Reframing Biogas and Land Degradation

BSc Intern Report by Fritz van Deventer

Date 09-09-2010

Reframing Biogas and Land Degradation

Bachelor thesis Land Degradation and Development Group submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree of Bachelor of

Science in International Land and Water Management at Wageningen University, the Netherlands

Study program:BSc International Land and Water Management (BIL)

Student registration number:871031-180-110

IWE 80806

Supervisor(s):Dr. Ir. M.J.P.M. RiksenProf. Dr. R. Chanda Examinator:Prof.dr.ir. L. Stroosnijder

Date: 16-03-2010Wageningen University, Land Degradation and Development GroupDesire Project

2

Abstract

Recent research efforts to alleviate land degradation in the very dry Boteti area in Botswana have

assessed a number of things, but have not been very succesful in the implementation of alleviation

strategies. There is a level of acceptance of the problem and recognition of the need for a solution in

the villages itself. One of these solutions is to offer an alternative fuel source for the villages

Mopipi and Mokoboxane. The majority of the people in these village use firewood as a primary

energy source for cooking and have to look further and further for their supply even to the extent of

needing motorized vehicles.

The idea of the DESIRE project is to introduce biogas as an alternative fuel source for cooking.

This however proves to be difficult as research results show that a great deal of fatalism and

perceived inability to do something about the circumstances significantly hamper any progress in

implementation.

This thesis proposes to look at communication and persuasion theory to enhance attitudinal change

towards the land degradation issues. Instead of focusing on the problems of land degradation in a

way which is familiar to them, this thesis proposes to use a positive view, to emphasize the benefits

of the biogas and focusing on that.

3

Table of Contents

.............................................................................................1. Introduction 5

................................................................................................Research Questions 5

..........................................................................................................Sub Questions 5

......................................................................................Conceptual Framework 7

....................................................................................................................Attitudes 7

.........................................................................2. Materials and Methods 9

...............................................................................................2.1 Research Area 9

.....................................................................................................Land Degradation 9

................................................................................................2.2 Methodology 11

.....................................................................3. Results and Discussion 12

...............................................................................3.1 The Benefits of Biogas 12

............................................................3.2 Acceptance of the Implementation 13

.....................................................3.3 Communication Personal Yet Efficient 14

..............................................................................................Framing, Reframing. 15

...........................................................................................4. Conclusions 15

......................................................................................................Sources: 16

4

1. Introduction

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, which was brought into life in 1996, has

recognized Botswana as a 'hotspot' for desertification. The Boteti subdistrict was used as a case

study for the Intergovernmental Convention to Combat Desertification [INCD] in 1994.

The DESIRE project, “a global research initiative to mitigate desertification and remediate

degraded land” (DESIRE, 2009), has started a pilot with biogas as an alternative to firewood in

Mopipi, Botswana (Figure 1). The area has seen a significant decline in the density and amount of

vegetation fit for firewood over the last 20 years in the vicinity of the village (Darkoh, 2000; Sefe et

al., 1996).

In a previous research the severity of the consequences of deforestation because of use for firewood

have been questioned (van Deventer, 2010). However the benefits of biogas are still evident in

creating coping strategies in a ecological fragile area.

However well a new technology or plan may be, the success and the degree of adoptability of such

a plan hinges on the involvement of the different parties involved which is largely determined by

what a researcher or policymaker communicates (Besette, 2006).

It is in light of this that this thesis will focus on how biogas can successfully be wielded to improve

livelihood possibilities for stakeholders in the Mid-Boteti area. The thesis continues on an

internship research conducted for the DESIRE project in 2009.

Research Questions

How can biogas successfully be implemented to improve desertification alleviation in the Mid-

Boteti area, Botswana?

Sub Questions

What benefits do biogas provide?

What main obstacles can be expected in implementation?

What role can (re-)framing play in the adaptation of biogas?

The questions will be answered by looking at a research executed as a part of an internship in the

study area. More literature on similar problems and the research area will be used.

5

Figure 1: Map of Mopipi and Mokoboxane

6

Conceptual Framework

Framing and Reframing

Framing is a way of viewing or putting forward a certain issue, that in another context (frame) can

look completely different. A metaphor can be used to give more life and express more accurately

the view. It is interesting how being more vague can be helpful in that process. Using metaphors is a

less explicit way of communicating but it often links into cognitions and affects make the view

more understandable. Therefore framing, being a metaphor itself, is also useful term, because it

speaks to our imagination (Simons, 2001).

