Table Of Contents 1. Psychology ...2

Branches Of Psychology Future Of Psychology

2. Into The Human Brain ...4

The Brain Exposed Male-Female Brain Differences A Scientific Comparison of the Male and Female Brain Left & Right Brain The Brain Computer Comparison

3. Our Amazing Senses ......9

The Gift Of Sight Our Eyes Our Sound System Our Ears What The Nose Knows The Sense Of Taste Getting In Touch

4. What is Intelligence? ..........................................................................................................................15

Mental Faculties Memory Creativity Creativity Test Intelligence Tests Solutions

5. Our Personality ...21

What Is Personality? Personality By Birth Order Personality and Health Stereotyping

Contribution - Sonea Kapoor 2004 Zamtek Solutions

Psychology is the science of the mind. The humanmind is the most complex machine on Earth. Allthough we cannot observe the mind directly, everything we do, think, feel & say is determined by thefunctioning of the mind. Psychologists take humanbehavior as the raw data for testing their theoriesabout how the mind works. Since the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), opened the first experimental psychology lab inLeipzig in 1879, we have learnt an enormous amountabout the relationship between brain, mind & behavior. Branches Of Psychology Any attempt to explain why humans think and behavein the way that they do will inevitably be linked to oneor other branch of psychology. The different disciplinesof psychology are extremely wide ranging. Theyinclude

Clinical psychology Cognitive psychology-memory Cognitive psychology intelligence. Developmental psychology Evolutionary psychology Forensic psychology Health psychology Neuron psychology Occupational psychology Social psychology

What all these different approaches to psychology havein common is a desire to explain the behavior ofindividuals based on the workings of the mind. And inevery area psychologists apply scientific methodology.They formulate theories, test hypothesis throughobservation and experiment and analyze their findingswith statistical techniques that help them identifyimportant discoveries. What is the difference between a psychologist,psychoanalyst and psychiatrist? While there is a considerable overlap between theservices offered by the psychologists, psychoanalystsand psychiatrists-there are some differences in trainingand services. Similarities

All three can provide psychotherapy and counseling services.

All three are trained to diagnose neuropsychological disorders and dysfunctions plus psychotic neurotic and personality disorders and dysfunctions.

All three are granted the right to make such diagnosis by law while other health care providers cannot.

All three help people maintain and enhance their physical, emotional, social and interpersonal functioning.

Differences

Psychologists have earned a doctoral level degree (P.H.D, PSY d, or D.ED) in psychology-after having obtained a Bachelors degree and aMasters degree in Psychology. Psychiatrists have a general medical degree first then advanced training in psychiatry.

Psychologists can do psychological testing with well-researched tests. Psychiatrists typically do not do psychological testing.

Psychiatrists can provide medication, which psychologists cannot. Their treatments are based on changing behavior without medication.

Whom do you talk to when you need help? So you are feeling stressed out. Everything needs yourattention all at once. You might even be feeling a bitdepressed. You decide to go to talk to someone, butwhom do you talk to. A friend tells you to go to apsychiatrist. Your sister suggests you see apsychologist. A co-worker mentions that she went to apsychoanalyst. So to add to your stress, you have tonow figure out the differences between each of thethree P words to know where to go for help. The Psychiatrist The psychiatrist is a physician who deals with mentallyill patients. Psychiatrists are MDs so they canprescribe medication. As a result they usually deal withclinical issues such of schizophrenia and manic-depression whose treatments tend to requiremedication.

The Psychologist Psychologists are not MDs. They tend to deal morewith emotional issues rather than clinical issues. Forexample a person experiencing low self esteem willvisit a psychologist rather than a psychiatrist if they donot have any thing physically wrong with them andthey just need to talk things out.

The Psychoanalyst Psychoanalysts follow Freuds theories that painfulchildhood memories contained in the subconscious arethe cause of mental illness. The Psychoanalyst alsodeals with emotional issues & do not prescribemedication. How to Choose Some people may use a combination of the aboveapproaches at the same time. Go to a psychiatrist formedication, but meet with a psychologist regularly totalk about their issues. If you later feel that you dontneed their services any longer, you can always ceasetreatment. Future Of Psychology In future the wellness of a person will bedependent on his mental & emotional conditionas well as his physical well being.

The definition of good health has become more holisticin the present world dictionary today. Good health isnow regarded as the total health for body & mind.The wellness of a person is dependent on his mental &emotional condition as well as his physical well being.With increasing awareness society will pay more heedto the importance of psychology in promoting totalhealth.

The Brain Exposed The human brain is unique amongst all the creaturesof the world. Most scientists agree that the uniqueabilities of the human brain are directly attributable tothe cerebral cortex. The powers of speech and writtenlanguage for example reside there and separate usfrom other animals. These powers go hand in handwith thinking observing, analyzing & integratingexperiences to solve problems planning ahead etc.The human brain has over 200,000 miles of wiring i.e.1000 times more wiring than a Jumbo Jet.

Development of the brain Nowhere are the beauty & power of life processorbetter expressed than in the life development of thehuman nervous system. The adult human brain isbelieved to consist of at least one hundred billionnervous (nerve cells) and probably five to ten times asmany neurological (functional support) cells. Togetherthese elements make up a three-pound mass ofprotoplasm, which is unique in our solar system. Thebrain, like every other part of our body, begins with afertilized egg, a single cell. Although this cell is so tinyit can barely be seen by the unaided eye, it contains allthe information needed to produce a human being. Thirty hours after fertilization, the cell divides into twocells

cells. Each of these two cells divides into two cells. Theresulting four cells divide to create eight cells. Cellscontinue to multiply throughout gestation, constantlyenlarging the fetus. When does brain development begin? Brain development begins with the formation andclosure of the neural tube, the earliest nervous tissue.The neural tube forms from the neural plate, whichbegins forming just sixteen days after conception bythe end of the fifth week of gestation the emergingshape of the brain and spinal cord are readilyrecognizable. When does the fetus's brain begin to work? Generally speaking, the central nervous system (whichis composed of the brain and the spinal cord) maturesin a sequence from "tail" to head. By the end of thefirst trimester, a fetus's movement repertoire isremarkably rich. The second trimester marks the onsetof other critical reflexes: continuous breathingmovements and coordinated sucking and swallowingreflexes. These abilities are controlled by thebrainstem. Last of all to mature is the cerebral cortex, which isresponsible for most of what we think of as mental life-conscious experience, voluntary actions, thinking,remembering, and feeling. It only begins to functionaround the time gestation comes to an end. When do we have the most brain cells? We enter the world with the most neurons, or nervecells, we are ever going to have, over 100 billion andtheir number begin declining immediately. The rest ofour body grows new cells to replace those that haveworn out or died, but neurons are not replaced. Thesecells are believed to be formed only in the prenatalperiod. This sounds alarming until one considers theenormous numbers of cells involved- we are born withneurons to spare.

