Drugs Forensic Science Chapter 9. Objectives Compare & contrast psychological and physical dependence Name and classify commonly abused drugs List & define

DrugsForensic Science

Chapter 9

Objectives• Compare & contrast psychological and

physical dependence• Name and classify commonly abused drugs• List & define the schedules of the Controlled

Substances Act• Describe the lab tests normally used to

perform a drug identification analysis• Explain the testing procedures used for

forensic identification of marijuana• Understand the proper collection and

preservation of drug evidence

What is a drug?A drug can be defined as a NATURAL or

SYNTHETIC substance that is used to produce physiological or psychological effects in humans or

other higher order animals.

Three uses for drugs:• Drugs can be used to sustain or to prolong life

(medicinal)• Drugs can provide an escape from the pressures of

life (recreational)• Drugs can be used to end a life (suicidal)

How did it start?

1960s:• Hallucinogens, amphetamines, and barbiturates

found their way out from legal drug laboratories into the streets

• Marijuana became the most widely used illicit drug in the United States

• 1970s:• Alcohol consumption continued to rise—today

90 million Americans drink regularly, and 10 million people are hopelessly addicted to alcohol.

• Heroin addiction emerged as a national problem

• Cocaine abuse started continues to increase today

How did it start?

• Drug abuse has grown from effecting the members of the lower end of the socioeconomic ladder to a problem that affects all social and ethnic classes.

• Today in the United States, 23 million people use illicit drugs, including about a half million heroin addicts and nearly six million cocaine users.

Who does it affect?

• In the United States, MORE THAN 75% of evidence evaluated in crime laboratories is drug related.

• The amount of drug-related evidence is a serious distraction from the evidence from other types of serious crimes, such as homicides.

• Nevertheless, the expansion of the crime lab because of the drug cases has increased the analytical power of the lab.

What does this have to do with Forensic Science?

• The first drugs to be regulated by law were those that had “habit-forming” properties– Opium and its derivatives– Cocaine– Marijuana

• Drug dependence depends on many different physiological and social factors

Drug Dependence

• Physiological Factors Controlling Drug Dependence:– Patterns and degrees of intensity– Nature of the drug– Route of administration– The dose– Frequency of administration– Individual’s metabolism

Drug Dependence

• Social Factors Controlling Drug Dependence:– Personal characteristics of the user– His/her expectations about the experience– Society’s attitudes and possible responses– Setting in which the drug is used

Drug Dependence

• The nature and significance of drug dependence must be considered from two overlapping points of view– The interaction of the

drug with the individual– The drug’s impact on

society

Drug Dependence

• The conditioned use of a drug caused by underlying emotional needs– Arise from social and personal factors that

come from a person’s want to create a sense of well-being and to escape from reality. • Seeking relief from personal problems• Stressful situations• Sustain a physical and emotional state that permits

an improved level of performance

Psychological Dependence

• The intensity of psychological dependence heavily depends on they nature of the drug used.

• High-degree drugs: Easily addictive– Alcohol, heroin, amphetamines, barbiturates,

and cocaine• Lower-degree drugs: Less addictive

– Marijuana, codeine-based drugs

Psychological Dependence

The Bottom Line!

NO DRUG IS SAFE!

• Drugs produce changes in the body called physiological dependence.

• When a person abstains from a drug, severe physical illness can sometimes follow called withdrawal sickness or abstinence syndrome.– Sometimes the desire to avoid this sickness

compels the person to use the drug trying to be avoided.

Physiological Dependence

• Withdrawal sickness (abstinence syndrome)– Symptoms:

• Body chills• Vomiting• Stomach cramps• Convulsions• Insomnia• Pain• Hallucinations


• Occurs when a drug user is on a regular schedule of drug intake

• The interval between doses must be short enough so that the effects of the drugs never wear off completely

• Missing doses:– Heroin addicts take doses every 6 to 8 hours

—after this, withdrawal symptoms occur– Alcoholics have a continuous pattern of daily

use in large quantities.


• The social impact of dependence is directly related to the extent to which the user has been preoccupied with the drug.

