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Amy Pei-jung Lee National Dong Hwa University
Seediq is a Formosan language belonging to the Atayalic subgroup
(Li 1981). This paper reports a (morpho-)phonological process
called dorsal consonant harmony found in the language with the data
based on the Truku dialect. Two contrastive segments—voiceless
velar stop /k/ and voiceless uvular stop /q/—are involved, and the
latter is derived in morphophonemic contexts. This process operates
not only between morpheme boundaries, but also within morpheme
roots, showing that the */k…q/ sequence is unattested, and only
very few /q…k/ sequences are found. However, with the introduction
of a rule which changes labials to velars in word-final position,
this root-internal restriction is gradually loosened (cf. Li 1980).
An observation of the data also reveals that hetero- morphemic
alternation of dorsal consonant harmony involves both derivational
and inflectional prefixes; hence it is controlled by fixed
right-to-left directionality. Theoretically speaking, this
assimilation process is considered as a non-local correspondence
rather than a spreading of the dorsal feature [high] or [retracted
tongue root] (cf. Hansson 2001), since the intervening oral
segments are transparent to the operation without any opacity
effect, i.e. the intervening vowels are lowered only if immediately
adjacent to a uvular. A theoretical interpretation is provided
following the model of contrastive hierarchy in phonology (Dresher
2003, Mackenzie 2005) and feature specifications of both segments,
suggesting that the segment /q/ in this language possesses double
domination (McCarthy 1994) in both oral and pharyngeal cavities,
thus enforcing the harmony of a hetero-morphemic /k/ in order to
ease production difficulties. A similar morpheme-internal harmony
is also mentioned in other Atayalic dialects such as Squliq and
Skikun (Li 1980). A diachronic implication gained from this
observation is that dorsal consonant harmony is probably a
pan-Atayalic phenomenon. Key words: dorsal consonant harmony, Truku
Seediq, feature, contrastive hierarchy
1. Introduction
This paper reports a (morpho-)phonological process called dorsal
consonant harmony found in Seediq, a Formosan language belonging to
the Atayalic subgroup (Li
* The first draft of this paper was presented at the 15th Annual
Conference of the Austronesian
Formal Linguistics Association (AFLA XV) held at The University of
Sydney with the travel
Amy Pei-jung Lee
570
1980). The data presented in this paper is based on the Truku
dialect, collected mainly in Hsiu-lin Township, Hualien County. As
one of the three dialects in Seediq (with the other two as Tkdaya
and Toda), the Truku dialect is mostly spoken in Hualien County
with a population of around 20,000.1 Although linguistically
similar, native speakers tend to identify themselves as Truku
rather than Seediq. The word seediq as a noun in the dialect means
‘people who are outsiders, the others’, whereas in Tkdaya it simply
means ‘people’ and is also the self-designation.
Dorsal consonant harmony is a type of consonant harmony that
involves dorsal consonants such as velar and uvular segments, in
this case /k/ and /q/. ‘Harmony’ in phonology refers to a kind of
assimilation in which a segment affects another distant segment
with similar features.
In his cross-linguistic study of consonant harmony, Hansson (2001)
considers dorsal consonant harmony as seemingly rare, while
sibilant harmony is the most common. Therefore, it is significant
that such a process is found in a Formosan language, which provides
another example for theoretical discussion in phonology and
typology.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 gives a
brief introduction of the phonemic inventory in Truku Seediq.
Section 3 provides a review of the process from a diachronic
perspective. In §4 the data demonstrating dorsal consonant harmony
found in this dialect are presented, along with the observations.
In §5 similar cases discussed in Hansson (2001) are reviewed in
order to obtain the typological characteristics for dorsal
consonant harmony. The theoretical interpretations regarding
directionality effect and motivation are discussed in §6, which is
then followed by a conclusion.
2. The phonemic inventory in Truku Seediq
So far there has been little phonological description in Truku
Seediq apart from Tsukida (2005), who provides a brief but
well-noted introduction, including phono- logical alternations, yet
without mentioning the interaction between /k/ and /q/. Yang
grant funded by National Science Council (NSC
97-2914-I-259-006-A1). The author has
benefited from comments given by the audience. Thanks also go to
three anonymous reviewers for their suggestions and comments. Any
errors remain my own responsibility. This paper could not have been
completed without help from the following informants: Tusi Yudaw
(male, born in 1952, Tkijig village), Jiro Haruq (male, born in
1955, Bsngan village), and Teyru Piho (male, born in 1960, Qowgan
village). I deeply appreciate the time and effort they took in
sharing their knowledge of the language with me. The data presented
in this paper have been collected since 2007.
1 This figure is based on a census conducted by The Council of
Indigenous Peoples, Executive Yuan, in December 2005.
