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Universidad: Universidad Nacional del Litoral
Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias
Carrera: Licenciatura en Ingls
Comisin: 5 Lomas de Zamora
Ao acadmico: 2008
Asignatura: Literatura Inglesa II
Profesoras: Prof. Claudia Ferradas Moi, MA,
Lic. Vernica Storni Fricke,
Prof. Mara Cristina Llorente
Ttulo del trabajo:
Dracula:Cross cutting and mise-en-scne in film narratology
Alumna: Paola Longo
Fecha de entrega del trabajo: agosto 2008.
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Index
1. Introduction2. Introduction to film narratology3. Some concepts from semiotics4. Dracula: cross-cutting editing5. Mise-en-scne6. Characters7. Colours8. Lightning9. Dialogue and music10.Shots and framing11.Conclusion12.Bibliography
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Introduction
There are many ways to approach the analysis of a film depending on what it is that
we want to focus. However, it is always necessary to pay attention to the visual and
the aural code. For semiotician Daniel Chandler (1994):
Although exposure over time leads 'visual language' to seem
'natural', we need to learn how to 'read' even visual and audio-
visual texts () The conventions of such forms need to be learned
before we can make sense of them.1
The main purpose of this paper will be to analyze the role of mise-en-scne in the
construction of a narrative. It is not the intention of this analysis to approach the
film from an ideologically-loaded perspective (which would require further
research) but to identify some of the elements present in the construction of this
audiovisual material within the film narratology perspective. However, it will be
also necessary to use some concepts from the field of semiotics since the codes to be
analysed require an interdisciplinary approach. Semiotics will, then, be a tool in
deconstructing the audiovisual signifiers within the narrative of this film.
The chosen corpus to be analysed is a scene from the film Dracula by Francis Ford
Coppola. Two important aspects of films will be taken into account: editing and
mise-en-scne. Editing - the particular way in which the narration has been
constructed as a sequence - will be very important in knowing how the story is build
up whereas mise-en-scne will make us pay attention to different aspects of the
construction of the audiovisual material.
1 Chandler, Daniel Semiotics for beginners (1994) hypertext at
http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/sem08.html
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Introduction to film narratology
Before discussing narratology as an approach to films, it is necessary to define
narrative: its main object of study. We, as human beings are surrounded by
narratives because they are the way in which we construct stories and sequences of
events.
Much of the worlds information has always been delivered in story
form, whether recounted as personal experience, historical events,
imagined fiction, or a mix of all three. () Narrative is generally
accepted as possessing two components: the story presented and theprocess of its telling, or narration, often referred to as narrative
discourse. A story is a series of represented events, characters (or
agents for some), and actions out of which the audience constructs
a fictional time, place, and causeeffect world, or diegesis.
(Encyclopedia of Schrimer 2007:195)
One way to analyse films is through the film narratology perspective, which can
defined as the study of how stories work and the way in which we make sense of all
the materials contained in a story (how we put them together and construct a
coherent whole). It also analyses the different narrative structures, storytelling
strategies, aesthetic conventions, genres and their symbolic implications.
According to Daniel Chandler, audiovisual images follow common conventions
often referred to as grammar of the audiovisual material. This grammar is used
to convey meaning not only when it is followed but also when it is flouted. There
are many elements to take into consideration when analysing a film: some belong to
the visual code, such as distance and angle of the shot, lightning, camera
movements, editing techniques, etc.; others belong to the aural code, such as music,
dialogue, background noises, narration voices and even the lack of them all
silence. It is at this point, that it is relevant to introduce the concept of Mise-en-
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scne which denotes the use of some of these elements in order to convey meaning.
According to Susan Hayward (1999:220-221),
Mise-en-scne is Originally a theatre term meaning
staging. It crossed over to signify the film productionpractices involved in the framing of shots. Thus, first it
connotes setting, costumes and lightning, second, movement
within the frame. () Mise-en-scne is the expressive tool at the
film makers disposal which a critic can read to determine the
specificity of the cinematographic work.2
In analysing a film, it is not only important to pay attention to the content of the
audiovisual material but also to the way in which the shots are put together.