• Often has a consequence of neglectful relationships with individuals and social responsibilities. – Personal health– Economic relationships– Family obligations

Social Impact of Dependence

• Drug dependence is not a problem that is limited to the United States but involves most of the world’s population.

• As a result, many individual, social, cultural, legal, and medical factors influence the decision to prohibit or impose strict controls on a drug’s distribution and use.

• Society must weigh the benefit of the drug to it’s potential harms.

Worldwide Issue

• Society must weigh the benefits v. harm that the drug will do to society as a whole.

• Some drugs do not carry adverse consequences and are considered “legal.”

– Examples: tobacco and coffee– Even though prolonged use can damage body

organs and injure an individual’s health, there is NO EVIDENCE that they result in antisocial behavior.

Harm v. Benefits?

Narcotic Drugs

• Narcotic is derived from the Greek word narkotikos, which means a state of lethargy or sluggishness.

• Pharmacologists’ definition:– Substances that bring relief from pain and produce

sleep

• The term “narcotic” has become associated with any drug that is socially unacceptable so many drugs are improperly classified as narcotics.

Narcotic Drugs

• Narcotic drugs are analgesics– Analgesics relieve pain by depressing the central

nervous system.– Regular use of narcotics leads to physical

dependence.

Narcotic Drugs

The source of most analgesic narcotics is opium—a gummy, milky juice exuded through a cut made in the unripe pod of the poppy plant (Papaver somniferium)

• Plant is grown mostly in Asia• Opium is brown and is 4-21% morphine

Narcotic Drugs

• Morphine is extracted from opium• Most addicts prefer to use a morphine

derivative called heroin.– Heroin is made by reacting morphine with

acetic anhydride or acetyl chloride.– Heroin is highly soluble in water and makes

street preparation for IV administration simple– IV administered heroin’s effects are almost

instant

Narcotic Drugs

• Heroin is often “cooked” with water before administration over a candle with a spoon

• It is injected with a syringe into a vein• Produces a “high” that is accompanied by drowsiness and a deep-

sense of well-being• Effects are short, generally lasting only three to four hours

Heroin—A Narcotic Drug

• Purity of Heroin– 1960s & 70s: 15-20%

heroin– Currently the purity of heroin

has increased to approximately 35%

– What is the remaining 65%?• Impurities or things the drugs

are “cut” or diluted with!– Quinine, starch, lactose,

procaine (novacaine) and mannitol

Heroin—A Narcotic Drug

Rachel Whitear - death with a syringe in her hands: When Rachel Whitear first used heroin she smoked it, soon after moving to injecting the drug she was discovered dead in rented accommodation in a house in Exmouth on

Friday 12th May 2000, aged 21

• Codeine is prepared synthetically from morphine

• Commonly used as a cough suppressant in prescription cough syrup

• Codeine is only one-sixth as potent as morphine– Causes it NOT to be abused as a

street drug often

Codeine—A Narcotic Drug

• In 1995, the FDA approved OxyContin as a painkiller.– The active ingredient is

oxycodone• Oxycodone is closely related to

morphine and heroin in chemical structure

• Oxycodone has “high” effects similar to heroin

• Prescribed to seven million patients for chronic pain

Opiates—A Narcotic DrugOpiates—not naturally derived from opium but have similar physiological effects as opium narcotics.

• OxyContin has a time-release formula added in to try to stop the abuse and addiction.

• It is estimated that a quarter of a million people abuse the drug.

• OxyContin is obtained by pharmacy robberies, forged prescriptions, theft from patients, and by visiting numerous doctors to obtain legitimate prescriptions.

OxyContin—A Narcotic Drug

• Methadone is a synthetic opiate• Methadone counteracts heroin or morphine

in doses of 80-120 mg per day– It eliminates the addict’s desire for heroin while

producing minimal side effects.– The result is methadone treatment programs

for addicts.– Critics say that the treatment programs are not

a good thing because you are basically substituting one opiate for another.

Methadone—A Narcotic Drug

• Physicians are increasingly prescribing methadone for pain relief.

• The wide availability of this drug for legitimate purposes makes it easier to divert it into the illicit drug market.

