding allowing the sliding of the volume
out of the case. There is no contact between the
text block and the lever. Direct contact is only
applied on the new wooden binding boards pro‐
vided by Powell during conservation work.
This releasing system seems too invasive and
today it is unlikely that it would be considered
a viable option in a conservation project. If we
contextualize historically this project we can
understand Powell’s consideration: the contact
between the lever and the new binding was not
relevant comparing to the preservation of the
39e‐conservation
BOXES FOR PROTECTION OF BOOKS
only surviving component of the manuscript, the
text block.
Between 1968 and 1981, Powell was committed to
the conservation projects of the Lebor na hUidre
(RIA, MS 23 E 25), Book of Lecan (RIA, MS 23 P 2),
Leabhar Breac (RIA, MS 23 P 16), Book of Fermoy
(RIA, MS 23 E 29) and Cathach of St. Columba. All
manuscripts were provided with wooden boxes for
horizontal storage and except the Book of Fermoy
the others were all constructed by David Powell
(George Taylor of Barnsley’s workshop collaborated
at the construction of the box for the Cathach).
An historical reference regarding the Cathach and
its historical shrine provides us with a practical
example of the evolution in the box design atti‐
tudes during the centuries. The manuscript was
considered an important relic of the saint and it
was used as a talisman on the battlefield. The
shrine for the Cathach was constructed between
the years 1062 and 1098 in order to protect the
relic when it was held by the army battalion [18].
The following extract from the Ordnance Survey
Letters of County Mayo (1834‐1841) proves the
exceptional relationship between the manuscript
and its protective case. The religious and symbolic
values that featured the manuscript were trans‐
ferred to the shrine, here anthropomorphized,
that became an active component of the relic:
"[…] a box [the shrine] with some gems inserted
into its cover, which resembled glass eyes, and that
whenever any one perjured himself these eyes were
wont to turn round to roll like human eyes, and
make signs of melancholy disapprobation of the
conduct of the profane perjurer […]" [18].
The boxes designed and constructed by the Pow‐
ells for the RIA material are of the same structure
(Figures 13‐14) and have the same mechanical
solutions featured in the original drawing of the
box for the Book of Fermoy, now part of the Barns‐
ley archive [19]. The only exception is the case
for the Book of Lecan that differs in appearance
(Figures 15‐16).
The base and the lid are individual entities. When
it is closed, the lid is hooked into a groove on the
back of the base (Figure 17) and the two compo‐
nents are kept firmly in place with one or two
metal catches. All boxes are lined inside with soft
material (e.g. felt, pig skin leather, foam covered
with linen) in order to provide the volume with
better housing (Figure 18). In 1985‐87, the same
structure was proposed by Eric Pearce for the cons‐
truction of the box for the Book of Ui Maine (RIA,
MS D ii 1) previously conserved by Anthony Cains.
Powell’s legacy and influence can be recognized in
another project. The fine wooden boxes designed
40 e‐conservation
Figure 13 (top).Wooden box of the Cathach of St. Columba. Bypermission of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. © RIA.Figure 14 (bottom). Open box. The conservation report (left) ishoused within the manuscript. Lid on the right. By permissionof the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. © RIA.
GIANLORENZO PIGNATTI
41e‐conservation
for the manuscripts belonging to the Parker Lib‐
rary at Corpus Christi College in Cambridge (UK)
recall the RIA boxes. It is no coincidence that
Nicholas Pickwoad, who trained and collaborated
with Powell, contributed substantially to the
Parker’s boxing project that took place in the
mid‐1980s [20].
Roger Powell was aware of the importance of a
wooden case as an active component in the correct
storage and preservation of a book. In 1975, he
wrote in the conservation note of the Book of
Fermoy [21]: "The case to keep the book under
slight pressure has been made in the workshop of
Edward Barnsley CBE in African Sapele. So far as
possible the book should always be kept in the
case with the catch closed. If left unrestrained
vellum becomes cockled; if this happened it might
become impossible to close the case".
Cains arguably states that Powell "was a distin‐
guished codicologist long before he knew the
word" [21].
His sensitivity as a conservator and codicologist
had intensified after the experience of the Flor‐
ence flood in 1966. In the conservation notes for
the RIA manuscripts Powell showed an increased
Figure 15 and 16. Wooden box of the Book of Lecan. Lateral view of the closed box and lateral view with the lid open (lower bottom).By permission of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. © RIA.
BOXES FOR PROTECTION OF BOOKS
interest in the scientific approach to conservation
work and the use of long‐term stable materials
[21] . In 1969, his refusal to carry out any treat‐
ment on the 7th century bound manuscript Stony‐
hurst Gospel (British Library, Loan 74) proved his
definite awareness of the importance of preser‐
ving original bindings [22]: "[…] it is [the Gospel]
no longer in a state to be treated with anything but
informed veneration. Repair is not the answer, uni‐
que evidence must not be disturbed".
The Phased Conservation Box
After the Florence flood of 1966, restorers faced
an overwhelming and unprecedented number of
volumes in need of treatment. The volumes were
classified according to different standards in or‐
der to optimize the time and prioritize treatments.
The organization of the work according to a
“phased structure” was later introduced at the
Library of Congress of Washington D.C. In 1967,
Peter Waters was hired as Conservation Officer at
the Library of Congress where he dealt with the
preservation programme of the collection
belonging to the Library [23] and his first‐hand
experience during the Florence flood certainly
influenced his new commitment [24] .
The Phased Conservation Project started in the
mid‐1970s and had the purpose of providing a
quick and effective solution for the preservation
of fragile material from the vast collection of the
Library. In Waters’ intention, the Project was the
answer to the daily care and assistance of the
collection: "an extension of collection mainten‐
ance" [24].
The core of the project was represented by the
Phased Conservation Box, a custom‐made pro‐
tective box constructed from folded boards. The
full conservation treatment of a single volume is
generally a long and expensive process, alterna‐
tively the use of a Phased Box is a fast and cost
effective way to temporarily store books in need
of treatment.
The use of a Phased Box for damaged material
also slows down some deterioration processes,
part of what Feller called the “autocatalytic
phase” in the life of the artefact [25‐26]. This
phase is the moment of greatest decay for any
object and it develops as a “cascade effect” that
could lead to the definite dissolution of the item.
This phase only stops when all the chemical and
physical decaying processes have reached their
natural conclusion and the object eventually
enters its “autoretardant phase” [25‐26]. The
European Law collection at the Library of Con‐
gress was clearly in its “autocatalytic phase” and
its phase boxing was the preferred solution to
temporarily stop the decay: "Most [volumes]
were in such a dilapidated state that every morn‐
ing one could move along the rows of volumes and
sweep up fragments" [23].
The use of the Phased Box postpones every treat‐
ment on the volume. When this is considered in
relation to the studies in Codicology and Archae‐
ology of the Book, it becomes of high relevance
because this box preserves the integrity of ori‐
ginal book structures[27] .
In the introduction of the “Boxes for the protec‐
tion of rare books” [28], Waters stated that fra‐
gile material of limited usage and consultation
was ideal for being “phase boxed”. In fact, when
it is open the Phased Box is more cumbersome
than other types of boxes and it could be unprac‐
tical for the reader. In addition to this there were
concerns about the wear and tear of the box due
to continuous opening and closing, which lead to
physical damage of the folding flaps.
42 e‐conservation
GIANLORENZO PIGNATTI
Phase boxing is a common practice in libraries
where are developed according to their specific
needs and specifications. According to Baker
and Dube, approximately 40% of the seventy
three institutions participating in their survey
use Phased Boxes for their collections [24].
Since the Phased Box was first introduced in lib‐
raries its role and function have changed. It was
born as a temporary protective case, linked to a
specific “phase” in the life of the artifact. Today
it is increasingly considered as a permanent box
and it is often constructed to store books after
full conservation treatment (Figure 19). It is part
of this evolution the protective case designed at
the Derry and Raphoe Diocesan Library Project
[29]: "The visible spine allows librarians, archiv‐
ists, scholars who are looking for books of a par‐
ticular period to select them from the shelves
without necessarily opening the Phase‐Boxes.
[…] the optional information sheets give further
more precise details about both the binding and
the text and record the conservation and consul‐
tation history of the book. They will limit the
damage caused by unnecessary manipulation".
43e‐conservation
Figure 17. Wooden box of the Book of Ui Maine. Detail of thewooden grove on the base. By permission of the Royal IrishAcademy, Dublin. © RIA.
Figure 19. Books conserved and housed in their Phased Boxes.Delmas Conservation Bindery. By kind permission of theGovernors and Guardians of Archbishop Marsh’s Library, Dublin.
Figure 18. Wooden box of the Lebor na hUidre. Lid on the left. By permission of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. © RIA.
BOXES FOR PROTECTION OF BOOKS
44 e‐conservation
The Visible‐Spine Phase Box is technically a more
complex version than the classic style. It protects
the book and provides users with bibliographical
information at the same time. These features
suggest that this box was created under different
considerations and for distinct purposes: there is
the perception that it was designed as a long term
preservation box. It could be suggested that there
are today cases when the term “phased” is no
longer appropriate for this type of protective box.
Conclusions
Daniel Solander designed and created a box of
extraordinary success. The 19th century anti‐resto‐
ration theory which originated in Europe, promo‐
ted the adoption of boxes for preserving books
within collections and the circulation of the So‐
lander was probably influenced by this ideal.
The Solander and its modern variations are found
today in many historical libraries and this proves
its solid reputation as a reliable instrument for the
storage of bibliographical material.
Thanks to his collaboration with experienced and
skilled professionals (Douglas Cockerell, Edward
Barnsley, David Powell), Roger Powell made an
essential contribution to the practice of designing
and constructing wooden boxes for manuscripts.
The development of this very specific field of book
conservation and preservation evolved from the
collaboration of professionals who shared an
amount of practical knowledge and skills.
The Florence flood was a central moment for the
development of the research into box‐making.
The Phased‐Box partially derives from this tragic
event. This work could draw a parallel between
the introduction of Solander’s creation within
libraries and the adoption of the Phased‐Box:
both circumstances were significant for the de‐
velopment of protective cases for books.
All the subjects tackled in the present work deserve
further investigation and especially the geogra‐
phical limits must be extended to include other
European and American projects. The Author hopes
that the observations presented contribute to a
better understanding of the development of this
significant aspect of book conservation practice.
Acknowledgments
My gratitude goes to Dr. Jason McElligott, Keeper
of Archbishop Marsh’s Library, for his observa‐
tions and generous support. My warm thanks to
Conservators Noureen Qureshi (Delmas Conser‐
vation Bindery, Dublin) and John Gillis (Trinity
College, Dublin) for their editing and proofreading
and to all colleagues, librarians and archivists
for their cooperation and help.
References
[1] F. Pesando, Libri e biblioteche, Edizioni Quasar,
Roma, 1994
[2] C. Gallavotti, La custodia dei papiri nella Villa
suburbana Ercolanese, Tipografia Eugubina,
Gubbio, 1940
[3] N. Caldararo, “The Solander box, its varieties
and its role as an archival unit of storage for prints
and drawings in a museum, archive or gallery”,
Museum Management and Curatorship 12, 1993,
pp. 387‐400. The quoted work is: H. Plenderleith,
GIANLORENZO PIGNATTI
The conservation of prints, drawings and manus‐
cripts, Oxford University Press, 1937
[4] R. Lane, “Environmental carrying case design”,
The Paper Conservator 11, 1987, pp. 95‐98
[5] A. Wise, C. Granowski and B. Gourley, Out of
the box: measuring microclimates in Australian‐
made Solander boxes, URL [pdf] (accessed 11th
Dec. 2011)
[6] D. Vinod and M. Shin, “Hygrometric half‐lives
of museum cases”, Restaurator 14, 1993, pp. 30‐44
[7] D. Vinod and M. Shin, “The moisture buffering
capability of museum cases”, Material Research
Society 267, 1992, pp. 453‐458
[8] M. T. Roberts and D. Etherington, “Solander
Box”, in Bookbinding and the conservation of
books. A dictionary of descriptive terminology,
URL (accessed 11th December 2011)
[9] W. Blades, The Enemies of the Books, Trübner,
London, 1880, pp. 89‐93, URL
[10] G. Petherbridge, Roger Powell: the compleat
binder, Brepols, Tournhout (B), 1996 p. 38
[11] F. Marzo, Codicology: the history of the
structural features of the Codex Sinaiticus, URL
(accessed 11th December 2011)
[12] H. Nixon, Roger Powell and Peter Waters, The
Slade, 1965
[13] A. Donnelly and P. Waters, Roger Powell, the
compleat binder: liber amicorum, Brepols, Tourn‐
hout, 1996, p. 18
[14] R. Powell, Report on the repair and rebinding of
the Book of Kells, Trinity College, Dublin, MS 2586
[15] R. Powell, Notes on the conservation work of
the Book of Durrow, Trinity College, Dublin, MS 2589
[16] Private e‐mail of Susan Bioletti, Head of
Conservation and Preservation Department of
the Trinity College Library, Dublin. E‐mail of the
24th May 2010
[17] Private e‐mails of Gilly Anderson, the Edward
Barnsley Workshop. E‐mails of the 28th January
and 1st March 2010
[18] R. O'Floinn, “Sandhills, silver and shrines:
fine metal work of the medieval period from Done‐
gal”, in Donegal, history and society: interdisci‐
plinary essays on the history of an Irish county,
Geography Publications, Dublin (ROI), 1995,
pp. 85‐148
[19] Edward Barnsley archive, Box 45
[20] N. Hadgraft, “Storing and boxing the Parker
Library manuscripts”, in Conservation and
preservation in small libraries, Parker Library
Publications Cambridge, 1994
[21] Anthony Cains, Roger Powell, the compleat
binder: liber amicorum, Brepols, Tournhout,
1996, p. 85
[22] R. Powell and P. Waters, “Technical descrip‐
tion of the binding”, in The Stonyhurst Gospel,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1969
[23] P. Waters, “Phased Conservation”, Book and
Paper Group Annual 17, 1998, URL (accessed 11th
December 2011)
[24] W. Baker and L. Dube, “Identifying standards
practices in research library book conservation”,
American Library Association 54(1), 2007, URL [pdf]
(accessed 11th December 2011)
45e‐conservation
BOXES FOR PROTECTION OF BOOKS
CALL FOR SUBMISSIONS
e‐conservation magazine is open to submission
of articles on a wide range of relevant topics
for the cultural heritage sector.