Mise-en-scne is what we see in a film; editing is what we do not. Theseare s simplified definitions, but they emphasize two essential things: the
basic building blocks of a filmthe shot and the cutand the
complexities of each that allow a film to achieve its texture and
resonance. Mise-en-scne concerns the shot, though we need to keep in
the back of our mind that editingputting two shots togetheraffects
not only how a films narrative is structured but how the shots are
subsequently understood by viewers.3
(Schrimer Encyclopaedia of Film
2007:163)
Picture 1. Mise-en- scne as a narrative agent
2 Hayward Susan (1999). Key Concepts in Cinema Studies. Routledge. New York.3 Schrimer Encyclopedia of Film, Barry Keith Grant EDITOR IN CHIEF Thompson Gale (2007)
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Some concepts from semiotics
Since this paper aims at analysing the signs within the narrative discourse, it is
necessary to extend the approach to include a science which studies signs as part of a
universe of meaning. For D. Chandler (1994:1):
Contemporary semioticians study signs not in isolation but as part of
semiotic 'sign systems' (such as a medium or genre). They study how
meanings are made: as such, being concerned not only with
communication but also with the construction and maintenance of
reality.
Semiotics studies how signs signify and takes into account many aspects of the text
itself such: the context (social knowledge); the medium and the genre (textual
knowledge). Therefore, we see that signs are culturally and contextually bound. To
understand what semiotics is, we need to clarify the definition of sign. For
semiotician Charles Pierce, sign is almost everything: even our own dreams and
thoughts since they all signify. For D. Chandler:
Signs take the form of words, images, sounds, odours, flavours, acts or
objects, but such things have no intrinsic meaning and become signs
only when we invest them with meaning.
In this definition, the sign is viewed as a two-element whole: the sign itself (the
signifier) and what that sign stands for (the signified). These two elements are
borrowed from the field of semiotics. Even when semiotics has a strong linguistic
background, it also is useful to approach an audiovisual text because we can identify
signifiers and, then, interpret their relationship with their signified. These two
components of a sign are related to each other in three different manners according
to D. Chandler (1994:3):
Symbol/symbolic: a mode in which the signifier does not resemble the signified but
which is fundamentally arbitrary or purely conventional - so that the relationship
must be learnt: e.g. language in general.
6
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Icon/iconic: a mode in which the signifier is perceived as resembling or imitating
the signified (recognizably looking, sounding, feeling, tasting or smelling like it).
Index/indexical: a mode in which the signifier is not arbitrary but is directly
connected in some way (physically or causally) to the signified - this link can be
observed or inferred: e.g. 'natural signs' (smoke, thunder, footprints, echoes, non-
synthetic odours and flavours).
These divisions, however, must not be taken as pure categories since some
semioticians believe that there are no pure signs and that every sign has some
characteristics of two or more of these groups. For example, Lucys bright red hair
is an index of fire since these two elements share common characteristics (the colour
red) but it is also a symbol since red could be read in the Western world as passion,
love or anger.
According to semiotics, all these signs are ruled by codes and, in the case of films,
we have to talk about audiovisual codes. These codes are acquired by the spectator
very early in their life and could be understood that these conventions are indeed
natural. It is, by means of the semiotic analysis, that signs and codes are brought to
the foreground and deconstructed making emphasis on their naturalization process.
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Dracula: cross-cutting editing
We could define editing as one of the cinematic codes present in a film. Montage
comes from the French verb monter ('to assemble') and it is used to refer to the
process of editing shots into a sequence or to editing sequences into the form of a
complete film. It also refers to the transition that takes place between one shot and
the following. Editing can be categorised as a lineal sequence or a parallel one.
In the first case, we are in the presence of continuity editing in which thetime and space relationships are logical and progressive.
