E-Book - The Introduction Into New Physics

THE INTRODUCTION INTO NEW PHYSICS

PART ONE

GORAN MITIĆ

Niš, 2008

Goran Mitić THE INTRODUCTION INTO NEW PHYSICS

___________________________________________________

2

Copyright © 2008 Mitić Goran All rights reserved. No portion of this book

may be reproduced in any form without express written permission from the Author/Publisher.

CIP - Cataloging in Publication record The National Library of Serbia, Belgrade

53(02.062)

MITIĆ, Goran 1st part / Goran Mitić ; [Illustration Saša Dimitrijević ; pictures Goran Mitić ; translation Ivana Jocić]. - Niš : G. Mitić. 2008. - 201pp. : lilustr. ; 21 cm Translation of the book: Uvod u novu fiziku copies printed 500. - Author of the Book The Introduction Into New Physics: pp. 201. ISBN 978-86-911009-1-9 a) Physics (Popular Science) COBISS.SR-ID 147936012


___________________________________________________

3

CONTENTS

WHAT INSPIRED ME TO WRITE THIS WAY? ...................4 WHAT AM I WRITING ABOUT? ..........................................5 NATURE IN CONTINUOUS MOVEMENT...........................8 CAUSES OF NATURAL MOVEMENT...............................11 TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY ..........................................14 A REVOLUTIONARY IDEA: ANTI-GRAVITATION............21 MASS TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY ...............................25 OBVIOUS EVIDENCE .......................................................31 OUR STAR, THE SUN.......................................................45 THE STANDARD MODEL OF THE SUN..........................50 THERMONUCLEAR FUSION IS IMPOSSIBLE!................58 AN ANTI-GRAVITATIONAL MODEL OF THE SUN ..........62 A NEW VIEW OF THE SUN ..............................................69 CYCLES OF SUN ACTIVITY...........................................117 ОUR SUN IN OUR GALAXY............................................124 THE INFLUENCE OF A STAR’S MOVEMENT ON ITS LIFE AND DESTINY.................................................................135 THE ORIGIN OF STARS .................................................144 THE CAUSE OF ROTATION IN CELESTIAL BODIES ...152 PRESERVING THE ROTATION OF CELESTIAL BODIES.........................................................................................160 THE BEGINNING OF THE UNIVERSE ...........................165 MASS TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY AND NEWTON....173 MASS TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY AND EINSTEIN ...189 DIMENSIONS AND “CONSTANTS” ................................194 THE END OF PART ONE................................................199 AUTHOR OF THE BOOK THE INTRODUCTION INTO NEW PHYSICS................................................................201


___________________________________________________

4

Why I am writing this book? I am writing this book in the hope that as many readers

as possible will be able to understand it. That is why I will try to

write in simple language. In order not to discourage a single

reader—young or old, college-educated or still in school, I

promise not to use even the simplest mathematical formulae

and, wherever possible I will provide pictures or drawings.

What inspired me to write this way? There is a well known anecdote in scientific circles: a

young scientist begs his older colleague to help him

understand a new theory; the older man tells the young man

that he will never understand its essence but he will simply get

used to it during the course of time.

I would like what I am saying to be understood by

almost everybody, not just those interested in science and

technology. Therefore, I reject this attitude. In science, to just

‘get used’ to a theory—while not understanding it—is

unacceptable.

A principal result of having an intellect is that, as

human beings, we understand the world around us. The better

we understand the world around us, the more progress we will


___________________________________________________

5

make in fulfilling our human destiny. Merely ‘getting used to’

changes is a characteristic of lower life forms.

I also reject the belief, which unfortunately is quite

widespread, that only a few individuals can understand new

ideas or theories in science, and that others should blindly

accept them on trust. I am convinced that a majority of people

can understand new theories and discoveries in science if they

are properly explained.

Those who say modern science cannot be understood

either do not understand it themselves or, for some reason, do

not want to share their knowledge with others.

What am I writing about? I am writing about my understanding of the world

around us, which we see either with our own eyes or by using

technological aids that we have invented.

I did not intend to write a theory, much less a book,

because at first all I had was one idea. As I was developing and

checking my idea, it slowly dawned on me that I could not just

merge it with existing theories in physics, supplementing or

improving them. I realized that my idea gave birth to a whole new

theory. And as I developed and checked my theory in different

fields of physics, I came to a conclusion that astonished even me;

I would have to start creating a new physics.


___________________________________________________

6

There comes a time with an old car when it is pointless

to put any more time or money into repairing it. It simply cannot

be fixed. It is time to buy a new one.

This was Nicolaus Copernicus’ dilemma. He could not

reconcile his discoveries about the movement of celestial

bodies with existing astronomy, so he had to create a new

astronomy in which the Earth and the other planets revolve

around the Sun.

In the Middle Ages the flow of ideas was not only slow,

but at times was halted altogether when the Church intervened

to suppress it. It took 150 years for his ’new astronomy’ to be

accepted. It will be very interesting to see how fast this ‘new

physics’ will spread in the age of electronic media and the

internet, when people are well informed and closely

connected.


___________________________________________________

7


___________________________________________________

8

NATURE IN CONTINUOUS MOVEMENT Human beings are different from other beings with

whom we share this planet for we have developed intellect, or

sense. Thus progress in our evolution has enabled us to

understand the world around us—that is, to understand the

laws and processes by which nature functions.

All living creatures notice with their senses that nature

is constantly changing, constantly moving. One does not need

intellect to notice the change from day to night; the movement

of the sun and moon in the sky; the movement of the stars in

the night sky; the movement of clouds and the different kinds

of precipitation they bring; the movement of the air, that is, the

wind, and its temperature; the flow of water in brooks and

rivers; waves in lakes, seas and oceans, and many other

changes in nature. All living creatures have the ability to adjust

to the laws of nature and thus play the game of life on this

planet. It is not necessary for living creatures to understand

the laws by which nature functions for them to survive on the

planet–all of them have a certain form of intelligence which

enables them to survive in nature.

However, to a human being, survival itself is not

enough; we have the inner urge to understand why nature is

moving in the way it is. Of course, a complete understanding


___________________________________________________

9

of the laws that move nature is difficult and requires time, a lot

of time.

That is why people realize they have to transmit

knowledge to the next generation, in order not to disrupt the

progress of understanding the laws of nature—so that new

generations can continue where their forebears left off. That

process started a long time ago and continues today. It has

not always been a peaceful and quiet progress. There are

numerous examples of clashes of different knowledge, and a

constant emerging of new knowledge, too. The history of

science shows old knowledge continuously being replaced

with new, better and universal understanding. That is how it is

today, that is how it will be in the future. I do not need to write

any further about it, because it has been described many

times elsewhere.


___________________________________________________

10


___________________________________________________

11

CAUSES OF NATURAL MOVEMENT

Seeing continuous movement throughout nature, man

quickly understood that in order to move one needs energy.

The source of energy for our movement, and for all other living

creatures, is food. True, but what kind of energy sets

everything else in nature in motion?

Since nature is in continuous movement, the question

logically arises: where does all that enormous energy come

from? Noticing the clear difference between day and night,

man quickly realized it must be the sun. The sun’s rays, both

illumine and, unevenly, heat the surface of our planet and it is

precisely those differences in temperature that lead to the

movement of the air and water that enable life on earth. The

energy of food that is used by almost all living creatures also

has its roots in the sun’s energy. Therefore, the sun’s energy

is the source of movement, that is, life. We already know that

energy can be neither created nor destroyed. We have

realized that energy is constantly transforming from one form

into another, that it can be in a passive or an active state

(potential or kinetic).

Today we have access to mechanical, electric,

magnetic, solar, chemical and nuclear energy, energy from

radiation and other forms of energy. Nevertheless, the closest

and most evident to us is thermal energy, because we all feel


___________________________________________________

12

the uncomfortable effects of very high or very low

temperatures, and the pleasant effect of moderate

temperatures. In order to quantitatively measure the level of

warmth, men introduced the notion of ‘temperature’ as the

measurement of warmth of a body. We have created

temperature scales and divided them into degrees and

gradients and are able to measure temperature wherever we

want, using different devices whose common name is

‘thermometer.’


___________________________________________________

13


___________________________________________________

14

TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY

The term ‘relativity’ is used in physics for all those

values and concepts that are for any reason variable, that is,

do not maintain the same value. The term ’relativity’ has

become very popular since the appearance of Einstein’s

theories of relativity. We shall leave Einstein’s theories for

later, because, in them, relativity is connected with speed.

Here, I would like to talk about the relativity of values and

concepts in terms of temperature. Let us look at which things

in nature change, and how they change, with a change of

temperature.

A physical body, one of the basic concepts in physics,

can be solid, liquid or gas. These are the three essential states

of aggregation we encounter in everyday life. However, when

we say ‘a body’, we primarily think of something that has a

stable shape and firmness. Therefore we will begin from that

point, the solid body—a body in the solid state of aggregation.

When we observe a solid body and follow what

happens with a change in its temperature, first we see that its

dimensions change. With an increase in temperature, its

dimensions increase, and with a decrease in temperature its

dimensions reduce. To state it briefly: all bodies expand in

heat and shrink in cold, thus their volume (V) changes. We

then notice that the hardness of the body is changing. As the


___________________________________________________

15

temperature of the body rises, its hardness decreases and we

can more easily change its external shape. As the temperature

decreases, its hardness increases and reshaping is hardly

possible, or leads to cracking or breaks.

Next, further increases in the temperature of the body

leads to its melting, that is, its transition from a solid into a

liquid state of aggregation. Now the body no longer has a

specific shape, we need a vessel made from a solid material to

contain it. The level of hardness is very low. This gives us the

possibility of reshaping it, by casting it in different molds, then

cooling it back down to the solid state of aggregation. This is

the essence of metallurgy. If we continue to increase the

temperature of the liquid body, we notice it starts to evaporate

more and more until it is boiling. Now the liquid evaporates

rapidly and, to contain our body in the gas state of aggregation

we need a new, completely sealed, and considerably larger

vessel because this state fills a much larger volume than the

liquid. The gas state of aggregation completely occupies all of

the vessel’s available volume, plus it exerts a certain amount

of gas pressure on the vessel’s walls. These changes of states

of aggregation we can most easily observe in our everyday

lives in the form of ice, water and steam.

Liquids and gases can flow, thus we use the term ‘fluid’

and the inner quality of hardness we call ‘viscosity’. With an

increase in temperature, viscosity is decreased, and with a


___________________________________________________

16

decrease in temperature, viscosity is increased—warm fluids

flow more easily than cold ones. Accordingly, an increase in

temperature of a gas increases the pressure of its action upon

the walls of the vessel. When we reduce the temperature of a

gas, first the pressure on the walls of the vessel reduces, and

then condensation forms, (restoring the body to the liquid state

of aggregation) and then hardening, or crystallization, occurs

as the body is restored to the solid state of aggregation.

When the effects of electricity and magnetism were first

identified and studied, it was noticed that electrified bodies,

exposed to heat, suffer a reduction in their electricity until it is

completely lost. When an electrified body is heated, it also

reduces its magnetism until it, too, is completely loss.

The introduction of electricity brought with it the

problem of safely conducting the current through cables and of

isolating it. We have established that conductors have their

own resistibility, and that energy is lost in transport. It has also

been established that electric current flowing through cables

causes them to heat, which in turn causes an increase in

resistibility, and more energy loss. That is why we have to

ensure that cables do not overheat, for it can lead to fire and

serious danger. However, cooling the cables down reduces

their resistibility. What is especially interesting is that, at very

low temperatures, the resistibility of the cables completely

disappears and there is no loss in the transmission of the


___________________________________________________

17

electric current. A current circuit that is once established is

permanently maintained and that interesting phenomenon is

called superconductivity.

As for isolators, they protect us very well from electric

current when they are cool enough. If they become

overheated, their isolation function is nullified, and, above

certain temperatures they even become conductors. There is a

category of materials we call semiconductors, and the

technology of electronics depends on their special

characteristic, which is that they are very sensitive to changes

in temperature, so we shall have to take special notice of that.

Mankind has been using fire for its own purposes for a

long time, so we are well acquainted with the processes of

lighting a fire and of burning. We can easily observe the

flammability of different materials. Upon heating to a certain

temperature, some materials burst into flames. We call that

temperature the ignition point. In general, gases are the most

flammable, then liquids, and finally solid bodies.

We also know that among flammable materials there

are those that incinerate more quickly than others. Those that

incinerate the fastest we call explosives and they are dealt

with very carefully. (Naturally, we deal with all flammable

materials with care.)

In essence, burning is a chemical process of oxidation.

That means that the change in temperature changes the


___________________________________________________

18

chemical properties of the material. Since there is a lot of free

oxygen in the atmosphere, oxidation is an omnipresent

process, but the process differs at different temperatures. In

chemistry it is well known that temperature can significantly

changes the chemical properties of certain substances, or can

lead to their disintegration, or their becoming more compound,

which results in a new generation of substances.

Changes caused by lowering or raising temperature

critically influence the living world, and the possibility of its

survival and development. Our own life is dependent on the

temperature of our bodies and if it rises or falls beyond a

narrow range, we die.

Living creatures are not the only ones to lose their

existence when we raise the temperature enough. If we

continue heating any material, it will, after becoming a gas

change into the state we call ‘plasma’. When matter is in the

state of plasma, atoms disintegrate, that is, they are partially or

wholly ionized. In high-temperature plasma all electrons are

detached from the nucleus. Thus, chemical elements lose their

existence as plasma emerges.

Let me also speak here about the ‘emission’ of a body

at different temperatures. It is well known that bodies emit

electro-magnetic energy into their surroundings, whatever their

temperature. The temperature of the body determines the

wavelength of the dominant electromagnetic emanation that it


___________________________________________________

19

emits. The higher the temperature of the body, the more

dominant the emission of short wavelengths and the greater

the energy. Inversely, the lower the body temperature, the

more dominant the emission of long wavelengths, and the

lower the energy.

People are naturally able to differentiate one part of the

spectrum with their eyes, the part called the visible spectrum,

or visible light. Through our skin, we can also sense a part of

the spectrum, which we call heat or infrared (IR) radiation, and

a part of the spectrum called ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

By simply touch we can determine if one body is

warmer than another. If bodies are too warm to touch, simply

by bringing our hands to a safe distance we can determine

which body is warmer. When we heat metals to red-hot, we

observe something interesting: by further heating the metals,

we see them begin to emit red light, called red incandescence,

followed by the emission of white light, or white

incandescence. If we observe a candle flame, we can see that

different areas burn in different colors. Where the temperature

is highest, the flame is brightest, and where the temperature is

lower, at the periphery, the flame is a little less bright, that is,

redder. Burning different substances creates flames of every

color of the rainbow.


___________________________________________________

20


___________________________________________________

21

A REVOLUTIONARY IDEA: ANTI-GRAVITATION

While I lived on the side of Cegar Hill, on the outskirts of the town of Nis, my wife and I regularly hiked to the top where there is a monument to the unique bravery of the Serbian rebels of the First Serbian Uprising against the Turks. Unwilling to surrender to the Turks, the Serb leader, Stevan Sindjelic, shot a barrel of gunpowder thus blowing up both the Serbs and the Turks. The Turks built a tower from the heads of the Serbian rebels on the outskirts of Nis in order to intimidate the Serbian people. But the Serbs, as a nation, do not allow themselves to be intimidated, so after the failure of the Fist Serbian Uprising, they launched the Second Uprising and managed to free themselves from five centuries of slavery that they had endured under the Turks.

Close to the monument is the field of the village football club, and the whole hill is covered in vineyards and orchards. We regularly jogged around the football field.

One day in August 1997, as we were running there, dusk began to fall. On a field behind the goalposts, closer to the monument, there was a large pile of dried vine stems. The villagers use these stems as a fuel for distilling rakija (Serbian brandy) or for heat, especially kindling, as they burn easily. However, this particular pile had been built for a bonfire. Just then, a villager lit the huge pile, and we watched the whole scene. Then, continuing with our run, we turned our backs on the


___________________________________________________

22

fire. When we reached the opposite goalpost we faced the fire once again and saw a fascinating sight. Flames had already engulfed the whole pile and were reaching their maximum. The flames reached 10 meters high and illumined the whole top of the hill. I had never seen a larger fire in my entire life. Totally fascinated, we stood there admiring the magnificent sight.

I was as happy and delighted as a child without a thought in my head–just the image of the huge fire whose flames were rising so forcibly and quickly upward, as they narrowed towards the apex. From the top of the flames, sparks were flying up at a great speed into the darkness. That the heated mass of particles and air was being forced upwards was clearly visible.

Suddenly a thought flashed in my head: “That’s anti-gravity!” followed by a tingling feeling running up my spine, as I considered the veracity of the thought that had occurred in my head. There were goose bumps all over my skin and my hair stood on end. That feeling was not new to me. I had had it before, when other equally striking ideas had occurred to me, but this was much more intense. I no longer saw the fire with the same eyes. Now I was watching anti-gravitation in action. I did not, for a single moment, doubt the veracity of the thought that had occurred in my head. Previous experiences, similar to this one, had already persuaded me to believe in the veracity of ideas acquired in such a manner. Instantaneously, questions appeared —what is happening in the process of combustion? How did it work? From the day that ‘anti-gravitation’ first entered my head,


___________________________________________________

23

nothing in my life has been the same. That thought completely seized me, and before long my wife asked me what was going on with me—I was so changed. It was only then that I told her what had happened that night when we were watching the fire on Cegar.

People think that it is enough for an idea to appear in your mind for the problem to be solved; I also used to think like that. However, the opposite is true: when an idea appears in your mind, it is just the beginning of a long and arduous journey to a complete understanding of that idea. Then it has to be verified in every instance, and finally it has to be integrated into existing science.

I was not fully aware of all this, but I immediately set about the process of understanding the idea. Previously I had thought that a person owns an idea that he or she works on. But in time, I came to see the opposite; it is as if the ideas choose us, and through us they manifest themselves.


___________________________________________________

24


___________________________________________________

25

MASS TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY

I started by analyzing the fire. The flames stretch from the

bottom of the pile of burning material (because that is how a fire

starts) and the higher the pile is, the higher the final height of the

fire will be. Above the flames there is a part that is invisible, or

transparent. It is much smaller than the fire. Above this

transparent area is the zone of visible smoke. At the beginning

the smoke is light-colored; as the height increases, the smoke

grows darker and darker. As the height increases, the smoke

goes up more and more slowly. At a certain point it reaches its

maximum height. Since it cannot go beyond its optimal height the

smoke spreads outward, having the appearance of a thick

pancake. When the process of burning finishes, the smoke cloud

hangs in the air on the maximum height, and then slowly loses

height and finally falls back to the ground.

To recap: the visible effect of burning comprises the

ascent of hot gas up to an optimal height and its decline to

earth when it cools down. But let’s analyze individual gas

molecules that result from combustion (CO2 + H2O). Hot gas

molecules emit electromagnetic radiation in infrared (IR) and

the visible part of the spectrum, so we see those emissions as

bright or less bright flames. At that point they are rapidly

entering the transparent zone; the molecules have cooled a

little, enough that they do not emit visible light, but only IR


___________________________________________________

26

radiation, and they continue going rapidly upwards. The first

layer of smoke is comprised of molecules that are already

cooled down so that along with emitting IR radiation they start

absorbing the sun’s light and continue moving upward but at a

slower speed. Optimal height is reached when the molecules

are absorbing and emitting equal amounts of energy, so there

is no more vertical movement and thus they hang in the air. As

the molecules are in a continual process of cooling down,

eventually they are emitting less energy than they are

absorbing. Slowly they fall. As the process of cooling down

continues, the gas molecules fall faster until their final fall to the

ground, when the molecule’s temperature equates with the

outside temperature.

The logic of my thinking was this: if the molecules of

the hot gas that are characterized by high temperatures fly

rapidly upward, and if that is anti-gravitation in action, that

means that molecules at high temperatures have negative

mass. But, as they cool, while moving away from earth, they

go upward more slowly, meaning that the negativity of their

mass is being reduced. The change in the molecule’s distance

from the mass center of the earth cannot be the cause of such

changes in their mutual interaction, because the whole

process involves a relatively small height in comparison to the

earth’s radius.

When the molecules of gas reach their final height and

start hanging in the air, that means that they lost the


___________________________________________________

27

characteristic of negative character of their mass, and reached

a massless state; at that point there is no interaction with the

earth, neither anti-gravitational, nor gravitational. But, as

cooling happens continuously, they start to have positive

mass, re-establishing gravitational interaction with the earth

and falling towards the earth. The more they cool down, the

faster they fall towards the earth; which tells us that their

attractive mass is changing quantitatively (increasing) as the

temperature lowers. The molecules have maximum attractive

mass when their temperature is equal to the temperature of the

surrounding air, just as they had the maximum negative mass

when their temperature was equal to the temperature of the fire.

The higher the combustion (fire) temperature, the higher the

maximum height of the gases will be before returning to earth.

Is it important to explore the temperatural relativity of mass?

Well... yes! If temperature influences so many features

of matter, as we have already shown, it also makes sense to

explore what influence it has on feature we call mass. And it

also, therefore, it makes sense to talk about the temperatural

relativity of mass.

The temperatural relativity of mass shows us that

warming a body decreases its attractiveness until it is

completely lost, let us say, it reaches zero. In this state the

feature we call mass is lost and the body is said to be in a

massless state. In this state the quality of the mass also


___________________________________________________

28

changes. With further warming the mass of the body becomes

qualitatively negative, and, as the body temperature rises,

quantitatively, the negativity of the mass rises. That means

that the feature we call mass changes not only quantitatively

but also qualitatively with a change of temperature.

Can we talk about negative mass and anti-gravitation

from the aspect of physics and forces in nature?