Next deadlines for article submission are:
for Issue 24, September 2012 – submissions
due 15h May 2012
for Issue 25, March 2013 – submissions due
15th November 2012
Nevertheless, you can always submit your
manuscript when it is ready. Upon revision,
it will be published as soon as possible
depending on:
‐ the number of the manuscripts on hold,
submitted earlier by other authors
‐ the release date of the upcoming issue
‐ the pre‐allocated space in the magazine
to each section
Please check our publication guidelines
for more information.
[25] R. Feller, Accelerated aging: photochemical
and thermal aspects, Getty Conservation Institute,
Los Angeles, 1994, URL (11th December 2011)
[26] B. Applebaum, Conservation Treatment
Methodology, Butterworth‐Heinemann, Oxford,
2007, pp. 48‐64
[27] B. Ogden, “On the preservation of books and
documents in original form”, Abbey Newsletter
14(4), 1990, URL (accessed 11th December 2011)
[28] M. R. Brown, Boxes for the protection of rare
books: their design and construction, Library of
Congress, Washington, 1994
[29] A. Scola, “Introducing the visible spine
Phase‐Box”, Society of Archivists 244, 2009
GIANLORENZO PIGNATTIConservator‐restorer
E‐mail: [email protected]
Gianlorenzo Pignatti is a book conservator
graduated at the University of Tor Vergata in
Rome, Italy. Previously, he obtained a book con‐
servation diploma at the Conservation Centre
“Bertesi” in Cremona, Italy in 2005, and has
since then trained and collaborated with Italian
institutions and private conservation studios.
From 2008 until 2011 he was based in Dublin,
Ireland where he was employed as book conser‐
vator at Archbishop Marsh’s Library. Between
2010 and 2011, he supervised the preservation
project of the collection which included the
dusting of the volumes and the condition survey
of the collection. He is now based in Florence,
Italy as a freelance book conservator.
46 e‐conservation
GIANLORENZO PIGNATTI
LINING, RELININGAND THE CONCEPT OF UNIVOCITY
ByCecil Krarup Andersen
Introduction
In structural conservation of paintings there is a
range of words that young conservators have to
learn. They describe the many types of structural
treatments that are given to paintings on canvas.
The amount of words in use is large, and some
of the words are more or less synonymous. An
example that will be discussed here is lining and
relining, words that in some traditions have the
same meaning and in others have different mean‐
ings. To understand the conservation language
requires a vast amount of knowledge about the
history of conservation and the use of words in
different regions of the world. This article focuses
on the terminology in structural conservation of
paintings on canvas, but the diversity in termino‐
logy seems to be a common issue in many fields of
conservation. When Gaël de Guichen received the
Forbes price in 2006 he said: ‘I have the impres‐
sion that we live in the tower of Babel’ [1], refer‐
ring to the discussion concerning the terms
‘conservation’ and ‘restoration’.
The European Committee for Standardization has
begun working on standardization of English
terminology within the conservation field (CEN/
TC 346 WG1) [2]. This is a task that involves con‐
servators from many European countries. In the
Second Draft from the CEN working group concer‐
ned with terminology, it is stated that the purpose
of the work with standardization is to “bring
greater understanding and better collaboration
amongst those who have responsibility for cultu‐
ral heritage’ [2, p. 4]. The working group wish
“to avoid confusion, to ensure that what one
person means by a word corresponds with what
another person means” [2, p. 4].
We find it difficult to agree on common under‐
standings of words, and the need for univocity –
the character of being univocal or having one
voice – has been expressed in order to ensure
uniform communication in a common language.
This need arise from the increasing demand to
communicate work and research results to
colleagues, the public, museum staff and so on.
Many conservation and research projects are
crossing country boundaries, which is why the
CEN working group expresses a need to make
sure that conservators speak the same language
and use the same words. Consistency in our
The Greenwich Lining Conference in 1974 was the first international conference where conservatorsdiscussed lining treatments and their consequences. At the conference, a glossary was issued withdefinitions of the words used by conservators in an attempt to move towards consistency in the Englishterminology used by conservators worldwide. In the glossary, lining was defined as the treatment wherea new support is attached to the back of a canvas. Relining on the other hand was defined as therepetition of a lining. After the conference extensive research was done in structural conservation and anumber of new lining methods were introduced. The question is whether the terminology used was nowmore consistent with the Greenwich definitions. The aim of this article is to establish how and when thewords referring to lining treatment have been used from 1974 till now in an attempt to clarify to whatdegree the definitions from the Greenwich Conference have been accepted and used amongconservators. The analysis is based on a search in the bibliographic database AATA Online resulting in363 abstracts written by authors mainly from Europe and USA. It has been assessed whether the wordsin these abstracts and their titles have been used according to the Greenwich definitions or not.Surprisingly the investigation shows a decreasing consistency in the use of terminology. Theconsequences of the lack of consistency in the terminology are discussed.
48 e‐conservation
CECIL KRARUP ANDERSEN
of the paintings and the situation called for inter‐
national consensus on degrees of intervention
and the choice of methods and materials. It was
what Schaible later called ‘Doublierungskrise’, or
‘lining crisis’ in English [3].
The crisis showed a lack of consensus about what
was good lining praxis, and this lack was reflected
in the confusion in the terminology. Lining, trans‐
fer, relining and backing were all words used about
the same thing. Two important and comparable
handbooks written by Stout and Keck illustrate
the confusion, as one used relining and the other
lining [4, 5].
Conservators realized that there was a need for
international cooperation on the subject, and in
1974 the first international lining conference
was held at the National Maritime Museum in
Figure 1. A glue‐paste lining in progress on a suction low pressure table. The tensioned painting is placed on top of a new canvas.Both the original canvas and the new canvas have been prepared with glue‐paste adhesive. The painting will be attached to thelining canvas using heat and negative pressure. Photo by Mikkel Scharff. © The Getty Trust.
language also becomes an issue in the literature
searches that are the basis for all research.
Searching words in bibliographic databases
require agreement on common terms.
Otherwise stated, the word lining will be used
here to describe the treatment where a support is
attached to the back of a painting and the word
relining to describe the removal and replacement
of a support attached to the back of a painting.
Delining is used to describe the removal of a lining.
The lining treatment (Figure 1) has been one of
the most discussed subjects in conservation litera‐
ture. In the 1960s an increased lining activity
resulted in a discussion of the negative effects of
the lining methods used at the time. Painting
conservators had realized that many lining
treatments changed the appearance and texture
LINING, RELINING AND THE CONCEPT OF UNIVOCITY
49e‐conservation
Greenwich, England. At the conference, conserva‐
tors discussed lining treatments and their conse‐
quences in an international forum. This required
a common understanding of the different words
in use, and a glossary was issued in an attempt
to move towards consistency in the English
terminology used by conservators worldwide.
The concept definitions from the Greenwich
Conference represent the starting point of this
article, since they represent the first interna‐
tional standard for the terminology of structural
conservation.
In the glossary from the Greenwich conference
lining was defined as “The sticking of a fabric
(traditionally a fine linen canvas) to the reverse
side of a canvas picture. The purpose of which may
be to counteract structural weakness in the original
canvas itself and/or to secure cleavage between
the paint ground and the canvas layers” [6].
Relining was defined as “The lining of a painting
which has been lined before. Removal of the old
lining canvas and adhesive and mounting on a
new lining canvas with new lining adhesive” [6].
In the following years there were more attempts
to define conservation terminology in reference
works, and they define lining and relining in a
similar way [7, 8].
After the Greenwich conference there was reason
to believe that there would be a movement
towards consistency in the terminology, but when
going through the literature on structural conser‐
vation written since, the confusion is still evident:
in 1975 an article came out that summarized
replies from conservators on a questionnaire
regarding lining [9]. The title alone, ’Relining:
Materials and techniques: Summary of replies to a
questionnaire’ illustrates this point. Even though
all three authors had been editing the ’Handbook
of terms used in the lining of paintings’ from the
Greenwich Conference [6] they still used the term
relining in the heading for their article one year
later. In 1984, the article was followed up by a
similar article, ’Lining in 1984: Questionnaire
replies’ [10], and the updated answers to similar
questions were discussed. In this article the
Greenwich definitions were followed.
Etymology in European Lining Words
In 2005, Hackney wrote that relining in some cases
means lining [11] and a search in the Abstracts of
International Conservation Literature (AATA) [12]
and the Bibliographic Database of the Conservation
Information Network (BCIN) [13] confirms this
confusion. Articles using the word relining go back
to the 1930s [14] and perhaps further back. On
the other hand, a book title shows that the word
lining is used as early as 1853 [15]. Etymology
offers a plausible explanation for the reason why
both words are used about the same phenomenon.
The verbum ‘line’, meaning ‘to cover inner side
of…’, goes back to the late 14th Century. It is
derived from lin (linen cloth), because linen was
frequently used as a second layer of material at
the inner side of garment in the Middle Ages [16].
The word lining can be compared to the Spanish
‘forración’ and the Italian ‘foderatura’. These
words mean lining (of paintings) and can also be
translated as ‘to cover the inside of a garment’.
Another tradition is the one where words for
lining come from words for doubling. In German
‘doublieren’, Dutch ‘doubleren’, Danish ‘dublere’
and Swedish ‘dubblering’.
The most common French word for lining is
‘rentoilage’. Linen in French is again ‘lin’ but a
50 e‐conservation
CECIL KRARUP ANDERSEN
51e‐conservation
canvas is ‘toile’. This comes from Latin tela (web).
‘Entoiler’ means to cover the inside with canvas,
but ‘rentoiler’ means to line a painting. ‘Rentoiler’
is also connected to the Spanish word ‘reentelado’
(‘tela’ is canvas) and the Italian ‘rintelatura’ that
also both mean lining.
‘Rentoiler’ was earlier used about the more
radical treatment where the original canvas on a
painting was removed and replaced with a new
one. Since it was a replacement of the canvas the
prefix ‘re‐‘ was used. Methods became less radical
but the word ‘rentoilage’ remained the same. It
now also meant ‘to apply a new canvas on top of
the old one’.
It is a reasonable assumption that the English
relining with the same meaning as lining, comes
from the direct translation of ‘rentoiler’, ‘reente‐
lado’ and ‘rintelatura’ into English ‘re‐linen’ /
‘re‐lining’.
Searching for Lining and Reliningin Bibliographic Databases
As previously mentioned, the conservation field
has two major international bibliographic data‐
bases: AATA [12] and BCIN [13]. In this article,
AATA is used because it provides the reader with
an abstract in English on records in all languages.
This makes conservators able to compare the
translations and the use of English terms in
different parts of the world.
One of the aims of this article is to establish how
and when the English words referring to the lining
treatment have been used from 1974 till 2010 in
an attempt to clarify to what degree the defini‐
tions from the Greenwich Conference have been
accepted and used among conservators worldwide.
A search in AATA with a combination of the index
words ’lining’ and ‘paintings’ resulted in more
than 500 records. The titles and/or abstracts
from 1974 to 2010 that include the words lining
or relining in any form have been chosen as the
basis for this analysis. Records that dealt with
works of art on paper, parchment panel or leather
were also disregarded.