If the above is not clear, let me give an example. Imagine you see a fairytale-like house in a forest,

with a lovely view. You are inside and are looking out of the window(frame). This of course arouses

all kinds of happy feelings. Yet looking from the window just next to it, you see the same image, the

lovely forest and the little birds and bees, but now within the same frame you see someone urinating

on your bicycle that you parked against the oaktree. The same scenery, just different framing, that

elicits and accentuates two different things.

The same is of course true for reframing. This time around we already understand that there is a

frame concerning a certain issue and you would like to apply a different frame to the same issue. A

frame can leave out or include different things depending on what is the desired view (Simons,

2001).

Framing is not a theory that we can apply, it is more like a competence or a tool that we can use. In

a short review of reframing examples Simons (2001) shows the difference a frame can make. The

wording and presentation of the same fact can arouse different affect towards that fact. Similar to

the bottle is half empty or half full approaches.

An effective way to reach the desired goal in this case the implementation of biogas is to make use

of a gain frame (emphasize benefits of compliance), because our message is promotionally focused.

When making use of a gain frame there are two options for achieving a frame switch; positive

reinforcement and negative reinforcement.

Attitudes

An attitude is an overall evaluation, either negative or positive or somewhere in between, of a

psychological object, be it a behaviour or a social issue. Attitudes are of importance for expressing

yourself, positioning yourself and making the world a more understandable place (Ajzen, 2001). An

7

individual’s attitudes towards issues or objects are not always clear-cut. They are not always

consistent over time nor are they easy to describe as either positive or negative. An individual might

even have conflicting attitudes over one issue or object (Ajzen, 2001). In this thesis an individual

can have negative and positive attitudes about switching to biogas as fuel. The stronger a person’s

attitude is, the harder it will be to change it. Whether a person is easily persuaded or not, also has to

do with the concept of attitudinal ambivalence. Attitudinal ambivalence is a state where conflicting

attitudes co-exist. This can be that there are both reasons for and reasons against believing

something, or that reason (cognition) and feelings (affect) conflict. Attitudes with high ambivalence

are less easy to predict, but are also less stable in time and more susceptible to persuasion. On the

contrary, non-ambivalent attitudes can reduce the degree in which someone can be persuaded. Non-

ambivalent attitudes are also better indicators of intentions and behaviours (Ajzen, 2001).

8

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Research Area

Botswana is a landlocked country bordered by Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa. With

a population of around 1,7 million people in an area that is almost 600,000 km2, that amounts to

only 3 people per square km (Central Intelligence Agency, 2008). The capital is a young city called

Gaborone, that only after independence has been chosen as the capital city.

The sparsity of the population can easily be explained with the availability, or rather unavailability

of water. Botswana is a very dry country. With only 2,5 % of the area being surface water. The

maximum rainfall is found in the topmost Northern corner: Kasane, with a rainfall of 650 mm.

Where the most Southern tip has the lowest of the country: 250 mm. Most of the country is a part of

the Kalahari desert, about 84 % (Institute for Security Studies, 2009)

The research area is in the Boteti subdistrict in Botswana, one of the driest in the country. The

Boteti area is located around the Boteti river, which is a tributary of the Okavango delta, a very

large inland delta, located in the northern part of Botswana. The river however has not run past

Rakops, a village 60 km further upstream of Mopipi, in 18 years (VanderPost and McFarlane,

2007). The Boteti district has an estimated population of approximately 50,000 people (Central

Statistics Office, 2005). The annual rainfall varies from year to year, but the mean value is 350 mm.

Land Degradation

Quite some research has been done in the Boteti area. Notably by the University of Botswana for

different research projects such as the DESIRE project. This research points out that land

degradation is not a phenomenon only expected from an area with its composure, it is confirmed

with ground evidence (Darkoh, 2000; Ringrose et al., 1996; Sefe et al., 1996).

The population of the Boteti area has increased significantly from 1991 to 2001 with an increase of

35,5%, which gives an annual growth rate of 3.5% which is significantly higher than the national

growth rate and the rural average of 1.0 percent. The population pressure on the area is further

exacerbated by the fencing of the communal rangeland for wildlife and foot and mouth disease

control.

The Mid-Boteti area is recognized as one of the most degraded areas of the country. Compaction

and large areas of bare soils leading to wind erosion being just a few of the problems (Ringrose et

9

al., 1996; Sefe et al., 1996).