Let us remind ourselves what physics has to say about

forces in nature. Until now, physics has defined four types of

forces. These are: strong, weak, electromagnetic and gravita-

tional force. Strong, or nuclear, forces are forces that work on

the level of the atomic nucleus, between the protons and neu-

trons, and they account for the stability of matter. Measured by

intensity these are the strongest of all forces known to us, and

by range, the shortest. Weak forces are those functioning on

the atomic level that are responsible for the radioactive

breakdown of matter. In intensity they are weaker than the

nuclear or strong force (hence the name), but they are still

very strong, and their range is wider than strong force.

Electromagnetic forces are easier for us to grasp because we

encounter electricity and magnetism in our everyday lives.

Electromagnetic force is weaker than the weak force, however,

its third place should not be underestimated. The range of

electromagnetic forces is much larger than both the strong and

the weak forces.


___________________________________________________

29

Gravitational force is most familiar to us. We

experience it in every aspect of our lives and movements. It

has the weakest intensity of all forces, but is the most domi-

nant force in the universe because of its vast range. Apart

from being different in quantity, these four forces are

qualitatively different as well. How? Strong, weak and

electromagnetic forces appear to attract and repel, while

gravitational force appears to attract only. Is gravity an

exception?

Temperatural relativity of mass is just the thing that

introduces symmetry among all the forces by introducing a

negative aspect to gravitational forces, that is, anti-gravitation.

All forces now become attractive/negative, which we have

been eagerly expecting and which, in theory, seems so natural

and logical to us.

So...the answer is yes! It does make sense in physics

to talk about negative mass and anti-gravitiation. It is precisely

what has been lacking.


___________________________________________________

30


___________________________________________________

31

OBVIOUS EVIDENCE

When working on a new idea, apart from the

tremendous enthusiasm that we feel, occasionally there are

periods when doubt overcomes us and we start to ask

ourselves if it is all a delusion or a serious mistake.

And I, indeed, asked myself those questions: am I not

making a mistake, am I not deluding myself?

If mass temperature relativity is a reality, then besides

fire there should exist some other proof of anti-gravitation in

action. And so I began to observe the world around me. I

investigated all vertical movements, upward or downward, as

well as all processes which involve warming or cooling.

We live on the surface of planet Earth, in its air layer,

which we call the atmosphere. We breathe the omnipresent air

and feel its temperature or movement, although we cannot see

it. Let us ’see’ what and how it is happening with this air, which

is always moving. As kids in primary school, we learned that

warm air is lighter and rises, and cool air is heavier and it goes

downward. That is just another way of expressing what I am

saying about mass temperatural relativity. But, let us take one

example at a time.

When we observe a closed air system like a room, for

example, it is clear that the coolest air is next to the floor and

the warmest just below the ceiling. That is why we put heating


___________________________________________________

32

appliances as low as possible, so that they can heat the

maximum volume of air. If we open a door or window and raise

a lighted candle or lighter from the floor upward, we will see for

ourselves that cool air enters the room from below, and warm

air exits the room from above. The room gets cooler, first from

below, then higher. After all, we feel the cool air on our feet

first. The warm air that leaves the room continues moving

upward, since there is now no ceiling to impede its movement.

If you do not believe me, heat up your oven and then open the

door holding your hand above the stove. (Do not put your face

above the stove for the hot air might burn you.)

To cool ourselves in summer, we should put the

cooling system close to the ceiling, because the cool air, as it

falls will cool the greatest volume of the air in the room.

If we again try the experiment with the lighted candle

flame or lighter with the fridge or the freezer door left ajar, we

will see that cool air is leaving it in a downward trajectory and

that the warm air is entering upwards, into it.

Therefore, we have a completely different situation

when we compare airing up warmed and cooled closed space.

Why is that so?

When we heat the air in a closed space, pressure

increases in the upper part where the warm air is, and

decreases in the lower part where the air is cold. Heated

molecules of air, whose mass has become more or less


___________________________________________________

33

negative, exert pressure on the upper surface of the closed

space and pile up in the upper part, further increasing the

pressure. As the number of molecules exerting pressure on

them decrease, the cool molecules slowly move apart, so that

below, where the cool air is, pressure decreases.

Conversely, when we cool the air in a closed space,

the pressure increases in the lower part where the air is

cooler, and decreases in the upper part where the air is

warmer. Cooled air molecules, whose mass has become even

more attractive, exert pressure on the bottom surface of the

closed space and pile up in the lower part making increased

pressure. Because fewer warm molecules are pressing on

each other, they slowly move apart and upward, where the air

is warmer, further decreasing the pressure.

Let us now observe an open-air system, such as the

atmosphere of our planet. Earth’s gravitation attracts all air

molecules and thus keeps them in place around itself. We

know that air pressure at sea level is one atmosphere, and

that as you move up from sea level the atmospheric pressure

decreases because the air is becoming rarefied. But the

pressure is not the same everywhere, even at the lower levels

of the earth’s atmosphere; we have areas of increased or

decreased air pressure, which brings about horizontal

movement of air masses, that is, winds.


___________________________________________________

34

Why causes those differences in air pressure?

They arise because of different levels of heat at

different parts of the earth’s surface. The earth’s surface is

about one third land, and two-thirds water. Land and water

surfaces warm in different ways. Even on land the surface

warms differently depending on the terrain. The air in the

atmosphere is not warmed directly from the sun’s rays, but is

heated by the surface above which it is located. Warm

surfaces heat the air molecules more, causing them to rise,

leaving decreased air pressure near the ground. Cool or cold

surfaces cool the air molecules, and they fall down creating

increased air pressure near the ground. Yachtsmen are

masters in exploiting this difference. They use the warm air

currents to raise their sails.

The discovery of how air moves, led to the invention of

flying objects called hot-air balloons. Ropes were strung from

the balloon that a basket to hold passengers or cargo. The

balloon was open at the bottom, and below the balloon was

placed a burner that heated the air within the balloon. The air

in the balloon was heated by turning on the burner. The air

then exerts pressure on the upper surface of the balloon, lifting

it upward. By turning off the burner to cool the air, or letting the

warm air at the top of the balloon escape by opening the top,

the pressure of the warm air on the balloon’s upper surface

decreases and the balloon loses height and starts to fall. That


___________________________________________________

35

is how, without knowing the principle of anti-gravitation, it was

used for an early flying machine.

Observing the movement of steam is even more

illumining. We can see steam; therefore we can follow its

motion, up and down, here and there. Whether we are cooking

in the kitchen or having a hot shower in the bathroom, we can

see the hot steam molecules’ move upward and cool steam

molecules move down. The same happens in the atmosphere

where steam takes the form of clouds. During the day, in the

heat of the sun, clouds move across the sky carried by the

wind; when the sun sets, they get cooler and fall toward the

ground creating mist and fog. The whole phenomenon of

weather and climate is based on the mass temperatural

relativity of air and steam molecules. As we have seen with

smoke, similarly with steam, there is a certain maximal height,

which the steam can reach and which depends on its starting

temperature. Planes fly at heights above the maximal height of

clouds, providing us with the opportunity to see the wonderful

world of clouds from above. Observe it when you have the

opportunity to fly. You will see places that look like fountains

that rise above the level of the clouds.

On any given day, if we turn on the television we can

see violence and explosions aplenty. Not all explosions are

caused in the same way. Let us analyze them one by one.


___________________________________________________

36

The first category of explosive materials is those whose

chemical nature (atomic or molecular) is abruptly turned into

heat energy. These are called classic explosives. The list of

classic explosives is very long and is constantly being added

to.

Historically it started out with gunpowder, that is,

dynamite, then TNT, etc. The military industry incessantly

researches and creates more and more powerful explo-sives

that are then ’very efficiently’ used in continual wars. The idea

that stronger explosives can bring the world closer to peace is

dangerous and wrong, and history has proved it a failure.

What do we see if we closely observe explosions from

classic explosives? At the moment of explosion a big fireball is

generated; its dimensions depend on the type and amount of

the explosive in use. In the next moment the ball starts rising,

enlarging and losing the fiery glow, turning into a light or dark

smoke cloud, which loses shape as it moves through the air. If

we continue following the process, we see that the speed at

which it expands and rises begins to slacken, and that a

moment will come when the smoke cloud will achieve its

optimal size and, more importantly, its optimal height. After

hanging in the air for some time, the cloud starts falling and

dissipating because of air currents. The features of an

explosion vary depending on the amount of released energy.


___________________________________________________

37

The second category, fission-type nuclear explosions,

is caused by an abrupt conversion of nuclear energy into heat

energy by the process of fission, tearing apart the atomic

nucleus. These materials are called fission-type nuclear

explosives. There are only a few, but even one is enough to

face us with the possibility of self-extinction. Mankind has

come into possession of these explosives in the last century

and developed destructive capacities of unthinkable

proportions. The nuclear ‘mushroom’ cloud is poised above

man’s head like a guillotine. Its very name – ‘nuclear

mushroom cloud’ describes the process of a fission nuclear

explosion. In quality it is identical to the classic explosive; the

difference is in quantity. The explosion ball is of much larger

dimension, as is the explosion cloud, and the maximal height

of its ascension reaches about ten kilometers. Again, the

features depend on the kind, and the amount, of the nuclear

explosive, that is, the free energy intensity.

The third category of explosives is caused by an abrupt

conversion of nuclear energy into heat energy by the process

of fusion, or, creating helium atoms by fusing hydrogen ones.

This kind of explosives I have singled out, because I will, in the

further course of my presentation, demonstrate that it is not

actually fusion we is taking place, but a whole new process

that we have not yet described, let alone understood. This

category of explosives contains the most powerful explosions


___________________________________________________

38

that can be detonated. In quality they are similar to the

previous categories of explosives, but in quantity they exceed

all previous categories, because the emitted energy is by far

the greatest.

In all explosions the action of mass temperature

relativity is clearly apparent, except that with explosions, unlike

with fire, the whole process is finished in a single moment,

which creates the fireball. The fireball is generated by the

strong anti-gravitational force of the over-heated molecules

emerging from the explosion, which are instantaneously,

forcefully and briskly escaping from the mass. In the next

moment that ball of over-heated molecules with negative mass

is repelled by the earth and goes upward, until it cools down

and stops moving swiftly away from earth, when it reaches its

maximal height. When it cools even more and the mass of its

molecules once more attracts, it begins to fall again, until all

the products of the explosion fall to the ground, where their

motion began.

Let us now consider the process of combustion and ex-

plosion in the zero gravity state. In the past century man

traveled to outer space. Before long the astronauts were

celebrating their birthdays in space. And just like on earth, the

lit candles on their birthday cakes. Pictures from these birthday

parties were broadcast to earth where we could observe the

behavior of a candle flame in zero gravity. The flame, in a zero


___________________________________________________

39

gravity state, is shaped like a perfect ball. Why? We all know

that the shape of a flame on earth is like a drop with its tip

striving upward no matter how we hold the candle. On earth

we live under the continuous effects of gravity, and each

flame, is by nature an anti-gravitational occurrence, striving

away from the center of gravitation. In the zero gravity state,

the flame, as an anti-gravitational occurrence without a centre

of gravity to repel against, repels only from itself and thus

forms the shape of a perfect ball. Explosions taking place in

outer space have a perfectly spherical shape just like the

candle flame. Explosions of novas and supernovas have the

sphere shaped, which we will examine in more detail later.

A nice example for that would bear out the previous

argument would be an incense stick in zero gravity. On earth

the smoke from the incense stick goes up in a straight line,

because it is an anti-gravitational occurrence. I have not had

the chance to see a lit incense stick in zero gravity, but I

predict that its flame would expand like a perfect ball enlarging

its diameter. Let us hope that those who have the opportunity

will perform this harmless experiment.

A telling example both for its relevance and size, as

well as its duration and beauty, is found in Aboriginal bonfires.

Native Australians, believing that they had, in the past, been

visited from outer space, have a custom of making a huge fire

at a fixed time every year and keep it burning for a whole


___________________________________________________

40

month, in order to say ’hello’ to their visitors and show them

that they have not forgotten them. This belief may seem naive

and cute to you, as it once did to me. But I am now convinced

that what the Aborigines are doing is neither naive nor cute,

but completely sensible, and very efficient.

Cosmonauts, who were flying in the earth’s orbit during

this Aboriginal ritual, claimed that this fire helped them to

orient themselves at night as to their location. By observing

Australia from above, they could clearly see the Aboriginal fire

from orbit, and they found it was something really fascinating.

They reported that they had the clear impression that the blaze

was reaching all the way to their orbit. My conclusion is that

the Aborigines know exactly how big the fire needs to be, and

how long it has to burn in order to be able to leave the earth’s

gravitational field and the heights of the atmosphere, and emit

their light steadily in the desired direction. And remember, the

Aborigines do this at the same time every year, which means

that they always send their message to the same part of the

starry sky.

Aboriginal fires are proof that only with fire can the

Earth’s gravity be surmounted, because with fire there is no

limit to what we call maximal height. Hot molecules of the

Aboriginal fire leave the earth’s gravitational field and are

really the first launching of material from the earth into the


___________________________________________________

41

cosmos. All modern-day launches are also made with the help

of combustion and fire.

On the subject of launching, it is interesting to note that

man have used a particular launching device for centuries. It is

called a chimney. As a thermal isolator, a chimney enables us

to launch products of combustion, such as smoke, ashes and

soot to a maximal possible height, so that, carried by the wind,

they fall as far as possible from ourselves, (even if it is only in

our nearest neighbor’s yard!)

Now, let us see what happens with liquids. To heat a

liquid, we apply the heat below it. As it warms, the heated part

of the liquid moves upward to the surface where they get

cooled down and then sink to the bottom where it gets heated

again, which again drives it back to the surface. All liquids and

gases behave in this manner when heated, that is, mass

temperature relativity functions identically with all fluids. When

we heat liquid food up to the boiling point (soups, teas,

coffees, etc.), we can easily see the movement in the liquid as

well as in the steam. We are observing anti-gravitation in ac-

tion just as we observe gravitation in action every day.

In a zero gravity state liquids form the shape of a ball,

larger or smaller, depending on the amount. If we could apply

heat from the center of the liquid ball we would create

circulation of the hot liquid from the center outward, towards

the surface in every direction. And if the liquid were raised to


___________________________________________________

42

the boiling point, it would be visible all over the surface of the

ball.

Finally, let us see what happens with solid bodies. In

order to understand the principle of the heat dispersing

through solid bodies more easily, we shall observe what

happens when we heat solid bodies that are heat conductors,

like, for example, metals.

Let us take a metal bar 30cm long and 2 or 3cm in

diameter. Holding it at the ends, and we place the center over

a small, preheated burner of the kitchen stove. As a good heat

conductor, the metal will be heated in all directions from the

heat source, but by far the most directly above the source of

heat. That can be established by touching it (carefully!), or by

bending the bar, which will bend exactly along the vertical

above the heat source. Blacksmith technology is based on this

fact. So, the principle of heat transmission, vertically upwards,

which we observed in liquids and gases, holds true for solids

also, there is no internal movement of the matter as there was

with fluids--the liquids and gases.

Nature around us does not hide anything. It functions

by its own laws and we, by developing our awareness,

eventually discover or identify these laws. The turn has come

for us to discover the law of anti-gravity in full. It certainly

opens up a long series of questions with it, and many

problems. But, I have started walking that road, step by step


___________________________________________________

43

and I have come to a new physics. Now I am inviting you to

see what it looks like. Although, to be honest, the process of

discovery is never-ending, and will continue long after this

book is complete, when this major new understanding of the

world around us begins, it will lead us to a new understanding

of ourselves, also.


___________________________________________________

44


___________________________________________________

45

OUR STAR, THE SUN

There are really innumerable examples of red-hot

bodies in zero gravity state; if you do not believe me, look at

the sky when the sun sets. Every star we see or cannot see in

the sky is a red-hot body. We can look at all those stars with

our naked eye, because they are very far away, and the

intensity of their radiation reaching us is very weak. But during

the day we have a star whose radiation intensity is so strong

we cannot look at it with our naked eye or we would become

blind. We can only watch its rising and setting. That star is

very close to us, and it provides us with pleasant heat and

light; however, it is far enough in order not to turn us into

ashes and dust. We consider that star our own, and we call it

the sun. From primitive times to the present, the sun has

fascinated man. He followed its movement across the sky and

oriented himself in space and time by it. He noticed the annual

cycle of the sun’s movement and started counting years—the

origin of the calendar. He has understood the coming of spring

and when to plant seeds; how to save food and fuel for the

onset of winter. Before that, he moved south in the autumn, as

the birds do, and returned north in the spring. He understood

that the temperature on earth is directly dependent of the sun’s

position and movement across the sky. During the day, when


___________________________________________________

46

exposing our bodies to the sun’s rays, we sense its warmth on

our skin.

The question arises: what is the source of this vast

energy that the sun is radiating?

When the telescope was invented several centuries

ago, it allowed a systematic observation of the celestial

bodies. The stars and planets were observed at night and the

sun during the day. The development of astronomy has

changed our concept of the cosmos. We have realized that the

earth revolves around its axis, and the moon revolves around

the earth, and that the earth and moon together revolve

around the sun, which, in turn, also revolves around its axis

and around the centre of our galaxy.

The discovery that the sun’s light consists of a number

of different colors (the rainbow) led to the development of

spectral analysis, and the invention of various devices for that

purpose. By using spectral analysis, we have learned how to

determine, not only the temperature of a light-emitting body,

but it chemical structure, both qualitative and quantitative.

Spectral analysis of the sun’s light led to the conclusion

that 71% of the sun’s mass is hydrogen (H2), and 27% helium

(He). Other chemical elements: O, C, Fe, N, Ne, constitute a

little more that 1% of the sun’s mass. When the total number

of atoms that constitute the sun is calculated, 91.2% are


___________________________________________________

47

hydrogen atoms, and 8.7% helium atoms. The temperature of

the sun’s surface is about 5800K (degrees Kelvin).

The history of scientific analysis and calculations to

discover the source of the sun’s energy, at the end of the 19th

century and the beginning of the 20th century, took the

following course:

The theory that the sun’s energy originates from

exothermic chemical reactions, when calculated with the sun’s

present luminosity lead to the conclusion that the sun has

been shining for only about 30,000 years. That is, of course,

an utterly absurd conclusion, and therefore that possibility was

rejected. A theory that the sun’s energy stems from gravita-

tional compression led to the sun being 16.5 million years old.

That was not a satisfactory result, either, and was rejected.

Today it is believed that the energy emission by gravitational

compression is dominant only at the early and late stages of

the evolution of stars, including the sun. The theory that the

sun’s energy source is radioactive decomposition was also

rejected as it failed to adequately explain all the known facts.

Sir Arthur Stanley Edington presented the idea of

hydrogen fusion in 1920. Calculating theoretically, he

established that upon the 4 H nuclei cohesion, energy of 7MeV

per nucleons is extracted to the nucleus of He. In 1938

Weizsäcker identified the possibility of fusion reactions of H2

into He through a proton—the proton and carbon-azoth cycle.


___________________________________________________

48

In 1939 Bete and Kritchfield established, by detailed

calculations, that hydrogen fusion ‘burning’ provides enough

energy for the sun’s luminosity for a period of 10 billion years.

That was the result that finally satisfied scientists. The idea of

fusion of H into He become generally accepted as the source

of the sun’s energy, which led to the conclusion that the sun is

a gas sphere in mechanical balance, that is, its own force of

gravity tending to compress the star, is balanced by the force

of gas pressure, which tends to disperse it away.

Of course, in order for fusion to occur in the sun’s

center, a very high temperature is required. The

electromagnetic radiation that we see from the sun stems from

a relatively thin surface layer. The enormous density of the

sun’s matter, and its state, lead to its being almost opaque,

even for the strongest gamma and X-ray radiation coming from

the inside of the sun. For this reason, the inside of the sun is

not accessible to the observer, and it is described on the basis

of theoretical models.


___________________________________________________

49


___________________________________________________

50

THE STANDARD MODEL OF THE SUN Richard Sears posited this standard model, which is,

with certain modifications and corrections, scientifically

accepted today. He created it for stars with mass, radius, glow

and constitution similar to our sun. According to this model, the

inside of the sun has three zones: a core (a zone of fusion

reactions), a radiation and a convective zone. In the radiative

zone, energy, made in the core, is transferred towards the

outer layers by radiation. In the convective zone the principle

mechanism of energy transmission is convection, that is, a

flow of matter.

The standard model (SM) supposes that in the center of

the sun the temperature is 15 million degrees, and the density

150000 kg/m3. Though we speak about huge density and

pressure, it is nonetheless believed that, because of the high

temperature, the substance is in a state of completely ionized

gas plasma, which can be considered a perfect gas.

SM is in concurs with theories about energy production

in the sun, and in that sense it corresponds very well with

direct observations. In order to explain the results of precise

measurements in all parts of the electro-magnetic (EM)

spectrum, and corpuscle radiation, the standard model has

been modified several times, but its basic tenets are still

considered valid in scientific circles. Today, for example, it is


___________________________________________________

51

believed that the core temperature is about 14 million degrees

K, a little lower than the one predicted by the model.

The sun’s core according to the Standard Model: in the

center of the sun there is a compact core, which comprises

about 60% of sun’s mass. Its dimensions are r=0.25 R ּס

)radius of the sun( , which means that is takes only about 1.6%

of the sun’s volume. In order to get fusion reactions it is

necessary for the atomic nuclei to get within a distance of less

than 10-15m. Then a strong attractive nuclear force starts

acting between them. However, for the particles to become

close enough for fusion, they must conquer the huge Culon

force, which repels them because they have the same

electrical force. One theory is that the particles are moving at

great thermal speeds of more that 100 kilometers per second.

Such thermal speeds can be realized in temperatures of 107K.