The result was 363 abstracts written by authors
mainly from Europe and USA although other conti‐
nents are also represented. It was then assessed
whether the words in these abstracts and their
titles have been used according to the Greenwich
definitions or not. Not all the abstracts to the
articles were written by the authors themselves.
In some cases another conservator had been
responsible for the English abstract. Neverthe‐
less, their words are searchable in the database.
Results
Figure 2 shows how many records were found
each year and how the words were used accord‐
ing to the titles and abstract texts. ‘Follows the
Greenwich definition’ means that lining is used
as ‘the sticking of a fabric to the reverse side of a
canvas picture’ or that relining is used as ‘the
lining of a painting which has been lined before.
Removal of the old lining canvas and adhesive
and mounting on a new lining canvas with new
lining adhesive’[6].
Three records from the 363 used ‘new lining’
instead of relining and they were not regarded as
following the Greenwich definition. 110 records
used the word relining, and in some cases it could
not be established from the abstract text whether
it was in fact a repetition of a lining or a use of the
word that was not consistent with the Greenwich
definition. In the cases of doubt a special category
was used called ‘not clear’. Only 27 records from
the 110 using relining could without doubt be
LINING, RELINING AND THE CONCEPT OF UNIVOCITY
52 e‐conservation
identified as dealing with relining as defined in
the Greenwich glossary.
In Figure 3 the results are divided in decades and
shown in percent (numbers at the bottom are the
actual number of records). It is clear that a decreas‐
ing percentage (and number) of records follow the
Greenwich definitions through the decades. In the
last decade the conservation vocabulary has be‐
come so inconsistent that only 60% of the abstracts
and titles follow the Greenwich definitions. In
some cases both lining and relining are used in the
same abstract about the same type of treatment.
The word relining is most common in Central and
Southern Europe, whereas records from Northern
Europe, Great Britain and the USA seem to use the
word lining according to the Greenwich definition.
The topics considered in the records are shown in
Figure 4. Most of them describe lining methods
and materials or the history of lining methods
and materials. The number of these articles is,
however, decreasing. A smaller, but increasing
amount of records are considering concerns with
lining methods and recommend avoiding linings.
The same pattern is seen for the group where
alternative methods are described and for the
group where relinings and delinings (repetition
of linings and removal of linings) are described.
This shows that there is a still growing concern
about the use of linings and the challenge of
relining and delining comes up more and more
often. This information can only be retrieved by
reading all the abstracts or articles since the
terminology is not used consistently enough to
allow us to get access to the appropriate records
by searching in index terms. The conservator
who is interested in the challenges of relining
will have a lot of sorting to do before he finds
the right articles to read.
It is interesting how the word minimalism is also a
complicated word to search. Because minimalism
is argued in so many different cases it cannot be
related to a certain type of treatment. When con‐
servators use cold lining, strip lining, delining and
not lining they may claim to be mini‐malists. The
words ‘non‐intervention’, ‘non‐interventionalist’
Figure 2. The use of the words lining and relining in records from AATA‐online, abstracts of international conservation literature(http://aata.getty.edu/NPS/).
CECIL KRARUP ANDERSEN
53e‐conservation
and ‘minimalist’ became common in the 1980s
[10]. In earlier days conservators would sometimes
define themselves as ‘liners’ but with the new
terms conservators now define themselves by
their choice of refraining from lining. The term
‘not lining’ was also used [17] and a number of
articles have been published describing how con‐
servators had succeeded in not lining paintings
[18‐21]. Yet in 2003 the minimalistic ideal was
questioned by Ackroyd and Villers in an attempt
to move the discussion towards a post‐minima‐
listic paradigm [22].
Implications of Inconsistency
It is clear that we have not standardized our termi‐
nology and the question is whether univocity is
what we want to aim for. Temmermann argues
that the univocity ideal can be questioned accor‐
ding to Socio‐cognitive Terminology [23]. This
concept is based on the assumption that differ‐
ences in terminology can be used to achieve a
more precise perception of the meaning of a
concept. Lining and relining are not only used in
different geographic areas. They are also used in
different traditions of understanding the concept
of structural conservation. This implies that there
is a lot we can learn from studying the words we
use, and forcing everyone to use the same words
may deprive some conservators of the possibility
of expressing themselves in a way that can be
precisely perceived in their area (geography, lan‐
guage, etc.). However the areas in which conser‐
vators move have been enlarged over the years,
and whenever we need to communicate interna‐
tionally it can be an advantage to agree on common
rules for the use of language.
The results presented here suggest that there is a
language barrier between countries making our
communication difficult. Central and Southern
European countries are using a different termino‐
logy which is confirmed by the etymological expla‐
nation of the differences in the use of words. This
means that research results from some countries
are in risk of being misinterpreted by conservators
from other parts of the world and vice versa. The
Figure 3. Percentage of records following the Greenwich definitions. Under each column is the actual number of records in each category.
LINING, RELINING AND THE CONCEPT OF UNIVOCITY
54 e‐conservation
written evidence of the work conservators do is
increasingly important and the consequences of
inconsistent terminology can be manifold. Cases
like condition reports when paintings are lent
out, insurance cases, exchange of research and
conservation treatment records are examples of
the increasing international corporation and
exchange that has called for agreement in the
definition of terms.
Conclusions
The study shows a growing inconsistence in the
use of structural conservation terms but the impli‐
cations may cover much more than inconsistency.
When conservators insist on diversity in the use
of terms related to lining it could be a symptom of
diversity in opinions in different regions, schools
and traditions. The study offers a platform for
further research into the more philosophical issues
and differences of opinion within the subject of
structural conservation. To uncover different
definitions of words can be to map our differences
and degree of communication both when it comes
to geographic areas and philosophical schools. The
study implies that we do not agree on the definiti‐
ons of concepts and the premises behind concepts.
However, communication at international levels
is being complicated by the inconsistency in
terminology. Time, resources and information are
spent on trying to understand the state of the art
in lining of paintings and it becomes unclear how
the field is evolving. It is clear that a univocal defi‐
nition of certain words is desirable as a working
tool for international communication between
disciplines within the investigation and conserva‐
tion‐restoration of cultural heritage. The CEN
initiative may offer a unique opportunity to move
forward into a common interdisciplinary under‐
standing of our working language within the
European Babylonian continent. The Greenwich
definitions or definitions similar to them seem to
be the obvious choice for a common definition of
words since they offer a possibility to differentiate
Figure 4. The most common topic in lining literature is reviews or descriptions of methods and materials. However retreatment andalternatives are considered with increasingly frequency.
CECIL KRARUP ANDERSEN
55e‐conservation
between linings and relinings. As shown earlier,
delining and relining are increasingly significant
subjects, a fact that can be difficult to recognize
if it is not possible for the next generations of con‐
servators to appreciate the differences between
lining and relining. It is therefore to be hoped
that other non‐European countries will be invited
to listen and comment on the CEN progress in
order to accept the same definitions in due course
and hereby achieve a common tool for reports,
papers and so on on an international level.
Sandardization and univocity may however not
bring greater understanding. With Temmermanns
arguments we may want to embrace our differences
and explore what the real reasons for them are.
Our diverse use of terms may help us to point out
issues of importance or even point directly to the
heart of the concept of conservation. Why do we
do it, for whom do we do it, what is our final goal
and what means can be used to achieve it?
References
[1] G. De Guichen, “A common Definition of Conser‐
vation and Restauration: Agree or disagree, but
we are living in the tower of Babel”, Studies in
Conservation 52, 2007, pp. 69‐73
[2] Conservation of cultural property – Main general
terms and definitions concerning conservation of
cultural property, prEN15898, URL (15‐06‐2010)
[3] V. Schaible, “Neues Überlegungen zur Feutich‐
keit an Leinwandbild”, Zeitschrift für Kunsttech‐
nologie und Konservierung 1(1), 1987, pp. 75–94
[4] C. Keck, A Handbook on the Care of Paintings,
American Association for State and Local History,
1965
[5] G. L. Stout, The Care of Pictures, Dover Publica‐
tions, New York, 1971
[6] W. Percival‐Prescott and G. Lewis (ed.), "Hand‐
book of terms used in the lining of paintings",
Conference on Comparative Lining Techniques,
National Maritime Museum, London, 1974
[7] Narcisse (Network of Art Research Computer
Systems in Europe, Glossaire multilangue, glossário
multilingue), Commision des Communautes Euro‐
péennes DGXIII Luxemburg, Arquivos Nacionais/
Torre do Tombo Lisboa, 1993, CD‐ROM
[8] The Conservation Dictionary, P.K. NET Infor‐
matics, Athens, Greece, 2001
[9] S. Rees Jones, A. Cummings and G. Hedley,
“Relining: Materials and techniques: Summary of
replies to a questionnaire”, ICOM Committee for
Conservation 4th Triennial Meeting, Venice, 1975
[10] G. Hedley and C. Villers, “Lining in 1984:
Questionnaire replies”, ICOM Committee for
Conservation 7th Triennial Meeting, Copenhagen,
1984, pp. 84.2.22‐25
[11] S. Hackney, “Relining, Lining, De‐lining,
Minimo intervento conservativo nel restauro dei
dipinti: atti del convegno”, Thiene (VI), Secondo
congresso internazionale: colore e conservazione,
materiali e metode nel restauro delle opere poli‐
cromi mobili, 29‐30 ottobre 2004, Il Prato, 2005,
pp. 29‐35
[12] Abstracts of International Conservation
Literature, http://aata.getty.edu/NPS/
(accessed 08‐07‐2010)
LINING, RELINING AND THE CONCEPT OF UNIVOCITY
[13] Bibliographic Database of the Conservation
Information Network, http://www.bcin.ca/
(accessed 08‐07‐2010)
[14] F. Schmidt‐Degener, “Wax relining of picture
canvases”, Mouseion 32(1), 1932 pp. 86‐87
[15] H. Mogford, Handbook for the preservation
of pictures: containing practical instructions for
cleaning, lining, repairing, and restoring oil
paintings, with remarks on the distribution of
works of art in houses and galleries, their care and
preservation, Winsor & Newton, 1853
[16] "Line", Online Etymology Dictionary, URL
(accessed 1.9.2010)
[17] P. Ackroyd, A. Phenix and C. Villers, “Not
lining in the twenty‐first century: Attitudes to
the structural conservation of canvas paintings”,
The Conservator 26, UKIC, 2002, pp. 14–23
[18] W. Gabler, “Eine Möglichkeit der Restaurie‐
rung von Rissen in Leinwandgemälden ohne
Doublierung, dargestelt am Beispiel des Gemäldes
‘Die Nacht’ von Ferdinand Hodler”, Mitteilungen
Deutcher Restauratoren Verband, 1980‐81, pp. 22–25
[19] I.V. Nazarova, E. L. Malachevskaya, and L. I.
Yashkina, “Technique of restoring Paintings on
Canvas without Lining”, Preprints from ICOM‐CC
9th Triennial Meeting, Dresden, 1990, Vol 1, p. 132
[20] K. Beltinger, “Reversible supports for paint‐
ings as an alternative to lining", Lining and Back‐
ing: The support of paintings, paper and textiles,
Postprints from the UKIC Conference, 7‐8 Novem‐
ber, 1995, pp. 111–118
[21] M. Bustin and T. Carley (ed.), “Alternatives
to Lining, The structural treatment of paintings
on canvas without lining”, conference held jointly
by the British Association of Paintings Conservator‐
Restorers and the United Kingdom Institute for
Conservation Paintings Section, 19 September, 2003
[22] C. Villers, “Post minimal intervention”, The
Conservator 28(1), 2004, pp. 3‐10
[23] R. Temmerman, “Questioning the univocity
ideal,” Hermes, Journal of Linguistics 18, 1997,
pp. 51‐90
CECIL KRARUP ANDERSENConservator‐restorerContact: [email protected]
Cecil Andersen holds a BA and a MA degree from
the School of Conservation, The Royal Danish
Academy of Fine Arts in Copenhagen, Denmark.
Presently she is enrolled in the PhD programme
at the School of Conservation where she is enga‐
ged in research focusing on the effect linings
have on Danish Golden Age paintings on canvas
from the nineteenth century. The focus in her
research is on mechanics in paintings and struc‐
tural treatments. The PhD is a collaboration
between the School of Conservation, The National
Gallery of Denmark and the Smithsonian Institu‐
tion in Washington, USA.