In the second one, however, cross-cutting editing assembles two sceneswhich run in a parallel manner and take place at the same time but in
different places.
It is the former type of editing which was chosen in Dracula to tell the marriage of
Mina and Jonathan and the encounter of Lucy and Dracula. This type of editing
shows parallel opposite situations and pushes the spectator to make a connection
between them.
Eisenstein, a Russian filmmaker, believed that editing or montage was the essence of
cinema, and with Bronenosets Potyomkin (1925), he created an editing style called
dialectical montage. The massacre on the Odessa Steps in Potyomkin
exemplifies the principles of dialectical montage: Eisensteins editing in this
sequence captures the emotional and physical violence of the massacre, and he also
aims at using editing to suggest ideas, a style he defined intellectual montage.
This same principle can be applied to the scene analyzed in Dracula: there is a latent
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conflict between the two situations and the effect created by overlapping them is
utterly different than if they had been placed one after the other.
Editing, in this scene, becomes a key element in the signification process. The
audience cannot watch the peaceful marriage of Mina without being bombarded by
images of what is happening to Lucy. In this way, some of the violent characteristics
of Lucys and Draculas encounter invade Minas marriage and, thus, the audience
perceive that both events are violent.
Picture 2 and 3. Cross-cutting editing: Minas marriage to Jonathan and Draculas attack onLucy.
We are confronted with a dichotomy between good and evil, passion and content,
holy matrimony and sinful sexual copulation. Editing has been used to link
significant events creating a sharp dichotomy between the two actions, and
encourages the viewer to compare the two scenes. Often, this contrast is used for
strong emotional effect, and frequently at the climax of a film. The rhythm of the
cross-cuts increases by the end of the scene accompanied by the crescendo of its
music setting the tone of the scene.
In this way, the use of parallel editing technique has re-signified the scene: the
spectator is not only watching two separate sequences but they are watching the
relationship between them.
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Picture 4 and 5. Exposition to the narrative
Picture 6 and 7. Rising action
Picture 8 and 9. Climax
Picture 10 and 11. Resolution
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ActionsSpeed of editing Music
Part of the
narrative
(following
Freytag's
analysis ofdramatic
structure)
Lucy sleeps in her room -
the men guard the house -
Dracula approaches the
mansion
Setting of the churchwhere Mina and Jonathan
are getting married
Exposition
Lucy senses Dracula
Dracula attacked the men
Jonathan and Mina are at
the altar
Dracula speaks to Lucy
Jonathan lifts Minas veil.Risingaction
Dracula attacks Lucy.
Jonathan and Mina kiss
climax
Bloodbath at Lucys room
Jonathan and Mina final
kiss
The rhythm of
editing increases
and shots become
shorter by the end
of the sequence.
Music picks up the
pace of the images
in a steady
crescendo.
resolution
Table 1: Use of parallel editing in Dracula
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Mise-en-scne
The second element to be taken into account is mise-en-scene. The term mise-en-
scne was firstly used in the theatre and it is used to refer to how directors and
producers carry out the process of filmmaking. According to the Schrimer
Encyclopaedia of Film (2007:193),
Cinematic mise-en-scne refers to how directors, working in concert
with their cinematographers and production designers, articulate
indeed, createthe spatial elements and coordinates in the shot and
succeed in composing well-defined, coherent, fictional worlds.Composition and the articulation of space within a film carry as much
narrative power and meaning as its characters dialogue. Mise-en-
scne is thus part of a films narrative, but it can tell a larger story,
indicating things about the events and characters that go beyond any
words they utter.
For Susan Hayward, Mise-en-scne is composed by different elements,
among which we can name setting, costumes, lighting and camera
movement. The director decides which elements he is going to include in a
shot (furniture, actors, etc.) and he also decides how the actors are to perform
their characters and which position they must hold while shooting. Lighting
and colours are also decided at this point. All these elements are put in the
stage to produce a specific effect in the spectator.