If the thermal speeds are low, the particles will diffuse

themselves before they get to the distance where the attractive

nuclear force becomes stronger than the bouncing Culon’s

force. The high internal energy of the sun is provided, initially,

by the powerful gravitational force that is a consequence of the

sun’s great mass. It compresses gas and that is why it gets

heated.

The Standard Model has determined what temperature

the sun’s core must be to enable fusion reactions to occur. A

temperature of 15 million degrees, which, according to the SM,


___________________________________________________

52

is the temperature of the sun’s core, is insufficient for all the

existing particles to interact in fusion. Normally, in clashes,

particles are usually diffused, and only a few of them enter

fusion reactions. The plasma in the core is treated as an

almost ideal gas, so that in the end of the Maxwell’s

classification of particles according to speed there are very few

protons that can realize fusion reactions. However, thanks to

the quantum effect of tunneling, a sufficient number of

particles overcome the electro-reflecting barrier, entering a nu-

clear reaction, even at lower temperatures.

Basic fusion reactions in the sun’s core are conducted

in two cycles: the protone-protone (P-P) cycle, which is

dominant, and carbon-nitrogen (C-N) cycle. Both cycles

release approximately the same energy, about 26.72 Mev per

He formed nucleus. Neutrinos occur in fusion reactions. They

isolate about 2% of the freed energy in P-P cycle and about

7% of energy in the C-N cycle. Today there exists a number of

very important, and expensive, experimental systems for

detecting solar neutrinos. The results of these measurements

have been very unexpected for astrophysicists: the number of

neutrions detected is considerably less than what was

anticipated based on the SM.

According to these calculations, when a sun is more

than 9 billion years old, all the supplies of hydrogen will have

been consumed and transformed into helium, and the zone of


___________________________________________________

53

the hydrogen fusion will have started transferring towards the

outer areas, to the layer encircling the nucleus. This area will

expand until it reaches the area in which the temperatures are

lower than 10 million degrees, and hydrogen fusion will no

longer occur. At the same time, the sun’s nucleus, rich in he-

lium, will become compressed by the action of its own gravity.

That, in turn, will lead to an increase of pressure and

temperature, and the creation of new conditions for starting

fusion reactions of the helium nuclei. Carbon and oxygen

nuclei will be formed in these reactions, followed by the

release of energy.

Because of the fusion reactions of helium in the

nucleus, and the hydrogen in the thin layer far from the nu-

cleus, the solar mantle will ‘inflate’ leading to the gradual

enlargement of the solar radius. During this process, which will

last approximately 500 million years, the sun will turn into a red

giant. It will then ‘swallow’ its system of planets, and the effec-

tive temperature of its ‘surface’ will become lower. Next, a

short phase, of about 50 million years, of fast fusion

combustion of the remaining helium and the heavier elements

will ensue.

During this phase of the sun’s evolution, only carbon

and oxygen will be found in its core. The inside of the sun will

continue to further collapse, which was only temporarily halted

by the helium fusion. The core temperature will rise again, but


___________________________________________________

54

not enough to enable further fusion reactions. The atmosphere

of the sun will expand a little more. Sun will start pulsating

lightly, expanding and compressing over periods of several

thousands of years.

Finally, this phase of evolution will end by casting off

the sun’s atmosphere in the shape of one or two expanding

membranes. At their center a core, intensely emitting

ultraviolet radiation, will remain. In that way the sun will turn

into a planetary haze in whose center a white slowly cooling

dwarf will be located. After cooling down for several billions of

years, the sun will turn into a dark, brown dwarf—the final

stage of its evolution.

The sun’s radiative zone occupies the area of 0.25 – 0.85

Ro from the center of the sun. In the radiation zone, as well as in

the core, energy is transferred towards the outer layers by

radiation. Since in the radiation zone there are no fusion reac-

tions, there is no ‘accumulation’ of helium, so the mass

percentage of H2 is double that of the core. At the beginning of

the radiation zone the temperature is about 7x106K, and at the

outer edge, about 2x106K.

The sun’s convection zone spreads from the area at

the upper boundary of the radiation zone to the photosphere,

that is, the surface of the sun, which means its thickness is


___________________________________________________

55

between 150,000 and 200,000 km. In this zone the dominant

transfer of energy is performed by convection, that is, sub-

stance flow. This zone is of great significance, because,

primarily, the processes taking place here determine the

characteristics and the behavior in the external parts of the

star: the origination and the variations of the local magnetic

fields, activity, heating of the upper layers of the atmosphere,

and so on.

In the convective layers there is movement of large

mass of the sun’s substance; the warmer mass going up

towards the surface, as the cooler mass descends towards the

inner layers. Gas that has erupted to the sun’s surface loses

its energy through radiation, cools down, and then sinks again

deeper and deeper into the warmer layers of the convective

zone. In the depths, the gas is heated once more and the

process of circulation repeats itself.

The speed of the convective movement at the surface

layer of the sun reaches 2-3 km/s. At the inner edge of the

convective layer the temperature is 2x106K, and at the surface,

the photosphere, it is about 5800K.

Seen in horizontal section, convective cells are almost

hexagonal. In their center the substance goes up, and at the

periphery it lowers towards the deeper layers.

Substance movement in the highest layers of the con-

vective zone leads to the occurrence of granulation in the pho-


___________________________________________________

56

tosphere, acoustic perturbations and gas oscillation in the

sun’s atmosphere, and through them, probably to the heating

of its higher layers. This is, in essence, the Standard Model of

the sun. As we can see, it is already troubled by problems and

unanswered questions. Let’s see what happens when we in-

clude the concepts of mass temperature relativity and anti-

gravitation into this analysis.


___________________________________________________

57


___________________________________________________

58

THERMONUCLEAR FUSION IS IMPOSSIBLE!

In all theories of physics to date, including

astrophysics, mass interactions are governed by gravity alone.

When we add the concept of anti-gravity to mass interactions,

everything significantly changes. How?

The first and basic conclusion we arrive at is that

thermonuclear, or hot, fusion is absolutely impossible!

It is impossible for the hydrogen nuclei to fuse into he-

lium, because, besides Coulon’s bouncing, they are also

repelled by anti-gravity. At the supposed temperature of

15x106K, the negative mass of the H nuclei is so large that

there is no possibility of their fusion. With the rise in tem-

perature, that is, thermal speeds, fusion becomes even less

possible.

Fusion is possible at very low temperatures, when the

attraction of the atomic mass is so high that it overcomes the

force of their Coulon repulsion. Nature, therefore, allows only

cold fusion. But there is no energy benefit from it.

I realize this claim is extremely radical and it requires at

least some experimental proof. Is there any such evidence?

Of course there is. There have been multi-decade at-

tempts to achieve controlled thermonuclear fusion under

earthly conditions.


___________________________________________________

59

What a great idea! Achieve thermonuclear fusion under

earthly conditions and solve the energy problem of the planet

forever. A goal whose aim justifies all material means and

intellectual effort invested in it. A stockpile of unlimited, pure

energy is not only worthy of glory, but is also financially

enticing. America and Russia embarked on this quest, each in

their own way, a few decades ago.

Americans named their project ‘Shiva’, for the god

Shiva of the Hindu holy trinity. Their concept was to hit a small

ball filled with hydrogen from different angles using very

powerful lasers. Despite all their efforts, the enhancement of

laser power and the huge expense, in the end, there was no

positive result.

The Russians’ project was called ‘Tokamak’ for short.

Their concept was to use powerful magnetic fields to maintain

high temperature plasma in the shape of a ring, long enough for

conditions for fusion to emerge. But, as the temperature

increased the plasma ring always fell apart before there was any

hoped-for result. Their devoted efforts, the enhancement of the

power of magnetic fields, and their enormous financial

investment, did not produce the expected results.

There were no results, nor will there be any, because

both parties were blinded to the deficiencies of the theory of

natural forces, and were trying to accomplish something that is

not possible to accomplish.


___________________________________________________

60

All future attempts to achieve thermonuclear or ‘hot’

fusion are doomed to fail, and, in the process, waste huge

amounts of money as well as scientific resources.

But, you say, what about the hydrogen bomb? Have

we not accomplished uncontrolled thermonuclear fusion under

earthly conditions by detonating the H-bomb? The answer is:

no, we have not!

Uncontrolled thermonuclear fusion has not been

accomplished in the so-called H-bomb. What is actually

happening in an H-bomb explosion, we shall presently

discover.


___________________________________________________

61


___________________________________________________

62

AN ANTI-GRAVITATIONAL MODEL OF THE SUN

If thermonuclear fusion is impossible, then we have to

reopen the question of the source of the sun’s energy; the

fundamental question in astrophysics—the origin of all the

stars.

As for the Standard Model of the sun, it completely

failed to explain all the existing facts, and so, it is necessary to

create a new model of the sun. Because we are introducing

anti-gravity, we will name the anti-gravitational model of the

sun. Using the anti-gravitational model of the sun (AMS), I will

begin by analyzing what we see on the sun’s surface. The

surface of the sun is quite visible. Its temperature has been

estimated to be about 5800K. That is not a very high

temperature. But is the estimate correct?

Picture 1.


___________________________________________________

63

What I notice is that the disc of the sun appears darker

at the edges than in the middle. The light coming from the

edge is of less intensity than the light coming from the center.

We can clearly see that the edge is just as much darker at the

equator as it is at the poles, that is, it does not depend on the

latitude of the border. Therefore, I conclude that the actual

temperature of the photosphere is this temperature we see at

the disc border, and it is lower than previously estimated. If we

could calculate what that temperature is, it would give us a

very useful start. When we take into account the enormous

gravitational force of the sun, which creates great weight in the

photospheric substance, that is, the photospheric substance is

under a great amount of pressure, then it is obvious that the

photosphere is actually red-hot magma.

On earth we have direct experience of magma, which

is located beneath the cool crust of the earth, and occasionally

erupts to the surface through volcanos. (Magma which has

erupted to the earth’s surface is called lava.) The sun’s

magma is much hotter than the earth’s, that is, has a higher

temperature, but it is under more pressure, so, what we are

describing here is a substance in the liquid state of

aggregation.

The sun, therefore, is a ball of a red-hot substance,

which is very thick, but definitely in the liquid state of

aggregation.


___________________________________________________

64

Let us once again look at the picture of the sun’s

surface, without any preconceived ideas, and we will see that

it is really made out of red-hot, thick, but liquid, boilng, magma.

It is magma that is in continuous movement, warmer

spurts break out at the surface, and after cooling they sink into

the depths. This is logically correct, because the hot magma is

lighter than the cold magma.

As we move inward from the surface of the sun, the

temperature, logically, rises. But the pressure rises too. The

pressure is a consequence of the huge gravitational force of

the sun, and it causes the rise in temperature. What will

happen to the rising temperature and increasing pressure as

we approach the sun’s center?

As the temperature rises the attraction of the mass of

the sun’s substance decreases, thereby decreasing the

gravitational force of those layers. After passing through the

massless state, the sun’s substance becomes mass negative

and it begins defying gravity. With a further rise of temperature

anti-gravity continues increasing, until at a certain point it

reaches equilibrium with gravity. What does the inside of the

sun look like at this point?

From the sun’s surface down to a certain depth it is

liquid magma of different temperatures and pressures. Then

comes the gas area in which the substance is in gas state

because of the high temperature and the strong anti-gravity. It


___________________________________________________

65

is a layer, which, with its anti-gravitational bouncing finely bal-

ances the Sun’s gravity. There, of course, there is no fusion,

because the anti-gravity is extremely strong. In the very center

of the sun there is no substance – it is a hollow void. There,

anti-gravity does not allow the existence of even the gas state

of aggregation.

In diagrammatic form it would look like this:

Picture 2.

The huge sun’s gravity, therefore, is balanced by anti-

gravity, which is manifested in the very center (heart). With this

theory we satisfactorily explain the stability of the sun. But

what is the origin of the energy the sun is emitting?

If the source of the sun’s energy is not thermonuclear

fusion, what is it? The source of the energy is sun is emitting

to the surrounding space is its gravity!


___________________________________________________

66

How is that possible, when we had previously

dismissed that assumption as unsatisfactory?

Here is how it is possible.

Spurts of hot magma erupting to the surface are cooled

by intense radiation and vaporization. Gas molecules, caused

by magma vaporization, having a very high temperature and

thus negative mass, are also found in the enormously strong

gravitational field of the sun. What is happening there? The

sun is bouncing them away from itself into surrounding space

by an enormous force – anti-gravitation in action. The repellent

force causes them to speed up, and the speed increase

causes a rise in their temperature, which enhances even more

the negativity of their mass, which, again leads to a return of

the anti-gravitational force, and so on. Due to such an abrupt

rise in temperature, molecules of gas disintegrate into atoms,

and then the solitary atoms disintegrate to α particles and

protons. That process of the anti-gravitational speeding of the

gas molecules away from the sun’s surface explains the

temperature rise, up to one million degrees, in the corona.

So, we have a situation where the sun is ’simmering’ at

‘only’ several thousands of degrees. Nonetheless, it emits

enormous energy into space by anti-gravitationally repelling

the gas substance at its surface. The sun, therefore, is a much

more efficient producer of energy than we thought. And also,


___________________________________________________

67

the sun is assured of a much longer lifespan than we had

previously imagined.

Part of the electromagnetic energy that occurs in the

aforementioned process, of molecule and atom disintegration

in the sun’s atmosphere, is oriented towards the sun itself,

heating the sun, that is, its magma substance.

When, in the early stages, gravitational compression

heated the sun from within, now the sun adds to its own

temperature with the energy it creates in its atmosphere

through anti-gravity.

The dance of gravity and anti-gravity in and around the

sun, finally, looks like this:

The heart of the sun is dominated by anti-gravity, which

is balanced by the gravity in the outer magma layer. The sun’s

atmosphere is dominated by anti-gravitational repulsion, which

is the source of the energy the sun is emitting. As we move

further away from the sun, gravity dominates again, keeping

the planets rotating around it, and gravity keeps the sun itself

in rotation around the galaxy.


___________________________________________________

68


___________________________________________________

69

A NEW VIEW OF THE SUN

If, from this perspective, we take another look on the

sun’s surface and its atmosphere, we will see a completely

different picture from the one we were seeing before.

The sun is a thick, liquid, red-hot sphere whose radius

is R0≈(696000±100) km, (which is approximately 109 times

larger than the earth’s radius). The volume of the sun is 1.3

million times greater than the earth.

There is a problem in determining the sun’s exact

radius because of its periodical and non-periodical changes at

different time intervals. The most important short-periodical

variations (R) are due to the existence of a number of

oscillating patterns, present in the interior and the photosphere

of the sun. Oscillations in the sun are not only local and spo-

radic, but they spread through its interior, similar to seismic

waves on the earth. Because of these waves, the sun vibrates

like a gong, which was experimentally proven in 1975.

Because of this, its surface periodically, in different times, rises

and falls up to even 10 kilometers (picture 3). Generally, the

amplitudes of the global oscillations are considerably lower—

around 25 meters.


___________________________________________________

70

Picture 3.

Today, solar seismology (helioseismology) is developing as a separate discipline in astrophysics. It studies the structure, constitution and dynamics of the sun’s interior by analyzing oscillations detected on its surface. The research methodology in helioseismography is based on comparing it with the study of seismic waves on earth.

In the mid-1980s it was established seismic waves exist on other stars as well. Many surface characteristics of the sun (glow, movement of the spectral line, and so on) are a condition of the wave processes in its interior. By detailed study and precise measurement of the wave manifestations in the surface layers, we can get information about the sun’s interior. However, we should bear in mind that the changes in the glow and radius, provoked by waves in the sun, are small. They do not exceed 0.001% of the average value.

Information about the speed of the acoustic waves gives qualitative data about the structure of the surroundings they go through. Studies show that these waves do not go through the


___________________________________________________

71

center of the sun, which seems to confirm my opinion that the sun’s center is hollow. The size of the sun has been practically constant over the past 250 years, since it has been systematically studied. Based on observations made during an eclipse, some authors claim that the sun’s angular diameter reduces annually by about 0.0015 angular seconds. I believe this is a consequence of the earth’s continual moving away from the sun, which I will return to, later.

In 1610, by following the movement, from east to west, of spots on the sun’s disc Galileus concluded that the sun revolves around its axis. Based on the movement of the visible surface details (spots, fibres, etc.) on the sun’s disc, even in the 19th century, it was established that the Sun spins around its axis, which makes an angle of 7.2o with the normal on the ecliptic. The rotation is on a direct course (clockwise), which is characteristic for almost all planets in our system. On average, each rotation lasts about 27 days. The sun belongs to the group of stars which rotate slowly.

In the 19th century a very important characteristic of the sun’s rotation was established—it is differential (zone-based). Different zones of the sun’s surface rotate at different speeds (picture 4). This is irrefutable proof that the sun is not a solid body.


___________________________________________________

72

Picture 4.

The rotation period for the points near the equator is

about 25 days (peripheral speed of 2 km/s); at about 60o of

heliographic latitude the rotation period is around 30 days. The

speed decreases from the equator to the poles.

Oscillatory changes in speed over time have also been

no-ticed; they can be from 10 to 20% compared to average

values. When the sun’s activity is reduced, the differential speed

of rotation has a tendency to slightly increase. Jupiter and

Saturn have differential rotation, in which the angular speed

decreases from the equator towards the poles. On earth

analogous occurrences have been recorded in the atmosphere

and the ocean.

As soon as the scientists determined the earth’s

distance from the sun, a=149,6 ·109m and the speed by which


___________________________________________________

73

the earth rotates around the sun, by V=29.8 km/s (V velocity of

the earth), they could calculate the Mo. From the equality of

the gravitational force of attraction, between the earth and the

sun, and the centrifugal force that acts on the earth, or by the

third Kepler’s law, it was calculated that the M1030⋅1.9901=ּס

kg (Mּס is the mass of the sun).

From the perspective of the temperatural relativity of

mass, this result can only be interpreted as the sun’s total

substance according to its heat, that is, temperature and

geometric allocation, is equivalent to the calculated value. I

have already said that the sun’s substance is mainly in the

state of red-hot, thick, but liquid magma.

At that, of course, the density of the sun is much

greater than the density of the earth because the gravitational

force of the sun is much larger that that of the earth. By its

chemical composition, the sun is comprised of heavier

elements, which make magma.

In addition, I should mention that, up to the present,

there have been 72 elements detected using the absorption

lines of the solar spectrum. That does not mean that the

remaining 20 elements that appear in nature are not present in

the sun—they have simply not yet been detected.

The sun is a ball of red-hot magma whose temperature

is several thousand K, which, thanks to the anti-gravitational

repulsion of evaporated gas matter, produces enormous


___________________________________________________

74

energy that it emits to surrounding space. The value of the

sun’s energy, that falls in one second on the unit area, set

normally on the course of the expansion of the solar radiation,

is called the solar constant. Its value decreases inversely

proportionally to the square of the distance from the sun, at the

level just out of the earth’s atmosphere; the solar constant is

about S(1367±2)=ּס W/m2. The stated value refers to a height

of 65 Km above the earth’s surface.

That is a value measured by instruments, and more

recently, by artificial satellites. More precise measurements of

this value pointed to short-term variations with the amplitude 0.1–

0.2% from the mentioned value. The rhythm of those variations is

in accordance with solar activity, that is, the 11-year cycle of the

sun’s activity. According to some research, in the past 200 years

the mid-value of the solar constant has risen between 0.25 to

0.6%. Here, I would like to say that both the earth and the sun,

and, indeed, the whole universe, are in the process of heating

up, and therefore expanding.

Apart from electromagnetic radiation from the sun, there

are also electric particles (mainly protons) called the solar wind,

which are constantly escaping into interplanetary space. Solar

wind is the final stage of decomposition of the gas molecules and

atoms that the sun is throwing out by anti-gravitational repulsion,

and heats to a temperature of 1-2 million K in the sun’s corona.


___________________________________________________

75

The Sun is losing its substance, however, very slowly,

and it will have a much longer life then 10 billion years which

conventional wisdom has predicted up to now. Since this casts

a brand new light on the birth, life and death of a star, I will pay

more attention to it later when we study the evolution of stars.

At the end of 16th, and the beginning of the 17th

century, thanks to the work of Clavius and Kepler it was

concluded that the sun has an atmosphere. In contemporary

times, thanks to analysis of the sun’s electromagnetic

radiation, we know that its atmosphere is built in layers. As

with the majority of stars, three major layers can be identified

in the sun’s atmosphere: the photosphere, the chromosphere

and the corona. A surface layer, called the photosphere,

surrounds the sun’s interior. Above it is the chromosphere, whose

height reaches up to 10,000 km above the photosphere, and to

which the corona is the next layer.

The average value of the layer’s basic parameters in

the sun’s atmosphere are stated in the table below:

LAYER Internal

radius (km)

Temperature

(K)

Density

(kg/m3)

Photosphere 696,000 5,800 2·10-4

Chromosphere 696,500 4,500 5·10-6

Transitional layer 698,000 8,000 2·10-10

Corona 706,000 1,000,000 10-13

Solar wind 10,000,000 2,000,000 10-23


___________________________________________________

76

The chromosphere and the corona glow more than the

photosphere. They can be directly observed in certain situa-

tions (a solar eclipse) or by special devices. During an eclipse,

for just a few seconds before the appearance of the sun’s

barrier (photosphere) behind the disc of the moon, the

chromosphere can be seen as a bright dark-red mantle with

prongs protruding above (spicules). They can be seen not only

at the sun’s border but also along the whole disc, but only in

the light of a particular wavelength, using special devices.

The upper parts of the corona are best studied at the

time of a complete solar eclipse. Otherwise, the corona

gradually dissolves into the interplanetary space of the solar

system via solar wind.

Starting at the inner edge of the photosphere, the tem-

perature slightly falls, in order to start rising above the lower

chromosphere in the so-called ‘turning layer’ in the chromos-

phere. In the transition layer between the chromosphere and

the corona, the temperature abruptly rises and in certain points

in the corona it reaches a value of several million degrees.