Dorsal Consonant Harmony in Truku Seediq
571
(1976) and Li (1991)’s descriptions are mainly based on the Tkdaya
dialect (Paran village, i.e. Wu-she in Nantou County). As Tsukida
(2005:291) mentions, there exists phonological differences among
the dialects. For example, the palatalization of /t/ and /d/ before
the high front vowel occurs in Truku but not in the other dialects.
On the other hand, the vowel deletion rule (i.e. V → Ø/___CnV)
described in Li (1991) and reported not to take place in Truku by
Tsukida (2005:291) actually occurs: I have collected the following
examples: utux ‘god, spirit’ > tux-an ‘at the god’s place’; usa
da ‘has gone’ > sa-a=ku da. ‘I am going’, in which the initial
vowel u is deleted in the derived forms in both examples. See also
Li (1982).
The orthography of the Truku dialect adopts the letters c and j to
stand for the voiceless palatal affricate [ts]2 and the voiced
palatal stop [], respectively, in order to note the exact
pronunciation. As an introduction, the phonemic inventory in Truku
Seediq is presented as follows (Tsukida 2005:292).
Table 1: Truku consonants
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal Stops voiceless p t k
q voiced b d Fricative voiceless s x h voiced Nasal m n Lateral l
Tap Glide w j
Table 2: Truku vowels
Front/unrounded Back/rounded High i u Low a
2 Tsukida (2005) seems to suggest that the phonemic status of the
voiceless affricate [ts] is
undetermined as it is parenthesized in her paper. Though it occurs
mostly before [i] and [j], it is also found in interjections and
loanwords. One reviewer kindly points out that the segment [ts] is
also derived from /t/ before [s], as in /t-saman-an/ [tssmanan] ‘at
dawn’, further suggesting its allophonic status.
Amy Pei-jung Lee
572
Since our topic concerns the dorsal consonants, their phonemic
status merits a note here. The following (near) minimal pairs show
that the two segments are contrastive: quyux ‘rain’ / kuyuh
‘woman’; kuk ‘blackened ash’ / quq ‘Formosan bulbul, Pycnonotus
taivanus Styan’; buk ‘be tired’; buq ‘hole (in a road or
mountain)’. Diachronically *k in Proto-Atyalic is assimilated to
[q] in the Seediq dialects due to the following /h/ or // in the
root (Li 1981:247-248). For example, *kuhi PA > quhi (Toda);
kuhi (Squliq) ‘head louse’; *kit-hur PA > qt-hur (Inago, Toda),
qt-huy (Squliq), kit-hu (Mayrinax) ‘fat’.
In this paper the data is transcribed by using the International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), yet in the gloss Truku orthography for
proper names is used wherever necessary. Since the vowels are often
reduced if unstressed, they are omitted in phonemic transcrip-
tion. The following table shows the correspondence between the
different symbols in IPA and the orthography.
Table 3: phoneme (allo)phone orthography
/t/ [ts] c /d/ [] j // [] g // [] ng // [] r /j/ [j] y // []
e
3. Literature review: a diachronic perspective
A similar phenomenon to the topic is mentioned by Li (1980) in the
Atayalic dialects—Squliq and Skikun—which also show dorsal
consonant harmony in the names of the dialects themselves. In his
study of the phonological rules of Atayalic dialects, Li (1980:376)
states that ‘assimilation of consonants took place largely in
Squliq or Skikun, rather than in Culi or Mayrinax’. The consonants
involve nasals (though only partially assimilated in Squliq) and
dorsal consonants /k/ and /q/. The data Li presents show
morpheme-internal harmony, which he considers as assimilation from
a diachronic perspective. See the following data from Li
(1980:377):
(1) Squliq Skikun Culi Mayrinax Gloss
mquriq mquriq mkuri kumriq ‘steal’ mqbaq tqbaq makba makibaq
‘learn’ qhoniq qhoniq kahawni kahuniq ‘tree’ qthuy qthuy katahuy
kithuy ‘fat, not thin’
Dorsal Consonant Harmony in Truku Seediq
573
Li considers that the direction of diachronic assimilation is from
/k/ to /q/, as shown in PAn *kan ‘eat’ > qaniq (in Squliq and
Skikun). Following this line of thought, we can see from the data
that Mayrinax did not undergo this assimilatory change, so that the
sequence /k…q/ still remains morpheme-internally, whereas the
cognates in Squliq and Skikun have undergone dorsal consonant
harmony.
As for Truku Seediq, it is found that tautomorphemic sequences such
as /q…k/ and /k…q/ are rarely attested. There are few examples of
the former, however, while the latter sequence /k…q/ is unattested
so far. My data collection shows the following five examples with
the sequence /q…k/:
(2) Verbs with /q…k/ sequence Root/stem AF-form Imperative Gloss
qauk q-m-auk qup-i scoop up (e.g. millets, corns) qaik q-m-aik
qib-i cut with scissors qatak q-m-atak qtap-i stand with both legs
open qak q-m-ak qap-i hug, grab, catch qudak q-m-dak qdap-i (rain,
wind, fire) diminish
In Seediq there is a morphophonemic alternation between labial and
velar consonants
at the word-final position (Yang 1976, Li 1977, 1991, Tsukida
2005), namely, p, b, m → k, /____#. This rule suggests that the
underlying form is the labial, either /p/ or /b/, and the velar
consonant [k] is derived word-finally. The introduction of this
rule seems to loosen the morpheme-internal restriction on identical
dorsal segments, allowing the /q…k/ sequence to occur.