• Methadone is being abused increasingly and is causing an alarming number of overdoses and deaths.

Methadone—A Narcotic Drug

DRUGS THAT CAUSE MARKED ALTERATIONS IN MOOD, ATTITUDE,

THOUGHT PROCESSES, AND PERCEPTIONS.

MOST POPULAR AND CONTROVERSIAL: MARIJUANA

Hallucinogens

• Most widely used illicit drug in the U.S.• More than 43 million Americans have tried

the drug• Half this number are estimated to be

regular users• Marijuana is derived from the plant,

Cannabis sativa L.– Consists of crushed leaves, plant’s flower,

stems, and seeds

Marijuana—A Hallucinogen

• The plant secretes a sticky resin called hashish that can be extracted by soaking the plant in alcohol– Very potent– Usually seen in the form of

compressed vegetation


• Sinsemilla– Potent form of marijuana that is made from

the unfertilized flowering tops of the Cannabis plant

– Must remove all male plants from the growing field at the first sign of their appearance

– High-maintenance form of marijuana– Grown in small plots because of the amount

of attention and care needed


• Marijuana has been used legally and illegally for three thousand years– 2737 B.C.-Chinese emperor recommended it for

certain ailments• Hemp plant—major source of fiber for the production of

rope

– 1000 B.C.-Integral part of Hindu culture in India– 500 A.D.-drug moved westward into Persia and

Arabia– 19th century-brought to Europe by Napoleon as a

painkiller and mild sedative

History of Marijuana

• Marijuana was first introduced into the U.S. in 1920.– Smuggled by Mexican laborers across the Texas

border– Brought into the ports of Havana, Tampico, and

Veracruz• By 1937, 46 states and the federal

government had laws prohibiting the use or possession of marijuana.

History of Marijuana

• A weed that grows wild under most climatic conditions

• Grows to a height of 5-15 feet tall• Leaflet characteristics

– Odd number of leaflets, usually 5-9– Saw-toothed or serrated edge

• Hallucinogenic properties come from a chemical called tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC

Marijuana

• The content of THC in the plant determines the drug’s potency

• Different in various parts of the plant– Decreasing in the following sequence:

• Resin (highest)• Flowers• Leaves• Little THC is found in the stems, roots, or seeds

• The potency of the drug fluctuates depending on the proportions of the mixture– Usually from 3-12% potency

Tetrahydrocannabinol or THC

• Increased sense of well-being• Initial restlessness and hilarity • Dreamy, carefree sense of relaxation• Alteration of sensory perceptions

– Expansion of space and time– Vivid sense of touch, sight, smell, taste, sound– Feelings of hunger—often for sweets– Subtle changes in thought formation

• Distortion of body image, loss of personal identity, fantasies and hallucinations

Psychological Effects of THC

• Increased heart rate and dry mouth• Reddened eyes and impaired motor skills• Lack of concentration• Amotivational syndrome characterized by

apathy, impairment of appearance and the pursuit of goals.

• Potential medical uses—reduction of eye pressure in glaucoma patients, lessening of nausea by anticancer drugs, and as a muscle relaxant.

Physiological Effects of THC

• Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)– LSD is made from lysergic acid, a substance

that is derived from ergot, which is a type of fungus that attacks certain grasses and grains.

– Discovered when Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann after he accidentally ingested some of the material in his lab.

– Drug is very potent—as little as 25 micrograms is enough to start hallucinations that can last for 12 hours

Other Hallucinogens

• Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)– Physiological Changes:

• Changes in mood• Laughing or crying• Feelings of anxiety and tension• Flashbacks and psychotic reactions

Other Hallucinogens

• Phencyclidine (PCP)– Can be made by simple chemical processes

and is usually made in home labs

– PCP is often mixed with other drugs, such as LSD or amphetamine and is sold as a powder called “angel dust” or can be taken as a tablet, smoked, sniffed, or ingested.

Other Hallucinogens

• Characteristic feelings of PCP:• Feelings of strength and vulnerability• Dreamy sense of detachment• Sometimes becomes unresponsive, confused, or

agitated• Depression, irritability, isolation, audio/visual

hallucinations, and paranoia• Tendencies toward violence• Suicide• Long-term daily use—Schizophrenic behavior

Other Hallucinogens

A SUBSTANCE THAT DEPRESSES THE FUNCTIONS OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS

SYSTEM.

