Dr. Mazharul Islam 1 Topic # 02 Email: [email protected]

Dr. Mazharul Islam www.studyandjobs24.com1

Topic # 02

Email: [email protected]


Research Process: Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.

Stages of Research Process: The stages involved in the research process are following:

1. Identification of Research Problem;2. Selection of Research Problem;3. Literature Review;4. Definition or Statement or Background or Introduction of the

Research problem;

5. Importance of Studying the Research Problem;6. Formulation of Objectives and Hypothesis to Study the

Research Problem;7. Selection of Research Design to Study the

Research Problem;8. Selection of Sample Design to Study the Research

Problem;9. Data Collection and Processing ;10. Data Analysis (Estimation and Hypothesis

Testing );11. Report Writing.


Flowchart of the Research process: The flowchart of the research process is following:

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1. Identification of Research Problem: The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to identify a problem. A well identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all important phases of the research process starting from setting objectives to the selection of the research methodology. According to Fisher et al (1993), a problem will qualify as a potential research problem when the following three conditions exist:

a) There should be a perceived discrepancy between “what it is” and “What it should be”. This implies that there should be a difference between “what actually exists” and the “ideal or planned situation”;

b) A question about" Why” the discrepancy exists. This implies that the reasons for this discrepancy is unclear to the researcher (so that it makes sense to develop a research question); and

c) There should be at least two possible answers or solution to the questions or problem.

Examples of Non-research ProblemsExample 1: A recent survey in District A found that 1000 women

were continuous users of contraceptive pills. But last months service statistics indicate that none of these women were using contraceptive pills (Fisher et al. 1991:4)

The discrepancy is that all the villages should have approximately the same rate of contraceptive use, but in fact there is a great variation. The question is: why the discrepancy? Well the fact is a monsoon flood has prevented all new supplies of pills reaching District A, and all old supplies have been exhausted, thus although the problem situation exists, but the reason for the problem is already known.


Therefore, assuming that all the facts are correct, there is no reason to conduct research on the factors associated with pill discontinuation among the women. This is thus a non-research problem.

Example 2: A pilot surveys by Dhaka University revealed that in Raipura Thana the goiter prevalence among the school children is as high as 80%m, while in the neighboring Thana, it is only to the extent of 30%. Why is this discrepancy?

Upon inquiry, it was seen that some 3 years back, UNICEF launched a lipiodol injection program in the neighboring Thana. This attempt acted as a preventive measure against goiter. The reason for the discrepancy is known and hence we do not consider the problem as research problem.

Example 3: A hospitals treated a large number of cholera cases with penicillin, but the treatment with penicillin was not found to be effective. Do we need a research to know the reason?

Here again there is one single reason that Vibrio cholera is not sensitive to penicillin and therefore this is not the drug of choice for this disease. In this case too, as the reasons are known, it is unwise to undertake any study to find out why penicillin does not improve condition of cholera patients. This is also a non- research problem.

Example 4: In tea marketing system, buying and selling of tea starts from bidders. Blenders purchase open tea from the bidders. It is observed over the years that marketing cost is the highest for bidders. While it is the lowest for the blenders. What makes this difference?


The fact is that the bidders pay exorbitantly higher transport cost, which constitutes about 30% of their total cost. Blenders have significantly less marketing functions and hence their marketing cost remains at a minimum. Hence no research is needed to identify the factors that make this difference.

Example of research problemExample 1: While visiting a rural area the UNICEF team observed

that some villages have female school attendance rate as high as 75% while some have as low as 10% although all villages should have nearly equal rate of attendance. What factors are associated with this discrepancy?

We may enumerate a number of reasons for this:a. Villages differ in their socio-economic background.b. In some villages, Muslims constitute a large proportion of the

total population. Religion might play a vital role. c. Schools are far away from some villages. Distance thus may

make this difference.Because there is more than one answer to the problem. It is

considered as a research problem and a study can be undertaken to find a solution.

Example 2: The Government of Bangladesh has been making all out efforts to ensure regular flow of credit in rural areas at concession rate through liberal lending policy and establishing a large number of bank branches in rural areas.


Knowledgeable sources indicate that expected development in rural areas has not yet been achieved mainly because of improper utilization of the credit. More than one reason is suspected for such misuse, or misdirection. These include among others:

a. Diversion of credit money to unproductive sector.b. Transfer of credit money to other people like money lenders,

who exploit the rural people with this money?c. Lack of knowledge of proper utilization of the credit.Here too, reasons for misuse of loans are more than one. We thus

consider this problem as a researchable problem.

2. Selection of the Research: After identifying the research problem it is impossible to research the all identifying research problem. So that we select only one problem to research. Considering the following matter a research problem is selected:

a. Problem, Impact & extent should be enlarged.b. The practical utility and importance of the research should

be available.c. Success of research should be possible.d. To analysis the problem the application of the scientific

method should be possible.

3. Literature Review: Review of relevant literature is an integral part in the research process. It enables the researcher to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his interest that have not been so far researched.