The combination of climatic fluctuations, population increase, livestock increase and fencing of

protected areas is a melting pot that makes for a potent foundation for land degradation (Sefe et al.,

1996)

Some of the causes and agents of land degradation can easily be determined through field

observation. This includes gully erosion along the edge of the village of Mopipi, crusting

throughout the pan and overgrazing around the water areas for cattle. However obvious the results

might be, the driving forces can be a topic of discussion.

Other less obvious processes of land degradation include calcretisation of the area through the

groundwater aquifers and the biodiversity decline in the surrounding areas (Ministry of Agriculture,

1994).

Recurrent droughts have further exacerbated the degradation processes in an area already

susceptible to wind erosion and overgrazing. Crusting and water erosion form serious threats when

scarce rains do come.

Overgrazing is a very prominent driver of degradation in the area. The rangeland degradation is

marked by the large livestock population, decline of water table and disappearance of herbaceous

species. The carrying capacity is far exceeded (Ministry of Agriculture, 1994).

The Mopipi area, consisting of the Mopipi and Mokoboxane village, is a small area of Boteti

subdistrict, in Botswana. It is a remote area, with very limited options for agriculture. In spite of

this, pressure on the land is quite high, as a consequence of migration to the area due to the absence

of the tse-tse fly and the availability of surface water. The agro-pastoralists, generally not very

affluent, who have started living in the area have let livestock graze too intensively and use natural

woody vegetation as firewood in a manner which cannot be supported by the area (Darkoh, 2000).

The Mopipi village is expected to be more vulnerable to wind erosion and dust clouds than the

Mokoboxane village. As shown on the Google Earth image in the introduction (Figure 1) the

Mokoboxane village has much denser tree cover around the village. Mopipi is circled by two large

dry siltpans. The winds that go through the area result in whirlwinds of dust that move around the

edge of the village and cause a lot of disturbances. These ‘dust devils’, as displayed in Photo page 2

Photo 2:1, are shrouded in traditional beliefs.

10

2.2 Methodology

What benefits do biogas provide?

What main obstacles can be expected in implementation?

What role can (re-)framing play in the adoption of biogas?

The questions will be answered using a research performed as part of an internship conducted in

2009 in the research area as well as other literature on the same area.

The benefits that biogas provide have been researched using literature on biogas production and a

review article reviewing a few of the different models that can be handcrafted.

The more soft benefits (less quantifiable) came to light through informal interviews and

observation.

Literature has been ploughed through for similar sites or the same sites, to find out what obstacles

can be expected in the implementation phase of the project. Penning de Vries' (2007) article has

been very helpful as the research she did was at a site no more than 80 km away from the Mopipi

area with similar hierarchichal structures and similar desertification problems.

Reframing and framing are concepts from communication theory which can be used in attitudinal

change and persuasion mechanisms. Although in the literature this concept could not be found in

combination with problems of land degradation or biogas implementation it is used for example in

land use conflicts (Kaufman and Smith, 1999).

11

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 The Benefits of Biogas

The internship leading up to this thesis has researched the benefits of biogas as a means to fight

desertification. Part of the DESIRE program (DESIRE, 2009), a research initiative to mitigate

desertification, was to find coping strategies for people living areas that suffer sever desertification.

There is a need for an energy source for cooking that is both reliable and sustainable. The

dependency on firewood has put some pressure on the surrounding area, but more importantly it

increasingly becomes more of a chore to fetch firewood. The distance to procure firewood is

increasing which converges with a decrease in firewood quality, with the preferred species

becoming less readily available. For those who do not have vehicle like a donkey cart or a car the

distances are too big and another source of energy has to be utilized. Firewood is also being bought

from those who have the vehicles (van Deventer, 2010).

The DESIRE research team have held meetings leading up to this research making an inventory on

what energy alternative is most suitable and most preferred by the local people that the coping

strategies are intended for. In these meetings biogas came out as the most preferred alternative. The

biogas can serve not only to relieve the pressure on other energy sources but after the gas has been

procured out of it, it can be used as a fertilizer. The 'sludge' left in the tank after most of the gas has

been won is decomposed quite a bit, but the nutrients remain in the residue.

It is especially important for the rural areas to be able to have a choice on what energy source is the

primary energy source as the rest of the country the use of woodfuels is on the decrease dropping to

77%. In the Mopipi-Mokoboxane area however 100% of the people use firewood and all of them

use it for cooking. Where electricity is used firewood is the 'fallback' energy source.

On average people spend about 3-5 hours on collecting firewood. This is once to two times a

month. According to the respondents this time has severely increased in the last few years due to

people from other villages harvesting firewood in the same area.