MOST COMMON: ALCOHOL

Depressants

• The most widely used and abused drug• How alcohol works in the body:

– Alcohol enters the bloodstream– The alcohol quickly travels to the brain– The alcohol suppresses the brain’s control of

thought processes and muscle coordination

Alcohol—Ethyl Alcohol

• Effects of low-doses of alcohol:– Inhibit the mental processes of judgment,

memory, and concentration– Personality becomes expansive and he/she

exudes confidence• Effects of moderate-doses of alcohol:

– Reduces coordination substantially– Inhibits orderly thought processes and speech– Slows down reaction times– Ability to walk or drive becomes impaired


• Effects of high-doses of alcohol:– User becomes highly irritable and emotional– Displays of anger and sudden crying are not

uncommon– Can cause lapse into unconsciousness or a

comatose state that can cause breathing to cease


• Commonly referred to as “downers”– Create a feeling of relaxation, well-being, and

sleep– Suppress the central nervous system– Derivatives of barbituric acid, which was

made by German chemist, Adolf Von Bayer, one-hundred years ago

– Used by medical applications:• Amobarbital, secobarbital, phenobarbital,

pentobarbital, and butabarbital

– Slang terms: barbs, yellow jackets, blue devils, and reds

Barbiturates

• Normal dose is 10-70 mg taken orally

• Drug enters the blood through the walls of the small intestine

• Some are slow and fast-acting– Fast-acting barbs are abused more

often• Secobarbital, pentobarbital, and

amobarbital

• Physical dependence can develop– Methaqualone (Quaaludes)

Barbiturates

• Tranquilizers differ from barbiturates – Central Nervous System is affected

by producing tranquility without impairing higher level thinking activities or inducing sleep

– Some have been used to reduce anxiety and tension in mental patients

– Some are used as anti-anxiety meds in normal people (valium)• Can cause dependence with repeated

usage

Tranquilizers

• Inhalation of products containing volatile solvents – Airplane glue, model cement, aerosol

propellants• Produce physiological effects (CNS

depressant)– Feelings of exhilaration and euphoria– Slurred speech– Impaired judgment– Double vision– Drowsiness and stupor

Glue Sniffing

• Dangerous Effects on the Body– Liver damage– Heart damage– Brain damage– Sniffing halogenated hydrocarbons could

cause instant death

Glue Sniffing

A SUBSTANCE THAT IS TAKEN TO INCREASE ALERTNESS OR

ACTIVITY.

AMPHETAMINES AND COCAINE

Stimulants

• Synthetic drugs that stimulate the CNS• Commonly referred to as “uppers” or “speed”• Once the stimulant effect wears off,

depression often sets in• Methamphetamine is a derivative of

amphetamine and is the most often abused– IV administration causes a “flash” or “rush”

followed by an intense feeling of pleasure– Euphoria is experienced followed by hyperactivity– Feelings of clarity and hallucinations

Amphetamines

• When the feeling wears off, a person can lapse into a period of exhaustion and may sleep for 1-2 days

• After the sleep, users often experience severe depression, lasting from days to weeks

Amphetamines

• ICE: Smokable form of methamphetamine• Made by evaporation of meth solution to

produce large rocks• Effects are longer-lasting than that of rock

cocaine• Chronic users can exhibit violent,

destructive behavior and acute psychosis similar to paranoid schizophrenia

• Leads to strong psychological dependency

Amphetamines

• Sigmund Freud created a sensation in European medical circles by describing experiments with a new drug in 1887.

• He described the effects of the drug:– “Exhilarating and lasting

euphoria;”– “Extensive mental or physical

work to be performed without fatigue;”

– “The need for food and sleep was completely banished”

Cocaine

• A drug stimulant extracted from the leaves of Erythroxylon coca, a plant grown in tropical Asia and the Andes mountains of South America.