But neurons are not the only kinds of brain cells. Greatnumbers of other types are produced that support theneurons. Through the experience of living andlearning, new connections and patterns are forgedamong cells; thus the brain changes constantly.Obviously it also gets bigger. A newborns brain isabout a quarter the size and weight it eventually is. Which plays a more important role in braindevelopment, nature (genes) or nurture(environment)? Genes and environment interact at every step of braindevelopment, but they play very different roles.Generally speaking, genes are responsible for the basicwiring plan--for forming all of the cells (neurons) andgeneral connections between different brain regions--while experience is responsible for fine-tuning thoseconnections, helping each child adapt to the particularenvironment (geographical, cultural, family, school,peer-group) to which he belongs. Why are babies commonly born headfirst? Sometime after the sixth month the fetus usually turnswithin the uterus, and takes on the headfirst birthingposition. Gravity may be the chief reason for this shift,the head being by far the heaviest part of the bodyand accounting for a quarter of the babys length. Theheads great size is necessary to accommodate thebabys brain, which is nearer its adult size than otherbody parts. Male-Female Brain Differences Research has shown that there are a number ofdifferences between the male and female brain. Cell numbers - men have 4% more brain cells thanwomen, and about 100 grams more of brain tissue.Many women have asked why men need more braintissue in order to get the same things done. Cellular connections - even though a man seems tohave more brain cells, it is reported that women havemore dendrite connections between brain cells. Corpus collosum size - it is reported that a woman'sbrain has a larger corpus collosum, which meanswomen can transfer data between the right and lefthemisphere faster than men. Men tend to be more leftbrained, while women have greater access to bothsides. Language - for men, language is most often just inthe dominant hemisphere (usually the left side), but alarger number of women seem to be able to use bothsides for language. This gives them a distinctadvantage

advantage. If a woman has a stroke in the left frontside of the brain, she may still retain some languagefrom the right front side. Men who have the same leftsided damage are less likely to recover as fully. Limbic size -- bonding/nesting instincts - currentresearch has demonstrated that females, on average,have a larger deep limbic system than males. Due tothe larger deep limbic brain women are more in touchwith their feelings, they are generally better able toexpress their feelings than men. They have anincreased ability to bond and be connected to others(which is why women are the primary caretakers forchildren). A Scientific Comparison of the Male andFemale Brain

Is there a difference between the male and femalebrain? Remarkably, many scientific studies haveindicated that there are major differences, particularlyin the size and location of areas within the brainresponsible for the various abilities of each sex.Females, for example, show a strong emotionalattachment to small fluffy things, while males have atendency to press the remote control buttonincessantly. Both of these behaviors are reflected inthe size and position of the corresponding gangliawithin the cranial tissue. To see exactly what we mean, have a closer look atthe male brain, followed by the female brain. We aresure you will be astounded at the depth of researchinvolved in these two sets of results.

A key feature of the theory is that your sex cannot tellyou which type of brain you have. Not all men have themale brain, and not all women have the female brain. Thecentral claim of this new theory is only that on average,more males than females have a male brain and morefemales than males have a female brain. Left & Right Brain There are two worlds; the world that we canmeasure with the line and rule, and the world thatwe feel with our hearts and imagination. ~ LeighHunt

The human brain function in many ways acts as twobrains. The way we experience the world isfundamentally affected by which hemisphere of thebrain is dominant. Bicameral Images reveal our two selves Okay, I made up the term, but it fits so well indescribing an extremely interesting phenomenonthat many people may not realize - each of us isreally two people inside. I mean we are literally twothinking beings residing in the same body. Follow along on this adventure. I won't disappointeither of you! About ten years ago, I saw an interesting exercise inwhich a college psychology professor had takenphotographs of her students, made copies that wereflipped left to right, and then had them cut in halfvertically. She reassembled the images using the twosimilar sides of the face. The composite pictures were humorous. Although theindividuals were easily recognizable, their facialexpressions seemed to express exaggeratedemotions, like anger, suspicion, or happiness - andoccasionally a look of total blankness. Even moreinteresting was the observation that the two sides ofthe same face were often so different. Why? This exercise seemed to suggest that, while ahandful of people have symmetrical faces, a vastmajority of us do not. Also it raised the possibilitythat each side of our face could express differentemotions at the same time! Subsequent researchinto facial expressions and the workings of thehuman brain has offered an interesting theory thatnot only explains this left and right difference infacial expressions, but could help us to understandour "other self." First, some science We'll keep this light and uncomplicated. Our brain,like the rest of our anatomy, is made up of twohalves, a left brain a right brain. The left side of our body is "wired" to the right sideof our brain, and vice versa. For whatever reasonnature did this cross-over, it applies even to oureyes, which process their sensory data on oppositesides of the brain.

The chart below will help illustrate the characteristics,which are known to reside on each side of our brains. Left brain Functions Right brain Functions uses logic detail oriented facts rule words and language present and past math and science can comprehend knowing acknowledges order/pattern perception knows object name reality based forms strategies practical safe

uses feeling "big picture" oriented imagination rules symbols and images present and future philosophy & religion can "get it" (i.e. meaning) believing appreciates spatial perception knows object function fantasy based presents possibilities impetuous risk taking

Our personality can be thought of as a result of thedegree to which these left and right brains interact, or,in some cases, do not interact. Each of us draws uponspecific sides of our brain for a variety of dailyfunctions, depending on such things as our educationand life experiences. The choices of which brain is incontrol of which situations is what makes ourpersonalities and determines our character. Experiments show that most children rank highlycreative (right brain) before entering school. Becauseour educational systems place a higher value on left-brain skills such as mathematics, logic and languagethan it does on drawing or using our imagination, onlyten percent of these same children will rank highlycreative by age 7. By the time we are adults, highcreativity remains in only 2 percent of the population.

A few extremely unscientific ways to determinewhether you're left brained or right brained Hint One - If you enjoy the graphics at this site - thenyou're probably "right brained."

Hint Two - If the graphics at this site bore you; andyou think they're simply a waste of valuable time -then you're probably "left brained." Hint Three - If you've mastered all the intricacies ofhtml language - then you're probably "left brained." Hint Four - If you used Netscape Composer and/orand Dreamweaver (like I did) to create your web site -then you're probably "right brained." Questions to ponder...

Question One a) Did you come to this e-book hoping to see andenjoy all the pretty pictures and special effects?Probably right brained or b) Did you come to simply get the facts - and all thosefrivolous graphics just slow things down to a crawl?You frequently use the text only option? Probably leftbrained Question Two Have you been on the Net for more than five years?Did you cut your teeth on the WWW with Mosaic andNetscape 1 browsers? Do you remember when it tooka major "Herculean" effort (and took at least twoweeks of hard, gut wrenching work) to get all yoursoftware configured correctly and hooked up to theNet? Do you remember "the good old days," when you hadto post at newsgroups in hopes of getting help withquestions that nobody had the answers to? Did you consider all the hard work and challenge to begreat fun - and now "look down your nose" at recentnewbies who have it all handed to them on "a silverplatter?" (Do I sound bitter?) Then you're probably left brained (or an extremelystubborn right-brainer who now has ulcers)!

Question Four When checking out your favorite newsgroups (i.e..- alt.dreams) and you come across a long-winded four pageposting filled with "million dollar" words - does yourmind suddenly go cloudy and become covered over bya deep fog or mist? Probably right brained A Practical & very unscientific exercise a) Put your hands together as if getting ready topray......

b) Look to see which thumb is on top. c) If your right thumb is on top, then you are probablyright brained, or if your left thumb is on top, then youare probably left brained. Note If you decided to send us an e-mail asking: "where inthe hell did we come up with such an obviouslybullshit, arbitrary test that flies in the face ofestablished scientific fact - or what makes us think thatwe are such experts on which side of the brain youuse?" - then regardless of which thumb was on top -you're probably left brained. The Brain Computer Comparison Whos in charge here-the mind or the machine?When one feels threatened, it helps to rememberthat humans dont need to be plugged in.