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Picture 12. Mise-en-scene as a narrative agent inthe construction of the story
To sum up, Nick Lacey4 lists the elements present in mise-en-scne:
Production design: sets, props and costumes;
Colour (present in both production design and lighting);
Lighting;
Actors performance (including casting and make-up) and movement;
Diegetic sound (that is, sound that emanates from the scene);
Framing, including position, depth of field, height and angle (but not movement);
For the purpose if this analysis the following elements of mise-en-scne will be dealt
with:
Characters Colours
Lightning
Dialogue and music Shots and framing
4 Lacey Nick, Introduction to Film (2005) Palgrave Macmillan. London.
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Characters
The actors performance and the construction of characters is also a part of mise-en-
scne. Following Nick Laceys (14) guide to analyse a performance, these elements
should be take into account:
1. Gestures;2. Tone of voice, accent and type of language used;3. Body posture and movements (body language);4. Make-up and hair (and costume).
Gesture: In the scene under analysis, there are four main characters (although there
are some others which play a secondary role and will not be analysed in this paper):
Dracula and Lucy; Jonathan and Mina. The former couple shows visual and aural
signifiers which point to a more savage, impulsive and passion-driven pair whereas
the later couples signs construct more formal, logical characters.
Tone of voice, accent and type of language: Actually, the only character that
speaks in this scene is Dracula: he talks to Lucy before he attacks her (his voice is
guttural and very manly). In his speech, the words blood and power are
highlighted and, thus, become very meaningful in the construction of this very
powerful character (in contrast to Jonathans character who does not utter a single
word). This manner of speaking could be read as indexical aural signifier of an
alpha male (this is reinforced by the fact that Dracula transforms himself later on
into a wolf). The other character that utters some kind of sound is Lucy who moans
and screams at the very presence of Dracula. These sounds could also be read as
indexes of an animal in heat or in danger (in the case of her screams). Both
characters through their aural signifiers construct the image of savages.
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Body posture and movements: In terms of movement, whereas we see that Mina
approaches Jonathan at the altar (an obedient woman that follows her man), Dracula
is the one coming to Lucy (a beast that takes his female). The dichotomy between
savage and civilised is again reinforced.
15
Picture 13. Lucys body language as an
indicator of her sexual desire
Regarding body posture, there is also a
difference in the way in which these
characters carry their bodies. To begin
with, Lucy, who is always lying in bed,
moves freely, contorting her body when she senses that Dracula is near. This
represents the freedom of her desire winning
space over the social constrains even when her
arms and legs are outstretched without
restrains. However, she stays always in bed as
if that space would be the only place allowed
for such freedom.
Dracula is also versatile in terms of body
movements since he can transform himself into
different animals (a wolf, a monster, rats)
gaining different postures (four-legged vs.
two-legged).
Pictures 14, 15 and 16. Body postures adoptedby Dracula in his different transformations.
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In clear contrast, Jonathan and Mina stand bolt upright expressing almost no facial
gestures. Their moves are gentle and their performances give the ceremony a very
formal tone to the ceremony.
Make-up and hair (and costume): According to Nick Lacey (2005:8), costumes
can be iconic of some film genres (such as the cowboy costume is an icon of
Western films). Costumes also build the identity of the characters and help us place
them in time. In the case of Dracula, costumes are iconic of Victorian times, in
which women wore long, rich dresses which covered almost their entire bodies.
This is also indexical of their sexuality: their bodies were covered as well as their
desire - to reveal them would be seen as not appropriate and would probably be
punished (as it happens with Lucy).
Pictures 17, 18 and 19: Hair, dressing and make up as visual signifiers
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Let us analyse these elements in each of the characters:
Lucy Mina Dracula Jonathan
Costume pink nightgown (her
breast and
shoulders
naked)
Wedding dressin grey and
white colours.
Long-sleeved.
She also wears
a long veil.