56 e‐conservation
CECIL KRARUP ANDERSEN
SALT DAMAGEON THE WALL RELIEFSOF DENDERA TEMPLE,EGYPT
By Hesham Abbas KamallyBy Hesham Abbas Kamally
58 e‐conservation
The present study aims to identify and to characterize the main deterioration mechanisms that affect
the wall reliefs of Dendera temple, Upper Egypt. The temple is famous for its beautiful wall reliefs,
painted with religious scenes and inscriptions. Nowadays the reliefs show considerable damage,
particularly due to salt weathering processes. In particular, the wall reliefs show salt crystallization at
varying levels, in and between grains, and within the cement materials. The change in temperature and
relative humidity in the studied area play an important role in the salts crystallization and hydration
causing several deterioration features such as cracks, powdering, paint and plaster detachment,
flaking, discoloration and iron oxides stains. Several samples were examined by polarizing microscopy
(PLM), X‐ray diffraction analysis (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy equipped with an energy
dispersive X‐ray analysis system (SEM‐EDX). The results reveal that the damage in wall paintings are
mainly attributed to the effect of different salts such as gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O), anhydrite (CaSO4),
halite (NaCl), mirabilite (Na2SO4.10H2O) and sylvite (KCl). These results allowed the identification of
the types of salts and deterioration features, information that may be used in the future for
conservation purposes.
Introduction
The Hathor temple is one of the best preserved
temples in Egypt (Figure 1A). It is located in the
town of Dendera, about four kilometers from Qena
and 60 kilometers north of Luxor on the west bank
of the Nile. The temple was constructed during
the Ptolemaic period and dedicated to Hathor,
the wife of god Horus. It was constructed on the
remains of an older temple erected in the predy‐
nastic period by followers of Horus. Underneath
the floor of the temple several crypts decorated
by important wall reliefs were found. One of these
crypts is today accessible to visitors. Generally,
the Dendera temple complex was completely cons‐
tructed from local sandstone, except for several
limestone blocks found in the ancient crypts
concealed under the temple.
Today, the Dendera temple is threatened by dam‐
age and loss of its wall reliefs by deterioration
including salt effloresces, scaling, powdering and
flaking. After the construction of the Aswan High
Dam (1960‐1970), several environmental effects
were observed in the area such as soil salinization,
rising groundwater level and groundwater conta‐
mination. The increase in groundwater level, high
rates of evaporation, seepage and sewage water
from cultivated lands and surrounding local
houses represented the main factors leading to
the salinity problems. The increase of groundwa‐
ter level and soil salinity lead to deterioration of
many monuments in the Upper Egypt [1‐4]. The
deterioration of different monumental rocks in
Egypt is primarily due to water‐soluble salts such
as gypsum and halite [5]. Generally, when water
evaporates salt will deposit on and beneath the
wall painting surface, and in the pores between
grains [6]. The mechanism of stone deterioration
by salt action is attributed to different processes
such as crystallization, hydration, mineral disso‐
lution, osmotic pressure and thermal expansion
[7]. The present paper aims to identify which salts
are precipitated and to explain the mechanism
that lead to the damages of Dendera temple wall
reliefs. The obtained results will help us to under‐
stand the weathering mechanisms affecting the
wall reliefs and consequently to choose the
HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLY
e‐conservation 59
SALT DAMAGE AT DENDERA TEMPLE
appropriate methods and suitable materials for
its conservation.
Local Climatic Conditions
The climate of this area is arid, characterized by
a large temperature range (hot summer and cold
winter) and rare rain fall. The maximum and
minimum temperature of the atmosphere of Qena
during July ranges between 45 °C and 25 °C while
in December it ranges between 27 °C and 4°C.
Relative humidity is about 53% in winter and 29%
in summer.
Geology of the studied area
The geology of the area was largely studied and
is referred in literature [8‐12]. The rock units
forming the studied area can be arranged strati‐
graphically as shown in table I.
Materials and Methods
Four samples were collected from several locations
from the friable layers of wall reliefs at Dendera
temple. These samples were crushed and milled
in an agate mortar to avoid contamination and
were studied by X‐Ray diffraction analysis (XRD) to
determine its chemical composition. The powder
diffraction patterns of the samples were obtained
using a Phillips PW 1840 diffractometer with Cu‐kαradiation and Ni filter. The scanning speed is 2θ‐1
degree/min at constant voltage 40 KV and 30 Ma.
The detection limit of the method was ±2% W/W.
Three samples of salt were scraped from the al‐
tered wall reliefs at Dendera temple and studied
by electron microscopy. The samples were exam‐
ined to provide information about the crystal
shape, structural state and morphology of the
minerals as well as the salts’ elemental composi‐
tion and alteration products. A JEOL JSM‐5300
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped
Figure 1. The site of Dendera temple, about four kilometers from the city of Qena, Egypt.
60 e‐conservation
Table I. Typical stratigraphy of Dendera, Egypt.
with an Oxford ISIS Link energy dispersive X‐ray
(EDX) from the central laboratories of the Faculty
of Sciences, Alexandria University was used.
Furthermore, sandstone samples were collected
and taken from some altered fragments that had
previously fallen off. Several thin sections from
these samples were studied and photographed
under Polarizing microscopy (PLM) at the Central
Laboratories of the Egyptian Geological Survey
And Mining Authority. Petrographic examination
allowed to determine and describe the sandstone
minerals, physicochemical alteration, the relation
between grains and the state of preservation.
Results and Discussion
Field observation
The decay and weathering survey revealed many
different types of deterioration found in the wall
reliefs such as cracks, loss of superficial layers,
powdering and salt crystallization. This problems
are mostly due to the rising groundwater level,
seepage and sewage water from cultivated lands
and surrounded houses (Figure 2A), making
these the greatest problem at Dendera temple.
The field observation revealed several wall reliefs
in danger due to the growth of salts. The salt
crystallization and hydration processes lead to
loss of cohesion between grains and caused the
current detachment of individual grains. Many
wall reliefs have aggregates of salts forming
bristly efflorescence's of individual crystals
penetrating the surface (Figure 2B) and leading
to losses in the reliefs (Figure 2C). For example,
the peeling of plaster can be observed at approxi‐
mately the same distance from the ground, as
shown in Figure 2C. Moreover, limestone reliefs
bulging and bursting points were observed as
result of salt subflorescences, changing the
morphology of the stone surface and ultimately
causing losses of the superficial layers of rock
GeologicTimescale
Holocene
Late Pleistocene
Plio‐Pleistocene
Pliocene
Eocene
Paleocene‐lateCretaceous
Upper Cretaceous
Pre‐Cambrian
Composition
Silty clay(Neonile deposits)
Sands and gravels with clay interbeds(Prenil deposits)
Clays, sands and gravels capped by travertine beds(Proto‐ and Pre‐Nile deposits)
Clays with someinter‐bedded sands
Chalky and dolomiticlimestone and marls with flint bands and nodules
Shale facies with thin interbeds ofchalk and phosphate
Sandstone with shale interbeds, it unconformablyoverlies the igneous and metamorphic rocks
Highly fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks
Depth(meters)
1 to 14
~30
~60
~25
> 200
~300
~400
‐
HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLY
e‐conservation 61
Figure 2. Deterioration aspects of wall reliefs in Dendera temple: (A) The groundwater delivering salts into the temple foundationsevaporate leaving salts behind; (B) Strongly aggregates of salts form bristly efflorescences; (C) Wall reliefs were completelylosses in a belt as a result of salt efflorescences; (D) Limestone wall reliefs bulging as a result of subflorescences; (E) Saltsdeposits on the painted layers mask the colors of wall reliefs; (F) The areas with high load of salts are characterize by a visiblydarker weaken surface as a result of previous restoration by Portland cement.
SALT DAMAGE AT DENDERA TEMPLE
A B
C D
E F
62 e‐conservation
Figure 2G and 2H. Deterioration aspects of wall reliefs in Dendera temple: (G) Brownish‐yellow stains on the sandstone reliefs;(H) Lamination, iron concretion and Portland cement represent weakned areas and induce several types of alteration.
reliefs (Figure 2D). Discoloration, and removal of
paint layers were observed in reliefs as a result of
the high humidity and the presence of soluble
salts (Figure 2E). There are evidence of previous
restorations at the temple, carried out with diffe‐
rent techniques and in different periods. Some of
these interventions are in good condition while
others are aesthetically or scientifically unaccep‐
table. Several areas with high load of salts are
characterized by a visibly darker and weakened
surface as result of a previous restoration with
Portland cement (Figure 2F). Furthermore, alka‐
line cleaning solutions such as ammonium hydro‐
xide, which have been used locally for over a de‐
cade to clean the wall reliefs, can cause damage
sandstone containing iron oxides or leave disfigu‐
ring brownish‐yellow stains as shown in Figure 2G
stain. In addition, several sedimentation structures
such as lamination, iron and carbonate concre‐
tions were observed in sandstone blocks. These
structures are weakness zones and can cause
several alteration features in rock reliefs (Figure
2H). Granular disintegration and loss of carbon‐
ate and iron concretions in the rock relief of Bes
(god protector of women during childbirth) were
observed as a result of the use of Portland cement.
This cement is too hard for the weathered sand‐
stone and is a source of salts that cause intensive
disintegration of the relief surfaces.
Petrography of the sandstone wall reliefs inDendera temple
Several sandstone reliefs in Dendera temple are
friable or semi‐friable and have different colors
from pale brown to dark brown. The microscopic
examination of several thin sections revealed that
the sandstone consists mainly of quartz (main
component), rock fragments, feldspars (micro‐
cline and plagioclase), calcite, hematite, micas,
clay and heavy minerals. Quartz grains occur as
turbid color, fine to medium grained and vary from
angular to subrounded grains. It was affected by
mechanical breakage and chemical process which
produced micro‐fractures and cleavages dissect‐
ing the quartz grains into several subindividual
grains (Figure 3A).
These grains are mostly monocrystalline and
polycrystalline, both types have undulose extinc‐
tion (Figure 3B) which may be attributed to the
HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLY
G H
Figure 3 (left to right, up to down). The examination of the sandstone samples under polarised microscope: (A) Microfractures andcleavages dissected the quartz grain into several subindividual grains; (B) Quartz grains occur as monocrystalline, polycrystallinewith undulose extinctions; (C) Plagioclase and microcline grains occur as subrounded grains slightly weathered; (D) Different rockfragments occur as subangular to subrounded grains; (E) Ferruginous cement occurs as thin films of brown colour coating andfilling the interspaces between the quartz grains; (F) Calcite patches filling the microcracks in the feldspar grains.
e‐conservation 63
fractures and cleavages. The quartz grains with
undulose extinction were considered unstable
grains, easily breaking into very small grains.
Feldspar grains are represented by microcline and
plagioclase grains. Microcline occurs as subrounded
grains and have cross hatching twinning in some
cases (Figure 3C). Plagioclase grains occurs as
angular to subangular grains slightly weathered
and may exhibit patchy extinction which may in‐
dicate that the grains were affected by mechanical
stresses. In the advanced stage of weathering
process, plagioclase occurs as cracks and altered
SALT DAMAGE AT DENDERA TEMPLE
A B
C D
E F
64 e‐conservation
to fine grained of sericite and clay minerals which
give a dusty and cloudy appearance of feldspar
minerals (Figure 3C). The rock fragments occur
as subangular to subrounded grains and partly
planar boundaries scattered between the quartz
grains and other constituents Figure 3D. The sand‐
stone grains cemented by ferruginous cement. It
occurs as thin films of pale brown colour coating
and filling the interspaces between the quartz
grains. Small cubic shaped and irregular masses
from magnetite are scattered between the quartz
grains and other constituents. Moreover, in the
intensive alteration processes hematite gives a
brown to dark chocolate colour pigmentation to
the altered sandstone blocks (Figure 3E). Small
patches of calcite fill the cracks in the plagioclase
and quartz grains and are disseminated between
the mineral constituents (Figure 3F). Also, epidote
occurs as anhedral to subhedral grains wrapped
with iron oxides scattered between the quartz
grains (Figure 3B).
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
The scanning electron microscope results confirm
that a major deterioration cause of the wall reliefs
is the abundance of soluble salts in the rock, plaster
and paint layers. SEM micrographs revealed the
salt deposits on the relief surface cause several
alterations such as cracks, pores (Figure 4A) and
losses of cohesion between grains. The salt crys‐
tallization consists of gypsum, halite, anhydrite
and mirabilite filling the pores and coating the
surfaces of rock reliefs as shown in Figure 4B.
Halite was identified in SEM micrographs as large
euhedral cubic aggregates while mirabilite occurs
as euhedral prismatic crystals scattered on the
wall relief surfaces (Figure 4B).
The underground water between the limestone
wall reliefs, by dissolving the calcite grains
(rhombohedral pits) with aid of salt action and
degrading its mechanical characteristics, ultima‐
tely lead to the disintegration of the wall reliefs in
Dendera temple (Figure 4C). Many different salt
crystals such as mirabilite and gypsum tend to
grow within the pores or in highly localized areas
between calcite grains under different conditions
of RH and temperature (Figure 4D). For example,
at different moisture levels, salts will crystallize
in various sizes and shapes: a granular crust of
smaller and isometric crystals is formed on a wet
substrate whereas columnar and thick whisker
crystals are formed at a nearly dry surface [13].