There are similarities between the two. Each one is acomplex of well coordinated inter connections thatsend messages back and forth. Each one groups andregroups information, stores it and uses it to solveproblems. And either can be wrong if the information iswrong. Even though the computer is the marvelous invention,it is no way as extraordinary as the human brain. Thechief advantage of the computer is the phenomenalspeed it can retrieve a wealth of data or whiz throughcomplex calculations in a matter or seconds or less.But in the end a computer is merely a machine built byhumans that reacts to the commands and datasupplied by the humans. It is no longer accurate to say that machines cannotthink, because some computers have been designed toapply reason in solving certain well-defined problems.However no computer even comes close to matchingthe brains simultaneous ability to observe, imagine,initiate, anticipate and be inspired. And unlike anycomputer yet designed, the human brain is capable ofconstantly adapting to new circumstances. Computer is inferior to the brains of the simplest ofcreatures. When it comes to such a things as seeing,moving, and responding to stimuli, no computer canrival even the brain of a fly Is a computer better organized than a brain is? The brain is not organized merely to solve certain setof well-defined problems. Our vast reservoir ofmemory and our ability to call up ideas or feelingsfrom the past and associate them with other ideas orfeelings & the human brains creative powers cannot bematched by a conventional computers calculations andcomparisons. Moreover, our mind supplies meaningsand contexts to new situations as they arise. We have a unique ability to combine our thoughts withsensations and feelings. We can remember names,faces, facts and figures, but can also recall a motherssoothing voice, the feel of terry cloth againstsunburned skin, or the smell of a campfire. This abilityto interweave information and sensation give ourthoughts their complexity. Because the brain is a livingtissue however, it will always have many uniqueabilities that even the most complex computersimulation will be unable to duplicate. Emotions arethe wild card in human intelligence, and one of themajor factors that distinguishes our brains from that ofa computer.

The Gift Of Sight Our Eyes I am part of everything I have seen. ~ AlfredLord Tennyson What makes seeing possible?

Pure and simple, we see with our brain. What we knowas sight is actively the ultimate outcome of lightsfantastic journey through the brains visual system. Theprocessing of light begins in our eyes, which are anextension of the brain and the most exposed part ofthe central nervous system. In the eyes light is filteredand focused before being translated into electricalimpulses and sent on its way along the optic nerve ofthe brain. The final destination is the brains vision center wherethe impulses are interpreted as visual images. How do we recognize what we are seeing? We dont just see people and things. We recognizethem for who and what they are. Most of us take thisability for granted, but it is a very complicated processand one, which is not fully understood by the scientist.

Do you see the world as it really is? Studies about the mechanism of the eye have revealedthat the images reaching the retina are only twodimensional, yet the world is three dimensional, andwe perceive it that way. We are able to make thenecessary corrections, apparently because the brainexpects the physical world to have certain qualities,such as three dimensionality. From the beginning ofour conscious lives, the brain looks for visual cues thatconform to its inborn understanding of reality. How much light do we need in order to see? Human eyes react to even a small amount of light.Each eye contains over 100 million light sensitive cellscalled rods, located in the retina at the rear of the eye,together with color sensing cells called cones. The rodshave no ability to see color but can react to the lightproduced by one ten-billionth of a watt. How do my eyes adjust to the darkness in doors? When you are outside in the bright light, the eyes rodsand cones are chemically balanced to handle the largeamount of light. Upon entering the darker indoors,however you encounter a greatly lessened amount oflight, and the rods & cones must adapt by means of achemical reaction to the change in light. Why do you see an object at night more clearly ifyou dont look directly at it? The two types of light receptors in the eye rods andcones perform different tasks and are concentrated indifferent areas of the eye. Rods which are chieflyresponsible for night vision are concentrated more atthe sides of the eyes back wall. Cones which handleday and color vision, are packed into an area along thecenter of the eyes back wall called the fovea,therefore, objects at night are best seen at the sides orcorners of your eyes where the rods are.

Can carrots really improve your eyesight?

In World War II when British RAF fighters were scoringspectacular night victories against German bombers,their success was attributed to improved eyesight fromeating carrots. The carrot story was actually a ruse.But research has shown that a diet rich in vitamin Afoods such as leafy green vegetables and of coursecarrots can indeed help people who suffer from nightblindness. However taken in great quantities vitamin A cancause blurred vision, stomach and skin problems,headaches and even brain damage. How do we see color? Color exists only in our head. Without our brainsability to interpret the intricate and individual way lightis reflected off every object in nature, the world wouldbe entirely colorless. Objects themselves have nocolor, nor does the light reflected by them. What wesee as color is actually the result of the way differentwavelengths of light stimulate certain parts of ourbrains visual system. Why can you sometimes see colors that arentthere? If you stare at a green spot for a long time, then lookimmediately at a piece of white paper. You will see aghostly red spot. This phenomenon is called a negativeafterimage. It is a result of the way your visual systemmixes and matches colors. By staring at the green spotyou excite the green seeing neurons. When you look atthe white paper all your neurons are excited becausewhite light contains all colors. But your green neuronsare tired from looking at the green spot and cannotcancel out the red seeing neurons. Hence the redimage. What is color blindness? It is extremely rare that a person will have a totalinability to see color. What is generally called colorblindness

blindness might be termed color confusion. Mostpeople with this disorder see colors, but tend toconfuse some colors with others. Curiously, the mostcommonly confused colors are red and green. Why are two eyes better than one? Seeing an object isnt enough. It is also important toknow where we are in relation to it. Our brains abilityto do this is called depth perception. Since our eyesour spaced at a distance apart in our heads, each eyeis looking at things from a slightly different angle. Thebrain takes the information that is received from eacheye and uses it to calculate our distance from theobject. Are a blind persons other senses more acutethan a sighted persons? There is no psychological evidence to suggest that thesenses of touch, taste, smell or hearing are superior inblind. It is true, however that persons who lose onesense almost always become more adept at using thesenses that they have left. Our Sound System Our Ears The best way to understand people is to hearwhat they have to say' ~ anon.

How does the brain tell one sound from another? The auditory or hearing centers of the brain arelocated in the temporal lobes, behind the temples. It ishere that the brain hears sound, registering it asloud or soft, high or low. Our brains hearing centersinterpret the multitude of sound signals we receivecomparing them with one another and grouping themin orderly patterns. The process is all-important indeciphering speech.

At many points along the way nerve cells can decidewhether or not to pass on a given signal. This tunesout much confusing noise. When do we begin to hear? Babies can actually hear in the womb. The sense ofhearing is believed to develop in the 20th week ofpregnancy. There is even evidence that babiesrecognize their mothers voices before birth. A study ofinfants sucking reflexes showed that newborn babiessuck faster when they hear their mothers speak. Why is it pleasurable to listen to music?