That is one reason why some authors differentiate between

the ’cold’ atmosphere, comprising the photosphere and the

chromosphere, and the ’hot’ atmosphere, which consists of the

corona and its extension, the solar wind.

The photosphere: From the earth it is seen shaped as a

bright disc. It represents the first transparent layer of the sun. Its


___________________________________________________

77

thickness is 350-400km. At the bottom of the photosphere the

temperature is 9000K, and at the upper border its value is about

4500K. Through the photosphere, the energy is transmitted by

radiation, which does not mean that there is no convection

involved. The convective movement of the matter in the

photosphere gives it an appearance like ’boiling porridge’.

Light grain (granules) represents spurts of magma that

are erupting at the surface of the photospheric layers. Their

temperature is about 100–130K higher than the photospheric,

so that their glow is 10–30% brighter than the middle fons

(brightness scale). The granules are separated by dark areas

that are similar to them, but usually smaller. Granules are 35–

40% brighter and 350–400K warmer than these dark areas.

Granule dimensions are between 200 and 1500 km,

1000 km on average. The darker areas between them are up

to 1000 km wide. Inside the darker areas, very fine, slightly

brighter details called filigrains are seen. They are believed to

be granules of smaller dimensions and irregular shape. On the

sun’s disc, at every moment, about two million granules can be

observed.

Granules are visible convection elements that stem

from the layers beneath the photosphere. In the middle of the

convection cell, magma is moving upward, then, so the

magma is moving and spreading towards the cell’s edge

(picture 5).


___________________________________________________

78

Picture 5.

After the eruption of the cells to the surface, the

magma cools down by radiating energy and evaporating into

the atmosphere. The remaining magma thus becomes thicker

and then it sinks to the deeper layers, and new one comes to

replace it. Each grain of this granular material remains distinct

from the other granules. The approximate lifespan of a granule

is 5-15 minutes.

It has been determined that the granules go up and

down in the photosphere. By precise measurements based on

the Doppler effect, it has been calculated that granules move

with the speed from 0.3 to 1 km/s.

There is also convection in the photosphere, mani-

fested in the so-called supergranule (picture 6), which are

much larger in dimension.


___________________________________________________

79

Picture 6.

Supergranules are shaped like polygonal cells with an

average diameter of about 30,000 km. They last several hours,

cover the whole of the sun’s surface and they number, at any

given moment, about 2000.

Apart from being much larger than granules, they are

characterized by larger convection per the depth of the sun’s

surface layer. In each supergranule, there is noted an almost

uniform, horizontal radial leaking of magma from the central parts

of the cells towards the periphery. The maximum speed of this

horizontal movement are about 0.4 km/s. In the central part of the

cells, magma from the deeper layers rises up vertically towards

the surface, and returns to the depth along the edge. The speed

of this vertical movement is about 0.1 km/s.

In the photosphere even larger forms of convective

movement are seen. These are gigantic convective cells.

Differential rotation affects their shape.


___________________________________________________

80

So, the sun, as a ball of magma, is boiling in

continuous turbulence. As we have seen, there are very big

geysers as well as small ones. Large granules form the base

and smaller and very small granules appear on them.

Therefore, the sun’s surface looks like it has bumps with

smaller bumps on them.

Picture 7. Granules, supergranules and gigantic granules

Sunspots: Spots are one of the most important forms of

photospheric activity on the sun. They are represented by darker

areas against the brightness of the solar disc. For hundreds of

years sunspots have been systematically monitored, because their

number, area, and time and location of appearance, provide

valuable information about the activities and processes of the sun.

Because of the enormous brightness of the photosphere

and its small dimension relative to the sun’s disc, the spots on the

sun can rarely be seen with the naked eye except in cases when

they are extremely large, with the diameter over 40,000 km.


___________________________________________________

81

A sunspot appears in the shape of a dark pore, which

continues to develop. They appear at the so-called royal

heliographic latitudes (5o–52o), most often at latitudes 8o –30o.

The diameter of the smallest sunspots is similar to the

dimensions of granules (about 1000 km), and the largest, the

so-called ‘spot groups’, can be even up to 100,000 km.

Smaller sunspots often last less then two days, and the

majority of them disappears the same day they appear. More

developed spots last from ten to 20 days, and the largest of

them, up to 100 days.

At developed sunspots, a dark shadow and a lighter

semi-shadow can be observed. The shadow and semi-shadow

are clearly differentiated, visually (picture 8). On average, the

diameter of a shadow is about 17,500 km, and have a semi-

shadow about 37,000 km. The surface of a typical sunspot is

about one ten-thousandth part of the visible surface of the sun.

Picture 8.


___________________________________________________

82

The brightness of the shadow is only 20–30% fons,

and of the semi-shadow, 75–80% fons, of the undisturbed

photosphere. A spot, actually, looks dark (and cold) compared

to the high glow of the photosphere. Nevertheless, the

brightness of an average-sized spot is about 5000 times larger

that the glow of the moon. The lowered brightness in the spot

area is compensated by the increased brightness around it, up

to a distance of 50,000 km from its center. This glow is about

3% higher than the average photosphere glow.

The temperature in the spots is 25–30% lower than the

photospheric. The temperature of a shadow decreases with

the area of its surface.

Granulation is present in sunspots, too, but in a

different form to that of the photosphere, because it has a

different kind of convection. Granules in the semi-shadow are

shaped like light fibers, about 300 km wide. These fibers last

from about 30 minutes up to several hours, much longer than

the lifespan of granules in the undisturbed atmosphere.

Granules in the form of bright spots can also be seen in the

shadow. Their duration is from 15 to 30 minutes and their

dimension is about 350 km.

It has been noted, that as spots near the western

border of the sun’s disc, the east most half of the semi-shadow

gradually begins narrowing and disappearing. As spots appear

on the eastern border of the disc, the semi-shadow is not

visible at first, and then it appears and becomes wider, first in


___________________________________________________

83

the west most half. This phenomenon tells us that a spot is,

actually, a shallow funnel-like cavity in the photosphere.

It has sometimes been noticed that spots can rotate

around a central axis of their own. It is not such an intensive

rotational movement, with speeds at the end of the semi-

shadow reaching 14km/s. With the solitary sunspots, this

rotation can lead to the creation of a vortical structure of the

elongated arms of the spot.

It is important to point out the existence of warmer

areas around the sunspots called photospheric faculas

(torches). They are long living bright areas, that, in principle,

are not necessarily connected to the spots (picture 9).

Picture 9.

There are also independent faculas that are of a lesser

brightness than those surrounding the sunspots. I must stress,


___________________________________________________

84

however, that there are no spots without faculas. Faculas have a

granulated structure, which is 10% brighter than their

surroundings. Inside them, granules last longer (about an hour)

than granules in the rest of the photosphere. The dimensions of

the faculas’ granules are about 1000 km, but they can form

groups four to six thousand km long. They connect in chains five

to ten thousand km wide and up to 50 thousand km long. Large

faculas appear several hours or days before the sunspot does,

and they are visible long after the spot disappears. They often

last as long as a year. On average they ’live’ twice as long as the

spot they form around, and occupy about four times more area

than the spot.

Sunspots, therefore, always appear in faculas, singly,

or, more often, in groups (picture 10).

Picture 10.

Solitary spots are often the beginning or the ending of a

larger group. The number of spots in a group can be up to sev-

eral hundred. Large groups of spots reach their maximum devel-


___________________________________________________

85

opment in two or three weeks, and then they slowly fall apart and

vanish over 1.5 to two months. When a group reaches its

maximum (number of spots, area, etc.) it starts receding: spots

fall apart and the number in the group diminishes. As the spots

fall apart, brighter spots usually appear over them.

On average, groups of spots last 10 days (30% of them

last more than 10 days; 0.4% more than 50 days; 0.3% more

than 100 days, and only 0.01% last more than 150 days). The

larger the surface a group of spots occupies, the longer its dura-

tion. For example, if a group of spots occupies a ten-thousandth

part of the visible hemisphere of the sun, then on average it lasts

ten days, and if it occupies four times more area, it lasts 40 days.

Spots, and their groups, can have different shapes;

sometimes their shape is regular and oval, but very often it is

irregular (picture 11).

Picture 11.

With a pair, or a group, of spots, the west most spot is the

leader, and the other spots follow. The leader spot is the one that

appears first in the pair or group. The leader is closer to the


___________________________________________________

86

equator, and, on average it is larger than its followers, and lasts

longer. In the beginning, the leader moves faster than the

followers, dragging them. When the leader is no longer gravelling

faster than the rest of the group, the process of destruction and

disappearance of the group begins.

Spots can be without semi-shadows, and they can have

smaller spots in their semi-shadows. Small and the middle-sized

spot groups form as the large spots fall apart.

Having described spots in such detail, it is time for a

revelation, perfect in its simplicity.

We have seen that the surface of the sun consists of

granules, supergranules and gigantic granules. Granules are

geysers of magma. Therefore, the sun’s surface is covered in

geysers of magma. There are gigantic geysers of magma, and

on them super-geysers of magma exist, and on all of them, small

geysers of magma are present. What is common to all these

geysers is that they eject magma to the surface from a relatively

thin and homogenous layer, which is the outer layer of the sun.

This outer layer is boiling, and that is the normal state of the sun’s

surface.

Less usual is the appearance of chormospheric faculas or

torches. Faculas are actually the sun’s volcanoes. Faculas are

ejecting magma from the sun’s deeper layers to the surface. That

is why they are brighter and warmer than the rest of the

photosphere. We have seen that these volcanic eruptions can

eject magma of different temperatures, which means, from


___________________________________________________

87

different depths. With this explanation solar volcanic eruptions

can be understood from start to finish.

But when it is a matter of large solar eruptions, it not only ejects magma from the deepest surface layers of the sun, but it ejects magma of a different quality, that is located below that surface layer. That magma has a different chemical composition from the surface magma; it consists of heavier chemical elements. When this magma is ejected to the surface it cools down more quickly, thickens and starts floating on the surface of the sun, which, remember is composed of geysers. This heavy magma, from the great depth of the sun, is seen as a dark spot. Since it is heavier than the surface magma, it makes a cavity in the photosphere; and since its rim is thinner than its center, the edges collapse, and they slope down to the level of the photosphere. That is how the funnel appearance of the spot comes about. The size of the spot, as well as its appearance, is defined by the quantity of heavy magma ejected in the eruption of the sun’s volcano (facula). The number of spots is the result of the intermittent ejection of the heavy magma to the surface. The first spurt of heavy magma is actually the leader spot, and the subsequent spurts form the follower spots. The first amount is largest because it is the greatest release of pressure that led to the eruption, and that is why the leader spot lasts longest. If the ejection of the heavy magma is constant, then we see the spot widening, until there is a break in the eruption of the magma. The rotation of the sun carries the spot towards the west, as the


___________________________________________________

88

eruption continues new spots are created eastward of it until the eruption stops. That is how spots appear. Cooler, heavy magma floats on the geysers of the warmer surface magma, which will slowly but certainly ’melt’ it. Surface magma geyser pressure to the sunspot, that is, heavy magma, leads to the perforation or break up of the spot into parts, which accelerates its disintegration. The spots reduce, fall apart and disappear. The sun’s volcano (facula) will continue ejecting warmer lava, until it, too, will stop. The facula disappears from the photosphere, meaning, the sun’s volcano is extinct.

Now that we have realized what happens on the sun’s surface, let us go higher in the sun’s atmosphere. First, let us see what contemporary astrophysics has to say about what has been discovered and observed so far.

Above the photosphere there is the chromosphere (picture 12).

Picture 12.


___________________________________________________

89

The radiation in this layer is most intense in the red part of

the spectrum, thus it got its name from its intense color. The

chromosphere is not homogenous; it is quite roughly divided into

the lower (1500 km above the photosphere), middle (between

1500 and 4000 km) and upper levels (from 4000 to 10,000 km).

The lower choromosphere is relatively homogenous, and, starting

from the photosphere the temperature continues falling to the

lowest values of the sun, about 4,200 K in certain places. Below

the lower photosphere, in the rotating layer, temperatures can rise

as high as 10,000 K.

As we go higher, the level of ionization increases. The

upper cromosphere is very ionized, which is understandable when

we consider that the temperature reaches values of 25,000 K there

(in some places up to 300,000 K).

Intense turbulent movement also characterizes the

chromosphere. At a height of 500 km, the speed of the turbulent

movement is about 5km/s, at 5000 km is about 20km/s.

Based on monochromatic images of the chromosphere, it

can be seen that, just like the photosphere, the chromosphere, has

a grain-like structure. The grains, called floculae, are fiber-shaped.

They are larger than photospheric granules, and their length can

be up to several thousand of kilometers.

Floculae can be better spotted on large bright surfaces,

chromospheric torches (chromospheric facula) (picture 13).


___________________________________________________

90

Picture 13.

When the photosphere is observed in white light, we see that photospheric faculas are in the same position as chromospheric torches. They are believed to be the same objects, observed from different heights. Chromospheric faculas last longer—200 to 300 days—and they are much brighter than the fon (in X-ray area, even up to 70 times brighter).

One of the most important shapes that appear in the chromosphere is the chromospheric network (picture 14).

Picture 14.


___________________________________________________

91

It is the action of supergranules, formed in the photosphere, but their influence is also visible in the chromosphere.

The chromospheric network spreads vertically along the whole chromosphere height. The dimensions of the network structures correspond to the supergranules’ dimensions.

Along the brim of the supergranules from the lower layers

of the chromosphere, spiculae go up like fire tongues. Spiculae

are small eruptions of hot gas, whose temperature is about

15,000 K. Particle concentration in them is 1018 m-3, they appear

at heights of 3000 to 4000 km, and their height is from 7,000 to

12,000 km. Their diameter is the same as the granules, about

1,000 km, and they appear above the boundaries of

supergranules. It is these spiculae that represent the thin

structure of the chromospheric network, which is seen in the

center of the sun’s disc. It is estimated that at any moment there

are about a million spiculae in the chromosphere. They are not

equally distributed; there are about 30% more in the polar areas

than in the equatorial area. They take up only 1% of the total

surface of the sun. Gas in the spiculae rises from the lower layers

of the chromosphere at a speed of 20km/s.

One of the more important manifestations of the sun’s

activity is eruptions (explosions) in the chromosphere. They are

sudden, short processes, from which comes a large increase in

the radiation intensity of radiation in limited areas of the

chromosphere.


___________________________________________________

92

Explosions appear in the same areas as faculas, above

groups of spots. They are characterized by the rapid rise in

brightness, very short duration of their maximum brightness and

a relatively short extinction, lasting about twice as long as the

period of increasing brightness. In cases when the explosions are

noted at the rim of the sun’s disc, we can see a cone of light,

whose height is several thousands of kilometers.

Smaller explosions, which are encountered more

frequently, have a circular form, while the larger ones are

extended in shape and of firer structure. Such explosions occur

rarely and only at the time of sun’s maximum activity.

At the time of sun’s maximum activity, energy freed by

explosions in the higher layers of the sun’s atmosphere is

comparable with the energy it radiates in one second.

Many particles move at speeds of 1500 km/s (with very

strong explosions, up to 2400km/s) through the corona and into

interplanetary space (picture 15).

Picture 15.

Some of the particles travel at speeds close to

relativistic speed (the speed of light), so they get to earth


___________________________________________________

93

almost at the same time as the electromagnetic radiation

emitted in the explosion. Groups of such particles are known

as the sun’s cosmic rays. Smaller explosions last from 5 to 40

minutes. On average, in the life of a group of spots there is

one chromospheric explosion (every seven hours, or every two

hours at the time of maximum solar activity). During the transit

of a sunspot group across the sun’s disc, 30 to 50

chromospheric explosions appear above it, and at the time of

the sun’s most intensive activities up to 300. Across the sun

about 100 explosions occur daily, but those considered strong

are very rare, occurring only a few times a year.

During these explosions local heating of the substance,

up to temperatures from 10 to 100 million K, occurs.

Explosions in the chromosphere are closely related to

the processes in the corona, and its characteristics. This is

confirmed by the facts that the so-called condensation of the

corona appears at heights of 10–40 thousand km above the

chromospheric explosions. Radio-flashes from the corona tell

us that, and the radio-flashes are, from a different point of

view, caused by the level of activity in the photoshere below

them.

Now, an explanation of what is really happening in the

chromosphere.

The red-hot magma erupts on the sun’s surface in gey-

sers and is cooled down by intensive radiation and

vaporization. At first, the fall in temperature occurs in the lower


___________________________________________________

94

chromosphere rather than the photosphere. But this process of

the gases cooling down is dominant only to up to 1500 km,

while the speed of the rising gases is low, about 5 km/s. In

fact, this is the beginning of the anti-gravitational ejection of

molecules of vaporized gas from the red-hot magma.

As soon as the gas molecule’s speed accelerates to 20

km/s, at a height of about 5000 km, a rise in the temperature

occurs again. The rise in the gas molecule’s temperature leads

to a rise in their negative mass, that is, leads to a rise in the

anti-gravitation force by which the sun hurls them away from

itself. Normally it leads to even greater speed of the

molecules, even greater heating and thermic ionization, which,

as we have seen, increases with the height.

Since granules, or grains, represent geysers of

magma, where evaporation is most dominant, that structure is

transferred upward, and that is why the chromosphere looks

as it looks, having fibers or floculas.

Chromospheric torches occur above photospheric

faculas, that is, volcanoes. Logically, the higher temperature of

the photospheric magma geysers results in enhanced

vaporization, with the gas molecule’s higher starting tem-

perature. Thus, the anti-gravitational bounce is much stronger,

leading to much greater speeds and much higher temper-

atures than the surrounding chromosphere.


___________________________________________________

95

The net-like appearance of the chromosphere and

spiculae is a logical consequence of the appearance and activity

on the sun’s surface.

Eruptions or explosions in the chromosphere occur

above groups of sunspots. Logically, groups of spots are

created by the strongest of the sun’s volcanoes, and, apart

from ejecting flares of ‘chemically heavy’ magma; they eject

flares of hot gases, too. These flares of hot gases from the

sun’s interior have a much higher temperature than the

vaporized gases of the surface magma, which is cooling down.

That is why they are much more affected by the anti-

gravitational force of the sun. They are also affected by the

mutual bouncing of the gas molecules, so that their speed

becomes so accelerated that it appears as an explosion. Here,

as we have seen, the particles move at speeds of 1,500km/s

up to 2,400km/s. Some of the particles in this process reach

speeds close to the speeds of light, the so-called, relativistic

speed. And that is logical when we see that local temperatures

go up to 10 or 100 millionoK.

Explosions in the chromospheres are further reflected

on the appearance of the sun’s corona. So, these processes

begin with activity on the Sun’s surface and it spreads from

there to the higher layers of the Sun.

Corona: above the chromospheres, and the thin transitional

layer, there is corona (picture 16).


___________________________________________________

96

Picture 16.

This is the hottest and scantiest layer of the sun’s

atmosphere. It is seen as a pearly-silver light that encircles the

darkened disc of the sun at the time of the sun’s eclipse. It is

much paler that the chromosphere but more visible, since it is

the most spacious layer of the sun’s atmosphere.

The dimensions and the shape of the corona, as well

as the processes taking place in it, largely depend on the

activity of the sun. At a time of low activity, it is compressed

above the poles with characteristic fan-like shapes, while

along the equator it is elongated. In a period of maximum

activity, the corona takes on an ’untidy’ shape, and almost

symmetrically encircles the whole sun (picture 17).

The corona extends upward for several times the

radius of the sun, although the upper border cannot be exactly

determined since, by way of the sun’s wind, it gradually


___________________________________________________

97

disperses into interplanetary space. Many authors treat the

solar wind as the part of the sun’s corona.

Picture 17.

The corona is separated from the chromosphere by the

already mentioned transitory layer in which the temperature

sharply rises from the chomospheric (≥104K) to the coronal

(≥106K) values.

The corona’s temperature reaches a maximum of

about 2 million K at the height of about 1/10 of the sun’s radius

of the photosphere. After that it gradually falls. If the sun’s

wind is treated like an extended part of the corona, rather than


___________________________________________________

98

in the vicinity of the earth’s orbit, its temperature is of the order

of 105 K.

Surprisingly high temperatures and very low density

define the physical state of the gas in the corona.

In the inner corona, r = (1,03 – 1,2) Rּס. Moving

towards the periphery, gas density decreases, but the

temperature rises, and at a height of 50,000 km it is (1–1.5)

million K. One characteristic is that the inner corona emission

spectrum appears with highly ionized metal atoms. These

atoms are especially bright (Fe).

In the middle corona (r ~ 2Rּס) T ~ 106 K gas density

decreases even more, and its radiation has a high level of

polarization, which up to r ~ 1,5 R amounts to 50%. This value

also decreases gradually on at greater heights.

In the outer corona, r ~ 3Rּס, temperature and gas con-

centration values continue falling and the corona gradually starts

dispersing into interplanetary space. The brightness of the outer

corona is about a billion times lower than the brightness of the

sun’s disc. The continual spectrum of the outer corona is

practically identical to the spectrum of the photosphere, but of a

drastically lesser intensity. In it we can see the same standard

Fraunhofer’s absorption lines, which are characteristic for the

photosphere. This shows that, in the outer corona, the dispersal

of the radiation of the photosphere, acts on the dust particles

which are present.


___________________________________________________

99

The sun’s corona is visible in the wide range of the

spectrum of the electromagnetic radiation.

The light emitting from the corona consists of about

100 bright lines, which it has been determined, originate from

the highly ionized atoms of iron, calcium, nickel, etc.

The corona’s radiation arises in conditions that not

thermodynamically balanced. Owing to the high temperature,

the corona is a strong source of radio- and far UV radiation.