Important is also to note the economic benefit as compared to the use of firewood. Considering the

time and effort put into the procuring of firewood or the cost in monetary value if firewood is

bought, it is easy to point out the economic benefit of using a biogas digester. According to the

same research in India as mentioned above the net income can be calculated by considering the cost

12

of LPG and normal fertilizer. Sing and Sooch (2004) describe the net value biogas has opposed to

having to buy LPG and fertilizer, this they have dubbed the income from the biogas plant.

According to their calculations the net economics for the 3 different models circle around 50 -70

USD surplus per year. This means for the different models that payback period of the plant is quite

fast, depending on which model. The first model has a payback period of 6.27 years, the second

4.90 and the third a stunning 2.23 years. This model is called the Deenbandhu biogas plant. This

model has been implemented quite widely in India and Nepal (Gautam et al. 2009; Singh and Sooch

2004) and manuals are easy to come by through the use of the internet. The Deenbandhu has an

initial construction cost of approximately 200 USD.

The overall implementation of biogas would save the people a lot of time and money. After three

years the economic gain would be about 463 USD (van Deventer, 2010).

3.2 Acceptance of the Implementation

Findings of research done by Penning de Vries (2007), suggest that acceptance of taking measures

against desertification fail. The numbers presented in the paper suggest that people are well familiar

with the symptoms and impact of desertification yet fail to. Partly this can be ascribed to lack of

financial means or time constraints. However it has been determined that quite a number of people

suffer from high levels of fatalism that hinder them from undertake the measures and therefore fail

in completing acceptance according to the adoption process as defined by Rogers in 1995 (de

Graaff & Kessler, 2009).

From direct communication as well as the 2007 report (Penning de Vries, 2007) it is obvious that

the reasons for symptoms of desertification are placed outside of the respondents responsibility. The

climate or government is a popular victim.

In the internship for the DESIRE project quite a bit of information was gathered in the form of

structured interviews. The results of these interviews also highlight the lack of acceptance of the

alternative energy source. Although more than 75% of the respondents (in both villages) encounter

problems with the use of firewood, only 45% of them are willing to switch to another source. It is

not very clear from the questionnaires why people are reluctant to do so except for the price. From

personal contact and the informal inquiries it was clear that most people do not have a clear picture

of what biogas actually is.

Furthermore the general opinion of the people towards participating in the research was not very

13

enthusiastic. Most people asked very rightly what they will benefit from participating with one of

the questionnaires. A lot of research has been done in the area already. So for another researcher to

ask similar questions to previous research it was mentioned that it seemed intrusive. Especially

questions on the income and amount of cattle aroused such comments. It is possible that the above

mentioned attitudes towards alternatives and switching are a result of the area being researched over

and over again. This has not been confirmed, but it would be interesting to incorporate in a future

research (that will probably have even stronger sentiments concerning research).

The reactions were not solely grim and sinister. When briefly explained by drawing a schematic

sketch on the working of biogas and the ease of use an attitude less closed and aversive was

encountered. A surprised and enthusiastic reaction followed by the comment: “You must teach us

this thing.”

In a final meeting rounding up the field work, arranged to thank the people for their cooperation and

to briefly explain to what use the research will be put, most of the people who were invited did not

show up at all, or arrived late. In house-to-house contact a better chance of successfully

communicating the biogas benefits and plans is to be expected.

3.3 Communication Personal Yet Efficient

As stated above there is a need for something that is personal in communication. The problem with

this is that house-to-house contact takes a lot of time. Communication and persuasion theory can

help out with this.

As a communicator one has to be mindful of a few things that are explained in the theories

presented in the article by Johnson et al. (2005). Because a message source influences the effect and

reception of the message. Most people do not use biogas, but firewood. In trying to change to a

point of view that only a minority holds a sense of trustworthiness from the message source must be

created. In expressing our opinions there is a need to be consistent to appear more “confident,

competent and honest” (Johnson, et al., 2005). Trustworthiness can further increase by being

otherwise similar to majority of the people. The research team is at an advantage here. Most of the

researchers from the University of Botswana are actually from Botswana and speak the same

language.

It is not surprising that strong arguments are more convincing than weaker ones as are arguments

with high novelty and validity (Johnson, et al. 2005).

14

Framing, Reframing.

Although attendance to the meetings is very low, this can actually be seen as quite an advantage.