In random noise sounds of many different frequencies,and in no particular order are mixed in such a way thatwe can make no sense of them. Music howeverpresents our auditory system with sounds that havebeen arranged in orderly rhythmic patterns. Thissounds pleasant to the ears. What is cocktail party effect? What we hear depends in a large measure on what wecan screen out. We have the mysterious ability to tunein on one conversation amidst the babble of a crowdedroom - a phenomenon called the cocktail effect. Buteven when we have fettered out most distractions,certain sounds, we care about will jump out at us. Wecant help noticing the sound of our own name, forexample however softly it is spoken. Does hearing get worse with age? Unfortunately, the hearing level of adults declines yearby year, and it is usually our ability to hear highfrequency sounds that we lose first. The reason for this decline in hearing was long thoughtto be the result of deterioration in the bones andmembranes of the ear and in the nerves that carrysound

sound to the brain. But now it is believed that at leastpart of the deterioration may be due to the noise ofmodern civilization. Studies have found that theprimitive Mabaan tribesmen in Africa, who arenormally exposed to sounds no louder than the rustlingof leaves, have far more acute hearing in their fiftiesthan the average young American. Is Deafness often hereditary? Hereditary deafness is relatively rare. However,hearing problems in newborn babies are sometimescaused by events in the womb or during childbirth. Forexample German measles during pregnancy maylead to a hearing difficulty. What is the difference between being hard ofhearing and being profoundly deaf? Some 21 million Americans are hard of hearing; theirmild to moderate disability keeps them from hearing aticking watch or following quiet conversation. Far fewerpeople are profoundly deaf. Many hearing problems are treatable. For examplevarious kinds of hearing aids or surgery to repairdefects within the ear can help restore hearing. So far,the deafness that is caused by damage to the auditorynerve cannot be overcome. A new appreciation of the needs of the deaf andpartially deaf has led to greater use of such devices aswarning lights to replace hard to hear bells in thehome, as well as sign language interpretation andamplification equipment in theaters and on T.V. Will it be possible for the profoundly deaf tohear? An experimental implant has been tested with severalhundred patents. It allows the profoundly deaf tohear such sounds such as door bells, and automobilehorns and helps them in lip reading. The hope is todevelop implants that approach normal hearing butthe technical problem is enormous, and if the auditorynerve is dead, no electrical stimulation can help. Stillmany advancements & experiments are being carriedout. Even a rough approximation of the normal hearingmechanism may be of great help. How do the ears help us to keep our balance? Our sense of balance largely depends on the vestibulesystem, which lies close to the cochlea in the inner ear,and allows us to stand upright and walk in a straightline.

What The Nose Knows Smells are surer than sounds or sights to makeyour heartstrings crack ~ Rudyard Kipling How does the brain perceive odor? Deep inside the nasal passage is a mat of mucus andraw nerves called the olfactory epithelium. Air inhaledthrough the nose brings with it various kinds ofmolecules. Some are water-soluble and after beingcaptured by special molecules in the nose, aretransported to the receptor cells in the mucus mat.From there cells identifying the odor are sent along thenerve to the brain, where the final perceptions arecreated From the nerve in the nasal passages, the sensationtravels directly to the brains olfactory bulbs. Fromthese organs, smell signals move to other part of thebrain. Finally, smell sensations reach locations in thebrain where they are consciously identified. Do we actually need a sense of smell? Some scientists believe that smell plays a greater partin our lives than we now recognize. It adds to ourenjoyment of food and drink. It alerts us to certaindangers. How keen is the nose?

It takes only 1/25,000,000,000 of a milligram ofmethyl perception in a milliliter of air for most peopleto smell it. Although the sense of smell can betriggered off by just a few molecular concentrationsonly 10 to 50 times above that detection thresh holdoften reach maximum intensity for us. That is, wewont smell that a smell is stronger, no matter howmuch greater the concentration gets. Many animalshave a sense of smell that is far superior to ours.

Can our sense of smell be heightened or dulled? Your age, your health, the weather, the altitude, andthe humidity are just a few of the factors that influencethat influence the perception of smell. The simplestway to heighten your sense of smell is inhale throughyour nose, and thus draw more air over thereceptacles in the epithelium. Colds are the most frequent cause of a temporary lossof smell. How many odors can we identify? On the basis of psychological tests, it is believed thathuman beings can detect between 4000 and 10,000odors. Do women have a better sense of smell thanmen? Women are more sensitive than men to a number ofsmells. The female hormone estrogen may account forthis sensory difference. Odors stir sensations, emotions and memories The power of smells to evoke strong feelings can bepartly explained by the fact that odor signals travel byunique pathways to special destinations in the brainslimbic system. Since the limbic system processesemotions and gut reactions, a scent can cause a quick,involuntary response, such as recoiling from a badsmell or salivating at a good one. The limbic systemalso plays a role in storing and recalling memories which is why a whiff of an odor related to your pastcan bring a rush of long, forgotten memories. Can we become adapted to smell? Many odors become less noticeable if you are exposedto them for a long time. The musty smell of an antiqueshop is nearly undetectable to it is owner. Is it true that odors influence our behavior? There are some obvious ways that odor affects whatwe do and how we feel. The stench of rotten eggsmakes us flinch while the smell of baking bread makesour mouths water. Odor also has more subtle influences on humanbehavior. Smell plays a role in sexual attraction. In1970 Martha McClintock noted that young women wholived together in college dorms tended to have samemenstrual

menstrual cycles. Does sickness have a smell? There are doctors who rely on their sense of smell as adiagnostic tool literally finding what is wrong with apatient by using their nose. Certain diseases havedistinct odors caused by a change in metabolism. Agarlic odor is a sign of arsenic poisoning. A fruity smellcould mean that a person is diabetic. The Sense Of Taste Learning to taste is like learning to appreciatemusic. At first the listener cant distinguish onesymphony from another. But gradually he canpick out the sound of the oboe and the clarinet.~ Louise Miller Mann Did you know? On your tongue are about 10,000 taste receptors.They are called taste buds. When you eat, thereceptors send signals to the brain, which translatesthe signals into combinations of sweet, bitter, saltyand sour tastes.

Newborn babies have few tastes buds. But soon afterbirth more buds begin to grow, and by early childhoodthey cover the top and some of the bottom of thetongue, as well as areas in the cheek and the throat.Since young children have many more taste budsblooming in their mouths than adults, they frequentlyfind food to be too bitter or spicy. The four primary tastes sweet, bitter, salty, and sourare each associated with a specific area on yourtongue. The taste buds account for less than 20 percent of theflavor of food. The sense of smell, the temperature andtexture of food also contribute to its overall flavor.

What does it mean to have acquired tastes? Most of us have had the experience of hating a certaintaste on our first try, then later growing to like it.Known as acquired taste, this liking generally developsafter repeated exposure to a particular taste, when thetongue is stimulated on a regular basis by a bitter foodor drink, its sensitivity to that bitterness drops. However the food for which you have had to acquire aliking may have tasted just fine from the start to somebody else. This often depends on the kind of meals wehad in early childhood. How keen is the sense of taste Bitterness can be detected in a solution as weak asone part per 2 million. Sourness one part per 130,000.Saltiness one part per 400. However it takes muchmore sweetness to register a sweet sensation -onepart per 200. However, taste buds can be tricked. After you brushyour teeth, the usually sweet taste of orange juiceseems bitter because of the chemicals left by yourtoothpaste. Getting In Touch Touch seems to be as essential as sunlight. ~Diane Ackerman, A Natural History of The Senses Do people really need to be touched? Infants and children have a special need for physicalcontact to be held and touched. It is now believedthat separating a baby at birth can interfere with thenatural bonding between mother and child.