Such a review not only provides him an exposure to a larger body of knowledge but also equips him with enhanced knowledge of efficiently:

a. Selecting his objectives b. Formulating testable hypothesisc. Identifying the variables to be included and d. Conceptualizing the theoretical framework for analyzing data

with proper statistical rigor.

4. Definition or Statement or Background of the research Problem: A clear and well-defined statement of the problem enables the researcher to systematically point out why the proposed research on the problem should be undertaken and what he hopes to achieve with the findings of the study. The types of information that should be included in the statement of the problem are following.i.A brief description of the socio-economic and cultural characteristics and an overview of the issue at the macro level relevant to the problem to be researched.ii.A concise description of the nature of the problem (the discrepancy between what is and what should be), and of its size, distribution and severity (who is affected, where, since when).iii.An analysis of the major factors that may influence the problem and a convincing argument that available knowledge is insufficient to solve it.


iv. A brief description of any attempt in the past to solve the problem, outcome thereof, and why further research is needed.

v. A description of the type of information expected to result from the study and how this information will be used to help solve the problem.

Necessity of Defining a Research Problem: The adage “a problem well-defined is problem half-solved” is worth remembering. This adage emphasizes that a well-defined statement of the problem will lead the researcher

a. To state of research objectives,b. To understand the background of the problem,c. To isolate a research problem form non-research problem,d. To state the research question and hypothesis,e. To construct a conceptual framework of analysis,f. And to select a proper research methodology.

Let us examine the following cases to illustrate the problem statement:

Example 1: Credit pays an important role for accelerating economic growth in any developing country like Bangladesh. Credit program in any economy contributes to (a) increase productivity, (b) generate incomes, (c) ensure, better distribution of wealth.


Keeping this in view, the Government of Bangladesh has been making all out efforts to ensure the regular flow of credit in rural areas at a minimum interest rate, through liberal lending policy and establish bank branches in rural areas. But to achieving the goals, credit money must be utilized in a way for which it was sanctioned. But the borrowers under different constraints are compelled to divert whatever financial facilities they receive from the institutional or non- institutional sources owing to pressing demand and low or no saving. Such diverted practices cannot surely generate additional income to ensure repayment of outstanding money in time. This may therefore lead to high rate of default, making leading institutions hesitant to finance the rural poor. This leads to ultimate frustration to the program and incurs heavy loss to the loanees.

Example 2: Adolescence is an important period for most young people as it attempts tocope with many decisions regarding marriage, education and work which in turn influence and determine their future life course. Recently concern has been expressed about the negative social, health and economic consequences of adolescent childbearing, unintended pregnancies, and high level of premarital conceptions. These problems have far reaching consequences resulting in life long disadvantages and sufferings of the adolescents and of their offspring. Early sexual maturity resulting form improved nutrition and greater opportunities of sexual contracts due to urban life style among the adolescents will be additional problem especially for the4 developing countries. This problem is further aggravated when they have little access to family planning services. This leads to unwanted pregnancies and hence increases number of abortions.


Whether out of ignorance or fear, adolescents have a tendency to request abortion services later in pregnancy than older women, thus requiring more complicated and potentially dangerous abortion procedures, Bangladesh is no exception with risk; more than 85% women are already married. Nearly half of the women are married at age 15 despite the fact that the legal age at marriage is 18. By the age 19, 75% of the women have already had their first birth and 20% two or more. So the problems associated with adolescent sexuality and fertility is prevailing among a vast majority of the women of child bearing age in Bangladesh.

Although identifying, and hence definite, justifying, and analyzing a problem is probably the most important task in the research process, it is that knowledge of what is to be accomplished determines the research process. An error or omission in problem definition is likely to be a costly mistake that cannot be corrected in later stages of the research process.

5. Importance of Studying the Research Problem: Once problem situation has been identified and clearly stated, it is important to justify the importance of the problem. Research is often expensive and time consuming. It is therefore important to know:

i. Why is the problem of study important?ii. Is it current and timely one?iii. How widespread is the problem?iv. Who widespread is the problem?


v. Can others be convinced about the importance of the problem?

vi. Does the relate to broad social, economic, business and health issues?

vii. Can it be implemented given the resources and other logistic facilities?

Answers to the above questions should be reviewed, and presented in one or two paragraphs that justify the importance of the problem.

Example 1: (justification of the rural credit program example cited above): it is ideally expected that the loans received by the rural people will be used for the purposes for which they were taken. But there are allegations that the use of loans in many instances does not correspond to the commitment of the loanees. Misuse or misdirection of loans. Especially when it is utilized for unproductive purposes, does great harm to the loanees, the financing institutions as well as to the economy of the country as a whole. In such circumstances, it is imperative to examine the status, pattern, magnitude and nature of utilization of credit and the extent of misdirection of the same with an ultimate goal of suggesting measures to overcome the flaws.

Example 2: (justification of the adolescent fertility study example): although adolescents’ problems were the subject of many scholarly and popular research works, there has still been a dearth of empirical evidences to support the contentions found therein. To our knowledge, there has been virtually no comprehensive attempt to study the adolescent’s views and perception of sex and contraceptive behavior as well as their fertility intention.