Whenappearing as a
man he wears
a long black
gown
A dark tuxedo
Hair Wavy bright
red hair
loose and
dishevelled
Long straight
dark hair
neatly
arranged and
held by a cap
Loose white
hair with a
receding
hairline.
Short black
straight hair.
Some grey
hair has
appeared since
the last scene.
Make-up No apparent
make up but
there is a glow
in her face
which
transpires
passion. She
will show,
when
transforming,long teeth.
No apparent
make up
His make up
shows a man
of old age,
whitish
complexion.
He will show,
when
transforming,
long teeth.
Whitish
complexion
Table 2: table comparing costume, hair and make up in the four characters of the scene.
In terms of identity, also hair, make-up and costume help build the character
coherently. According to the Dictionary of Symbols (1969: 569):
The style and cut of the hair has always been a means of
determining not only personality, but also social and spiritual
status. () Hair is one of womans main weapons and therefore the
fact the fact of its being concealed or displayed, plaited or hanging
loose, is often the sign of a womans availability, surrender or
modesty.
Lucys hair is symbolic of the passion and rebelliousness she represents. Her
clothes reinforce this visual signifier by adding warm colours (the night gown) and
the looseness with which she wears it. However, strong presence of the colour red
also indicates the presence of blood, danger and ultimately death. Mina, on the
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contrary, wears a wedding dress that covers almost her entire body which could be
interpreted as the expression of her sexuality (even her face is covered by a heavy
veil). She represents domesticity of women during the Victorian age.
Jonathan and Dracula also show a contrast. Whereas Jonathan wears his hair
straight and neatly trimmed, Dracula wears it loose and long. Also, Dracula has
complete white hair (which is indexical of his age and ultimately wisdom) whereas
Jonathan wears salt and pepper hair (which makes him a seasoned man to some
extent). The wildness of each character is expressed by their hair as a strong visual
signifier: while Dracula is strong, experiences and savage, Jonathan is younger and
more inclined to comply with societys precept of the time. According to the
Dictionary of Symbols (16969: 570), hair in men represents their virility and power.
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Colours
Colour was first added to black-and-white movies through tinting and stencilling. By
1906, the principles of colour separation were used to produce "full colour" moving
images. Early processes were cumbersome and expensive and were not really used
widely until the introduction of the three-colour Technicolor technology in 1932.
Since then, colour has been an important element in filmmaking. At first, colour
could only achieve an artificial impression until the technique was fully developed.
From then on, filmmakers have used colours, the lack of them and also their
saturation to convey meaning and moods. According to Bernard F. Dick:
Colour can embellish, suggest, characterize, and forge symbolic
connections: so can black and white. An astute filmgoer will know
when colour is decorative or functional and when monochrome is
perfunctory or motivated.5
In the chosen scene, the use of colours is indeed intentional. Whereas Lucys room
is decorated with bright colours, the church where Mina is getting married is flooded
with pale and grey colours. Not only Lucys room filled with reddish colours -
conveys the sexual tension of the scene but also her night gown (which is of a warm
colour) and specially her hair (of a bright red tone).
For Western culture, red is a strong colour that conjures a range of conflicting
emotions from passionate love to violence and warfare. According to the Penguin
Dictionary of Symbols6:
Red, the colour of and regarded universally as the basic symbol
of life-principle, with its dazzling strength and power. () There
is, however, a big ambivalence in the blood-red colour: when
hidden (as in the womb of a woman or the blood in our veins) it is
what conditions life; when exposed it expressed death.
5 Bernard F. Dick (1998) Anatomy of Film. St. Martins Press. Third edition. New York6 Jean Chevalier (1969) Dictionary of Symbols. Second edition. Penguin.
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Pictures 20 and 21. Warm-colourer scene vs. a sumptuous cooler-colourer scene.