Early contact stimulates the babys development aswell as the mothers maternal feelings. Research hasfound that premature babies in intensive carenurseries gain weight faster if nurses gently strokethem for 15 minutes 3 times a day. Touchingapparently produces its physiological benefits in partby stimulating the secretion of certain brain chemicalsnecessary for growth and for the bodies response tostress.

Why touch is called the mother of our senses? Touch is the earliest of the human senses to develop.It is already functioning during the seventh week ofpregnancy. And it is literally the broadest of thesenses, since the skin, where the touch receptors arefound, covers the whole body. Babies use their senseof touch to understand their surroundings. Even afterthey have learned to recognize things by sight, theyoften try to confirm what they see through touch. i.e.patting their mothers faces.

Adults also seem to regard touch as fundamental. Howoften do you find yourself not believing what you seeuntil you have actually touched it Is there a sense of pressure? What we call our sense of touch actually consists of atleast four different kinds of sensory receptors.Specialized pressure receptors react to light touch,deep pressure or vibration. We notice a touch asdelicate as butterflys wings even when it is so fleetingthat it lasts only one tenth of a second. Our sensereceptors react by sending slower, less intense signalsas the same stimulus continues. This is one of thereasons why you stop noticing the pressure of yourwatch on your wrist on the feel of your clothing onyour body.

What sensations other than pressure does touchconvey? Receptors to both cold and warmth do not responddirectly to cold or warmth but to relative changes inskin temperature. For example a cool room feels warmto some one coming in from the outside. Howeversensations of pain remain strong even when they arestimulated for a long time. Can touch heal? Touching does appear to have specific value inrelieving pain as any child knows who has rubbed abruise after a fall. Scientists think that the signalstriggered by the rubbing of pressure receptors mayinterfere with those from pain receptors thuslessening the impact of pain signals on the brainscerebral cortex.

Massage also seems to have real physical &psychological benefits. It not only relaxes the musclesbut induces a sense of well being reminiscent of thesecurity babies feel when they are held in theirmothers arms.

Mental Faculties You think-therefore you exist ~ Anon. The Interplay of mental faculties The changes involved in thinking and learning takeshuge amounts of energy. Although the human brainaccounts for less than two percent of the body'senergy a total of one-fifth of the body's blood andoxygen supply is directed to the brain's maintenance. Thinking is accompanied by dramatic short-termchanges. Over a longer period thinking causes changesthat are more or less permanent. Can thinking be observed? Earlier all anyone knew about thinking had to beinferred. In recent years scientists have been able toobserve thinking more directly. New methods ofrevealing brain structures that influence cognition,such as computerized axial topography (CAT or CTscanning), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) andpositron emission tomography (PET scanning). Thesemethods can detect fairly broad ranges of brainactivity. Moreover, CAT and MRI afford finer and moreselective views since they can be focused on angles on'slices' of the brain.

Memory The true art of memory is the art of attention ~Anon.

Memory is the amount or bits of information we canhold in our head. Are people born with a good memory? How much you remember depends to some extent oninborn capacity. But in most cases what counts is yourenthusiasm for a subject. An avid sportsman canremember games and players performance to anextent that is amazing to non-fans. The more youlearn of a subject that fascinates you the easier it is topick up more. Conversely if a subject bores you, youwill probably have trouble remembering anythingabout it. How can you improve your memory? The first essential seems obvious, but it cannot bestressed enough. To acquire information, you have topay attention. Then you must relate the information tosomething you already know, and finally you have topractice its use. Everyone's mind works differently, soyou may want to try a variety of memory devices. When you need to remember the number of days in amonth, chances are you use this rhyme: Thirty dayshath September, April, June and November. All therest have 31, except February, which stands alone.' orwhen struggling with spelling, maybe you say Ibefore e except after c'. Your memory can be joggedby chunking. That is group information by a commoncharacteristic. Isolated bits of information are easily lost. You canmake up your memory tricks, using rhymes, chunks,nonsense sentences, and acronyms. For many visual cues are effective as memory devices.By relating names or other information to say, ships,pineapples, or lampposts, you can visualize the picturecue and thus call up the original information. How does your mind choose what to remember? Short-term memory has been likened to a scratch padwhere

where you check your arithmetic, or jot down a phonenumber. You keep the details in your mind only as longas needed to accomplish the project at hand. Then thebarely noticeable images fade immediately andcompletely. For something to enter long-term memory - the imagemust get past what psychologists term as 'thegatekeeper of memory'. It must get your full attention.Something novel, noisy, or of special interest to you-.It may then start on the way to becoming establishedin your memory. Through association with existingmemory, through linkages with other rememberedevents, it builds new traces in the brain.

How durable is long term memory? Some psychologists believe that long-term memoriesare never lost. Unfortunately this does not mean youcan call up a face, fact or figure whenever you want to,just because you had a firm memory of the subject inthe past. The problem may lie in your retrieval system.The memory may lie in your retrieval system. Thememory may be linked to a special circumstance. Ifthis eludes you, you are left with a 'tip of the tongue'phenomenon', where you can almost make theconnection. Or the memory may have beensuppressed. Evidence of the stability of long-term memory comesfrom studying patients who have suffered from strokesor mild brain seizures. Sometimes strokes unlock aflood of detailed memories from the distant past. Does amnesia erase memories? Removal or damage of certain parts of the brain maymake it impossible for patients to learn anything new,and at the same time it erases memories of eventswithin the last three years. This kind of amnesia-(lossof memory) is permanent. Progressive loss of memorydue to Alzheimer's disease is also an irreversible loss A head injury can also cause amnesia, but often theeffect is temporary. Severe emotional stress can alsocause amnesia. Such a mechanism may seem merciful,but can result in deep emotional trouble, for, it seems,and

and the memories are not lost. Unless the past isretrieved and faced, the stress may fester. Everyday life and memory You get to school and realize you forgot your lunch athome. You take a test and you can't remember halfthe answers. You see the new kid who just joined yourclass, and you can't remember his name. Some days,it seems like your brain is taking a holiday- you can'tremember anything! How can I do better? Maybe you think you'll get better at memorizing thingsif you practice a lot. Sorry, but it doesn't work thatway. Back in 1927, a scientist tested 187 universitystudents on their ability to memorize poetry, themeaning of Turkish words, dates of historical events,and other things. Then some students practiced memorizing things.Others learned techniques for remembering things.And the rest did nothing at all related to memory. When the scientist tested the students again, thegroup that had learned techniques for memorizingthings did much better on the test than the others. Thestudents who had practiced memorizing things and thestudents who had done nothing at all did about thesame on the test as they did before. Scientists have discovered that you don't get better atmemorizing things just by doing it more. But you canget better by learning some clever tricks that help youout. On the following pages, we'll give you a few tricks youcan try. They'll help you remember -- they'll also tellyou something about how your memory works. Memory Party Game With the help of a grown-up or few friends, you cantest your memory and compare it to your friends'memories. What do I need?

One person to be Game Master A few friends (This is a good to try with a lot of

people - or you can try it with one other friend) 20 different unrelated objects - like a pair of

scissors, a can of beans, a hair brush, a pencil,and so on

A big towel that can cover the objects A clock or watch with a second hand A piece of paper and a pencil for each player

What do I do?