New research suggests that in the corona there are occasional

flares with intense emissions of X-ray radiation, which

precedes ultraviolet emissions. Radiation originates from the

area in the corona where temperatures reach up to several million degrees.

In the corona we note different forms: flares, rays,

arches, plumes, that in the shape of brushstrokes appear

above the poles, condensations and hollows, eruptions, etc.

Some of them are visible in the integral light of the white

corona, while others are more visible in other areas of

electromagnetic radiation (radio or X-ray). Well-defined shapes

are most often encountered above the area of enhanced sun’s

activity, the so-called, active areas.

A flare is the abrupt enhancement in brightness of

localized areas above a group of spots and torches. This

occurrence happens in the areas of the chromosphere and the

corona. In about ten minutes, the brightness of the areas


___________________________________________________

100

overtaken by the flare increases, and then, over the next hour

it decreases back to former level.

The corona’s rays have similar characteristics to the

larger forms in the sun’s corona. During a solar eclipse, or with

the help of a chronograph, they can be seen as elongated

condensations with different radial forms (picture 18).

Picture 18.

They extend from 0.5 Rּס to 10 Rּס, and in some cases

even more. On average, the duration of the ray shapes last

about ten days. The main part of the ray, above the centre of

the activity, emits a green line Fe13+, meaning, in that area; the

temperature is over 2 million degrees.

Picture 19.


___________________________________________________

101

The corona’s arches (picture 19) occur above a field in

the active areas. They are composed of a number of thin threads.

Picture 20.

Plumes or polar brushes (picture 20) most often occur

above the sun’s poles. They greatly depend on the level of

activity of the sun. They connected to faculas in that area, and

they are best observed during a time of decreased activity,

when the corona is compressed.

Analysis of the radio waves from the sun has shown

that above the center of the active areas there are

condensations in the corona. The temperature here reaches

values higher than three million degrees. They are several

times thicker than the corona’s surroundings. At the time of the

most intensive creation of the spots, sporadic condensation

occurs.

In the sun’s corona, areas with lower temperature were

spotted (from 0.8 million K) and an anomalously low mass

density. These are called corona hollows (picture 21).


___________________________________________________

102

Picture 21.

There are believed to be stable, spacious formations

that can take up to 20% of the corona. They last through sev-

eral of the sun’s rotations. They are characterized by reduced

brightness in the X-ray and the UV areas of radiation, and a

noticeable decrease in the glow in the radio and the visible

part of the spectrum. Normally, they are found in the polar

areas of the sun, but they sometimes expand to the lower

heliographic latitudes. There, isolated hollows can be formed.

Hollows like these are often long lasting, especially at a time of

reduced Sun activity. From the corona’s hollows, solar wind is

continuously emitted, with particles leaving the corona at

speeds from 600 to 800 km/s.

From X-ray readings of the corona, bright spots, unevenly

distributed over the whole of the sun’s disc, have been noted.

Their dimensions are smaller than those of sunspots, and on

average they last for about 8 hours. During a 24-hour cycle,

about 1,500 bright spots of the corona appear on the sun. The

dynamics of their appearance and their total number are in


___________________________________________________

103

antiphase with sunspots, that is, they occur more often and in

larger numbers when there are lesser spots in the photosphere.

Picture 22.

Protuberances are the most spectacular form of the

sun’s activity and the most dramatic occurrence in the sun’s

atmosphere. During a solar eclipse they can be seen as red

flames (picture 22).

Protuberances represent strap condensations in the co-

rona. It is tells us about cooler (T ≤104K), thicker formations

inside the diluted warmer corona (T ≥ 106 K).

Above the sun’s disc, protuberances can be seen in

the shape of gigantic fire tongues, arches, fountains, knots,

etc. (picture 23).


___________________________________________________

104

Picture 23.

We can see moving threads and condensations in

protuberances. Seen straight on, and not silhouetted outside

the disc, they are dark, bent strips of complex structure, called

filaments. Their length can be up to 200,000 km.

Both quiet and active protuberances are commonly

found.

The majority of protuberances belong in the quiet

category. They are long living—they last more from one day

(which is rare) to several months (which is more common).

There have been cases where they lasted for several years.

They hover for a long time at all heliographic latitudes. The

temperature of quiet protuberances can be up to 15,000K, but

most usually between 6,000 and 8,000K, and are therefore

described as ‘cold’.

A typical quiet protuberance is about 200,000 km long,

even though, in rare cases, their length can reach a total of


___________________________________________________

105

1,900,000km. The average height is 50,000 km, while their

width is not more than 6,000 km. They consist of threads

whose diameters are about 1,000 km. The lower ends of

protuberances are in the areas between the supergranules,

near of active areas.

Protuberances primarily occur in the latitude zones

10o–40o, in which sunspots are concentrated, but they spread

to further zones, too. Quiet protuberances are divided into

those below heliographic latitude 40o–45o, and those above,

the polar latitudes. The latter often make the so-called wreaths

of polar protuberances (picture 24).

Picture 24.

At the beginning of its life, quiet protuberances usually

spread in the direction of the meridian and in such a manner

that one foot of a protuberance has 80% of its fibers directed


___________________________________________________

106

towards the leader spot. In time, they slowly move towards the

poles. Their length is growing and they are more and more

oriented in an east-west direction. After ten or so rotations of

the sun their threads reach the polar areas where they can

survive approximately five more months.

Apart from quiet protuberances, there are active

protuberances, distinguished by very rapid development (from

10 minutes to several hours). They appear in the shape of

clouds, system of knots, cyclones, sprays, etc. They are

usually of smaller dimension than quiet protuberances. Some

of them appear above spots and slowly move towards the

edges of the spot area. They are very often absorbed by the

spots and disappear. They can transform into quiet

protuberances. The average temperature in active

protuberances is about 25,000K, which is why they are called

hot.

Picture 25.


___________________________________________________

107

In sunspot areas eruptive or explosive protuberances

appear. They reach great heights—in some cases over a

million kilometers. There is a recorded case of a protuberance

that rose to over 1,700,000 km (picture 25).

In the case of quiet protuberances, the linear spectrum

shows hydrogen, calcium, etc., but lines of metal, also appear.

For a while, at the beginning of a formation, eruptive

protuberances can resemble quiet ones that contain elements of

irregular movement. Then, parts of the protuberance begin to

rise, at first slowly, then faster and faster. The increase in speed

can be abrupt, reaching speeds of up to several hundred km/s.

The common feature of all eruptive protuberances is that they

form an arch, which breaks in the middle. With eruptive

protuberances, the arch greatly enlarges in size (picture 26).

After it breaks, the matter falls back to the chromosphere

along the path of the arch.

Picture 26.


___________________________________________________

108

There are the so-called ‘sunspot protuberances’

(picture 27) that appear centered above spot group activity, in

the shape of knots, arches or funnels.

Picture 27.

There’s also ‘corona rain’—a type of protuberance that

occurs as falling matter from the corona to the chromosphere.

Because of the greater mass density, substances in

protuberances should ’sink’ to the thinnest environment.

However, some force is enabling it to survive for a relatively

long time as a shaped configuration.

The sun’s wind occurs with the expansion of the

corona into interplanetary space. It is a permanent ’circulation’

of the sun’s substance, moving approximately radially from the


___________________________________________________

109

sun (picture 28), and pervades the sun’s system up to the

reach of 100 AJs (AJ is the distance from the sun to the earth).

Picture 28.

Particles of the solar wind gradually speed up, for

example, at the distance of several sun radii, the average

radial speed of protons in the solar wind is (100–150) km/s,

and at the distance of 1 AJ its value is (300-750) km/s (picture

29).

Picture 29.


___________________________________________________

110

With regard to the speed of movement, the flow of the

solar wind can be either slow (with speeds up to 300km/s) or

fast (with speeds of 600-700 km/s).

In the vicinity of the earth’s orbit, depending on the level

of activity in the sun, through the square meter of the transversal

surface every second between 5·1011 and 5 ·1012 protons flow

with an average speed of 400 km/s, and an average temperature

of 50,000K (in active periods is can be up to 400,000K).

Each second, a mass of 108_109 kg flows out into

interplanetary space, via the sun’s wind. If there were not for

spiculas, which are ‘filling’ in the mass of the corona, this layer

of the sun’s atmosphere would be ’scattered’ in three or four

days by the flow of solar wind. The sun loses 1015_1014 M ּס

annually due to solar wind. Since, after all, the sun’s life span

is about 10 billion years, it is clear that such a loss does not

significantly influence its evolution.

Table 2. Relative content of atoms in the solar wind’s chemical structure

Element

Relative content

Element

Rel. content

H 0.96 Ne 7.5 · 10-5 3He 1.7 · 10-5 Si 7.5 · 10-5 4He 0.04 Ar 3.0 · 10-6 O 5 · 10-4 Fe 4.7 · 10-5

Table 2 presents the solar wind’s chemical structure

with the relative content of certain atoms compared to the total.


___________________________________________________

111

The ratio of helium and hydrogen atoms in the sun’s wind is not

the same as in the sun’s atmosphere (to the detriment of

helium). In the quiet solar wind, however, the ratio of 3He : 4He

coincides with the ratio in the rest of the solar atmosphere.

In the sun-related coordinates’ system, the solar wind

particle trajectories (paths) are in the shape of Archimedes’

spirals, originating in the areas of the sun’s corona from which

the particles originate (picture 30). The solar wind blows

particles in spiral lines, determined by the radial speed of the

particle flowing out from the corona.

Picture 30.

The combined area of the solar wind and the

interplanetary magnet field (that comes from the sun) is the

aforementioned heliosphere. The balance between the solar

wind’s dynamic pressure, interstellar gas pressure, galactic

magnetic field and galactic cosmic rays determines its border.


___________________________________________________

112

It is estimated that the heliosphere boundary is at (50–100) AJ

from the sun, which is far beyond Pluto’s orbit. It is estimated

that its form is elongated.

And now a new physics explanation of the corona and

what happens in it.

We can see that the anti-gravitational speed of the

sun’s evaporated substance culminates between the heights

of 10,000 km and 70,000 km. In that period the temperature

rises from 104K to almost 2 million K. Only then does it slowly

begin to decrease.

The fact that the light emitting from the corona consists

of bright lines of highly ionized atoms of iron, calcium, nickel

and other heavy elements, confirms that this is magma vapor,

both light, from the surface, and heavy, sub-surface.

In the process of anti-gravitational acceleration, and

thus heating, the molecules break down into atoms. But not all

of the heavy elements break down to the level of alpha

particles and protons. The existence of areas in the corona,

which burst into flames with intense X and UV radiation

emissions, and where the temperature rises up to several tens

of millions K, tells us that the process of heavy elements atom

disintegration to the level of α particles and protons is going

on. Fission reactions are present.

Active areas on the photosphere affect the

chromosphere further, which, in turn, affects the corona. That


___________________________________________________

113

is how flashes, rays, arches, plumes, condensations and bright

spots occur.

Hollows occur in the corona above areas of photo-

sphere that are not active, most often around the polar sun.

We have already learned how and why these things

happen. However, protuberances deserve special attention

and a more detailed explanation.

Protuberances are gigantic eruptions of photospheric

volcanoes, when spurts of magma are ejected high into the

sun’s atmosphere. The recorded temperature of

protuberances confirms that they are comprised of hot magma

ejected from deeper layers of the sun.

The long life of protuberances, that is their lengthy

hovering, is a simple consequence of the buoyancy of the

sun’s substance accelerated by anti-gravitation. The solar

wind, at its origin, not only compensates for the weight of

magma that constitutes the protuberance, but also heats it up,

that is, it prevents it from quickly cooling and becoming heavy,

and thus falling quickly back.

Magma is gravitationally attractive. It keeps its

protuberance state and it is also attracted by the sun, which

prevents the solar wind from blowing it into interplanetary

space.

With arch-like, eruptive protuberances, there is an

abrupt rise in the arch size precisely because of the substance


___________________________________________________

114

pressure (gas) that is anti-gravitationally accelerated upward

to the point when the arch breaks at its highest point. As

magma has to return to the sun’s surface, it slides along the

sides of the broken arch.

Anti-gravitational emission of the sun’s vapor and

gases that begins right at their origin, at the appropriate time

and height, becomes solar wind. We have already seen what

speeds and which temperatures they reach.

It is very important to note that the sun loses its

substance through the solar wind. The loss of substance

means lowering of the gravitational force, which means

reduction of the speed and the temperature of the particles in

the sun’s atmosphere, and that means extinction of the sun’s

glow, and that means doom for us, here on earth. Nev-

ertheless, there’s no need to worry, because the loss of the

sun’s substance is so scant that the sun will continue serving

us for much longer than the ’fusionally’ anticipated tens of

billions of years.

Let us now pay attention to Table 2, which shows us

the chemical structure of the solar wind and the relative con-

tent of atoms in it. Sun’s winds: the key components of the

solar wind are H whose relative content is 0.96 and 4He whose

relative content is 0.04. This is the data that led scientists to

conclude that the sun is a gas ball composed of hydrogen that

becomes 4He by fusion. From the correct data, but an


___________________________________________________

115

imperfect theory, and ignorance of the true nature of mass

interactions (gravity and anti-gravity), the wrong conclusions

were arrived at.

Gases, consisting of molecules and atoms of heavier

elements, are formed by the cooling of magma, or ejected in

interruptions, during the process of anti-gravity emissions and

accelerations, followed by an enormous rise in temperature.

The disintegration of these gases accounts for the chemical

structure of the solar wind.


___________________________________________________

116


___________________________________________________

117

CYCLES OF SUN ACTIVITY

Observations of occurrences on the sun have led to the discovery that they move in cycles. Sunspot activity occurs in an approximately 11.2 year cycle. Since monitoring of the sun’s activity began, in the second half of the 18th century, until today, 23 cycles have been observed. Picture 31 represents results of the monitoring of the sun’s activities since 1749 until today.

Picture 31.

The minimum and maximum activity of spots are clearly noted. The time interval between two minimum spot occurrences defines the duration of the solar activity’s cycle. Picture 32 represents the change in the number of spots during the 22nd and the 23rd cycles of the sun’s activity.

Picture 32.


___________________________________________________

118

It is important to mention that not all cycles last an equal

amount of time. For the period from 1755 until 1945, periods

between two neighboring minimums have varied from 9 to 13.6

years, and between maximums from 7.3 to 17.1 years. These

irregularities occur from cycle to cycle without any notable

pattern. It is impossible to predict a future cycle based on the

activity in previous cycles.

In contemporary times, based on Doppler progressions, it

has been noted that in times of quiet sun activity, the rotation of

the equatorial areas accelerates. It is obvious that in times of

maximum solar activity, rotation ’breaks’ because of the volcano

and magma eruption formation from the deeper layers of the sun

to its surface. This, again, is an indicator that the sun’s rotation

differs not only on the surface by the heliographic latitudes, but

that the sun’s rotation differs according to altitude. It is obvious

that the ‘chemically heavier’ magma rotates more slowly than the

surface layer, which is comprised of ‘chemically lighter’ magma

(picture 33).

Picture 33.


___________________________________________________

119

Apart from the number of sunspots, and their surface

area, their distribution along the heliographic latitudes changes

during the cycles. The first spots in the cycle are formed

around 30oN and 30oS, and then they occur closer and closer

to the equator. At a time of maximum activity, spots occur

around 15oN and 15oS and the last spots in a cycle are at

about 8oN and 8oS. Rarely can the spots be found at latitudes

greater than 45o and less than 5 o.

On the ‘butterfly diagram’ (picture 34) it can be noted

that the first spots belonging to this cycle appear at 30o before

last spots from the previous cycle disappear at 8o. Such

overlapping of the cycles lasts about three years on average.

Picture 34.


___________________________________________________

120

This pattern of spot appearances points to the

difficulties encountered by the first eruptions of the hotter and

’chemically heavier’ magma in the new cycle, to break through

the fastest-moving layer of equatorial magma.

As the eruptions become stronger during the cycle, the

spurts of magma from the depths manage to burst through the

zones of surface magma closer to the equator, and by breaking

through, they slow them down, because they act as ’pistons’ that

stick through several layers at a time. As these ‘pistons’ mostly

occur at a time of maximum activity, it logically follows that the

deceleration of the equatorial magma is most pronounced at that

time.

Oscillation of the sun’s activity is manifested not only

through the appearance of spots, but also through other forms

in the sun’s atmosphere. An increase in activity is coupled with

an increase of intensity and frequency of chromospheric

explosions, with which flashes, and the UV and radio areas of

electro-magnetic radiation are connected. Intensifying activity

also implies corpuscular emission in the form of solar wind and

the sun’s cosmic rays.

During the cycle a change in the numbers and the

locations of protuberances occurs: the main area of

protuberances’ occurrences move to the equator (which is

logical, since they follow the spots, that is, they occur in the

same areas as spots), while protuberances at higher


___________________________________________________

121

heliographic latitudes migrate towards the poles and arrive at

the time of maximum activity of the cycle.

Picture 35.

Picture 35 depicts the development of the 23rd cycle of

solar activity. Hα pictures show the sun’s ‘quiet surface’ at a

time of the minimal activity. At the point of maximum activity

(the second half of years 1999 and 2000) manifestations of

violent activities are clearly visible: we can see multiple

explosions, protuberances and mass ejections.

Picture 36.


___________________________________________________

122

Picture 36 shows the Sun’s appearance between the

maximums of the 21st and the 22nd cycles.

It is obvious that the temperature is changing during the

cycle. It is lowest during the minimum sun activity, and highest

during the maximum activity of the sun. What kind of process

could cause such a cyclical temperature changes in the whole

sun? In order to understand that we have to observe the sun’s

movement in our galaxy.


___________________________________________________

123


___________________________________________________

124

ОUR SUN IN OUR GALAXY

(THE SUN AND THE MILKY WAY)

The sun is characteristic of an average dwarf

yellow star. It is thought that 2% of all stars belong in this

type, which means there are several billion of them.

Galaxies are gravitationally limited star systems.

They consist of a large number of stars and interstar

substance in the form of gas and dust. Depending on the

type and size of a galaxy, stars in them can number from

several million up to several billion. To date, several

thousand of the brightest stars have been studied.

Galaxies represent the basic structural element for even

larger associations in the cosmos, clusters and su-

perclusters of galaxies.

Our galaxy (the Milky Way) belongs to the class of

spiral galaxies. These are distinguished by their char-

acteristic spiral arms (branches) of which there are usually

two, although others may develop at the ends of the

spiral.

Part of our galaxy is visible in the night sky as a

pale, bright swath of unequal width that divides the

celestial sphere into two parts (picture 37).


___________________________________________________

125

Picture 37.

All the stars that we see in the night sky belong to our

galaxy.

A schematic appearance of our galaxy is shown in picture

38. Observed from the side, it has the shape of two collapsed

plates whose diameter is about 30 KPC (thousand parsek or

100,000 light years).

Picture 38.

The thickness of the middle bulge (nucleus) is about 4

KPC (13.000 LY). The central line of symmetry (the galactic

level), which lies in the Milky Way and divides the galaxy

symmetrically, is easily observable.


___________________________________________________

126

Parsek (PC) is an astronomical unit for length. It

represents the distance from which the large half-axis of the

earth’s path, that is one astronomical unit, can be seen under

the angle of 1" (one angular second). An astronomical unit

(AU) is a unit for measuring length in astronomy, equal to the

large half-axis of the elliptical path of the earth around the sun,

i.e., in accordance with the characteristics of the ellipse, the

average distance of the earth from the sun.

According to contemporary measurements, 1AU =

149,597,870.5 km, approximately 149,600,000 km.

The calculations show that it is valid:

1PC = 3.262 LY = 206.265 AU = 30,86x1012 km

Where LY (light year) is the distance light travels in a

vacuum in one year (1LY = 9,46x1012 km).

Picture 39.

The sun sits almost in the galactic level on the inside of

the so-called Orion’s leg. The dark space of the night sky is

what we see when we observe the galactic level vertically.


___________________________________________________

127

Based on different measuring methods and the division of the

galactic objects, it was established that the Sun is 8 to 10 KPC

from the center of the galaxy. Based on the galactic objects’

movements and analysis of the radio-radiation coming from

various directions, it is thought that the most probable distance

of the sun from the galaxy’s center is about 8.5 KPC (28,000

LY) (picture 40).

Picture 40.

These measurements finally put to rest the belief that

the sun has a privileged position in the galaxy, and in the

cosmos. The distance from the sun to the galaxy’s nucleus has

had a favorable affect on the development of life on earth,

because the concentration of stars in the galactic nucleus is so

great, that the lethal part of their electromagnetic radiation (UV,

gamma and X-ray) is many times more intense than the


___________________________________________________

128

radiation of the sun itself, or the radiation of the place in the

galaxy where it is located.

It is estimated that there are between 100 and 300

billion stars present in the galaxy. Almost 90% of the visible

mass is located in the sun’s orbit sphere of the radius, around

the center of the galaxy. Objects of the galactic discus rotate in

almost circular paths around the galactic center.

The largest concentration of stars in the galactic discus

is at around 10 KPC from the center of the galaxy. With

alienation from the center, a decrease is seen in this

concentration. We should bear in mind that stars usually appear

in doubles, multiples or in clusters.

The disc is encircled by a spherical halo in which stars

with mostly mass of 0,85 Mּס are located. Chaotically

positioned, they rotate in very elongated elliptic paths, mainly

around the centre of the galaxy, at speeds (50–150 km/s).

At the outer edge of the galaxy is the corona that

spreads up to 100 KPC from the galactic center.

Our galaxy spins around the axis of symmetry,

clockwise, observed from the north galactic pole, which is the

norm in the galactic level.

Analysis of Doppler movements of the galaxy’s spectral

lines show that the objects of the spiral structure (stars, clouds

of the interstellar gas) move around the center along an almost

circular path, but at various angular speeds (picture 41).


___________________________________________________

129

Picture 41.