Red is Cupid and the Devil. It is indeed the hottest of the warm colours. The
expression seeing red, for example, indicates anger and may stem not only from the
stimulus of the colour but from the natural flush (redness) of the cheeks, a physical
reaction to anger, increased blood pressure, or physical exertion. Lucys red wavy
hair gives the character most of these characteristics: she is passionate, impulsive
and even savagely sexual.
Minas character, on the contrary, wears a grey and white wedding dress, her make
up is hardly noticeable features that encompass the lack of colour present in the
church. Like black, grey is used as a colour of mourning as well as a colour of
formality. Dark grey carries with it some of the strength and mystery of black: it is a
sophisticated colour without much of the negative attributes of black. The use of
white symbolises cleanliness or purity or softness and some cultures view white as
the colour of royalty or of deities. Angels are also typically depicted as wearing
white. In addition, in early Westerns the good guy wore white while the bad guy
wore black. According to Chevaliers Dictionary of Symbols (1969:1108):
The positive qualities now acquired by white are also linked to the
phenomenon of initiation. White is not the attribute of the postulant
or candidate who walks to his death, but of the person who rises
again, reborn and victorious from the ordeal.
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It s also interesting to note that the church has a sumptuous quality to it: The golden
columns and altar add to the formal tone of the ceremony.
The binary opposition between Minas marriage and Lucys attack is brought into
focus by the use of cross-cutting editing which makes these two utterly opposite
situations come to a confrontation, as shown in the following table:
Colours present connotation
Mina and Jonathans
marriage
White, grey, gold Purity
Boredom
sumptuousness
Lucy and Draculaencounter
Red, pink, orangeBlack
Blood, life-death, passionDeath, danger
Table 3: connotation of the colours present in both sequences
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Lightning
Lighting has come to be an important component of cinemas visual design. It is
widely recognized that in film it can create a substantial emotional impact. A
primordial response to darkness and light is a deep-seated element of human
psychology that filmmakers use in order to influence the ways viewers respond to
narrative development. On the one hand, deep shadows can make a character seem
untrustworthy or conceal a host of horrors. On the other hand, bright, diffused
lighting can provide comfort and reassurance or create the impression of an angelic
countenance. In this sense, lightning has the power to signify by itself, adding
emotions such as fear, comfort, etc. as explained by Bernard F. Dick (1997:86),
Lightning can be categorized as high key and low key. A low-
contrast ratio of key and fill light will result in an image of almost
uniform brightness, or what is called high-key lightning. ()
Conversely, a high-contrast ratio of key and fill light will result in
low-key lightning and create a shadowy effect and a night time aura.
In this scene, we see again a contrast in terms of lightning. Whereas the church
where Jonathan and Mina are getting married is invaded by the light coming through
big windows, Lucys room shows a low key ambience. We know for sure that
Minas attack takes place during the night and it is, therefore, concealed by shadows
(which were believed to be the place where the Devil and demons dwell in the
shadows). In the case of the sequence taking place in Rumania, whether the coming
lights source is the sun or the moonlight, it is important to note that there is an
abundance of it and, since it symbolises the spark of life and divinity, it directly
contrasts with the low key lightning of the alternate sequence, which stands as a
symbol of death and the Devil.
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According to Schrimers Encyclopedia of Film (2007:92):
Lighting has come to be an important component of cinemas
visual design. It is widely recognized that in film, as elsewhere, it
can create a substantial emotional impact. A primordial
response to darkness and light is a deep-seated element ofhuman psychology that filmmakers have harnessed in order to
influence the ways viewers respond to narrative development. On
the one hand, deep shadows can make a character seem
untrustworthy or conceal a host of horrors. On the other, bright,
diffused lighting can provide comfort and reassurance or create
the impression of an angelic countenance.
The lightning is one of the most important aspect of the photographic composition
of a film since it is lightning which determines ultimately the shade and feeling of
the colours used. It is completely different the feeling and value of white in a low
key ambience than the same colour in a high key one. For example, the values of
white and grey in Minas wedding dress are reinforced by the high key ambience
conveying the idea of purity and life.