Commonly, the gypsum crystals grow within the
pores as thin plates. Tiny white dots of gypsum
were detected in the sandstone grains causing
many deep pits, bumpy surfaces and disintegra‐
tion of the sandstone wall reliefs. Moreover, SEM
micrographs revealed that many gypsum crystals
occur as blocky‐shaped and rectangular crystals
grow beneath the painted layer (Figure 4E).
Intensive pressure developed during crystalliza‐
tion and dehydration of salts within and between
grains of rock reliefs. This build up stresses in rock
reliefs and causes a variety of cracking patterns in
calcite grains (Figure 4F). In other cases, gypsum
and halite salts grow preferentially in the calcite
cleavage plane enlarging the cleavages and dis‐
sected it into several flakes as shown in Figure 4G.
In addition, SEM micrographs show a large grain
of feldspar in sandstone wall reliefs dissected by
fractures, flakes and pits as a result of sodium
sulfate and gypsum crystallization, ultimately
lead to fragmentation of rock reliefs (Figure 4H).
Energy Dispersive X‐Ray analysis (EDX)
EDX microanalysis of three salt samples from the
wall relief surfaces essentially consist of calcium
(Ca), silicon (Si), sulfur (S), chlorine (Cl), sodium
HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLY
A B
e‐conservation 65
Figure 4. SEM micrographs of deteriorated wall reliefs in Dendera temple: (A) Cracks, pitting and losses of cohesion between grainsof wall reliefs; (B) Different salt crystals such as halite, mirabilite and tiny salt crystals filling the pores and coating the surfaces ofrock reliefs; (C) Dissolution of calcite crystals; (D) Mrabilite and gypsum crystals growing in pores between calcite crystals; (E) Gyp‐sum crystals occur as blocky‐shaped and rectangular crystals grow beneath the painted layer; (F) A variety of cracking patterns incalcite grains; (G) Gypsum and halite salts grow on calcite cleavage plane and dissected it into several flakes; (H) Many cracks andseparation of scales from the rock reliefs as a result of gypsum and sodium sulphate salts.
SALT DAMAGE AT DENDERA TEMPLE
A B
C D
E F
G H
66 e‐conservation
(Na), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg),
potassium (K) and phosphorus (P). The sulphate
and chlorine ions are attributed to the gypsum,
anhydrite, mirabilite, sylvite and halite salts
formed within the rock reliefs. The results of EDX
analysis of the salt samples are listed in Table II.
The high concentration of sodium (0.7‐4.2%) and
chlorine (1.7‐15.5%) may be attributed to the
crystallization of halite salt on the wall reliefs.
The source of these ions may be due to contami‐
nation of groundwater and dissolution of halite
salt from soil and sediments during the movement
of groundwater between them. The analysis also
revealed a high concentration of sulfate (15‐47.4%)
and calcium (40.8‐58.7%) ions which may be at‐
tributed to the crystallization of gypsum and an‐
hydrite salts on the wall reliefs. The most common
damaging salts consist of sulfate, chloride and
nitrate anions [14]. The sources of sulfate ions
may be ascribe to air pollution and contamination
of the groundwater by sulfate fertilizer and disso‐
lution of sulfates from gypsum bearing sediments
in the studied area. Sulfates may be originated
from air pollution [14]. Moreover, the source of
calcium ions may be attributed to the plaster
layers, limestone and sandstone wall reliefs.
In addition, the high amount of magnesium was
detected by EDX analysis, attributed to epsomite
salt [MgSO4.7(H2O)]. The source of magnesium
may be groundwater contamination and dissolu‐
tion of dolomite or leaching from clay sediments
in the study area. Iron oxides also were detected
by EDX analysis, attributed to hematite minerals
present as cement or alteration products of fer‐
romagnesian mineral in sandstone wall reliefs.
X– Ray Diffraction analysis (XRD)
Two samples of salt were taken from the weathered
wall reliefs and two other samples were collected
from wall reliefs sandstone fragments that had
previously fallen off. The results are summarized
in table III. The table show that the salt contain
gypsum, calcite, halite, anhydrite, hematite,
mirabilite and sylvite (KCl) while the altered sand‐
stone wall reliefs samples composed of quartz,
microcline, orthoclase, vaterite, magnetite, kaoli‐
nite, halite, anhydrite, gypsum, bernalite, halite,
epsomite and illite. Clay minerals are represented
mainly by kaolinite and illite dispersed in the
sandstone wall reliefs as result of chemical altera‐
tion of the feldspar minerals. These results are in
accordance with the EDX analysis and SEM micro‐
graphs.
Salt crystallization
The XRD analysis showed that the salts consisted
mainly of gypsum, anhydrite and halite although
other salts of mirabilite, sylvite and epsomite
were also detected. Iron oxides are represented
by hematite and magnetite minerals. After the
Samples
ABC
Mineral Composition (%)
1.0
0.8
2.4
5.9
3.2
10.1
0.5
0.3
0.7
Ca
51.3
40.8
58.7
Mg
4.5
1.2
3.1
Na
2.1
4.2
0.7
Fe
0.8
0.4
2.0
S
18.5
47.4
15.0
P‐
‐
0.3
Cl15.5
1.7
7.0
KSiAl
Table II. Energy Dispersive X‐Ray analysis results of the salts from the Dendera Temple wall reliefs.
HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLY
e‐conservation 67
construction of the High Dam, the temple was
exposed to many deterioration features such as
disintegration, exfoliation, dissolution of build‐
ing materials and crystallization of salts. Differ‐
ent soluble salts reacted with the foundations and
the lower parts of the wall reliefs and deposited in
the pores, plaster, cement and grains. Fathy et al.
reported that the groundwater in the study area
has a high concentration of different salt ions such
as sodium (12.0‐767.5 mg/l), sulphate (7.4‐880.3
mg/l), chloride (17.1‐1380 mg/l), magnesium
(12.8 ‐148.4 mg/l) and bicarbonate (111.6‐651.5
mg/l) [15].
Consolidation treatments and other previous
restoration with grey Portland cement plays an
important role to the high concentration forma‐
tion of various salts affecting the wall reliefs and
causing disintegration. Moreover, the ancient
Egyptians used a fine white plaster based on gyp‐
sum and calcite for the construction of the painted
wall reliefs at Dendera temple. These minerals are
being dissolved in water and are re‐crystallized
on the wall relief surface leading to many deterio‐
ration forms. Gypsum was detected in very high
concentration on the wall reliefs, crystallized at
high level of relative humidity and/or presence
of water from any source. Larsen reported the
presence of sulfates and sodium chlorides in com‐
bination with the existing calcium from stone,
mortar and lime resulted in the formation of gyp‐
sum [16]. Anhydrite may be developed due to
dehydration of gypsum in low humidity. The volu‐
me of gypsum decrease when transformed to an‐
hydrite resulting in many cracks and microcracks
in the wall.
Maekawa and Agnew stated that gypsum loses
water after reaching 42 °C transforming into an‐
hydrite [17]. The intensive stresses generated
during the growth of gypsum crystals, generally
called crystallization pressure, induces damage.
Halite, which is naturally found in the Egyptian
soil and marine sediments, was also identified.
Chlorides are extremely dangerous because they
are very soluble and hygroscopic, and penetrate
into the rock structure and break up grains and
cement. Their hygroscopicity allows them to ab‐
sorb the humidity of the air and to retain it in the
wall structure causing deterioration of many
types. The wall sodium sulfate crystals usually
precipitate as mirabilite. Many authors have
attributed the damage caused by sodium sulfate
salts to the volume change and hydration pres‐
sure created when thenardite is transformed into
mirabilite [18‐21]. These salts causes deterioration
Sample
1
2
3
4
MaterialType
Salts fromwall reliefs
Alteredsandstone wall
reliefs
Composition(± 2 %)
Gypsum (40.08%), calcite (29.86%), hematite (6.65%), halite (4.17%),anhydrite (3.52%) bernalite (14.35%) and mirabilite (1.37%)
Gypsum (41.58%), calcite (26.82%), anhydrite (8.40%),halite (10.48%), hematite (10.14%) and sylvite (2.58%)
Quartz (60.20%), microcline (4.58%), orthoclase (22.58%), magnetite(1.20%), illite (0.60%), anhydrite (0.97%), gypsum (1.08%), epsomite
(7.47%) and dolomite (1.32%)
Quartz (78.62%), orthoclase (7.08%), vaterite (4.32%), magnetite(2.04%), Kaolinite(4.4%), bernalite (2.52%) and Halite (1.02%)
Table III. Results of X‐ray diffraction analysis of wall reliefs at Dendra temple.
SALT DAMAGE AT DENDERA TEMPLE
in the rock such as salt crystallization, scaling,
crumbling and flaking [22, 23]. Moreover, salts
also play an important role in the deterioration
of the wall reliefs by increasing the salts thermal
expansion coefficient. For example, when tempe‐
rature rises to about 50 °C, halite has a volumetric
expansion of 1% leading to intensive stresses
which commonly play a great role in the breakdown
of the internal structure of the reliefs in Dendera
temple. In this study, the presence of sylvite was
found to be due to chemical reaction, an ion ex‐
change between calcium (from calcite) and potas‐
sium sulfate fertilizer used in the area. Also, ortho‐
clase and microcline grains found in the sandstone
blocks may be a source of potassium ions, which
commonly react with chlorides forming sylvite
salt.
Sylvite salt is also very dangerous because it has
a high ability to recrystallize in humid conditions
[24]. In addition, the change in temperature and
relative humidity during the year in hot conditions
can induce further deterioration. When tempera‐
ture and relative humidity increase the rate of
chemical reaction also increases. Moreover, the
extensive changes in air temperature in closed
areas such as Dendera’s crypts and chambers in‐
crease the salts crystallization and recrystalliza‐
tion in the pore space between grains, exert addi‐
tional pressure and causing several alterations
such as powdering, disintegration, cracking and
flaking [7]. The crystallization of salts and their
recrystallization take place during a change in
relative humidity which may develop a stress of
high magnitude termed hydration pressure. We
known that every visitor in the archaeological
site produces a series of variations in the interior
microclimate due to their metabolic process [25].
Generally, an individual walking slowly (3.2 km/h)
in an environment of 15°C develops a heat power
of approximately 200 W, releasing 100g of water
vapors and 100g of CO2 [26].
Conclusion
Several factors are causing the deterioration of
wall reliefs in Dendera temple such as increase of
the groundwater level, absence of sewage net‐
work, seepage from the irrigation system and from
the increasing urban areas surrounding the temple.
The results of the present study revealed that the
disintegration processes of wall reliefs in Dendera
temple are mainly caused by salt crystallization.
Crystallization and hydration pressures of different
salts within the pores and between sandstone and
limestone grains is consider the main cause for
disintegration. These processes lead to intensive
stresses in the internal structural of stone and
cause alterations such as microcracks, cleavages,
exfoliation, blistering and powdering of the
painted wall reliefs.
The microscopic examination of several thin sec‐
tions revealed that sandstone grains were affected
by mechanical breakage and chemical processes
which produced micro‐fractures and cleavages
commonly dissected the quartz grains into several
subindividual grains. Also, the interaction of
feldspar grains with soluble salts is one of the
important alteration processes in sandstone,
beginning at the boundary of twinned and finally
producing clay minerals. Gypsum, halite and
mirabilite was identified by SEM micrographs
from crystal habit and EDX analysis. These SEM
micrographs show alterations such as cracks,
pores, dissolution and dissection of calcite and
feldspar crystals reducing the mechanical strength
of the rock reliefs. The EDX analysis results revealed
that there are some harmful elements such as
chlorine and sulphate that combined with other
elements to form different types of salts. The XRD
results confirmed the petrographic examination,
SEM micrographs and EDX analysis. These analyses
revealed that the salts of Dendera’s wall reliefs
consists of gypsum, calcite, halite, anhydrite,
e‐conservation68
HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLY
hematite, mirabilite and sylvite (KCl). All the
results also confirmed that the greatest deterio‐
ration factor affecting the wall reliefs at Dendera
temple can be essentially attributed to the direct
effects of salt phenomena. In addition, faulty
restoration and inappropriate previous treatments
increased the damage of the wall reliefs.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank Dr. Fathy Ashor, Direc‐
tor of Conservation in Dendera temple, Supreme
Council of Antiquities in Egypt. This work has been
supported by the High Institute of Tourism and
Restoration, Alexandria, Egypt.
References
[1] A. S. Saleh, Study of the reconstruction of the
Beard of the Sphinx, Part 1, 1983, Egyptian Anti‐
quities Organization.