First, have the Game Master gather 20different objects. If you're having party, youcan ask each person who's coming to bringsomething for the game. If you're playing withyour family each person could gather a fewobjects. These should be things are not relatedto each other. The Game Master might want toget some things form the kitchen - like a canopener and potato masher - and some fromthe bedroom - like a left shoe and a bow tie.

All the players close their eyes while the gamemaster puts all the objects out on the table orfloor and covers them with the towel.

All the players open their eyes. The GameMaster picks up the towel and everyone hastwo minutes to memorize all the items.

After two minutes, the Game Master covers theobjects with the towel, and each player writesdown all the objects he or she can remember.

Then the Game Master uncovers the objectsand everyone can find out how they did.

How many of the 20 things did you remember? Howdid your friends do? Creativity The voyage of discovery is not in seeking newlandscapes but in having new eyes. ~ Proust, Marcel What is creativity? Creativity leaves current knowledge behind andproduces something that is new. Or it puts old ideas orfamiliar things together in a new way. It is free -wheeling, imaginative thinking that leads to freshinsight and revolutionary ideas, and comes up withuseful products.

Creative thought goes outside the usual route, putsaside the accepted formula or pattern or recipe. Theresults are many and varied: a poem, an opera, amedical diagnosis, a pastry, a better mousetrap, atheory on starlight, a faster way to clean a kitchen.

Do original ideas begin in daydreams?

Whenever you let your thoughts wander and youmuse, "What it?" you nudge your mind to travelbeyond the accepted and familiar. Such daydreamingis source of much of the creativity in our lives. Whenyou come up with a better or easier way to do yourjob, you are being creative. You are thinking creativelywhen you can no longer tolerate an explanation like"But that's the way we've always done it." Are people with the highest IQ'S the mostinventive? A high score on an intelligence test doesn'tautomatically mean a high level of creativity. Trulyoriginal thinking involves nonintellectual factors; suchas receptivity to novel ideas and a knack for makingconnections that hadn't occurred to someone else. Tests have been developed to identify creative talent.They have shown that top on creativity tests average23 IQ points lower than top scorers on intelligencetests. The most creative individuals often had troublewith problems that demanded sticking to rigid rules tofind the answer. Is creativity inheritable? There are famous examples of creativity appearing ingeneration after generation of a family. JohannSebastian Bach was born to line that had producedmusicians for the previous hundred years. But such examples of a specific creative talentspanning generations are quite rare; and the evidencefor some sort of "creative gene" is not strong. It maybe that a general kind of creative temperament runs infamilies, whose members show creativity in diversefields, such as business, politics, or the arts. In anycase, heredity would not be the only factorpredisposing an individual to creative thinking. Equallyimportant would be the influence of his or her familyenvironment.

What kind of person is creative? Childhood is perhaps the most creative period ineverybody's life. Preschoolers make dolls, play copsand robbers, build with blocks, draw, dance etc.

At school, a child must learn the correct solutions, theapproved method. Every question has a right or wronganswer. Part of the child's natural creativity is the ability tofantasize, to think beyond the right answer, to wonderwhy not. One way to cultivate this trait is to strike abalance between challenging a child, exposing him tonew ideas & activities & letting the child experiment onhis own, Reading should be encouraged. The moreinformation that is stored the more the child can drawon for creative efforts. What part of the brain influences creativity? There is evidence that in most people, the righthemisphere of the brain has more to do with creativitythan the left, which handles life's day to day business,talking, writing, reasoning etc. The right side of thebrain fires imagination and creativity Humor stimulates creativity There has been research since the 1950s documentingthe close relationship between humor/fun andcreativity. For example, simply listening to a humorousrecording increases scores on a subsequently givencreativity test. People also perform more creatively ona task when it is framed as "play" than when it isframed as "work." Simply watching comedy films areenough to improve creative problem solving, and theamount of improvement is greater than after watchinga serious movie. The employees of Southwest Airlinesconsistently propose creative ideas, which help thecompany, increase profits. An important source ofthese innovative ideas is the fact that they have fun on

the job. The company is committed to maintaining awork environment in which humor, laughter, fun and aplayful attitude thrive, because it knows that this kindof work environment produces a frame of mind inwhich innovative solutions are most likely to occur. Bytracking the money saved due to employees' creativesuggestions, Southwest has determined that itsemployees' ideas save the company millions of dollarsevery year. Even the memory of past funny situations is enough totrigger innovative ideas. During the Vietnam War, onesoldier had the problem of being constantly coveredwith leeches while wading through swamps. Heremembered a scene from Monty Python's FlyingCircus about weird uses of panty hose and asked hismom to send him the biggest pair of panty hose shecould find. It worked! The leeches were unable topenetrate the panty hose. Creativity Test IQ tests usually measure your verbal andmathematical skills. What we want to do here ismeasure your associative flexibility. There may beother possible answers than the ones given, but atleast you can use this as a gauge to see how fluid yourthinking skills are. These sample questions test will give you some idea ofyour mental plasticity and, therefore, creativity.

1. 26=L of the A 2. 7=W of the W 3. 1001=A N 4. 12= S of the Z

Answers at the end of this Chapter. Intelligence Tests An intelligence test sometimes shows a manhow smart he would have been not to have takenit. ~ Laurence J. Peter Who created the first useful intelligence test? In the early 1900's the French government askedpsychologist Alfred Binet to create an intelligence testthat would identity retarded children in need of specialschooling. Designing such a test proved extremelydifficult. First Binet had to define intelligence and thenfind a way to capture intelligence in small parts-thetest questions. To Binet, intelligence meant 'judgment'otherwise called 'good sense.' His tests attempted tomeasure how well children managed their everyday life

by asking them to identify pictures of common objects,tell time, and work with numbers. How are intelligence tests scored? Binet's intelligence tests were based on the assumptionthat there is an average level of mental competencemeasurable at each age. Thus, he tried out differentquestions and kept in the final tests the ones that themajority of children at each age level that he sampledanswered correctly. These assumptions of average ability established themental age standard of the test, while the actual ageof the child was called the chronological age. To find achild's intelligence quotient, or IQ, the child's mentalage was divided by his actual age. For example, a 10-years-old who had the mental age of an 11-year-oldhad an IQ score of 1.1. Later, psychologists eliminated decimals by multiplyingthe score by 100. Thus a 1.1 score on a Binet testbecomes on a Binet test becomes an IQ of 110. Thistype of scoring considers an IQ of 100 as average for achild at any given age. How are adult intelligence tests scoresmeasured? Once a person reaches adulthood, chronological yearsbegin to outstrip mental years as measured by Binet.Therefore, his test and its scoring had to be revised totake this into account. Using graphs and statistics ofadult scores, psychologists designed a way to assign anumerical value of 100 to an average adult IQ score. While intelligence tests have been useful in providingan objective standard with which to measure certainabilities, they cannot predict with certainty anindividual's future performances. An IQ score canchange. If adults are intellectually challenged, their IQscores will increase. Why is it hard to design a test that is fair toeveryone? Standardized tests are intended to be as fair aspossible, so people from all backgrounds can beevaluated by the same impartial standards. The onlyway test designers can evaluate a new test is to try iton a sample group of people. The sample shouldclosely resemble those for whom the test is intended.However, no one group can fully represent an entirepopulation. For example, one person may be able toanswer a question on snow, while another may havenever seen snow.