The possibility of unwanted pregnancy in unmarried adolescents cannot also be ruled out. Abortion is not yet been legalized and sex outside marriage is seriously looked don upon in our society. Further, increasing trend in age at marriage life style rapid urbanization and poverty will be the added factors to victimize the young women in near future. In this situation, an exploratory study concerning the sexual behavior, contraceptive practices and reproductive health should be undertaken. The study in expected to contribute too the development and implementation of reproductive health and sex educative programs though necessary changes in customs and laws that will address the needs of the adolescents in Bangladesh.6. Formulation of Objectives and Hypothesis to Study the Research Problem : After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal statement of the problem leading to research objectives. An objectives will precisely say what should be researched, so as to delicate the type of information that should be collected and proved a framework for the scope of the study. The best expression of a research objective is a well-formulated, testable research hypothesis. A hypothesis is an unproven statement or supported by empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert possible answer to a research question.7. Selection of Research Design to Study the Research Problem : The research design is the blue print or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering research question. It is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting, processing and analyzing the collected data. There are four basic research designs that a researcher


can use to conduct his/her study: i) Survey; ii) Experiment; iii) Secondary data study; iv) Observational study. The type of research design to be chosen from among the above four depends primarily on four factors:

a. The type of problem, b. The objectives of the study,

c. The existing state of knowledge about the problem that is being studied, and

d. The resources available for the study. 8. Selection of Sample Design to Study the Research Problem: Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of sampling is that it involves any procedure that uses a small number of items or portion (called sample) of a universe (called population) to make a conclusion regarding the whole population. It contrasts with the process of complete enumeration, in which every member of the population is included. If certain statistical procedures are followed in selection the sample, it should have the same characteristics as the population as a whole. These procedures are embedded in the sample design. Sampling design refers to the methods to be followed in selecting sample from the population and the estimating technique, vis-à-vis formula for computing the sample statistics. The basic question is then, how to select a sample? To answer this question, we must have acquaintance with the sampling methods. These methods are basically of two types: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling ensures every unit a known non-zero probability of selection within the target population. If there is no feasible alternative, a non-probability sampling method may be employed. The basis of such selection is entirely


dependent on the researcher’s discretion. This approach is variously called judgment sampling, convenience sampling, accidental sampling and purposive sampling. The most widely used probability sampling methods are simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling and systematic sampling.9. Data Collection and Processing: The gathering of data may range from a simple observation to a large scale survey in any defined population. There are many ways to collect data. The approach selected depends on the objectives of the study, the research design, and the availability of time, money and personal. With the variation in the type of data (Qualitative or quantitative) to be collected, the method of data collection also varies. The most common means for collection quantitative data is the structured interview. Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called surveys. Data can also be collected by using self-administered questionnaires. Telephone interviewing is another way in which data may be collected. We will discuss these methods in great details later.

Other means of data collection include the use of secondary sources, such as the census, vital registration records, official documents, previous surveys etc. Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-depth interviews, focus group discussion, and observational studies.10. Data Analysis (Estimation and Hypothesis Testing): Data processing generally begins with editing and coding of data. Data are edited to ensure consistency across respondents and to locate omissions if any. In survey data editing reduces errors in the recording improves legibility and clarifies unclear and inappropriate responses. In addition to editing, the data also need


Coding. Because it is impractical to place raw data into a report, alphanumeric codes are used to reduce the responses to a more manageable form for storage and future processing. This coding process facilitates processing the data. Personal computer offers an excellent opportunity in data editing and coding processes.

Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable size, developing summaries, searching for patterns, and applying statistical techniques for understanding and interpreting the finding in the light or the research questions. Further, the researcher, on the basis of his analysis, determines if his findings are consistent with the formulated hypothesizes and theories.

The techniques to be used in analyzing data may range from simple graphical technique to very complex multivariate analysis depending on the objectives of the study, research design employed and nature of data collected. As in the case of methods of data collection, an analytical technique appropriate in one situation may not be appropriate on another.

11. Report Writing: The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret the results and draw conclusions. To this end, it is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the findings and recommendations to administrators, policy makes and program managers for the intended purpose of making decision. At a bare minimum, a research report should contain the flowing parts as :


a) Preliminary Pages: The preliminary pages of a repot should carry the followingsi) Title, ii) Date, iii) Acknowledgements, iv) Forwarding Letter from Institution, v) Contents, vi) List of Tables, vii) List of Graphs, if any.

b) Main Text: The main text should have the following parts:i. An executive summary or abstract,ii. Defining or statement or Background or Introduction of the

research problem,iii. Importance of Research,iv. Objectives and Hypothesis of Research,v. Literature review,vi. Methodology (Sampling procedure with explanation of

sample unit, independent and dependent variable selection, operational key words, and explanation of other methods which are used with assumptions and other conditions).

vii. Results Discussion,viii. Conclusion, andix. Implementation Strategies for the Recommendations.

c) End Matter: At the end of the report, i) appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data, ii) Bibliography i.e., list of book, journals, reports, etc should be given in the end, iii) Index should be given specially in a published research report.

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Dr. Mazharul Islam 1 Topic # 02 Email: [email protected]