[2] SWECO, Effects of ground water on Pharaonic
monuments. Reconnaissance study report, Egyp‐
tian Antiquities Organisation, 1982
[3] M. A. El Hady, and M. B. Ismaeil, The effect of
environmental conditions on deterioration of monu‐
ments in Assiut and Upper Egypt, 1st International
Conference on Environment and Development in
Africa, Assiut, 21‐24 October, 1995
[4] M. B. Ismaeil and G. El‐Habaak, “Durability
characteristics of some diorite and granodiorite
monuments”, Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts 5(2),
1995, pp. 59‐85
[5] L. Gauri and G. Holdren, “Preliminary report
on the deterioration of stone at the sphinx”,
Newsletter of American Research Center in Egypt
114, 1981, pp. 35‐47
[6] L. K. Gauri, "Stone conservation planning:
Analysis of intricate systems", Science and Tech‐
nology in Service of Conservation, IIC, London,
1982, pp. 46‐50
[7] C. Rodriguez‐Navarro and E. Doehne, “Salt
weathering: influence of evaporation rate, super‐
saturation and crystallization pattern”, Earth
Surface Processes Landforms 24, 1999, pp. 191‐
209
[8] R. Said (ed.), The Geology of Egypt, A. A. Balke‐
ma, Rotterdam, Brookfield, 1990
[9] E. Ahmed, Sedimentology and tectonic evolution
of Wadi Qena area, PhD Thesis, Geology Department,
Assiut University, 1983
[10] M.M.S. Askalany, Geological studies on the Neo‐
gene and Quaternary sediments of the Nile Basin,
Upper Egypt, PhD Thesis, Assiut University, Egypt,
1988
[11] I.M. El‐Balasy, Quaternaqy geology of some
selected drainage basins in Upper Egypt (Qena‐ Edfu
area), PhD Thesis, Cairo University, 1994
[12] A. Mansour and G. Kamal El‐Dein, Geology
and landscape of Qena Governorate, Report sub‐
mitted to Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency,
SEAM Programme, 2001
[13] A. Arnold and K. Zehnder, “Monitoring Wall
Paintings Affected by Soluble Salts”, in S. Cather
(ed.), The Conservation of Wall Paintings, Proceed‐
ings of a Symposium organized by the Courtauld
Institute of Art and the Getty Conservation Institute,
London, July 13‐16, 1987, The J. Paul Getty Trust
1991, pp. 103‐116
SALT DAMAGE AT DENDERA TEMPLE
e‐conservation 69
[14] S.H. Perry and A.P. Duffy, "The short‐term
effects of mortar joints on salt movement in
stone", Atmospheric 31(9), 1997, pp. 1297‐1305
[15] A. Fathy, A. Ayman and A. Adly, “Degradation
of groundwater quality of quaternary aquifer at
Qena, Egypt”, Journal of Environmental Studies 1,
2009, pp. 19‐32
[16] P.K. Larsen, “The salt decay of medieval bricks
at a vault in Brarup Church, Denmark”, Environ‐
mental Geology 52(2), 2007, pp. 375‐383
[17] S. Maekawa and N.H. Agnew, “Investigation
of environmentally driven deterioration of the
Great Sphinx and concepts for protection”, A. Roy
and P. Smith (ed.), Archaeological Conservation
and its Consequences, Preprint of the contributions
of the Copenhagen Congress, 1996, International
Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic
Works, London, 1997, pp. 116‐120
[18] R. U. Cooke, “Salt weathering in deserts”,
Proceedings, Geologists’ Association of London 92,
1981, pp. 1‐16
[19] E. M. Winkler, Stone: Properties, Durability in
Man's Environment, Springer‐Verlag, Berlin, 1973
[20] A. S. Goudie, “Sodium sulfate weathering
and the disintegration of Mohenjo‐Daro, Pakistan”,
Earth Surface Processes 2, 1977, pp. 75‐86
[21] H. Marschner, "Application of salt crystalliza‐
tion test to impregnated stones", in UNESCO/RILEM
International Symposium on Deterioration and
Protection of Stone Monuments, Reliure, Paris, 1978
[22] P. Storemyr, “Weathering of Soapstone at
Norwegian monuments an overview of current
knowledge”, The restoration workshop of Nidaros
cultural, Trondheim, Norway, 2000, pp. 1‐2
[23] B. Fitzner, K. Heinrichs and D. La Bouchar‐
diere, “The Bangudae Petroglyph in Ulsan, Korea:
studies on weathering damage and risk prognosis”,
Environmental Geology 46, 2004, pp. 504–526
[24] G. G. Amoroso and V. Fassina, “Stone Decay
and Conservation: Atmospheric Pollution”, Clean‐
ing, Consolidation and Protection, Elsevier Science
Publishers, Amsterdam, 1983
[25] M. Hoyos, J.C. Soler, S. Canaveral, Sanchez‐
Moral, E. Sanz‐Rubio, “Microclimatic Character‐
ization of a Karstic Cave: Human Impact on Micro
Environmental Parameters of a Prehistoric Rock
Art Cave (Candamo cave, northern Spain)”, En‐
vironmental Geology 33(4), 1998, pp. 231‐242
[26] P. Diaz‐Pedregal, A. Diekmann, “How to Recon‐
cile Archaeological Site Protection and Visitor Ac‐
cessibility”, APPEAR Position Paper 2, 2004, pp. 1‐9
HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLYConservation scientistContact: [email protected]
Hesham Kmally is a conservation scientist
specialised in conservation of rock inscriptions.
He obtained his Master degree in Geochemistry,
Petrography and Structural Studies of Rocks from
South Valley University, Egypt in 1999. He was
director of the Conservation Center at the Nubia
Museum in Aswan, Egypt up to 2003, after which
he pursued a PhD in Archaeological Quarrying
and Conservation of Rock Inscriptions in Aswan
from the same university in 2005. He now works
at the Conservation Department of the High
Institute of Tourism, Hotel Management and
Restoration, Egypt.
e‐conservation70
HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLY
SECURITY OF CULTURAL PROPERTY:U.S. ENGAGEMENT AND
POTENTIAL FOR IMPROVEMENT
By Erik Nemeth
Introduction
The tightening interrelation of cultural patrimony
and regional security characterizes the relevance
of cultural security to foreign policy. Targeting of
religious monuments in political violence and
political backlash against collateral damage of
historic sites illustrate the hard and soft, or “smart
power”1, that derives from cultural patrimony.
Monetarily, trafficking in antiquities and tribal
art demonstrates the value of cultural patrimony
to transnational organized crime and insurgencies
that may derive funding from looting [1]. The risks
of political violence and looting also present op‐
portunities for engagement. Policy on the protec‐
tion of religious monuments in conflict and inter‐
diction of post‐conflict looting of archaeological
sites can garner goodwill in regions of political
interest, and development of intelligence on the
market for antiquities can provide insights for
leveraging cultural patrimony in strategies for
counterinsurgency and, optimally, for mitigating
risk of conflict.
A reactive policy on protection of cultural proper‐
ty in regional conflict misses opportunities for
managing evolving security threats of non‐state
actors in developing nations. International con‐
ventions have demonstrated the progressive sig‐
nificance of artworks and historic sites in political
and armed conflict of the past century. Plunder
of Jewish collections and cultural cleansing of
Slavic monuments during World War II compelled,
in part, the 1954 Hague Convention on Protection
of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.
During the Cold War era, large‐scale looting of cul‐
tural artifacts in developing nations across Latin
America, Africa, and Southeast Asia motivated the
1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibi‐
ting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and
Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. Creative
implementation of the conventions presents op‐
portunities for strategic foreign engagement. Cul‐
tural security and cultural intelligence represent
examples of corresponding innovation in foreign
policy and security strategies.
Cultural Security – past and potential mani‐festation in foreign policy
The 1954 Hague Convention and 1970 UNESCO
Convention recognize the significance of cultural
patrimony in armed conflict and foreign affairs.
Measured engagement of the United States in the
conventions betrays the challenges of strategically
leveraging cultural patrimony in foreign policy.
While immediately signing the 1954 Hague Con‐
vention, the United States delayed ratification
Recent armed conflict in Iraq and Afghanistan and political violence in Egypt have revealed the strategic
significance of cultural property. This paper assesses the role of historic sites and antiquities in foreign
engagement. Over the past century, U.S. foreign policy has had successes and shortcomings in
leveraging protection of cultural patrimony to strategic advantage. The contrast of successful policy on
the protection of immovable cultural property, such as religious monuments, in armed conflict and
missed opportunities for tactical intelligence on the trade in movable cultural property, such as
antiquities trafficking, identifies potential for development of foreign policy.
1 For an introduction to the concept of “smart power” as abalancing of hard power, such as military strength, and softpower, such as an appeal to cultural sensibilities, see JosephNye, The Future of Power, Public Affairs, New York, 2011.
72
ERIK NEMETH
55 years until 2009 and, to date, has neither rati‐
fied, nor approved, the first (1954)2 and second
(1999)3 protocols. In contrast, the United States
accepted the 1970 UNESCO Convention in 1983.
The delay in ratification of the 1954 Hague Con‐
vention suggests a reluctance to risk ramifications
of military engagement that carries liability for
collateral damage of cultural property. The shorter
delay in accepting the 1970 UNESCO Convention
speaks to the political advantage of demonstrating
respect for movable cultural patrimony of foreign
nations. Subsequently, the United States entered
into bilateral treaties to regulate the transfer of
cultural patrimony with at least 19 nations across
Latin America, Africa, Europe, and Southeast Asia.
The United States, however, has not signed or rati‐
fied the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or
Illegally Exported Cultural Objects (Rome, 1955),
which supports the “restitution of stolen cultural
objects”.
The participation of the United States in the inter‐
national conventions indicates foreign policy that
acknowledges the value of protecting cultural sites
from collateral damage during armed conflict but
does not optimally leverage the political clout of
protecting movable cultural property [2]. Even
prior to the ratification of the 1954 Hague Con‐
vention, the United States successfully applied
knowledge of locations of cultural sites to minimize
collateral damage in strategic bombing during the
military campaign in Iraq in 2003 [3] but had less
success in protecting museums [4] and private
collections [5] or in preventing wide‐spread, post‐
conflict looting of archaeological sites [6,7]. Ac‐
ceptance of the 1970 UNESCO Convention and
establishment of bilateral treaties indicate an
awareness of the political clout of movable cultural
patrimony, but delay in acceding to the protocols
of the 1954 Hague and 1995 UNIDROIT Conven‐
tions suggest a lack of innovation in leveraging
movable cultural patrimony in foreign policy.
Measures to prevent trafficking independent of
military intervention hold potential for foreign
policy that applies the hard and soft power of
cultural patrimony. As demonstrated by the return
of prized antiquities from the Getty Museum in
California and the Metropolitan Museum of New
York to Greece [8] and Italy [9] in 2006, cases for
repatriation pose political risk. The forced repat‐
riation by Greece and Italy illustrates the vulnera‐
bility of museums and private collectors in the
United States, and demands by China for the
United States to exercise more influence over
collecting practices that enable the illicit market
in Asian antiquities [10] reveal the political risk
of the vulnerability. The risk presents opportuni‐
ties to engage in discussions on: 1) programs of
stewardship or repatriation of displaced cultural
patrimony and 2) legitimate markets for exporting
cultural patrimony. Programs for repatriation and
market development represent a practical basis
for engaging foreign nations to garner goodwill
in geographic regions of strategic interest.
Art‐Specific Cultural Intelligence – leveragingthe art market in security strategies
In the context of countering transnational ter‐
rorism and organized crime, the United States
e‐conservation 73
SECURITY OF CULTURAL PROPERTY
2 The Protocol to the Convention for the Protection of CulturalProperty in the Event of Armed Conflict 1954 concerns theexport, import, and return of cultural property of occupiedterritories.
3 The Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for theProtection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict1999 improves the convention based on experiences ofconflicts that took place at the end of the 1980s and thebeginning of the 1990s.
has integrated intelligence on cultural property
into military action and law enforcement. Strategic
bombing in Iraq in 2003 spared sites of cultural
heritage, and initiative of soldiers to secure mu‐
seums [11] and archaeological sites resembled
the spirit of the Monuments Men of World War II.
In law enforcement, the FBI responded to the
plunder of the Iraq National Museum in Baghdad
by forming the Art Crime Team in 2004. With a
mission of “addressing art and cultural property
crime cases in an assigned geographic region”,
the group of thirteen agents, in some respects,
follows from the Art Looting Investigation Unit
(ALIU) of the Office of Strategic Services of World
War II [12]. Officers of the ALIU tracked down and
interrogated art dealers who had formed the net‐
works that acquired artworks for Nazi officials [13].