Can test anxiety be cured? Many students who do poorly on tests become soanxious over tests that they fall into a pattern ofunderachieving. To combat anxiety, experts advisetest-taking practice. Above all, a child should beencouraged to keep tests in perspective. Tests can betaken again. It's vital that children know that no testcan completely measure their ability or willingness tolearn.

What different types of tests are available today? The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is one of themost widely used intelligence tests today. It attemptsto measure an individual's over-all mental strengthsand weaknesses, not just the knowledge of vocabularyand math. For instance, the Wechsler asks subjects toarrange a group of pictures in a sequence that createsa meaningful story. Achievement tests measure mastery of a specificsubject. An example is the Metropolitan AchievementTests. Aptitude tests, on the hand, are designed toshow a student's potential for acquiring skills andknowledge. The best-known aptitude tests are the ScholasticAptitude Test, or SAT's typically, these examinationsmeasure mathematical ability, vocabulary, and readingcomprehension. The SAT's helped appraise the abilityof a student to succeed in college. Vocational interest tests are yet another category,designed to measure one's inclination towards variousjobs. The Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory test asksstudents to check off those activities they like anddislike. A vocational counselor can tell the studentwhich jobs people held with similar interests.

Here are some samples taken from an I.Q test

1. Which figure, of the six shown below,completes the sequence?

2. Which figure, of the eight numbered below,completes the sequence?

3. What is the missing number?

4. Which is the odd word out?

NATU, ICENE, CULEN, SARM, REFHAT

5. Which figure, of the six shown below,completes the sequence?

Solutions Answers to Creativity Test

1. 26 = L. of the A. (letters of the alphabet) 2. 7 = W. of the A.W. (wonders of the ancient world) 3. 1,000 = A.N. (Arabian nights) 4. 12 = S. of the Z. (signs of the zodiac)

Solutions of sample I.Q test questions Ques No. Solution Explanation

1

The two lines inside the square move 90 clockwise each time.

2

Each horizontal line has the same three figures in a different order.

3 26

4,8,7,14,1326. The sequence progresses in the form of x2, -1. 4 (x2=) 8 (-1=) 7 (x2=) 14 (-1=0 )13 (x2=) 26

4 MARS All are anagrams of relatives except 'MARS'; Aunt, Niece, Uncle, Father.

5

The circle moves diagonally from top to bottom; the square moves horizontally from left to right.

What Is Personality? Everybody's heard the term personality, and most ofus can describe our own or our friend's personality.What most don't know, however, is that personality isone of the most theorized and most researchedaspects of psychology. The reason for this is the enormous role personalityplays in our lives. It is our personality whichdetermines how we interact with others, how wehandle issues, how we treat ourselves, etc. Again, it isour personality which influences which career wepursue, who we marry and even what programs wewatch on TV. By definition, personality is thecombination of all the attributes - behavioral,temperamental, emotional and mental - thatcharacterize a unique individual.

With the volume of study being done on personality itis natural that there would be quite a few theories onthis topic. These theories vary a bit in their handling ofpersonality but by and large give the same results.

Carl Jung developed the Type Theory Type watchingis a way to begin to understand personality and to turntheir differences into group strengths. According to thistheory human behavior is not random butpredictable and classifiable. Everyone is bornpredisposed to personality preferences. Typologistshave devised four pairs of preference alternatives asstated below. Extroverted (E) or Introverted (I) Sensing (S) or iNtuitive (N) Thinking (T) or Feeling (F) Judging (J) or Perceiving (P) Extrovert or Introvert

This category deals with how we prefer to interact withthe world and how we prefer to get our energy andstimulation. Other people and actions energizeextroverts. They become drained when they have tospend too much time alone. They need other people tofunction. Introverts get their energy from their ownthoughts and ideas. They rarely speak up at meetings preferring listeningto talking. Introverts need time alone, especially afterspending hours with people. Extroverts outnumber introverts by about three to onein America. Extroverts are often rewarded in school, byparticipating in class discussions and at work becausethey are popular and outgoing. Introverts are oftenundervalued because they keep their best tothemselves.

Sensor or iNtuitive This category deals with how we prefer to gatherinformation about the world. The sensors prefer to usetheir five senses to gather information. Sensors preferfacts to interpretation. For iNtuitives, everything isrelative- iNtuitives look at the grand scheme of things,trying to translate bits of information through intuitioninto possibilities, meanings and relationships. Detailsand specifics irritate iNtuitives. iNtuitives see theforests , sensors see the trees. When working withsensors or iNtuitives it is important to remember thesedifferences. Thinker or Feeler This category deals with how we make decisions.Thinkers base their decisions on objective values andare often described as logical, detached, or analytical.Some thinkers are thought of as cold or uncaringbecause they would rather do what is right than whatmakes people happy. In contrast, feelers tend to makedecisions based on what will create harmony. Feelersavoid conflict, and will overextend themselves toaccommodate the needs of others. Feelers always putthemselves in somebody elses shoes and ask howpeople will be affected before taking decisions. This isthe only personality type category related to gender.About two-thirds of all males are thinkers, and thesame proportion of females is a feeler. Judger or Perceiver? This category deals with how we orient our lives.Judgers are structured, ordered, scheduled, and ontime. They are the list makers. Judgers wake up everymorning with a definite plan for the day, and becomevery upset when the plan becomes unraveled. Evenfree time is scheduled. Perceivers, on the other hand,rely on creativity, spontaneity, and responsiveness,rather than a plan or list, to get them through the day.They burn the midnight oil to meet deadlines, althoughthey usually meet them. Perceivers like to turn workinto play, because if a task is not fun, they reason, it isprobably not worth doing. Experts say that this personality type difference is themost significant source of tension in the workplace andin-group work. Perceivers prefer to keep gatheringinformation rather than to draw conclusions. Judgersprefer to make decisions, often ignoring newinformation that might change that decision. Hence,the conflict. A good balance of judgers and perceiversare necessary for a well-functioning work group.Judgers need light-hearted perceivers to make themrelax, and perceivers need structured judgers to keepthings organized and reach closure on projects.

Personality By Birth Order The people with the same birthranks have morein common with each other than with their ownsiblings. ~ Sulloway.

Is your oldest a perfectionist? Is your youngestspontaneous? Does your middle child display maverickpotential? Where they fall in the "pecking order" ofyour family may give you clues to why they are theway they are. In his book, "Born to Rebel: Birth Order, FamilyDynamics, and Creative Lives," Frank Sulloway notesthat "siblings raised together are almost as different intheir personalities as people from different families."For Sulloway, this interesting fact led to the questionof how the family experience can be so different foreach child. In fact, he states that people with the samebirth ranks have more in common with each other thanwith their own siblings. In her book, "The Birth Order Factor," Dr. Lucille Forerstates that certain combinations of persons willproduce a more successful marriage (when thehusband is a youngest and wife is an oldest) or one"doomed to failure" (husband and wife both the oldestor both the youngest). Conventional wisdom holds thatthere are some personality traits that are commonlyassociated with birth order. They probably shouldn't beignored, nor should they be given too much attention.