The image of biogas has thus not been cast in concrete. The attitudes towards biogas are therefore

easier to change. If attitudes are not very strong, opposite arguments to their attitude can create

conflicting attitudes. This in turn can cause attitudinal ambivalence. A state in which attitudes are

more susceptible to persuasion (Ajzen, 2001).

Up to now the focus has mainly been on the alleviation of desertification and its causes. This frame

has not yielded significant results in adaptation of land conservation measures (Penning de Vries,

2007). Frames in this case are like glasses of knowledge, as they organize knowledge (Tannen,

1979) towards situations and their response to it (Pinkley, 1990).

Biogas has not been presented to the target group as a means of a coping strategy against poverty.

This is the gain frame, to emphasize the benefits of compliance. Reframing the biogas as an

economically sound choice is a different message than that of the human-induced physical

degradation in the area. Therefore in trying to get people to switch to biogas it is vital to focus on

the economical benefits of biogas more than the old message they have already heard.

4. Conclusions

The benefits of biogas are clear. Not only is biogas an economically viable option it also serves to

conserve the forest in the area of Mopipi. An area which is in need of an alternative energy

resource. 100% of the interviewees use firewood and oft for cooking. Economic gain of using

biogas over firewood according to Sing and Sooch (2004) can be reached within 3 years of building

the reactor.

Obstacles to implementation are mainly in the acceptance of the problem or the perceived ability to

make a difference. In respect to the perceived ability communication can help create a realistic and

view that would make it easier to combat the problem.

Reframing of the issue at hand is suspected to help in this aspect because not only will it enhance

attitudes towards a more positive one, but also it can serve as a way to increase the perceived

ability. An effective yet easy and not very costly solution to a complex problem.

15

Sources:

Ajzen, I. (2001). Nature and Operation of Attitudes. Annual Review of Pyschology, Vol. 52, pp. 27 -

58.

Besette, Guy, 2006. People Land and Water

Darkoh, M., 2000. Desertification in Botswana. RALA Report, 200.

DESIRE, 2009. DESIRE Project HIS Site 13: Boteti, Botswana.

van Deventer, F.J., 2010. Internship Report. Fighting Desertification by Deserting Firewood.

Wageningen University, Land Degradation and Development Group, Environmental

Sciences.

de Graaff, Kessler, 2009. Lecture Notes: Impact Assessment of Land and Water Management.

Wageningen University, Land Degradation and Development Group, Environmental

Sciences.

Gautam, R., Baral, S., Herat, S., 2009. Biogas as a Sustainable Energy Source In Nepal: Present

Status and Future Challenges. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. Vol., 13, No., 1 (pp.

248- 252). Elsevier

Institute for Security Studies, 2009. Botswana Fact File.Central Statistics Office, 2005. Populations

Projections For Botswana 2001-2031.

Johnson, B.T., Maio, G.R., Smith-McLallen (2005). Chapter 15: Communication and Attitude

Change: Causes, Processes, and Effects. In: Albarracín , D., Johnson, B.T., & Zanna, M.P.,

(ed.) The Handbook of Attitudes (pp. 631 – 669).

Kaufman, S. and Smit, J., 1999. Framing and Reframing in Land Use Change Conflicts. Journal Of

Architectural and Planning Research, Vol. 16 (pp. 164-177). Locke Science Publishers.

Ministry of Agriculture, 1994. Desertification and possible solutions in the Mid - Boteti River area:

A Botswana case study of the Inter-Governmental Convention to Combat Desertification In:

INCD (Editor), Gaborone, Botswana.

Pinkley, R., 1990. Dimensions of Conflict Frame: Disputant Interpretations of Conflict. Journal

Applied Psychology Vol. 75 (pp.117).

Ringrose, S., Chanda, R., Nkambwe, M. and Sefe, F., 1996. Environmental change in the mid-boteti

16

area of north-central Botswana: Biophysical processes and human perceptions.

Environmental Management, 20(3): 397-410.

Sefe, F., Ringrose, S. and Matheson, W., 1996. Desertification in north-central Botswana: causes,

processes, and impacts. Journal of Soil & Water Conservation, 51(3): 241-248.

Singh, K. and Sooch, S., 2004. Comparative study of economics of different models of family size

biogas plants for state of Punjab, India. Energy Conversion and Management, 45(9-10):

1329-1341.

Tannen, D. 1979. What's in a Frame? Surface evidence for underlying expectations. In Ro Freedle

(Ed.) New Directions in Discourse Processing. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing, (pp 137-181.)

17