The angular speed in the central part of the galaxy is

constant, that is, the galaxy rotates as a solid body there. With

the alienation from the center, the angular speed of the spiral

structural rotation decreases.

The speed at which the Sun is moving around the

galactic center was determined by comparison with the

movement of extra-galactic mist that does not participate in the

movement around the galaxy. The sun rotates around the

galactic centre with a speed of about 230 km/s (828,000 km/h).

Even though, from an earthbound point of view, this is a very

high speed, it takes the sun 230 million years to make a full

circle around the center of the galaxy. This time interval is

known as the galactic year (picture 42).


___________________________________________________

130

Picture 42.

The sun is not exactly positioned in the sole galactic

level. Today, with reference to the galactic level, it has moved

northward by about 8PC (approximately 26 LY). It is clear that

this difference in the scale of galactic distances is negligible.

However, it is because of this position, during its circular

movement around the galactic center, that the sun appears to

swing up and down (picture 43).

Picture 43.


___________________________________________________

131

Research shows that the sun periodically passes

through the galactic level. Similar movements are typical in

other stars that are in the vicinity of the galactic level. The

cycle for this swing on the orbit around the galactic center is

around 33 million years.

To me, it seems logical that this kind of movement is a

consequence of the sun’s rotation around the lengthwise axis

of the Orion leg in which the sun is located (picture 44).

Picture 44.

That would mean that the sun moves around the center

of the galaxy along a spiral, or a helicoide, that is closed within

a circle. From the available data it follows that during a full turn

around the galactic center, the sun rotates around the

lengthwise axis of the Orion leg 3.5 times, which would mean


___________________________________________________

132

that it passes through the galactic level seven times. While

turning around the lengthwise axis of the Orion leg, the sun

approaches to its closest point to the galactic nucleus, and in

then moves to its farthest position away from the galactic

nucleus. Since this movement of the sun is happening along

with the unavoidable galactic wind and radiation at the same

time, it means that the sun’s temperature would vary

depending on its position and movement. When it is closest to

the galactic nucleus, and when it is passing through the

galactic level, its temperature will be much higher then when it

is on the opposite side, farthest from the galactic nucleus.

When it is between these two positions, its temperature

will vary also; when it is moving away from the galactic

nucleus and when it is ‘running away’ from the galactic wind its

temperature will fall, and when, on the opposite side, it starts

approaching the galactic nucleus and ‘running into’ the galactic

wind, its temperature will rise.

That automatically means that the sun’s activity will

change. But these are very slow changes – as we have seen

one cycle lasts about 66 million years.

What could account for the 11.2-year cycle of sun

activity?

The first reason could be that the intensity of galactic

radiation and galactic wind is also in an 11-year cycle.


___________________________________________________

133

The second reason could be that the Sagittarius arm

baffles or masks the sun in such a cycle (see picture 44). This

could cause a partial eclipse of the galactic nucleus. If our

arm, Orion, rotates around its lengthwise axis, then all the

other arms do, too, including the Sagittarius arm, which is

closer to the galactic nucleus. It can mask the galactic nucleus

in different patterns.

The third reason could be the sun’s movement along a

spiral that goes around the larger spiral. That would be caused

by e the existence of another star making a binary system

along with our sun.

Further close observation will surely lead us, one day,

to the discovery of what exactly is the cause of the recorded

cycles in the sun’s activity.

However, I would like to emphasize here that the

movement of the stars significantly influences a star’s life, and

as we are about to see, its destiny.


___________________________________________________

134


___________________________________________________

135

THE INFLUENCE OF A STAR’S MOVEMENT ON ITS LIFE AND DESTINY

In order to correctly understand the influence of the

movement of a star on its life, let us look again at the phenom-

enon of stellar wind.

Stellar wind, as we have already seen, is a

consequence of the star’s anti-gravitational repulsion of

evaporated photospheric substance. The temperature of those

molecules rises as it accelerates—this we already know from

molecular-kinetic gas theory: higher speed implies higher

temperature. But, molecular-kinetic gas theory does not explain

the true reason for this. How can temperature cause speed?

How can speed cause temperature?

The existence of the gravitational field is a basic

necessity. Everything that the molecular-kinetic theory

describes happens within the gravitational field of the earth.

Stellar wind is born and exists in the gravitational field of a

star.

The temperature off a body, as we have already seen, is the

factor that changes the quantity and quality of the body’s mass.

Change in the speed of a body implies the existence of

acceleration. Acceleration implies the action of a force.


___________________________________________________

136

In the gravitational field of a body, gravitational force

attracts all bodies with attractive mass, and anti-gravitational

force repels all bodies with negative mass.

Therefore, the temperature of a body, which is in the

gravitational field of another body, decides whether that body

will be gravitationally attracted or anti-gravitationally repelled.

Since the molecules of evaporated photospheric

substance have negative mass, they are repelled from the star

by anti-gravitational force and thus, their speed rises.

With the rise in speed, the temperature rises, and thus,

their mass negativity quantitatively rises, and an even greater

anti-gravitational repellent force affects them. That is why we

observe greater and greater speeds and higher and higher

temperatures of stellar wind with its alienation from the star’s

surface.

The reversed dependence of the anti-gravitational force,

of the square distance leads, of course, at some point, to the

achievement of maximum speed and temperature, after which a

gradual fall of both temperature and speed follows.

Hence, temperature, through anti-gravitational power,

enhances the speed at which molecules of photospheric vapor

alienate themselves from the star. This is how temperature

enhances speed.

Now we have to dismantle the theory that speed

enhances temperature.


___________________________________________________

137

In fact, speed is not the factor that enhances

temperature. It is change in speed, or acceleration, that is the

result of the action of anti-gravitational power. What is really

happening during the action of a power on a body?

This is a fundamental question in physics, and the

answer must be completely understandable and logical.

When a power affects a body, it exerts activity upon it.

Activity that a force exerts upon a body is divided into three

parts. The second part is the change (enhancement) of the

kinetic energy of the body, because its speed has changed

(enhanced). The third part is the change of the potential

energy, because its position in the power field has changed.

But, for us, the first and most interesting part, is overpowering

the body’s inertia.

What is inertia? Physics tells us that it is a feature of a

body to resist change in the state of its movement. It is logical this

feature of a body lies in a particular physical reason. If a force

affects a body, and a body resists the effect of that force, it

follows that there is a force of inverse action.

Since I will come back to this in detail later on, for now,

I will just say that inertia is a consequence of the interaction of

the physical body with physical space. To state it more clearly:

I believe that there is friction between a physical body and

physical space.


___________________________________________________

138

Where there is friction, there is heating, that is, a

change in temperature.

Therefore, the first part of the action that a power is

exerting on a body is spent on overpowering inertia, i.e., the

friction between the body and space. This causes a change of

the inner energy of both the body and space. Here we are

interested in the change of the inner energy of the body, which

means, in the end, that the temperature of a body rises on

account of that part of the action of the power on the body that

overpowers inertia.

The law of the conservation of energy is now

completely satisfied.

So, anti-gravitational force that exerts action over

molecules of evaporated photospheric substance uses a part

of that action on raising the temperature of those molecules

due to the friction between the molecules and space. And that,

in essence, is how a change in speed causes a change in

temperature.

Let us remind ourselves of something else. When the

speed of a body is unchangeable, both in direction and

intensity, we call that inertial movement. For inertial movement

there is a rule that the speed is constant, which means that the

temperature is constant, too.

But nowhere in space we dont have inertial movement.

Everything is spinning around both itself and something else.


___________________________________________________

139

Non-inertial movement implies rotation because the

direction of speed is being changed, although the intensity

remains the same. Rotation is a consequence of the existence

of centripetal force—the role of gravity in the universe.

Therefore, all bodies that spin around themselves or

around another body are in permanent friction with physical

space, and in a permanent process of heating.

All that we have just said applies to stars, as they are

(celestial) bodies, too.

The spinning of a star around its axis, as well as the

spinning of a star around the mass center of a double or a

multiple system, and then the spinning around the center of a

galaxy, causes the star to heat.

Conventional astrophysics does not know this!

The new astrophysics has to take into account this

mechanism, which raises the temperature of stars.

Let us list the factors that determine the temperature of

a star:

1. Gravitational shrinkage of a star is determined by the

amount of the substance and its temperature. Gravity shrinks

the overall mass of the star until a balance is struck with the

force of anti-gravitational repelling, which results in a hollow

center of the star. The larger the attractive mass of a star, the

larger the shrinkage is, plus, the larger the pressure, the

density and the temperature of the star also are. That means


___________________________________________________

140

that the ‘vaporization’ of a star through stellar wind is more

pronounced, i.e., the star loses its substance quicker. When a

considerable loss of substance leads to a weakening of

gravitational shrinkage, the star’s wind dies away, and

generally, the star will lose its glow (luminosity). Hence, it is

clear that a star of higher temperature means stronger

luminosity, but a shorter life span. Naturally, the larger the

starting amount of the star’s substance, the longer will be its

life and its brightness.

2. A star’s radius, and the angular speed of its spinning

around its own axis. The larger the substance a star, the

greater is its radius. Therefore, a larger radius causes greater

gravitational shrinkage, higher temperature, and so on. For

two stars with the same angular rotation speed around its own

axis but of different radii, the star with the longer radius will,

heat more. But for two stars of the same size and substance,

but of different rotation speeds, the one with greater rotational

speed will shine more brightly. The stars’ life spans will be

different, also. Differential rotation of the same stars is also a

consequence of friction between the stars and space.

3. Distance from the mass centre system and the

speed of spinning around it. Stars usually appear in binary or

multiple systems. That means that a star that spins faster

around the mass center of its system will have a higher tem-

perature than the same star that spins more slowly around the


___________________________________________________

141

mass center of a similar system. The closer in distance from

the mass center means quicker rotation of the whole system,

and more heating of the star under the influence of the stellar

wind of the other members of the system.

4. Distance from the galaxy center. We have seen that

the galactic nucleus rotates as a solid body, and at greater speed

than its arms, which leads to the spiral formation of galaxies. The

farther the star is from the center of the galaxy, the lower its rota-

tion speed around it is, and its heating is therefore lower. The

concentration of stars increases nearer to the galactic center,

which means that the galactic wind is stronger, and that it heats

the stars that are closer, more that those that are farther away.

Hence, a star closer to the galactic center will have a

higher temperature and higher luminosity than a similar star that

is located farther from the galactic center. Intensive galactic wind

at the nucleus that originates from the winds of the individual

stars at the galactic nucleus is a factor that, with its anti-

gravitational nature, expands the galaxy, and separates the stars

from each other.

5. Galaxy movement in a cluster and supercluster of

galaxies. A galaxy spins around the galactic axis, but it also

moves at great speed around the center of a cluster of galax-

ies, and this cluster of galaxies rotates around the center of a

supercluster of galaxies. Superimposition of those movements

on top of the aforementioned star movement (around its axis,


___________________________________________________

142

around the system center and the galaxy center) heats the star

further because of the great speeds the individual galaxies

travel at.

6. Star’s chemical structure. Since not all the stars have

the same chemical structure, that means that some of them are

made of heavier, and some of lighter, substances. Heavier

substances cause greater gravitational shrinkage, and during

movement, accomplish greater friction with space, which,

logically, implies that heavier stars have higher temperature,

higher luminosity and more intensive wind than ‘lighter’ stars of

the same size, and same conditions of movement.

Also, the substance of ‘heavier’ stars disintegrates in the

stellar wind in a different manner from the substance of ‘lighter’

stars. Therefore, according to the chemical structure of a star’s

wind, we can make deductions about the ‘weight’ of the star,

i.e., about it chemical structure.

7. Intensity of the star’s wind. When all these factors

fulfill their roles, and raise a star to a certain temperature, then

the rising wind additionally heats the star, because a part of

the heat of the star’s atmosphere falls to its photosphere and

heats it up even more.

So, we see that numerous factors play a part in

maintaining a star’s temperature, thus affecting the length of

its life. Such mechanisms provide stars with a much, much

longer life than predicted by existing astrophysics.


___________________________________________________

143


___________________________________________________

144

THE ORIGIN OF STARS

The question of the origin of stars is a fundamental

question in astrophysics. In order to find the answer, I will be-

gin this investigation by repeating a paragraph I have written

previously. It is a paragraph on galaxies, and it goes like this:

“Galaxies represent gravitationally limited star systems.

They are comprised of a large number of stars and interstar sub-

stance in the form of gas and dust. Depending on the type and

the size of a galaxy, the number of stars in them can go from

several million to several thousand billion. Until today several

thousands of the brightest galaxies have been studied. They rep-

resent the basic structural element for even larger associations in

space —clusters and superclusters of galaxies.”

Hence, the place of the origin of stars is a galaxy. But a

galaxy is a pretty big place. Where exactly do the stars arise?

Obviously, it is where the concentration of stars is

greatest, the galactic nucleus.

We have already seen that the galactic nucleus rotates

faster than the outer part of a galaxy and that it acts com-

pactly, as a solid body. Gravity and anti-gravity are the forces

that make it so compact. Gravity prevents the dissipation of

stars, and anti-gravity prevents the collapse of the nucleus.

We can see that anti-gravity is even more dominant because

all stars move away from each other despite gravitational at-


___________________________________________________

145

traction. Anti-gravitation, which is the source of the stellar

winds, therefore the galactic winds, extends not only the

galaxy, but the whole universe, as well.

That means that both in a galaxy and in a galactic nu-

cleus, anti-gravity dominates. But at the heart of this anti-

gravity, in the galactic core, we have gravity again. Hence, in

the heart of the galactic nucleus there is a huge star. That star

can be named the ‘galactic mother’. The galactic mother gives

birth to the whole galaxy—it is the mother of all the stars in

that galaxy. Of course, if a galactic mother creates stars that

are too big, then those big stars create smaller stars. This is

origin of binary and multiple star systems, as well as star

clusters.

So, stars originate from larger stars, that is, larger stars

create smaller stars. That is the way!

A question arises—how far can it go in either direction?

In the direction of stars shrinking it continues until the stars are

no longer able to create new stars. When that time comes,

then the star creates planets, comets, asteroids and all other

objects that make a system around a star. I will come back to

this later.

In the direction of a star growing there also must be a

limit. If the galaxy stars were born by the galactic mother, then

logic says that the numerous galactic mothers were created by

the mother of the galaxy cluster. The numerous mothers of the


___________________________________________________

146

galaxy clusters were created by the mother of the galaxy

supercluster. The numerous mothers of the galaxy

supercluster were created by the Cosmic Mother.

The Cosmic Mother is the first-formed star that

consolidated the entire matter of the cosmos. That huge ball

(of the whole) matter was heated to incandescence by

gravitation shrinkage, and, at some point it started the creation

of the cosmos, through the process of creating smaller stars.

A different scenario is possible. Not one, but a number

of gigantic stars (MSSG) might have originated from the

unified cosmic matter, which after reaching incandescence

started creating the cosmos as we know it today.

A great example of the origin of stars is in star clusters.

They comprise a large number of stars that varies from several

thousand, in the case of open, and several million in cases of

globular clusters. All those stars were born at approximately

the same time; they are of the same age, the same chemical

structure, that is to say metallicity.

A big star, i.e. the mother of a star cluster, was heated

to the point of boiling. When it boiled—and boiling is vaporizing

of the volume—due to anti-gravity, an explosion occurred.

From the scattered magma, gravity formed new,

smaller stars that went on living in the gravitationally limited

system that we call a star cluster. Of course the stellar winds


___________________________________________________

147

of those stars cause expansion of the star cluster, in

accordance with the general expansion of the cosmos.

“The dating of globular clusters is very important in as-

tronomy because they are the oldest objects in the universe.

Their age is today estimated to be 13 to 16 billion years, which

confuses contemporary cosmology: that number is larger than

the generally accepted estimates of the universe’s age. The

solution to this problem is not in sight today, but it could

seriously shatter the theory of star evolution and cosmological

models.” a quotation from “Birth, Life and Death of Stars” a

book by Nicolas Prancos and Tierry Montmerle.

It confirms what I am saying—that the universe is much

older than we think, because stars live longer than we think.

The mistaken idea of fusion as the source of stars’ energy, led

us to wrongly determine the duration of the stars, and

therefore to a wrong estimate of the whole universe’s age.

And now I would like to work in more detail on the

question of the chemical structure of stars, i.e. their metallicity.

We can see that there are stars of different chemical structure,

i.e. they are comprised of magma of different ‘weight’. Why,

and what is happening there?

In order to understand it, we are going to analyze a

large star that gives birth to a generation of smaller stars.

Whatever its chemical structure is, there is universal validity.

Since the star is incandescent, but liquid, magma, layering of


___________________________________________________

148

magma by chemical weight occurs within it. On the surface

layer is the lightest magma and, as we go toward the center,

layers are made of heavier and heavier magma.

The last layer, the layer around the central hollow of

the star is made of the chemically heaviest magma. All layers

are under pressure—the inner ones are under pressure from

the layers above them, and the surface layer is under pressure

from the inner layers.

The chemical weight of each layer’s magma, combined

with the pressure it is under, determines the boiling point of

that layer’s magma. Naturally, the surface magma layer, which

is lightest and under the least pressure, has the lowest boiling

point.

When the surface magma layer boils, it is ejected in an

anti-gravitational explosion. Stars that are born from that

layer’s scattered magma will be in the lightest class of off-

spring. The explosion of the surface layer causes the star to

tighten, i.e. a rise in pressure, and therefore, also in the

temperature of the layers beneath the surface one.

Since now, around the original star there is a whole

class of the lightest stars, there is a clash of the star winds of

the mother star with the daughter stars. That is what causes

farther alienation of the daughters, but also, the pressure on

the mother star, too. As the daughters move away from the

mother, the pressure on the mother star’s new surface layer


___________________________________________________

149

will weaken. At some point the new conditions of the surface

layer of magma will reach the boiling point and that will cause

its ejection in an anti-gravitational explosion. Stars that are

created from the scattered magma of this layer will be in a

slightly heavier class of star offspring.

The process that happened after the explosion of the

first layer is repeated again, and when conditions for a new

boiling point of the newest surface layer of magma are

reached, it will explode, and then a new class of even heavier

star offspring will be created.

In such a manner, over time, layer after layer will

explode, creating heavier and heavier classes of offspring

stars, until what is left of the mother star is too small for the

boiling point of the surface magma layer to be reached. That is

how, after a series of substance ejections, the mother star will

reach stability and enter a relatively quiet period of its life.

If such a mechanism for the origin of star offspring

classes, different in weight, in approximately concentric

spheres were so, it should be detectable by observing star

clusters.

Of course, in all these explosions of the layers of star

magma we should not expect mathematical precision and

symmetry. Physics is a science that describes the reality

around us, and there are always discrepancies with ideal

expectations and predictions.


___________________________________________________

150

A realistically possible scenario is the following:

because of the differential rotation of the surface magma layer

of the star, boiling of magma occurs first in the equatorial

zone, which would lead to explosions only in that zone and the

spread of star offspring at the equatorial level of the mother

star. Only after that would the boiling and exploding of the

complete surface layer occur, and that would eject the star

offspring with spherical symmetrically.

Such a form of spreading the offspring stars is just

what we have with galaxies that are flat and expand in the

galactic level, which is the equatorial level of the galactic

mother.

This logic leads us to the conclusion that the stars from

the outer region of the galaxy should be made of the lightest

substance and that, as we approach to galactic center the

weight of the substance should be heavier.

The same should apply in case of star clusters, except

that, with clusters, we have symmetrical and not level expan-

sion.


___________________________________________________

151


___________________________________________________

152

THE CAUSE OF ROTATION IN CELESTIAL BODIES

For early man, it seemed obvious that the sun and the

moon rotate around the earth. The same claim was made

about the stars. Copernicus and his book “New Astronomy” in

which he explained that the earth spins both around its own

axis and the sun spoiled this rosy picture. Only the moon

rotates around the earth.

All astronomical observations show that all celestial

bodies spin around their axis, and from a certain centre of

rotation. Simply put, rotation is a universal law in the universe.

And that law has to have a cause.

If I wanted to make a joke, I could say, ‘Rotation of the

celestial bodies is a consequence of quenchless curiosity:

everyone wonders what is going around them. So they are

constantly wandering round and round to see what is going on

around them.’ It’s a good joke, isn’t it?

We have already seen that stars come from larger

stars. The rotation of the offspring stars is much easier to

explain if the ancestor star is already rotating itself. But, how

did the first star come to rotate?

Did the Cosmic Mother spin around its axis? Did the

supercluster mothers spin around their own axes?


___________________________________________________

153

One theory states the following: the non-homogeneous

distribution of matter in space around stars during their forma-

tion, that they attracted with gravitation, caused that matter to

fall in such a way that it initiated a spinning movement. And we

must suppose that the falling matter favored the spinning to

move in one direction. In my opinion such explanations are not

acceptable. I will begin with the assumption that the formation

of the Cosmic Mother, or the supercluster mother, was not

what lead to them spinning around their axis.

I believe this is what happened: a large amount of piled

accumulated matter is heated due to gravitational shrinkage,

which leads to the formation of layers of incandescent and

liquid magma, whose weight increases moving from the

surface toward the centre. A star beginning in this way has no

movement, neither around its axis nor anywhere else. When

the gravitational shrinkage causes the surface magma layer to

boil, the first anti-gravitational explosion will occur, with the

ejection of the magma of the first layer into surrounding space.

This magma will be ejected in radially in all directions,

spherically symmetrical.

This ejected magma has linear acceleration (linear

speed) from the explosion.

It is logical to assume that at first the shape of this

matter was irregular, before gravitational action smoothed it

into a spherical shape. This period, during which a piece of


___________________________________________________

154

ejected magma spends as the irregular shape, is of crucial

importance for our analyses. We have, therefore, an irregular

formed mass of magma that is speeding away from the

ancestor star in a straight line. What happens to it now?