First born - the pioneers

There are many benefits to being first. First-born kidsgrow up knowing they are bigger, stronger andsmarter than their younger siblings - at least for atime. They identify more readily with parentalauthority because they are often put in charge ofyounger sibs. Oldest children are considered reliable,conscientious, strong leaders who are highly motivatedto achieve. In fact, of the first 23 astronauts sent intospace, 21 were first born (the other two are on lies). What is it about being first that may help to shape achild's personality along these lines? One aspect is thespecial intense attention first born receives from theirparents. All of this undivided attention providesimportant one-on-one stimulation, but also can put thefirst born under a great deal of pressure to succeed.This pressure means eldest children have more of atendency to be uptight and overly concerned withperfection. They can focus too much on externalapproval and respect, not caring enough about whatthey, as individuals, think. Not-so-stuck in the middle "Middle children can have more of a tendency to pout,but not without reason. They typically aren't thebiggest and strongest, and they certainly aren't theyoungest, which usually gets away with murder. Intheir minds, being in the middle means being theopposite of special and, sometimes, it means beinginvisible. This struggle to be noticed frequently bringsout serious maverick potential in many middles.Sulloway's research cites that in revolution afterrevolution (political, scientific or otherwise), almost allwere started by later born, often middles. Being amaverick

maverick may come from the desire to gain status inthe eyes of the parent, yet not lose status in the eyesof the first born, who they often idolize. Thus, middlesdon't typically compete head-on with first born. If theoldest is good in science, the middle will often choosesomething else to excel at, like sports or music. Bychoosing a niche that isn't occupied, the middle childincreases her chances of standing out and beingnoticed, while decreasing the chances of beingcompared to the first-born. Middle kids often develop excellent negotiating skills,because they are often smaller than their older sibs.Much of the time they are classified as easygoing, butthey can harbor self-esteem problems. Forever young (est.) If you ask their siblings, they're likely to say that to bethe youngest is to be in the best position in the family.The youngest is oftentimes the center of attention -not just from the parents, but from the older sibs aswell. The youngest are also able to get away withbehavior that other family members can't. While theexpectations for the eldest are often very high, theyoungest is forever labeled "the baby," and as such,the standards are different. Psychologists typically pinsuch characteristics as affectionate, sensitive,indulged, dependent, tenacious and fun on theyoungest in a family, and some of that has to do withthe relationships the baby has with the parents andsiblings. The youngest often develop impressive social skills.They get their sibs and others to like them by beingclever and charming. The smaller size also can lead todeliberate helplessness. They learn that they can getout of chores and other undesirable tasks by feigningtheir inability to handle the job. As a parent, you wantyour youngest to become a well-rounded individual,and there are things you can do to counteract the lessdesirable traits the baby can develop.

Although the effects of birth order are never set instone, it's likely that your children have a few traitsthat correspond to their family placement. Give eachindividual child her due, and pay attention to thoseareas where she may need extra help and guidance.That way you'll give all of your kids the bestopportunity to succeed in life, no matter what theirfamily rank. Personality and Health Total health is the total well-being of the bodymind and soul. ~ Anon. Can your personality give you a heart attack? A highly publicized study conducted in the 1960sreported that type A people ambitious, aggressiveand impatient were more likely to suffer heartattacks than type Bs that were more relaxed. Thequintessential Type A was described as a high levelmale business executive at the peak of his success, inhis forties or early fifties. Type As are more prone tohostility, cynicism and self-involvement than othertypes. Some studies have indicated that Type As can reducetheir heart attack risk by learning to react more calmlyto what they consider unfair criticism and pressure.And whatever your personality type, eating wisely,giving up smoking, exercising and maintaining bloodpressure within normal limits can keep your hearthealthy. Why are some people more susceptible todisease than others? Your mental health can make the symptoms of somediseases more distressing and also make you moreliable to get sick in the first place, but precisely howbiological and personality factors may interact to causephysical illness is uncertain. Of course, our geneticdisposition may underline both physical and emotionalproblems, but the relationship between these twofactors is still not firmly established. Researchers,have, however, investigated the problem, and theirconclusion is that susceptibility to disease often haspsychological roots. In one study, conducted at WestPoint, scientists found that Army cadets with intenseambitions for a military career whose scholasticrankings were low were susceptible to mononucleosis. Have other illnesses been linked to disposition? It is tempting to attribute diseases whose causes arenot understood to personality factors. Researchershave

have found evidence that people with certain neurotictraits, such as chronic anxiety; pessimism and hostilityare particularly likely to become ill by their earlyforties. It was found that men who coped with lifeimmaturely, by running away perhaps, or throughfantasy, became ill four times more often than stablemen. The connection is not with any specific disease,but with poor health in general -asthma, headaches,peptic ulcer and heart conditions show up frequently.Such findings are controversial. Among the criticismsare that neurotics may simply be more likely tocomplain about their physical discomfort than others. Is it better to be an optimist than a pessimist? Although gloomy visions of failure may spur apessimistic personality to excel, optimists may actuallyhave the power to make their own lives longer,healthier and more rewarding. One research method of classifying people asoptimistic or pessimistic is to ask them explain badevents in their lives. Pessimists tend to blamemisfortunes on permanent, inalterable conditions or ontheir own character flaws. If you want to change your personality, can youdo so?

Various forms of therapy and even do it yourselfexercises may help modify personality traits that youthink are denying you happiness and success. Now it isa proven fact that complete health means bothphysical and mental well being. Mental problems oftenrequire a trained therapist. Many kinds ofpsychotherapy have helped many thousands of peopleto reach a better understanding and acceptance of whothey are as well as find more effective ways of dealingwith lifes challenges.

Stereotyping Is no such thing as a complete stereotypepersonality? Every individual is a unique beingwith his own interests, abilities andachievements. ~ Anon. Does your body build influence your personality? In the 1940s American psychologist William Sheldondeveloped a system of classifying peoples personalityaccording to body build. Endomorphs-whose bodies aresoft and round were said to be relaxed and sociable. Mesomorphs strong and muscular were energetic,outgoing and assertive; and ectomorphs -thin andfragile-were introverted, artistic and intellectual.Sheldons scheme was appealing and seemed to fitpopular stereotypes. However most experts thinkthese classifications are too simple to account for awide variety of human physiques and behaviorpatterns.

Studies of the personnel records of several businessesand professions suggest that taller people are morelikely to be hired and promoted than their shortercompetitors. But any such height advantage derivesfrom

from others subjective expectations rather than innateleadership traits or abilities of tall people. In fact people who have achieved are generallyperceived as taller than they actually are. For examplestudents thought that strangers introduced, asprofessors were taller than those identified as fellowstudents. When are stereotypes harmful? Stereotypes are a kind of generalization. Aspsychologist Gordon All port has written The humanmind must think with the aid of categories(generalizations) we cannot avoid it The danger comes when we generalize from theobservations of a few individuals to create stereotypesfor the whole groups. Even less rational is holding onto stereotypes that we know are false. All port tells ofan English university student who claimed that hehated all Americans even though he had never metone whom he disliked. In this case the categorizationwent against even first hand experience. Does a certain type of personality guaranteesuccess in life?

There is no single success personality, but surveyssuggest traits that correlate with professional, businessor political achievement. Frequently cited traits of highachievers are common such as self-reliance and theability to get things done efficiently.