Strategic bombing and initiative of soldiers
demonstrate proactive protection of cultural
patrimony in military engagement, but cultural
sites and antiquities also present opportunities
for pre‐conflict engagement of foreign nations.
The United States could inquire with the nation in
question about holdings of museums and regions
of unexcavated cultural artifacts. The intelligence
would allow the United States to follow success‐
ful practices of moving museum collections out
of anticipated conflict zones [14] and to plan for
protection of sites at risk of post‐conflict loot‐
ing. As a complement to the soft power garnered
by demonstrating respect for foreign cultural
patrimony, intelligence on the illicit trade in art
has tactical value outside of military interven‐
tion. Trafficking in antiquities that may fund ter‐
rorist groups [15‐18] and that may rival [19,20]
and intersect with markets in weapons and nar‐
cotics [21,22] represents a continuous, transna‐
tional security threat. Assessing worldwide col‐
lecting trends and establishing networks in the
art world would yield intelligence to counter the
threat.
The market in antiquities and tribal art presents
a range of opportunities for collection of art‐
specific cultural intelligence [23] Analysis of the
relative market value of antiquities and tribal art
by nation of origin [24] can aid in assessing the
risk of organized crime engaging in looting and
in assessing the threat that revenue from traf‐
ficking could serve as a source of funding for in‐
surgencies. An understanding of the market
demand for artworks from a particular “source
nation” would enable the United States to engage
the local government in methods for converting
looting into a legitimate part of the economy.
Such art‐specific cultural intelligence would also
help to prioritize development of contacts. Deal‐
ers, collectors, and middlemen [25] could provide
intelligence not only on the networks that traffic
in cultural patrimony but also on intersecting il‐
licit markets. In particular, dealers and middle‐
men who operate in the nation of interest may
provide insights into public‐sector corruption,
local organized crime, and markets for weapons
and narcotics. In combination, assessments of
relative market value of cultural patrimony and
contact with local players in the art market offer
an innovation in collection of cultural intelligence.
Comparative Examples
The examples in Table 1 illustrate the historical,
worldwide significance of cultural patrimony to
foreign engagement. The examples represent a
range of geographic regions and the economic,
political, and military significance of cultural
patrimony. The distinction between immovable
and movable cultural property creates a distinction
in the strategic value of cultural patrimony to
foreign policy. In the context of cultural security,
immovable cultural property includes historic
structures and religious monuments, and movable
cultural property includes artworks and artifacts
74 e‐conservation
ERIK NEMETH
that museums and private collectors acquire
through licit and illicit trading. The examples
suggest that Western nations have more actively
engaged in protection of immovable cultural
property than in mitigating the risk of looting of
and trafficking in movable cultural property.
Conclusions
The United States foreign policy has progressed
by recognizing the strategic value of protecting
historic structures and religious monuments in
armed conflict. Further opportunities exist in
monitoring trafficking in cultural artifacts such
as African tribal art. In particular, knowledge on
the market for cultural artifacts would provide
tactical intelligence to counter public‐sector
corruption and organized crime in developing
nations that hold political interest. In combina‐
tion, foreign policy on the protection of immovable
and movable cultural patrimony holds potential
for strategic innovation in cultural diplomacy.
75e‐conservation
Table I. Engagement through protection of monuments and political risk of unprotected cultural patrimony.
Region Immovable Cultural Property Movable Cultural Property
LatinAmerica
Tikal, Guatemala
The University of Pennsylvania conducted archae‐ological excavations at the site in the 1950s and1960s. Since declaration of Tikal as a UNESCOWorld Heritage site in 1979, the Guatemalangovernment has developed the site as a touristattraction.
Machu Picchu, Peru
Peru challenged, for nearly a century, the rightof the Peabody Museum of Natural History atYale to retain artifacts from Machu Picchu. Thepersistence led to a memorandum of under‐standing on the return of Inca artifacts fromYale to Peru.
Africa
Axum Obelisk4, Ethiopia
After agreeing with the United Nations in 1947to return the obelisk, Italy announced plans forthe return in 1997 and began the process in 2003.The return coincided with efforts by Italy to repa‐triate antiquities from museums in the UnitedStates.
Looting, Mali
Colonial accretion and looting since the 1970smotivated “emergency action” by the UnitedStates in 1993 to restrict import of particulararchaeological material. Prized Malian tribalart has commanded prices approaching two‐million U.S. dollars at auction.
WestAsia
Cultural Heritage Sites, Iraq
Strategic bombing by the United States limitedcollateral damage of historic buildings, religiousmonuments, and cultural institutions duringmilitary intervention in Iraq in 1991 and 2003.
Looting, Iraq
The destabilization that followed the 1991 Per‐sian Gulf War enable looting, and the plunder ofthe National Museum in Baghdad during the2003 Iraq War prefaced widespread looting inthe nation.
SoutheastAsia
Angkor Wat, Cambodia
France pursued study and conservation of thesite through the École française d’Extreme Ori‐ent, which conducted research at Angkor Wat;from the 1930s to the 1960s the enterprise ofAngkor Conservation grew to over 1000 employees.
Antiquities, Cambodia
Cambodian cultural heritage remains at risk oflooting as characterized by the Red List ofCambodian Antiquities (2010). ICOM Red Listsdescribe and illustrate movable cultural heritage,which is targeted in looting and illicit trafficking.
4 The size and weight (24 meters and 160 tones) qualify theobelisk as “immovable”. Indeed, moving required separatingthe obelisk into sections.
SECURITY OF CULTURAL PROPERTY
References
[1] United States National Central Bureau of In‐
terpol, Cultural Property Crimes Program, 2008,
URL (accessed 21.08.2010)
[2] P. Gerstenblith and K. Hanson, “Chapter 9 ‐
Congressional Responses to the Looting of Iraq's
Cultural Property”, in L. Rothfield (ed.), Antiquities
under Siege: Cultural Heritage Protection after the
Iraq War, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Lanham,
New York, Toronto, Plymouth, UK, 2008, pp. 103‐115
[3] R. Atwood, Stealing history: tomb raiders,
smugglers, and the looting of the ancient world,
St. Martin's Press, New York, 2004, pp. 267‐268
[4] L. Rothfield, The Rape of Mesopotamia: Behind
the Looting of the Iraq National Museum, The Uni‐
versity of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2009, pp. 112
[5] J. Rosenberger, 'Plundered Kuwaiti art surfaces
in London', Art in America 80, 1992, pp. 29‐31
[6] M. Bailey, 'A nation's history under siege',
The Art Newspaper 12(111), 2001, pp. 1‐8
[7] E. C. Stone, 'Patterns of looting in southern
Iraq', Antiquity 82(315), 2008, pp. 125–138
[8] H. Eakin and A. Carassava, “Getty Museum Is
Expected to Return Ancient Gold Wreath to Greece”,
The New York Times, December 11, 2006
[9] E. Povoledo, “Italy and U.S. Sign Antiquities
Accord”, The New York Times, February 22, 2006
[10] R. Kennedy, “China's Request for Art‐Import
Ban Stirs Debate”, The New York Times, April 1, 2005
[11] M. Bogdanos, Thieves of Baghdad, Bloomsbury
Publishing, New York and London, 2005, pp. 213
[12] E. Nemeth, 'Plunderer and Protector of Cul‐
tural Property: Security‐Intelligence Services
Shape the Strategic Value of Art', The Journal of
Art Crime 1(1), 2009, pp. 25‐40
[13] M. Salter, US Intelligence, the Holocaust and
Nuremberg Trials: Seeking Accountability for Geno‐
cide and Cultural Plunder, Vol. II, K.A.S. Sibley (ed.),
Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden, 2009
[14] UNESCO, Museum‐in‐Exile: Swiss Foundation
safeguards over 1,400 Afghan artefacts, 02 April
02, 2008, URL (accessed 07.08.2010)
[15] "Art and Al Qaeda", Artnet News 2005, August
02, 2005, URL (accessed 25.11.2009)
[16] D. Johnston, "Picking Up the Stolen Pieces
of Iraq's Cultural Heritage", The New York Times,
February 14, 2005
[17] R. S. Mueller, Remarks prepared for Director
Robert S. Mueller, III, Federal Bureau of Investiga‐
tion, November 15, 2004, URL [pdf] (accessed
21.02.2010)
[18] L. d. l. Torre, 'Terrorists Raise Cash by Selling
Antiquities', Government Security News 4 (3), 2006,
pp. 1,10,15
[19] J. Astill, “Plunder goes on across Afghanistan
as looters grow even bolder: Trade in antiquities
worth up to £18bn as thieves excavate sites”,
Guardian, December 13, 2003
[20] A. Loyd, "Afghans' lost city plundered for il‐
legal London art trade", The Times, December 7,
2002, p. 26
[21] N. Brodie, “The concept of due diligence and
the antiquities trade”, Culture Without Context 5,
1999, pp. 12‐15
76 e‐conservation
ERIK NEMETH
[22] M. Bogdanos, "The Terrorist in the Art Gal‐
lery", The New York Times, December 10, 2005, p. 5
[23] E. Nemeth, “Art‐Intelligence Programs: The
Relevance of the Clandestine Art World to Foreign
Intelligence”, International Journal of Intelligence
and CounterIntelligence 21 (2), 2008, pp. 355‐374
[24] E. Nemeth, Market Value of Culture: Quanti‐
fying the Risk of Antiquities Looting, Arts & Cul‐
ture, Blouin Creative Leadership Summit, 2010
[25] N. Brodie, “Pity the poor middlemen”, Cul‐
ture Without Context 14, 2004, pp. 7‐9
ERIK NEMETHCultural Intelligence ResearcherContact: [email protected]
As an independent researcher in Santa Monica,
California, Erik explores the interrelation of
cultural property and international security —
cultural security. In publishing on the intersection
of art history, illicit markets, political violence,
and intelligence studies, he examines the potential
for "cultural intelligence" to inform foreign
policy. Erik directs CulturalSecurity.net and works
as Adjunct Staff with RAND Corporation. He also
serves on the editorial board of Journal of Art
Crime and as a trustee of Association for Research
into Crimes against Art (ARCA). Erik holds a B.A.
in Computer Science and a PhD in Vision Science
from the University of California at Berkeley.
77e‐conservation
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SECURITY OF CULTURAL PROPERTY
80
FIRST AID OF RAREPTOLEMAIC TEXTILEIN TUNA EL‐GEBELEXCAVATION, EGYPT
By Harby E. Ahmed
case
stud
y
79e‐conservation
RARE PTOLEMAIC TEXTILE
Introduction
The excavation of Tuna el‐Gebel was a scientific
joint venture between the Institute of Egyptology
of the University of Munich, Germany and the
University of Cairo, Egypt. The ibis burial place at
Tuna el‐Gebel, located at west of the ancient city
of Thermopolis Magna, has been the first, and for
a long period, the only ibis and baboon animal
cemetery during the reign of Pharaoh Pasmetkhos
(664‐619 BC).
The number of ibises deposited in the extensive
subterranean galleries network clearly exceeds
one million individuals in total, indicating that on
average some 15000 birds had been placed each
year in the galleries by the cult servants. Although
most specimens originated from more than a
dozen ibises feeding places around Tuna el‐Gebel,
there is evidence of mummified specimens from
elsewhere such as from the Province of Faiyum. In
addition to the bundles and mummies of Sacred
and Glossy Ibises which constitute most part of
the collection (> 80%), at least 115 other verte‐
brate taxa could be found in the galleries, compri‐
sing domestic (cattle, sheep, dogs and cats) and
wild mammals (such as shrews, monkeys, ichneu‐
mons, wild cats, and gazelles), reptiles (crocodiles
and snakes) and fishes, as well as a huge variety
of birds (such as herons, storks, geese, ducks,
birds of prey, and owls). The archaeological zone
of Tuna el‐Gebel (Figure 1) is situated in a flat
desert landscape at west of the cultivated Nile
valley, 5 km to the south of the modern village,
opposite to a wide desert valley [1].
Textiles are sensitive materials since they are very
prone to damage when exposed to light, heat,
humidity, pollution and microorganisms. They
are extremely vulnerable to decay when stored or
displayed in inappropriate environmental condi‐
tions. The main purpose of this conservation in‐
tervention is to improve the properties of the
textile objects, enhancing their long term stabi‐
lity by slowing down the rate of further deteriora‐
tion. Conservation processes comprised cleaning
disinfection, consolidation, mounting and stor‐
age [2, 3].
Description and Condition
Among other findings, a piece of dyed textile with
vertical and horizontal threads colored with blue
and dark beige was unearthed (Figure 2). The
piece (registry number T.G 4184) belongs to the
Ptolemaic era and was found in the Tuna el‐Gebel
excavations (Gallery D‐D‐2) in February 2001.