Pictures 22 and 23. Low-key and high-key lightning
In Lucys sequence, red acquires a deadly value by being exposed to the dark
surrounding and the low key environment. The low key used in Lucys sequence
also reinforces the idea of gothic horror films which are characterised by the use of
dark scenes where horrific acts are performed.
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Dialogue and music
Even though films were born silent, today we understand that sound is a paramount
element in the construction of the story. This is so much so that films are defined as
an audiovisual art. However, sound needs to be decomposed because it is made up
of a number of elements such as music, dialogues, sound effects (all non vocal
noises) and silence. According to the Schrimer Encyclopaedia of Film (2007:198)
It is the interaction of sound with image that gives films much of
their depth and solidity, emotion and meaning. The paradox offilm sound is that it takes great artifice to produce the sounds that
apparently emanate from sources onscreen, seeming so natural
that we take them for granted.
Following Jahn Manfred7
distinction of sound sources, we could talk of:
Diegetic sound: Noise, speech or music coming from an identifiable sourcein the current scene ('diegetic' refers to 'diegesis', i.e., the narrative world).
Nondiegetic sound: Noise, speech or music which does notcome from asource located in the current scene. For instance, music adding melancholy to
a scene. Nondiegetic sound usually creates mood and atmosphere.
In the scene chosen from Dracula by Francis Ford Coppola, diegetic sound plays an
important role in the opposition between Minas marriage and Lucys encounter
with Dracula. Whereas in Minas marriage we hear nothing but the chanting of the
orthodox priests (in a language unknown both: for the audience and for the couple),
in the scene where Lucy meets Dracula we find not only a monologue but also
music, moaning, screams and wolf grunts. It is implied that there is an opposition
7 Jahn, Manfred. 2003. A Guide to Narratological Film Analysis. Poems, Plays, and Prose: A Guide
to the Theory of Literary Genres. English Department, University of Cologne.
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between a civilized ceremony and a savage encounter: the sealing of a marriage at
church vs. a savage sexual encounter outside wedlock.
Minas marriage Lucys encounter
Music Monotonous church music Music in crescendoSound effects - Panting
- Scream
- Panting
- Grunts
- Moaning
No sound effects
Dialogue - Chanting from the
priests
- No dialogue among
Mina and Jonathan
Draculas words to Lucy
Table 4: Audio codes used in both scenes
The fact that Minas marriage is carried out in a foreign language (Latin) implies the
distance and the coldness of the ceremony, contrary to what happens to Lucy, scene
which transpires sexuality and desire. The aural code helps reinforce the opposition
also marked by the visual code.
Dialogue also helps create the development of the narrative by informing the
audience what is going to happen next, the reason for it and the attitude of the
characters. As expressed by Nick Lacey, diegetic and non-diegetic sounds in a film
aid the development of the narrative and act as one of the narrative agents present in
every film. Analysing Draculas monologue (I will consider it a monologue since
Lucy only utters moans and screams), we can perceive it as statements uttered by an
active (aggressive) character who is addressing a passive (weaker) one which has
not the capacity to respond. Let us analyse the monologue:
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THAT NIGHT
R O M A N I A / E N G L A N D
A Church in Romania/Lucy's Bedroom at Hillingham
Mina and Harker stand before the altar
Dracula stands before the patio doors to Lucy's bedroom
DRACULA: Your impotent men with their foolish spells cannot
protect you from my power. I condemn you to living death, to
eternal hunger for living blood!
Mina and Harker drink wine in marriage
Dracula drinks Lucy's blood in marriage
Table 5: Script of the chosen scene from Dracula by Francis Ford Coppola
As we can see, Draculas monologue acts as a narrative agent by informing the
audience of the development of the story:
What happened before? The impotent men tried to protect Lucy from Dracula
What is happening next? Dracula condemns her to living death
Why? Because they could not protect her
What will happen next? Lucy will become a living dead
In this monologue, we can also construct Draculas attitude: he considers himself
more powerful than those impotent men who tried to protect Lucy. As a response
to this declaration, Lucy only utters some moans (diegetic sounds) which reinforce
her position as a weaker and subdued character.