• Started with medical application: Local painkiller or anesthetic but has now been replaced with lidocaine

Cocaine

• Powerful stimulant to the CNS– Increased alertness and

vigor– Suppression of hunger,

fatigue, boredom

• Most commonly sniffed or snorted– Absorbed into the body

through the mucus membranes in the body

Cocaine

• Different from powdered cocaine because it is in “rock” form– Baking soda and water is added to cocaine to

make the “rock,” then broken into chunks– Often smoked in glass pipes

• Creates a feeling of euphoria• Increased energy• Mental alertness

Crack Cocaine

SYNTHETIC DRUGS THAT ARE USED AT NIGHTCLUBS, BARS,

AND RAVES.

Club DrugsGHB

Ecstacy

Roofies

Ketamine

Crystal

Meth

• GHB (gammahydroxybutyrate) and Rohypnol (roofies) are central nervous system depressants

• Often connected with drug-facilitated sexual assault, rape, and robbery.

• Effects of GHB:– Dizziness, sedation, headache, nausea,

euphoria, relaxation, disinhibition, increased libido

Club Drugs

• Effects of Rohypnol (roofies):– Muscle relaxation, loss of

consciousness, and an inability to remember events around the time of ingestion of the drug

– Increased effects if added with alcohol

• Both GHB and Rohypnol are dangerous because they are odorless, colorless, and tasteless and will remain undetected.

Club Drugs

• Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy)– Most popular club drug– Synthetic, mind-altering drug that

exhibits hallucinogenic and amphetamine-like effects.

• Psychological effects of Ecstacy:– Enhances self-awareness and

decreases inhibitions

Club Drugs

• Dangers of Ecstacy:– Seizures, muscle breakdown,

stroke, kidney failure, cardiovascular system failure, damage to the parts of the brain responsible for thought and memory, increases blood pressure, muscle tension, teeth grinding, anxiety, and paranoia episodes.

Club Drugs

Leah died in 1995 after taking Ecstasy at her 18th birthday party.

• Ketamine (Special K)– Primary use is in

veterinary medicine as an animal anesthetic

– When used by humans, it can cause euphoria and feelings of unreality with visual hallucinations

– Can also cause impaired motor function, high blood pressure, amnesia, and slowing respiratory functions.

Club Drugs

• Synthetic compounds that are chemically related to the male sex hormone testosterone.– Promotes secondary male characteristics and

accelerates muscle growth• Steroid abuse first received attention

through professional and amateur athletes using them to increase their performance.– Current research finds that there is no

significant increase in strength or performance.

Anabolic Steroids

• In 1991, anabolic steroids were classified as controlled dangerous substances by the DEA, which prevents their use and distribution.

• Harmful medical side effects:– Liver cancers and liver malfunctions– Masculinizing effects in females– Infertility and diminished sex drive– In teenagers, halting of bone growth– Unpredictable effects of mood and personality– Depression

Anabolic Steroids

• Legal provisions may dictate analytical tests– Punishments may differ depending on:

• Weight of the product• Concentration of the drug in a mixture

• Major Drug Control Law– Controlled Substances Act

• Federal law that some states mimic• Establishes FIVE schedules of classification• Penalties are based upon the classification schedule

Drug Control Laws

• Controlled Substances Act– Schedule I Drugs:

• High potential for abuse• No current accepted medical use or are not safe

under medical supervision• Examples:

– Heroin, marijuana, methaqualone, and LSD

– First offense:• 0-20 years and up to $1 million in fines

Drug Control Laws

• Controlled Substances Act– Schedule II Drugs:

• High potential for abuse• Currently accepted medical use with severe

restrictions• Potential for severe physiological and psychological

dependence• Examples:

– Cocaine, methadone, PCP, some barbiturates, and Dronabinol (a synthetic THC derivative) for glaucoma patients

– First offense:• 0-20 years and up to $1 million in fines

Drug Control Laws

• Controlled Substances Act– Schedule III Drugs:

• Less potential for abuse• Widely accepted medical uses• Low to moderate physical or high psychological

dependence• Examples:

– All barbiturates not included in Schedule II, codeine preparations, anabolic steroids

– First Offense:• 0-5 years in prison and up to $250,000 in fines

Drug Control Laws

• Controlled Substances Act– Schedule IV Drugs:

• Low potential for abuse relative to Schedule III• Current medical use• Abuse may lead to limited dependence• Examples:

– Some tranquilizers, phenobarbital, and Valium

– First offense:• 0-3 years and up to $250,000 in fines

Drug Control Laws

• Controlled Substances Act– Schedule V Drugs:

• Low potential for abuse• Current medical use• Less dependence than Schedule IV drugs• Examples:

– Certain opiate drug mixtures that contain non-narcotic ingredients

– First offense:• 0-1 year in prison and $100,000 in fines

Drug Control Laws

• Designer drugs are drugs that are chemically similar to controlled substances and are very potent.– Made in clandestine laboratories– Dangerous because they are made with

different materials and procedures– Responsible for numerous overdoses

• Penalties for designer drugs are similar to the drug that the chemist has mimicked. – Scheduled drug offenses

Designer Drugs

• Completed by a Forensic Chemist– Analytical tests with many steps and

procedures– No room for error– Results of tests will have a direct bearing on

the guilt/innocence of the suspect– Must be prepared to support and defend the

validity of the tests in court– No middle ground in drug identification—

either it is the drug or it’s not the drug

Drug Identification

• The challenge is selecting procedures that will ensure a specific identification of a drug.

• Two phases of drug identification:– First phase:

• Screening tests: reduce possibilities of what the drug can be

– Subjecting the material to a series of color tests for known illicit drugs

– The value of the screening test lies in having certain drugs excluded from further considerations.

Drug Identification

• Second phase of drug identification:– Confirmation: devoted to pinpointing and

confirming the drug’s identity• A single test that identifies a substance

– Color test– Microcrystalline test– Chromatography– Spectrophotometry– Mass spectrometry

Drug Identification

• Color Tests:– Chemical additives turn

particular colors when in contact with an illicit drug

• Marquis Test: – Turns purple in contact

with heroin, morphine, or opium derivatives

– Turns orange when in contact with amphetamines (meth)

Types of Confirmatory Tests

• More Color Tests:• Dillie-Koppanyi Test:

– Turns violet-blue when in contact with barbiturates

• Duquenois-Levine Test:– Turns purple when in contact with marijuana

• Van Urk Test: – Turns purplish-blue in the presence of LSD

• Scott Test:– Turns blue, then pink, then blue again with different

reagents in the presence of cocaine


• Microcrystalline Test:– More specific than color tests– A small drop of chemical reagent is placed on

the drug on a microscopic slide.– After a short time, precipitation begins through

a chemical reaction.– The size and the shape of the crystals are

characteristic of the drug.


• Microcrystalline Test:

This is a photomicrograph (a picture) of the results of a

microcrystalline test of cocaine being reacted with gold chloride.


• Chromatography– Separates the drug

from the things that dilute the drug• Gives a tentative

identification of the drug based upon how fast a substance travels up a piece of paper and by the colors produced


• Spectrophotometry:– Absorption of light

(ultraviolet and infrared) by drugs• Can SPECIFICALLY

identify a substance• Makes a “chemical

fingerprint” of the drug


• Mass Spectrometry:– Readily separates illicit drugs from other

additives• Sample is exposed to high-energy electrons, which

cause sample to break apart• No two substances fragment in the same fashion• The fragmentation of the parts of the chemical

compounds prints out as a “chemical fingerprint”



GCMS of Amphetamines—A Chemical Fingerprint

• There are many different packaging protocols, depending on the type of drug

• Common-sense is the best guide– Keep in mind that the packaging must:

• Prevent the loss of evidence• Prevent cross-contamination

– In glue-sniffing cases, evidence must be packaged in air-tight container to prevent evaporation

Collection & Preservation of Drugs

• All packages must be labeled with the following:– Identification of the officer– Background information of the seizure (may

aid cutting time for analyzing the drug)– Results of field drug-screening tests – Chain of custody documents

Collection & Preservation of Drugs

Documents

Drugs Forensic Science Chapter 9. Objectives Compare & contrast psychological and physical dependence Name and classify commonly abused drugs List & define