Multiple actions are taking place.

Firstly, the ancestor star’s wind exerts different

pressure on different parts of the irregular magma. That

causes the creation of a pair of force, which coupled together,

starts the spinning around the mass center.

Secondly, the stellar wind and the ancestor star

radiation heat parts of the irregular magma unevenly: the

sunny parts more than those in the shade, the thicker parts

more than the thin ones, because of the difference in the size

of the receiving area.

Thirdly, the thicker and the thinner parts of the magma

cool down differently—the thicker more slowly than the thinner.

The fall in temperature causes an increase in mass. A rise in

mass means greater inertia, and increased inertia implies

more friction between the mass and space. This varied friction,

which different parts of the irregularly shaped magma have

with space, forms a coupling of forces that start spinning

around the axis through the mass center. Because of the

different mass of different irregular magma parts, acceleration

from the explosion provides different speeds to different parts

(greater speeds to the smaller parts than to the larger ones).


___________________________________________________

155

This adds to the coupling of forces for spinning around the

mass center.

All other actions on the magma are superimposed on

these, and the irregular shaped magma starts spinning around

its axis that goes through its mass center.

Of course, this situation lasts for only a certain period

of time, because gravitation is also acting, and the irregular

magma shape is smoothing into a sphere. Now we have an

effect that is known to us from ice-skating. A skater starts

spinning with his or her arms and one leg outspread (the other

leg is the axis of spinning). At this point, the angular speed is

not great. But when the skater pulls his arms close to his body,

the angular speed increases. This follows the law of the

maintenance of impulse movement.

The same thing is happening when magma is changing

from an irregular into a spherical shape. The transformation is

causing an increase in the angular speed.

That is how, from an ancestor star that was without

either linear movement or spinning around its own axis, we

have offspring stars with linear movement plus spinning

around their axes.

The situation now looks like this: the ancestor star, that

was not moving or rotating around its axis, is now encircled,

with spherical symmetry, with its offspring stars which move in

a radial line away from the it, and at the same time rotate


___________________________________________________

156

around their axes. The smaller offspring stars will have greater

linear and angular speed of rotation than the larger offspring

stars. Note that the offspring stars are not rotating around their

ancestor star. When will that occur and how?

The rotation of the offspring stars around their ancestor

star will occur when the stars with rotation around their axes

start creating offspring of their own.

How so?

Let’s observe one of these stars that move linearly and

spin around its axis. Its linear movement was, at first, ac-

celerated, and then settled into movement at a constant

speed. That means that linear movement was only a factor of

its additional heating at the beginning. After the start of

rotational movement around its axis, it becomes a constant

factor of additional heating of the star because it is a non-

inertial movement (the line and the direction of the speed con-

tinually change).

During rotation around its axis a star has the highest

peripheral speed at the equator, and the lowest at the poles.

This means that the surface layer will be hottest at the

equatorial zone, and that magma will boil easier and quicker

there. An explosion at the equatorial zone leads to the ejection

of magma at the star’s equatorial zone.

Therefore, a star that spins around its axis will create

offspring mainly in its equatorial zone. Expansion of offspring


___________________________________________________

157

stars will occur in that zone. But if, during the ejection of the

equatorial zone magma, each mass of magma has an already

existing peripheral speed, normally in the direction of

alienation, superimposition of the two speeds leads to the

star’s movement along a spiral path in the equatorial zone

around the ancestor star. The distance between the arms of

the spiral shrinks in time and turns into an ellipse along which

an offspring rotates around an offspring. Of course, this

offspring will spin around its axis, too.

And so, from an ancestor star that had motion in a

straight line and rotation around its axis, we come to offspring

stars that spin around the ancestor star along elliptic paths in

its equatorial zone and also spin around their own axes.

The elliptical paths of the offspring stars, while rotating

around the ancestor star, are a consequence of the ancestor

star’s movement, either linear or elliptic (around its ancestor).

An ideal circle, as a curve along which an offspring rotates

around its ancestor, would be possible only in the case where

the ancestor does not have any other movement except the

spinning around its axis. Of course, the higher the ancestor’s

speed, the flatter the ellipse along which the offspring rotates

will be, i.e., the difference between the ellipse’s half-axes will

be longer.

Let me stress once more that a star that does not

rotate around its axis does not create offspring with spherical


___________________________________________________

158

symmetrically around it, and a star that spins around its axis

creates offspring mainly symmetrical in its equatorial level, and

they rotate around it. If we apply this logic to what we see in

the universe, we can conclude that galactic mothers are stars

that rotate around their own axes. We can also, perhaps,

conclude that globular clusters, the oldest and farthest known

objects in the cosmos, came into being from stars that did not

rotate around their own axes. And those stars that did not

rotate around their own axes are the first-formed stars that

started forming the cosmos as we can see it today.


___________________________________________________

159


___________________________________________________

160

PRESERVING THE ROTATION OF CELESTIAL BODIES

We have seen how the rotation of celestial bodies

came about, both around their axes and around their

ancestors. The next question that logically arises is how those

rotations are preserved.

Rotation is, by its nature as movement, non-inertial. It

is a source of additional heating because it is in friction with

space. This continual friction should, in time, lead to the

rotation coming to a stop, but we can see that that has not

happened. Despite the great age of all celestial bodies, they

still spin, both around their axes and around their ancestors.

What is the mechanism that preserves rotation once it has

started, and how does it work?

At the basis of everything in the universe lies the

process of heating. When the first star ignited, the process of

heating began. As the stars multiplied, the heating process

has intensified, and with that the process of the expansion of

the universe was put in motion. All bodies expand with heat,

and so does the universe as a whole.

Heating, through anti-gravitational action, alienates the

first generation of offspring from the ancestor, but it also

alienates them from each other. Then, new generations of

offspring are created and the pattern repeats itself—with alien-

ation from both the ancestor and from their peers. With the first


___________________________________________________

161

generation of offspring, rotation around their axes occurred,

and with the second offspring generation, spinning around the

ancestor began.

The ancestor that is moving linearly along a curve,

drags its offspring (which rotate around it) with it, accelerates

them and turns their paths into ellipses. That is how the

ancestor movement preserves or even accelerates the rotation

of its offspring around it.

When we observe the offspring that spins around the

ancestor, to whose radiation and wind it is exposed, we can

logically conclude that its radiated side is a little warmer than

the one that was in the shade. A difference in temperature

means a difference in mass. The cooler side is heavier, i.e.,

more inert, and it has greater friction with space than the

warmer side. That inequality of friction of the cool and the

warm sides of the offspring creates an additional spinning

momentum that preserves the rotation of the offspring around

their axes.

Continual additional spinning momentum creates an

additional gravitational attraction to the side of the offspring

that is moving from shade to light rather than from the lit side

moving into shade. The cause is the difference in the side’s

temperature, and therefore its mass difference (see picture

45).


___________________________________________________

162

Picture 45.

In the diagram we see that the ancestor’s ‘wind-

blowing’ effect contributes to the preservation of the offspring’s

rotation around the ancestor and the preservation of the

offspring’s rotation around its axis.

The logic of events tells us that the most probable

direction of the offspring’s rotation around the ancestor will be

identical to the direction of the ancestor’s rotation around its


___________________________________________________

163

axis. The most probable direction of the offspring’s rotation

around its axis will be opposite to the ancestor’s rotation

around its axis. Whichever the case, from our knowledge

about the rotational direction of the ancestor around its axis,

and the offspring around its ancestor, and around their

respective axes, we can draw conclusions about the

ancestor’s movement through space.

The very process of the universe’s heating, leads to the

heating of all celestial bodies, and from that to the fall of their

attractive mass. The law of impulse and impulse momentum

preservation provides that the mass reduction is compensated

with an adequate rise in speed, both linear and angular.

These are the mechanisms that have preserved the

rotation of celestial bodies from their birth until today, and that

will continue to preserve it in the future.


___________________________________________________

164


___________________________________________________

165

THE BEGINNING OF THE UNIVERSE

We have seen how the cosmic mothers began creating

the first generation of stars. We have seen how and why the

rotation of the whole celestial bodies came about. We have

also seen how all this rotation is being preserved.

Let us now try to realize how the formation of the

cosmic mothers came about. How, and from where, did they

come into existence?

First, the necessary prerequisite for the origin of the

whole material universe is the existence of physical space.

Second, the necessary prerequisite for the origin of the

material universe is the presence of energy with which space

is charged.

Energy-charged physical space, at some point starts

generating elemental matter particles. When their density

becomes significant, they start interacting with each other,

creating hydrogen atoms, the simplest atom in the universe.

At that time the universe was extremely cold and dark;

much colder than the present-day temperature of 3°K and

therefore the hydrogen atom’s attractive mass was much

larger than its attractive mass today. At that time an extremely

strong gravitation was reigning. The universe was dark

because, at such low temperatures, hydrogen atoms do not

produce any electromagnetic radiation.


___________________________________________________

166

Logic tells us the following facts.

The incessant creation of hydrogen atoms requires the

incessant creation of elemental particles. The incessant

creation of elemental particles by physical space requires the

incessant recharging of physical space with energy. The

question of energy’s origin, which constantly fills up physical

space, is out of the scope of physics and belongs in the field of

metaphysics.

Let’s return to physics—to the extremely cold and dark

universe in which hydrogen atoms were created. The huge

attractive mass of the cold hydrogen atoms generates very

strong gravitational force between them, and they begin

merging. This merging into molecules releases energy. In such

conditions of temperature, the merging of hydrogen atoms

occurs by creating crystal structures, i.e., hydrogen in the solid

state of aggregation.

This is the period of the universe’s crystallization. Small

crystals forcefully attract nearby hydrogen atoms and grow

very quickly. Crystals are mutually gravitationally attracted

and, by merging they build larger crystals. That is now the

period of the beginning of slow heating, because the crystal’s

kinetic energy, after merging by impact, turns into inner energy

in the newly formed crystal. This process of crystals merging,

leads toward the creation of larger and larger crystals, while

their numbers reduce.


___________________________________________________

167

In the core of these huge hydrogen crystals—created

in such a manner, with a continual increase of their size and

mass, and on which a rain of smaller crystals incessantly

falls—the process of cold fusion begins. That means that at

low temperature and under extremely strong gravitational

force, in their core the hydrogen crystal is transformed into the

helium crystal. As, on the outside, the hydrogen crystal grows,

in its heart, the helium crystal is growing. Further growth of the

whole crystal’s mass will lead to new cold fusion, when, in the

heart of the helium crystal, the lithium (Li) crystal is created.

Through this process heavier and heavier elements will be

created in the heart of the growing crystal. The crystal will look

like an onion with layers of different elements, whose weight

increases from the surface towards the centre.

Gravitational shrinkage is heating the whole crystal all

the time, mostly in its core. Logically, this heating of the

crystal’s core, will, at some point, lead to an end of the cold

fusion process. The formation of even heavier elements will be

disrupted, but up till then, elements even heavier than those

we know of, will have already been created. The heat made by

gravitational shrinkage is transferred to higher layers and the

whole crystal begins heating. It is also being heated by the

incessant rain of smaller crystals that falls on it. The crystal be-

gins heating space around it, and the universe begins heating,

but it is still less than 0°K.


___________________________________________________

168

Incessant heating will, at some point, lead the tempera-

ture of the surface layer (of hydrogen crystals) to the temperature

of melting, and ‘soon’ after that, it will begin to melt.

The occurrence of hydrogen in a liquid state means

that convection, i.e. inner movement, occurs, too—a far more

efficient transfer of heat towards the surface.

The solid hydrogen crystal outer layer will become

thinner and thinner and at some point will completely melt.

There will come a period when the ‘warm’ inside of the crystal

is encircled by a gigantic ocean of liquid hydrogen.

Gravitational shrinkage continues; the ocean of liquid

hydrogen heats and evaporates more and more. The

formation occurs of a gas hydrogen atmosphere, whose height

is growing. The heat that it radiates into surrounding space,

and friction through the atmosphere, start melting the crystals

that keep falling into this ocean, until the ‘hail’ turns to ‘snow’,

and then ‘sleet’, and in the end into ‘rain’. The depth of the

hydrogen ocean will continue growing due to the ‘rain’ of liquid

hydrogen, and therefore the whole mass of the future Cosmic

Mother continues to grow.

The depth of the atmosphere constantly increases with

the increase of the hydrogen gas temperature. Convection in

the hydrogen atmosphere is getting stronger and stronger, and

the higher reaches of the atmosphere are farther and farther

from the liquid surface. The powerful gravitation of the Cosmic


___________________________________________________

169

Mother still manages to hold the liquid hydrogen layers. The

temperature of the atmosphere, and the friction through it,

manage to turn the ‘rain’ into ‘vapor’ and thus stop the growth

of the surface hydrogen ocean. From now on, the only thing

that will grow is the thickness of the atmosphere. The depth of

the ocean will begin to reduce due to more and more

vaporization.

The convection of the gas hydrogen in the atmosphere

is the result of the anti-gravitation action between the Cosmic

Mother and the hydrogen molecules with negative mass. The

temperature of those gas molecules is not high enough, and

the negative mass, quite quickly, turns attractive by cooling

down, so that escaping the atmosphere cannot yet happen.

But, at some point all the prerequisites for that will be

met. The growing vaporization of the liquid hydrogen ocean,

and the increasing strength of convection in the hydrogen at-

mosphere, will heat and disperse it so much, that some gas hy-

drogen molecules will manage to leave the atmosphere. They

will be hot enough, and fast enough, and at the very top of the

atmosphere—and anti-gravity will ‘blow them off’ into space.

That is a very important moment, because it came to

the appearance of the Cosmic Mother’s wind, however cold it

is. Now, this wind starts prevents the hydrogen flow into the

atmosphere. There will come a moment when the hydrogen in-

flow will be equal to its out-flow, which is caused through the


___________________________________________________

170

wind, and then the wind will dominate, and Cosmic Mother will

begin losing substance for the first time.

In time the wind becomes warmer and quicker. That

means that now the cosmic matter heats the universe more

intensely, changing the hydrogen in its surroundings into a

liquid, and then a gas, state.

The hot wind heats all the cosmic matter. The

production of anti-gravitational energy is growing because

gravitational shrinkage and outer heating, due to the wind’s

existence, lead to more and more heating of the whole cosmic

matter, at all layers.

When the ocean of liquid hydrogen boils, the first ex-

plosion of cosmic matter will occur, and it will eject a layer of

the liquid hydrogen as well as the hydrogen atmosphere.

Now it is the turn of the helium layer. Arriving at the

surface of the cosmic matter, where the pressure is lower, the

helium layer begins melting and evaporating, creating a helium

atmosphere. Now, the Cosmic Mother starts dispersing a wind

of helium atoms.

Further heating melts the Cosmic Mother completely,

i.e., turns it into a liquid state. This state will enable all the

layers and chemical elements to mix, which will lead to

chemical reactions among the elements, and the creation of

various compounds. Elemental chemical reactions will heat the

Cosmic Mother even more.


___________________________________________________

171

The Cosmic Mother will, through a series of explosions,

eject the lighter layers that constituted its surface, and this will

lead to the formation of a surface made of liquid magma. Such

a surface of the Cosmic Mother, and its temperature, will

create conditions of the cosmic wind, and radiation, that will

light the universe of that era, as the stars light it today.

When the layers of the liquid, red-hot magma begin

exploding, the creation of the first stars will begin.

I have explained all that in order to show that the uni-

verse did not arise in a Big Bang.

There were many explosions, big ones of course, but I

wish to say that the idea of one Big bang from which the uni-

verse originates, is wrong.

The idea of the Big Bang is the result of a physics

theory that did not account for anti-gravity. Therefore the

physicists imagined the whole universe packed into a single

point. That is simply not possible.

The Big Bang theory was an attempt to explain the

expansion of the universe. Today, we know that the universe

is expanding at a faster and faster rate, which we simply

cannot explain by a Big Bang. The expansion of the universe

is the result of the incessant strengthening of anti-gravitation,

and not a Big Bang. The incessant strengthening of anti-

gravitation is the result of the incessant heating of the

universe.


___________________________________________________

172


___________________________________________________

173

MASS TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY AND NEWTON

It is said that Newton, comparing the falling of an apple

from a tree, and the movement of the moon around the earth

concluded that the centripetal acceleration of the moon and

the acceleration of the free fall to the earth’s surface, was the

same type of force, the gravitational pull of two masses.

Free fall is caused by the gravitational attraction of a

body’s mass and the earth’s mass, and centripetal force,

accounting for the movement of the moon around the earth,

caused by the gravitational force between the moon and the

earth.

In 1686, Newton, based on his own and Kepler’s laws

of mechanics, produced a mathematical expression for the

force that causes the planets’ movement around the sun. Then

he generalized this law to cover interactions of all bodies in the

universe, and named it the law of universal gravitation: two

bodies are mutually attracted by a force that is proportional to

the product of their masses, and inversely proportional to the

square of their mutual distance. According to Newton’s law of

gravitation, the force of mutual attraction of bodies does not

depend on their relative speeds, but only on their mutual

positions.

I believe gravitational force between two bodies

depends neither on the nature or the space between them.


___________________________________________________

174

The force of gravity occurs between all bodies,

independently of their mass or dimension, and there are no

obstacles that can prevent or stop its action.

It was established that gravitational forces are of very

weak intensity when it comes to everyday bodies. We can see

their full power only with cosmic bodies, or if at least one of

them is cosmic.

For Newton the gravitational constant remained un-

known, because Caven-dish experimentally determined it in

1798, after Newton’s death. The gravitational constant has a

very low value, which shows that gravitational forces are very

weak. However, the knowledge of its numeral value was used

to determine the earth’s, the sun’s and the planets’ mass, so it

is often said that Cavendish weighed the earth by using the

torsion scales.

For the development of science then, and the level of

knowledge in the 17th century, the law of universal gravity was

a very big, and very important, discovery. However, it was just

one part of the truth about mass interactions between bodies.

By comparing the burning of a fire, the glowing of the

sun and the expansion of the universe, I have concluded that

we are talking about one and the same force—anti-gravity.

Anti-gravity drives the fire flames upward, anti-gravity is the

source of the sun’s glow, and anti-gravity is the cause of

cosmic expansion.


___________________________________________________

175

A universal law of interactions that includes the factor

of time would say: all bodies are at a certain point mutually at-

tracted only if they are both cold enough and if they have

enough attractive mass; between them there is no mass inter-

action if at least one of them, or both of them, reach a

massless state at a certain temperature; they mutually repel

each other if either or both of them are hot enough, i.e., at a

temperature where their mass is negative.

It is easy to conclude that Newton’s law of universal

gravity refers to a situation when both bodies are cold enough

and have attractive mass, therefore he presents a special case

of his universal law of mass interactions.

Newton himself explored cooling of bodies and gave a

law on that, known as Newton’s law of cooling. Each body is at

one of the following possible states, concerning heating and

cooling:

1) A body is in the process of constant cooling.

2) A body is in a periodical process of occasional cooling

and occasional heating.

3) A body is in the process of constant heating.

4) A body maintains its constant temperature.

When we observe mass interactions of two bodies over

a longer period of time, it becomes clear that a mutual interac-

tion will surely change quantitatively, and in certain situations

qualitatively, in accordance with the mass changes of both


___________________________________________________

176

bodies (quantitatively and qualitatively) from the beginning

state onward.

The option where bodies maintain a constant tem-

perature is only possible in artificially created thermo-isolated

systems. In nature all bodies that change their temperatures

over time.

The whole universe is in the process of heating—

accelerated heating—and in accordance with that, the attrac-

tiveness of such masses is reduced and the negativity of such

masses rises, which in the final result, leads to the faster and

faster expansion of the universe.

Alas, Newton introduced the notion of mass into phys-

ics. He considered it a measure for the amount of a substance

and, most certainly, a constant size. Physicists further defined

mass as a measure for the body’s inertia, but it was still

considered a constant size. At the end of 19th century, ex-

periments with particle acceleration pointed out that mass

does change, that is, that it is not a constant size. In 1905, Ein-

stein, in his special theory of relativity, describes how a body’s

mass quantitatively changes with a change of its speed. Now,

in 2007, I am saying quantitative and qualitative body mass

change with a change in its temperature. This new step in the

evolution of our knowledge of mass is, most certainly, not the

last.


___________________________________________________

177

I would also like to say that the following statements

were propounded too soon, and not measured:

1) Force of mutual action does not depend on the relative

speed of those bodies;

2) Force between two bodies does not depend on the

natural space between the two bodies;

3) There is no obstacle that can prevent, that is, stop

interaction between bodies.

So often before now we have seen that something that

used to be considered impossible in previous times proves to

be possible later.

Let us learn to be wise and moderate in our statements

and speak, for example, like this:

“All our efforts and wisdom of the present have not been

able to prove or accomplish such and such, but maybe the ac-

complishments and the wisdom of the future will be able to

discover and correct the shortcomings and the mistakes of

which we have not been aware.”

Surely, there is no end to our progress, and because of

that we should give up the attitude that pronounces, when we

discover something big and important, that it is an eternal, final

and immutable truth. Sooner or later, there always comes a

time for reexamination of our acquired knowledge and that is

when new revelations (of the world around us and the world

within us) are discovered.


___________________________________________________

178

When we mention Newton, we cannot forget his laws of

mechanics. Newton set three basic laws of dynamics and thus

set the basis of classic mechanics, that is, classic physics. These

laws introduce force and mass into physics and enable their

quantitative measuring. Newton’s laws define force, i.e. each of

the laws provides one of the following data about it: first, the

existence of the force, second, the size of the force (intensity,

direction and path), and third, the source of the force.

Now I will analyze one by one Newton’s law from the

point of view of mass temperature relativity (MTR). First I will

quote and then I will analyze.