The width of the vertical beige threads and of the
vertical blue strips is 2.5 cm and 1 cm, respec‐
tively. The horizontal stripes are repeated every
12 cm. The textile is severely damaged and there
are many parts missing in the middle.
The textile has dark stains of unknown source that
were difficult to remove when traditional methods
Among the findings of the excavations of Tuna el‐Gebel, Egypt several pieces of textiles were unearthed.These textiles were found in poor conservation state and risked further deterioration if left untreated.This article describes the analytical study and simple conservation interventions that were applied tothese textiles, here exemplified with the treatment of a single object. Prior to the intervention, scanningelectron microscopy was used to analyze the fibers to identify them and to characterize theirdeterioration. This case study provides a clear example of the type of damage that exist on the textilesrecovered in Tuna el‐Gebel.
80 e‐conservation
Figure 1. Show the subterranean animal necropolis at Tuna el‐Gebel, Middle Egypt, Plan of Galleries B, C and D. The textile wasdiscovered in Gallery D‐D‐2 which is shown in black color on upper left of the plan.
were used. There are also other unclear parts,
probably due to the soil and dust from the tomb
ground, that were difficult to clean. The edges of
the textile show some sort of solid that could be
gypsum. Archeologists have identified this piece
as being a cloth bag to place the ibis mummy. It
should be noticed that there are two threads
above the piece which could have been used for
closing the bag opening. The textile has weak or
missing parts in the irregular edges. Considering
its poor conservation state, the textile object
required conservation intervention, especially
cleaning for the removal of foreign material to
avoid further damage.
After its discover, the textiles were initially pre‐
served under uncontrolled conditions in cellars
at the Ibis cemetery (Figures 2 and 3). The exist‐
ence of high humidity in the cellars is a constant
throughout the year making these textiles more
easily exposed to degradation under these con‐
ditions.
Examination and Analysis
Visual Study
The initial visual assessment revealed that the
textile presented a poor conservation condition
(Figures 4 and 5). The textiles were weak and very
dirty since they were covered with dust, soil and
stains. In general, the object suffered from inten‐
sive surface damage resulting in fiber deformation,
missing parts and holes especially along the ob‐
jects edges. The fringes were weak and suffered
from abrasive damage and tearing.
Morphological Study
The morphology of the textile surface was exam‐
ined using a scanning electron microscope (SEM)
FEI Quanta 200 ESEM FEG. The textile fibers were
examined according to the Tabulations of Recog‐
nition Characteristics for Fibers [4, 5]. The res‐
ults showed that both warp and weft yarns were
HARBY E. AHMED
81e‐conservation
Figure 2. View from the front and back of the textile with dyed trappings consisting of vertical and horizontal threads coloredwith blue and dark beige.
Figure 3. Views of the textile showing different details from its conservation condition prior to the conservation intervention.
RARE PTOLEMAIC TEXTILE
Figure 4. Several views and details of the textile. There are unclear parts, probably from dust and soil from the tomb ground,and dark stains from unknown source.
Figure 5. Details from the mechanical damage: fiber deformation, missing parts and holes, especially along the edges.
82 e‐conservation
HARBY E. AHMED
composed of linen fibers. The SEM micrographs
(Figure 6) show changes in the fiber morphology.
In particular, it can be seen that the fibers are
roughened, damaged, broken with transverse
cracking and longitudinal splitting characterized
by scratches, slits and holes in the fibers. These
damages are the effects of degradation induced
by light, relative humidity and soiling. Further‐
more, dust, dirt and adhesive can also be seen
covering the fibers.
Dyes Stability Test
The direction of the yarn spin and woven struc‐
ture were recorded before the dye testing. Prior
to wet cleaning, it is important to test the stabi‐
lity (solubility) of the colors. The test consisted
in wetting a small sample area with the cleaning
solution of each color using a cotton swab (Fig‐
ure 7). The test showed that all the dyes were
stable and did not bleed with the solution used
for the wet cleaning [6, 7].
Conservation Intervention
Mechanical cleaning
The object was covered with dirt, namely dust,
lose sand particles and calcified and compact
sand deposits, that was removed with the use of
different types of smooth and rough brushes. To
help the removal of the calcified sand, an air
blower together was also used with the brushes.
Temporary Support Reinforcement
Before proceeding with any wet cleaning procedure,
the object was temporarily inserted between two
layers of fine nylon tulle (sandwich method) in
order to offer the fabric the necessary support to
withstand the cleaning process (Figure 8A). The
stitching was made with a very thin needle and
cotton thread using a running stitch. The needle
was carefully inserted between the yarns and not
through them to avoid any damage to the weak‐
ened fibers. In this process, it is very important
to keep the stitches tension fairly loose, allowing
Figure 6. SEM micrograpphs of the fibers, which were identified as linen. It can be observed that the fibers were extremelyroughened, damaged and covered with particles of dirt.
83e‐conservation
RARE PTOLEMAIC TEXTILE
Figure 7. The stability test had the objective of determining if the dyes were soluble in the cleaning solutions. For the test, acotton swab immersed in the cleaning solutions used for washing was placed in contact with the colored fibers.
Figure 8. Details from the wet cleaning procedure: (A) the textile was placed temporarily between two layers of fine nylon tulle(sandwich method); (B) wet cleaning procedure using water and natural detergent Synperonic N; (C) local dry cleaning withalcohol for the soiling parts with smooth brushes; (D) drying the object after the cleaning process.
84 e‐conservation
HARBY E. AHMED
A B
C D
an even weight distribution across several yarns
for each stitch.
Wet cleaning
The main purpose of the wet cleaning was to re‐
move the rests of harmful deposits of soils and dirt
that were disfiguring or causing physical and
chemical damage to the textile. The selection of
the most appropriate cleaning method depends
from several factors such as the nature of the dirt
and of the materials, structure, and condition of
the textile [8]. To avoid causing unnecessary
movements during the cleaning of the textile, the
washing is best performed in the same tray and
changing the cleaning solutions when required.
The solution used for the first bath consisted of
one part of detergent Synperonic N to 100 parts of
distilled water at 30 ºC. The solution was agitated
for 15 minutes to increase its penetration in the
fibers and the release of the dirt particles (Figure
8B). Then, a second and third baths with pure
distilled water were given, each for 10 minutes and
again agitating the water. This operation reduced
the soiling, relaxed the fibers, removed the creas‐
ing and brightened the colors [2, 9, 10]. A pH
indicator was used to control the solutions’ pH.
Dry cleaning
After the wet cleaning was completed, it was
observed that some soiling was not removed.
Figure 9. Details of the textile after the cleaning and attachment to linen support.
85e‐conservation
RARE PTOLEMAIC TEXTILE
Hence, further cleaning was attempted using
smooth brushes with alcohol for 15 minutes (Fig‐
ure 8C). However, this procedure had poor results
and the dirt was not completely removed. After‐
wards, the textile was inserted in a bath with
distilled water and alcohol without soap for five
minutes to remove any undesired traces and to
equalize the effect of the alcohol on the fibers.
This step was applied on all the pieces that were
cleaned. This process also allowed the steriliza‐
tion of the fabric from the effect of fungi and
fungal spores that could have been present [11].
Drying and Laying out
The drying process of wet textiles can provide an
opportunity to realign distorted fibers. The wa‐
ter acts as a lubricant reducing the stress of the
fibers and allowing the straightening of the yarns
with minimum risk. Blocking and drying are con‐
sidered a crucial part of wet cleaning process [3].
To proceed with the next stage – drying – a table
was prepared and covered with sheets of black
plastic. Then, the textile pieces still wet from the
wet cleaning were placed on top of the table and
Figure 10. General view of the textile after conservation. the framing provides support for the object and will reduce futurehandling to a minimum.
86 e‐conservation
HARBY E. AHMED
covered with sheets of Japanese papers to absorb
any water surplus (Figure 8D). It should not be
forgotten that while wet the textile is soft and
can easily be damaged during handling [3, 12].
The Final Support
In order to prepare the textile for storage and
display, it is necessary to provide the fabric with
a new support to increase its strength. For this, a
wooden frame was prepared by a carpenter from
a nearby village to the location of excavations.
The wooden frame was later coated with Paraloid
B72 (10% in acetone) to isolate the wood from the
environmental conditions, minimizing thus the
movements of the wooden frame [2]. Later, a new
undyed linen support was prepared and washed
to remove any chemical residues from the sizing
and finishes, and to prevent shrinkage at a later
time due to the humidity changes. After washing
and drying, the linen was ironed to remove creases
and it was then attached to the wooden frame with
tacks [13].
Mounting
Once the new fabric support was prepared, the
textile object was placed carefully over the fabric
(Figures 9 and 10). In mounting, it is important
to choose the right materials such as needles and
threads to provide the maximum visual satisfaction
and to ensure of the future stability without the
risk of adverse effects [2]. Usually, conservators
recommend silk threads as the best choice, fol‐
lowed by cotton, viscose rayon or polyester, de‐
pending on availability. In this project, a very fine
undyed silk thread was used. In the beginning, the
object was fixed in the support with wide stitches
to preserve its place. Later on, two types of stitches
were used: the first type, an overcast stitch, was
used to support the edges of the object; and the
second type, a running stitch, was used to support
the internal areas adjacent to primary stitches
and damaged areas. These stitches ensured that
the mounted textile was not strained, although
they were tight enough to prevent movements or
abrasion on the mounting. This type of framing
ensures good support for the object and will re‐
duce future handling to a minimum rate (Figure
11). The mounting is the last stage of the inter‐
ventions, after which the object becomes ready
for either storing or display [2, 14, 15].
Conclusion
The present article described the analysis and
conservation intervention of a textile found in
the archeological excavations in Tuna el‐Gebel,
Egypt. The textile, dating from the Ptolemaic
period, is thought to have been a bag for a Ibis
mummy. Analyses by SEM have shown that the
textile found in the excavations of Tuna el‐Gebel
are made of linen. The objects surface presented
an intense accumulation of dust and dirt affecting
its mechanical properties and the appearance of
the object, giving it a dull grey and opaque tone.
The conservation intervention, which included its
cleaning and mounting in a proper support, had
the objective of increasing its stability. Although
there was a noticeable improvement of the appear‐
ance and integrity of the object after the interven‐
tion, there was one type of dirt that could not be
removed by wet or dry cleaning. After the clean‐
ing and its mounting, the object is free from dirt,
has become softer and it is aesthetically more
pleasing.
Physically, the wrinkles and folds are also much
less obvious. It is recommended that the textiles
should be moved from the excavation to the to
the Al‐Ashmounin Museum storage as soon as
possible after the conservation treatment for safe
keeping of the pieces. It is also recommended that
87e‐conservation
RARE PTOLEMAIC TEXTILE
further research should be carried out to study
the materials used in the manufacture of the
textile, namely the natural dyes and mordents.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Dr. Mahmoud
Eibed from the Faculty of Archeology, Cairo Uni‐
versity, Egypt. Furthermore, Katrin Schlueter and
Mélanie Flossmann‐Schütze from the institute of
Egyptology of the Ludwing Maximilian University,
Munich, Germany are acknowledged for their
contributions.
References
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und Levante XV, 2005, pp. 204‐244
[2] S. Landi, The Textile Conservator’s Manual,
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[3] A. Tímár‐Balázsy, and D. Eastop, Chemical
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[4] J. Columbus, “Washing Techniques Used at the
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[5] J. Batcheller, "Optical and scanning electron
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[6] O. Brigitte, “Fastness to Light and Washing of
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[7] M. Flury‐Lemberg, "Textile conservation and
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[8] A. Lister, Guidelines for the Conservation of
Textiles, English Heritage, London, 1996
[9] S. Howard, “An Introduction to the Wet
Cleaning of Carpets”, in A. Tímár‐Balázsy, and D.
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tion”, in A. Tímár‐Balázsy, and D. Eastop (eds.),
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18(5), 1979, pp. 119‐ 126, URL
[13] V. Constance, “The Conservation of Tapestries
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HARBY E. AHMEDConservator‐restorerContact: [email protected]
Harby E. Ahmed is a conservator‐restorer spe‐
cialised in textiles. He started his training at the
Conservation and Restoration Institute, in Kina,
Egypt where he obtained a Diploma degree in
1993. He later obtained a Bachelor and Master
degrees in Conservation and Restoration in 1997
and 2002, respectively, at the Cairo University,
Egypt and a PhD on the use of enzymes for con‐
servation of textiles from the Enzyme Biotech‐
no‐logy Department of the School of Chemical
Engineering from the National Technical Uni‐
versity of Athens, Greece in 2010. At the present
he is a lecturer of Textiles Conservation at the
Conservation Department of the Faculty of Ar‐
chaeology, Cairo University. He is the author of a
chapter of the book “History of Natural dyes in
North Africa" and of several specialty articles.
89e‐conservation
RARE PTOLEMAIC TEXTILE
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