Regarding the use of non-diegetic sound, only one piece of music has been used
with the following purposes:
1. Adding a feeling of danger, progressive action in a rising manner;2. Helping the continuity of editing;3. Emphasising the contrast between both sequences.
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As explained before (in the section referring to parallel editing), the chosen score
gives a rising progression to the narrative and follows the pace of the montage
anticipating the climax of the scene: shorter cuts and faster editing are accompanied
by louder music in crescendo (starts with a mezzo piano, develops into fortissimo
and continues steadily in a crescendo).
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Shots
In cinema, shotis a term used to describe the minimum unit of meaning. Mise-en-
scne plays an important role in its composition since the filmmaker has to
choreograph all the elements which compose the narrative of that shot in order to
tell the story. According to Schrimer Encyclopedia of Film (2007:69):
A shot corresponds to the
length of film that is exposed
during production as it is run
through the camera from thetime the camera is turned on
until it is turned off. In this
way, the shot forms one unit
of a larger scene or sequence
that, in turn, is made up of
numerous shots. To create a
shot, therefore, requires that
the location be lit, that the
actors be placed within the
frame and their movements
choreographed, and thatother elements of set design
and costuming be in place for
the duration of the shot.
Regarding the framing of the shot,
there is a commonly used
classification of shots. Each of the
following can be chosen by the
filmmaker to convey different
feelings of moods on the audience:
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Extreme close-up: makes the audience pay attention to a detail otherwiseimperceptible to the eye;
Close-up: shows the reaction of characters to a certain event; Medium close-up (head and shoulders): Allows the audience to read the
reaction of the character (including body language);
Medium shot (most of a body): Introduces the context in relationship withthe character;
Medium long shot (the whole body); Long shot (two or three peoples whole): shows the character in relation to
other characters;
Extreme long shot or establishing shot (landscape): established the scene,not paying attention to the elements but on the context.
The choice of framing is directly determined by the narrative: the audience sees
what the filmmaker wants them to see as Nick Lacey (2005:23) puts it:
The narrative is the superordinate determinant of conventional
film form, as it determines where the camera is placed, how and
where it moves, and how shots are put together. The most
noticeable element is the position of the camera in relation to the
frames contents, which can range from an extreme close-up to an
extreme long shot, which might be used to show landscape or the
universe.
In the chosen scene, the narrative starts with some context-describing shots (medium
long shots and medium shots) to situate the audience. Once we know that these two
sequences take place in Lucys room and in the church in Rumania and, once the
introduction has already been established, there is a series of very close shots which
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what is happening in the attack. It could also be said that the choice of medium shots
at the beginning of the scene and the use of close-ups later on has been specifically
taken to develop the narrative in a particular manner: from describing the situation to
bringing the audience closer to the danger and passion constructed in the narrative.
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Conclusion
The main purpose of this paper was to analyse the different audiovisual signifiers
present in a scene from Dracula by Francis Ford Coppola identifying some of the
elements present in the construction of this audiovisual material within the film from
a narratology perspective. In order to do so, it has proven necessary to use some
concepts from the field of semiotics because some of the codes analysed required a
more detail approach. Semiotics was, then, used as an analytical tool in the
deconstruction of the audiovisual signifiers within the narrative of this film.
Two important aspects of films were taken into account: editing and mise-en-scne.
Editing proved to be very important in knowing how the story was constructed and
mise-en-scne help me to pay attention to different aspects of the construction of the
audiovisual material. It was possible, finally, from a narratological perspective but
also introducing some concepts from the field of semiotics, to analyse and
denaturalize the signifiers composed in the story and identify the single elements
which constructed the narrative.
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