Newton’s first law of mechanics defines the source of

change of a body’s movement state (i.e., inaction) and it

states: each body remains in a state of inaction, or uniformed

linear movement, until it is forced to change its state by the

action of outer forces.

This means that a body on its own does not change its

speed neither by its size, nor its direction, nor its path, that is,

the gained speed is maintained as a vector size. That is why

we say that a body moves by inertia. That is why this law was

named the LAW OF INERTIA and it should be interpreted in

the following way:

a) Inertia is a feature of every body, which means that it

tends to maintain the state of relative inaction or

uniformed linear movement;


___________________________________________________

179

b) That force is not a necessary cause of a body’s

movement, because even without force, bodies can

move and;

c) The change in a body’s movement is caused by force,

i.e., if even one force affects a body, it cannot be found

in a state of inactivity.

Analysis: It is clear right away that this law can be ap-

plied only in a thermo-isolated system, where temperature is

constant and only in a system that is dimensionally limited. It

was created as a consequence of experiment analysis that

was performed in just such conditions. In realistic conditions

we actually do not have linear movement and we do not have

a constant temperature.

But if we approximate a curve, along which a body is

moving, with a straight line we cannot avoid the fact that, in

time, the body’s temperature will change. As soon as its

temperature changes, its mass will change. The change in its

mass causes a change in inertia, i.e., the change in intensity in

the friction force between the body and space. If mass

quantitatively increases, then the body’s speed will reduce,

without the action of an outer force. If mass quantitatively falls,

then the body’s speed will again increase without the action of

an outer force. This is also in accordance with the law of im-

pulse maintenance, and the law of energy maintenance. Here


___________________________________________________

180

we have inner force in action between the body and space,

because its change causes change in the body’s speed.

Force is the necessary cause of body movement, be-

cause, although we see a body move without a force’s pres-

ence, we have to be aware that that movement had to be initi-

ated by a force that affected the body in its near or distant past.

Also, the state of inaction we are talking about actually

does not exist; it is just that the body we are observing has the

same intensity, line and direction of speed as the whole sys-

tem in which we are observing it. The truth is that everything in

universe is moving, as we have seen in the previous chapters.

If we think wisely, and in detail, how to conduct experiments,

then we will manage to move a body from the so-called state

of ‘inaction’ without the action of an outer force. Of course, the

temperature change and the body’s mass change will cause a

change in the action of the inner force of a body with space,

and that will move it from so-called ‘inaction’. So much for

Newton’s first law.

Newton’s second law of mechanics determines the

characteristics of body movement under the action of a force.

As the main feature of mechanical movement, Newton in-

troduced the physical notion of ‘impulse,’ or the amount of

movement that is defined by the product of the mass and the

body speed.


___________________________________________________

181

Newton’s second law defines how a force influences

the impulse change. It says: a body’s impulse change in time

is proportional to the force that affects it, and it is exerted in

the direction of the force.

Mathematical interpretation of this law, along with the

fact that, in Newtonian physics, mass is considered a constant

size that does not depend on the speed in which the body is

moving, leads to this formulation: force is equal to the body’s

mass times the acceleration that the force is causing.

Acceleration is in the same direction and path as the force

causing it. Furthermore, constant force causes uniform

accelerated movement.

Based on experimental studies of a body being

affected by a number of forces, under the effect of each force,

and their overall action, comes the law of the independence of

forces’ action: the action of each force on a given body does

not depend on whether it is inactive or moving (except for

Lawrence’s force), nor on the number of forces affecting the

body. In other words, a body under the action of several forces

acts as if it is only affected by the sum total of those forces.

The principle of independent action of forces allows us

to analyze the separate components of the force and the

acceleration. The particular components of these forces are

observed independently from each other’s, which makes solving

certain problems a little easier (e.g., we can analyze movement


___________________________________________________

182

in the direction of an axis of the coordinate system

independently from the movement under the influence of the

other components of the same force).

Analysis:

Newton insight was brilliant when he introduced the

notion of the amount of movement, or impulse, expressed as

body’s mass multiplied by its speed, as the basic characteristic

of mechanical movement.

Newton’s definition of the second law that: “the change

of body’s impulse in time is proportional to the force that af-

fects it and acts in the direction of the force’s action”, is basi-

cally good but is not precise enough; it is generalized.

The wrong mathematical interpretation of this law, as

well as the wrong understanding that mass was a constant, led

to the wrong form of this law: “force is equal to body’s mass

multiplied by acceleration that the force is causing.”

Why do I say a wrong mathematical interpretation? Be-

cause it lacks the word ‘proportional’. That word requires a

coefficient or a factor of proportionality in the mathematical

interpretation of his words, and it is not there. We cannot

assume that proportionally means equally, to put it simply, it

does not.

When the body’s speed changes in intensity, either in

its direction or path, the conditions of friction of the body with


___________________________________________________

183

space change, therefore the body’s temperature changes, and

accordingly, its mass.

So, force does not equal body’s mass times the accel-

eration it causes.

We can say that the force is proportional to the accel-

eration it causes, times mass that the body had before the ac-

tion of the force. But, again, this is too general, and is not pre-

cise enough.

Also, constant force does not cause uniform

movement. If a body’s mass changes with accelerated

movement, then it means that a constant force, over time, will

cause different acceleration.

Experiments with particle acceleration led to the

understanding that something is happening with mass—that

mass changes.

I do not agree with the law of the independence of

forces’ action, either. The discrepancy of that law with Law-

rence’s force is not an exception, but a rule. So, it is wrong to

analyze movement in the direction of one axis of the coordi-

nate system independently of movement in the direction of the

other axis of the coordinate system.

Galileo Galilei introduced this error into physics. His

understanding that a cannonball fired a cannon completely

horizontal direction, and just dropped from the mouth of the

cannon, also in a perfectly horizontal direction, will fall at the


___________________________________________________

184

exact same moment, is wrong. By that reasoning, the principle

of relativity is wrong.

Proof? Here’s a simple proof. If a perfectly horizontal

cannon fires a cannonball in first cosmic speed it will not fall to

the ground at the same time as the cannonball that fell from the

mouth of the same cannon; it will not fall to the ground at all. The

cannonball will become a satellite of the earth.

To put it simply, the greater the speed of the horizontally

fired cannonball, the later it will fall to the ground compared to

the cannonball that was not fired.

If the cannonball was a flying object in which passen-

gers were seated, then they could determine the speed at which

they were fired from the cannon, without looking out of the

win-dow; by comparing the time it took a body to fall from a

certain height to the floor, before being fired, and being fired.

Of course, the difference in the times of the bodies’

falls, would clearly show that they are not inactive, but that

they are moving.

I will come back to this later, and for now, we will move

on from Newton’s second law.

Third Newton’s law of mechanics: In his first and

second laws, Newton spoke about the one-sided interaction of

the body, that is, about the action of a force only to one body


___________________________________________________

185

by another. However, in interaction of two bodies there is

always simultaneous reaction on the first body by the second.

The Newton’s third law of mechanics characterizes the

mutual action of two bodies and it states: mutual actions of two

bodies are always equal and diametrically opposite.

In general, there are no criteria by which one force would

be considered an action and another one a reaction, because

they are both of the same nature. There is no difference between

these forces in the means of the cause and the consequence, so

each of them is both action and reaction.

Under the action and reaction force, bodies can

change their state of movement (pool), or get a deformity of

their shape (two cars’ crash).

Accordingly, Newton’s third law contributes to the

definition of force in that it determines the source of the force

(for example, the earth is the source of the force that affects

the moon, and makes it revolve around it).

Analysis:

I agree that action always creates an opposite reaction,

but I cannot agree with Newton’s premise that action and reac-

tion are always equal. I agree that they are sometimes equal.

When a tennis beginner practices, against a wall, then

the action of the ball on the wall is equal to the reaction of the

wall on the ball. But, in the same example, when the tennis

player hits the ball with a racquet, the force of the racquet is


___________________________________________________

186

much larger than the reaction force of the ball; that is why the

ball goes where the racquet sends it.

If we exchanged the tennis ball with a basketball, which

is bigger and more massive, we would have the following

situation: the force of the basketball on the wall would be the

same as the wall’s reaction force on the basketball, and the

force of the racquet action on the basketball would be a little

greater than the basketball’s reaction to the racquet. The

basketball would still go to the wall and back.

When we exchange the basketball with a medicine ball,

which is of similar size but much more massive, the action

force of the racquet on it would be the same as the reaction

force of the ball to the racquet, but the ball would not move at

all.

So, the action force is the same as the reaction force only

when the acting body hits the reacting body with a smaller

amount of movement, i.e. inertia, or if the amount of movement,

i.e. inertia, of both the acting and reacting bodies are the same.

This means that I do distinguish between action and reaction.

When we observe deformities of bodies at crashes, it is

clear that bodies with larger inertia suffer less deformity, and

bodies with less inertia suffer greater deformity. Let us not

forget that the inertia of a body is proportional to the amount of

its movement.

And, for the end of this story, a treat.


___________________________________________________

187

The American army performed experiments on how a

certain speeds of a bullet cause deformities on a metal panel

of a certain thickness. As the bullet’s speed increased, the size

of the deformity of the metal plate changed.

When they performed the experiment at a great speed

(unfortunately not known to me), they found a surprising result.

The bullet went through the panel, but there was no deformity on

the panel. The increase of quantity led to a new quality. What had

actually happened there? Why was there neither action nor

reaction? Why had the Newton’s third law stopped working?

What is certain is that the metal panel had made a

passage through itself for the bullet; it opened itself in front of

the bullet and closed after it. We could say that it was not be-

having like a solid body, but a liquid one. It is not perfectly clear

what was happening with and around the bullet when it caused

such a behavior change in a solid body.

One possibility is that the surface layer of the bullet

gained anti-gravitational action and thus caused a separation

of the panels’ atoms. Another possibility is that the bullet

created a ‘space wedge’ in front of itself separating the space

within the metal panel, thus separating the panel’s atoms.

Of course, something else is also possible. Something

we are not aware of. Nature is really inexhaustible with the

surprises she shows us; let us always be prepared for the new

ones.


___________________________________________________

188


___________________________________________________

189

MASS TEMPERATURE RELATIVITY AND EINSTEIN

While speaking of Newton’s second law, I showed

Galileo’s principle of relativity is wrong.

I will speak later about constants, for now I would like

to say only this: 1) the speed of light is not constant and; 2) the

speed of light is not the greatest possible speed in nature.

I would say that Einstein was, in the first place, a victim

of a wrong theory that had been developing several centuries

before him, and that he described his good ideas about space

relativity, unfortunately, in a wrong mathematical way.

Space and time are relative, that is Einstein’s in-

erasable contribution to physics, but the mathematics of his

theories are wrong. Not only Einstein, but absolutely no one

understood what was happening there.

His whole concern was about the relativity of speed,

but no one, not even Einstein, understand that the key to the

problem lies in temperature, which is directly connected to

speed. A whole sequence of misinterpreted experiments

resulted, before Einstein, was led to the, mathematically

incorrect, Einstein’s theories of relativity.

Now, using mass temperature relativity, mass

temperature relativity (MTR), we should look back to all those

experiments and try to understand them. There is plenty of

work for the physicists, there.


___________________________________________________

190

A wrong mathematical formulation of Einstein’s special

theory of relativity (STR) gave wrong conclusions about reality

at great speeds. I do not wish to comment on each of them

individually.

In his general theory of relativity (GTR), that includes

gravity, Einstein says, “Mass tells space how to bend, and

space tells mass how to move.” I do not agree with this claim

of Einstein’s because it reduces the gravitational field to

geometry, which is simply not right. That way has led us to the

many delusions that are present in today’s physics. Instead of

physics, which is the natural cause of things, leading

mathematics, now mathematics leads physics, and that has

resulted in a loss of connection with reality and logic.

I would modify Einstein’s assertion that mass tells

space how to bend, and space tells mass how to move. I think

this is closer to what happens:

The allocation, and the state, of matter and energy de-

termine the quality of the space around it, and the quality of

space then determines the movement of matter and energy

spreading through it.

As for the best-known formula of Einstein’s: that energy

is equal to mass times the speed of light squared, I do not

agree with that.

I agree that the whole body energy defines its mass,

both in quality and quantity; I also agree that body mass, its


___________________________________________________

191

quantity and quality, defines the whole body energy. But

Einstein’s formula is not good. Why? Here is a simple reason why. Let us observe closed

space; let’s say a room, and the air in it. According to Ein-

stein’s formula, air molecules with the greatest energy, i.e. the

warmest molecules, have the greatest mass. Since they have

the largest mass, they are most attracted by the earth’s

gravity, and should be closest to the earth, i.e., they should be

low to the floor. Furthermore, air molecules with the lowest en-

ergy, i.e., the coldest molecules, have the lightest mass. Since

they have the lightest mass, they are the least attracted by the

earth’s force of gravity and they should be farthest from the

Earth, that is, they should be towards the ceiling.

The real situation with regard to the molecules’

allocation in a room is exactly opposite. The warmest air is

always just below the ceiling and the coolest just above the

floor.

The nature herself does not agree with this formula of

Einstein’s, and neither do I. I am always, faithfully, on nature’s

side, regardless of with whom I am about to disagree.

MTR is in accordance with natural processes and that

is why it is a sounder path.

I have already spoken about the acceleration effect on

a body in the anti-gravitational model of the sun. As for action

and reaction, I have shown the example of a bullet, which at


___________________________________________________

192

great speed, passes through a metal panel without deforming

it. We will have to think of more experiments on this subject

and do a complete revision of the ones we have done already.

Only then will we begin to understand what is happening with

a body that is moving through space at great speed.


___________________________________________________

193


___________________________________________________

194

DIMENSIONS AND “CONSTANTS”

Present-day physics has greatly complicated our lives

by introducing new dimensions. Three dimensions were not

enough, nor four. New dimensions were added whenever a

certain theory needed them. Mathematics is now dealing with

n-dimensional spaces. That is how mathematics works. In

mathematics we can create whatever virtual world we like.

Physics aspires to explain the world around us, the real

world. At least, that is how it was at the beginning, and I cer-

tainly hope that is how it will continue.

On the topic of space dimensions, I would like to say

that for a quantitative space description we need three

dimensions. Only three. Not more.

For a qualitative description of the space, we can in-

troduce as many dimensions as we need, or as many as we

can differentiate.

Time is a qualitative dimension; it shows us a quality of

the space around us, or of the space we want to explore. The

introduction of time as the fourth quantitative dimension was

mistaken, based on a misunderstanding of what quantity and

qualities of space are.

All ‘constants’ we have defined in physics are actually

qualitative dimensions of space. They tell us about the quality

of the space we occupy.


___________________________________________________

195

The most important fact I would like to state about

‘constants’ is that they are not constant. What we have been

considering as ‘constants’ is changeable, although, certainly,

their changes are very slow and very small.

The second important thing I would like to say about

‘constants’ is that they are not universal. Values that we get by

measurements are the indicator of a part of space we are in

where the measuring took place. In other parts of space, their

values would be different.

Let me just explain that with specific examples.

Let us observe the gravitational ‘constant’ γ and the

speed of light c. At this stage of the universe’s development,

when it is heating and expanding faster and faster, γ is

decreasing, which means that, in general, the intensity of the

gravitational interaction is weakening.

At the same time, because of the increase in heating,

the value of the dielectric and magnetic vacuum permeability is

decreasing, which means that the speed of light is increasing.

If you think that our lives will become more complicated

because of these statements, I wish to say that our life in

physics is so complicated that it can only get simpler.

I do admit these ideas revolutionize physics and astro-

physics, and cosmology, too. So far, we have been

determining and checking ‘constants’ in order to come to the

most accurate value possible. This is where we first encoun-


___________________________________________________

196

tered the fact that recent values are very slightly different from

those previously determined. That contributed to an increase

in measuring precision, that is, a reduction of mistakes in

measurement. The truth is that measuring precision is

becoming more perfect, but the ‘constants’ are changing,

slowly and minutely.

Let us go back to Einstein’s STR. His premise that the

speed of light is a constant, and that is the greatest possible

speed in nature, was wrong for several reasons:

1) We have seen why and how c is not a constant;

2) We have seen that there is an increase in the speed

of light; therefore its numeric value exceeds itself in the course

of time;

3) Our knowledge of nature is very limited now, let

alone a century ago. So, stating that the speed of light was the

greatest speed in nature was not a reflection of human

wisdom, but a temporary scientific necessity. Einstein needed

it in order not to get a negative algebraic sign in the value

under the square root. In that case, the mathematical

apparatus of the STR would become absurd, and, as such,

completely unacceptable to physicists. Let me remind you that

Einstein’s theories of relativity had a number of opponents

from the beginning, and there are many today, also. That is

why, in 1921, Einstein won the Nobel Prize, not for his theories


___________________________________________________

197

of relativity (for which he became, and remains famous), but

for his explanation of the photo-effect.

I believe that the whole process of introducing con-

stants into physics came about and was developed because of

a temporary scientific necessity needs. Here is a clarification

of this statement.

When the physicists were, in the past, performing

experiments to determine the dependence of a value on other

values, they expressed that dependence mathematically,

mainly by dividing some values’ products by a product of some

other values. In order to use those formulae in reality, they

become ‘constants’. They were determining the ‘constants’

from measurements, and that was it. The introduction of the

‘constants’ satisfied the temporary scientific necessity of

obtaining applicable formulae, without a complete

understanding of what was examined and calculated by those

formulae.

Logic tells us that the number of introduced ‘constants’

is always in accordance with the level of our not understanding

the phenomena and the values we have been examining.

I understand that it may have been a necessary step in

the development of physics: ‘Let’s use something, even

though we do not understand the real nature of it’, was an

expression of pragmatism. However, technological ‘ad-

vancement’, without understanding the essence, has led us to


___________________________________________________

198

a situation where we have jeopardized our own existence, be-

cause we have jeopardized planet earth’s functioning. It is high

time we began to realizing the truth, and, by exerting great

effort, try to fix the damage we have caused so far.

And now more about the non-universality of ‘con-

stants’. When I say that ‘constants’ are not universal, I would

like to say that the values that we have measured here on

earth will not be identical with the values we would measure at

another spot in the cosmos. The quality of space changes

from one place to another.

Generally speaking, space is not homogenous. And

when it is not homogenous, it is not isotropic. ‘Isotropic’ means

that it is all the same for us in whichever direction we are

moving or observing.

Proof? Look at the sky. Is the allocation of celestial

bodies homogenous? No. Is it all the same in whichever di-

rection we are looking? No.

I agree that we can say, for practical purposes, that a

certain part of space, during a short time interval, is

homogenous and isotropic. We have to be practical, when it is

demanded.


___________________________________________________

199

THE END OF PART ONE

When I realized how enormous was the job I have

started, and how much time it would consume, I decided break

it in parts. So, this, what we have said so far, will be the first

part. I do not know how many parts there will be. Time will tell.

I sincerely hope others will help in my work since it is so

enormous and time-consuming. I am but a pioneer, a starter,

and an initiator.

I also believe that in the era of information technology

and the Internet, my ideas will spread quickly. I expect a

reaction soon, either positive or negative.

New ideas always have a hard time being accepted. I

know that very well. But, I do hope that the 21st century will

prove that it is quick and uncompromising, in my case, too.

I do not expect mercy, or any kind of protection. I ex-

pect a lively clash of opinions. I expect objectivity. I expect a

true thirst for new knowledge and real truth.

In knowledge, there is no democracy. The truth does

not depend on the numbers who will support it. There is only

one voice needed. But it is certain that the timeframe for the

acceptance depends on the number of voters, and of their

quality, because not all votes count equally.

If the time is ready for change, and I personally think it

is, then, everything will be easier.


___________________________________________________

200

I am sure that the 21st century will be marked by the

development of new physics, and when physics develops with

enthusiasm, it affects all other natural sciences. New

technologies that might come out of general science

development can and will change our future.

I hope we are conscious of the necessity of complete

change.


___________________________________________________

201

AUTHOR OF THE BOOK THE INTRODUCTION INTO NEW PHYSICS

My name is Goran Mitic. I was born in Nis, Serbia in 1963. I went to school in Nis, where I live and work. After

‘specialized training’ I gained the title of laboratory technician for physics, and I enrolled to study of physics at the Department for Physics, the Faculty of Sciences in Nis, the University of Nis where, after graduating, I gained the title ‘physicist’.

Even as a graduate I started discovering mistakes and drawbacks in contemporary physics. My first autonomous scientific work named “Classical interpretation of the Michel-son-Morley experiment” (70 A4 pages with a number of very detailed drawings and accompanying mathematics) was not understood, not with by student colleagues, nor with by professors. Not in my country, nor abroad (I sent the English version to a number of addresses all around the world) – nobody wanted to read it!

My second autonomous work “Mass temperature relativity—the secret of anti-gravity”, written in 1999 on 7 pages, and was published in 2000 by the electronics magazine “Journal of Theoretics”. The same year I presented it at a congress in Saint Petersburg. I entered the world of inventions in 2003, and in 2004 I won the bronze prize at the international fair "Palekspo" in Geneva for a "HSP motor". Since then I have been working on researching and developing of new technolo-gies for gaining pure energy out of renewable sources.

ISBN 978-86-911009-1-9

Goran Mitić

THE INTRODUCTION INTO NEW PHYSICS THE FIRST PART

The title of the original:

UVOD U NOVU FIZIKU PRVI DEO

Editor

Mr Miloš Milovančević

Prepress Mr Miloš Milovančević

Translation Ivana Jocić

Cover Design

Saša Dimitrijević

Pictures Goran Mitić

Photos

from NASA and SOHO web sites

Copies printed 500

ISBN 978-86-911009-1-9

Publisher Goran Mitić, Niš

Phone +381 64 162 3663 www.thenewphysics.com

e-mail:[email protected] Niš, 2008

Documents

E-Book - The Introduction Into New Physics