So far as this alternation is concerned, Li (1980:379) reports that
‘Skikun is in the process of changing labials to velars
word-finally. All labials in the word-final position tend to become
velars, especially in the speech of younger speakers.’ Therefore,
from a diachronic perspective Truku Seediq might have also
undergone a similar change (cf. Yang 1976, Li 1980, 1981).
This can be evidenced by the verb qak which has a free variant qap
‘grasp, grab’ as shown in (3). However, one of my informants
considers that the form q<m>ap sounds better than
q<m>ak.
(3) qap
a. nii=ku q<m>ap udux. PROG=1SG.NOM <AF>catch chicken
‘I am catching chickens.’
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574
b. q<n>ap-an tama ka udux nii. <PERF>catch-LF Father
NOM chicken this ‘This chicken was what Father has caught.’
The morpheme-internal sequence of /k…q/ is so far unattested in
Truku Seediq.
This sequence is attested in Mayrinax, as shown in (1). Being the
most conservative dialect in the Atayalic group, Mayrinax retains
many archaic features (Li 1981, 1995).
4. Hetero-morphemic data
Apart from morpheme-internal consonant harmony between the velar
/k/ and the uvular /q/, there are hetero-morphemic data which
involve prefixation and reduplication. See the following
examples:
(4) The prefix /m-k-/ (with nouns) ‘from…’
a. /m-k-quan/ [mqqo an] ‘from Qowgan village’ b. /m-k-dijaq/ [mqdi
jaq] ‘from the mountains’ cf. c. /m-k-tkidi/ [mktkii] ‘from Tkijig
village’ d. /m-k-bsan/ [mkbsan] ‘from Bsngan village’ e. /m-k-silu/
[mksi lu] ‘from the seashore’
(5) The prefix /k-/ (with stative verbs)3 a. /m-k-siqa/ [mqsi qa]
‘mutually shy and embarrassed’ m-k-siqa balaj ka jabu ni umin.
RECP-STA-shy very NOM Yabung and Umin ‘Yabung and Umin are
embarrassed with each other.’ b. /k-siqa/ [qsi qa] ‘be self-aware;
be self-conscious; be polite’ k-siqa nanak uda-su. STA-shy self
behavior-2SG.GEN ‘You should behave yourself.’ c. /p-k-siqa/
[pqsiqa] ‘cause to be embarrassed’ /p-p-k-k-siqa/ [ppqqsi qa]
‘cause to be very embarrassed’ p~p-k~k-siqa dhjaan ka s-aw-su.
RED~CAU-RED~STA-shy 3PL.OBL NOM RF-say-2SG.GEN ‘What you said
caused them to be very embarrassed.’
3 The following are the abbreviations used in this paper which are
not included in the Leipzig
Glossing Rules
(http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/resources/glossing-rules.php):
AF=actor focus; RED=reduplicant; RF=referential focus; STA=stative
verb.
575
(6) The prefixes /k-n-/ (with stative verbs) ‘(nominalization)’ a.
/k-n-bilaq/ [qmbi laq] ‘smallness’ b. /k-n-qthu-an/ [qnqthoan]
‘fatness’ c. /k-n-sdiq-an/ [qnsiqan] ‘beauty’ d. /k-n-p-s-qaas/
[qmpsqaas] ‘much praise’
cf. e. /k-n-pau/ [kmpa u] ‘largeness’ f. /k-n-malu/ [knma lu]
‘goodness’ g. /k-n-hlawax/ [knhlawax] ‘slimness’
(7) The prefix /k-n-/ (with personal names/human nouns) ‘having the
quality of (someone, a person)’
a. /k-n-ubiq/ [qnubiq] ‘being like Rubiq’ b. /k-n-laqi/ [qnla qei]
‘being like a child’
cf. c. /k-n-abaj/ [knabaj] ‘being like Rabay’ d. /k-n-ibix/
[knibix] ‘being like Ribix’
An observation from the data above reveals the following points:
First, as the distribution of /k-n-/ [qn], [qm], and /m-k-/ [mq] is
predictable, the underlying dorsal segment in the prefixes should
be /k/, which is then phonetically realized as [q] if the stem or
the base contains the segment /q/.4
Secondly, it follows that dorsal consonant harmony in Truku Seediq
presents an instance of fixed right-to-left directionality (cf.
Hansson 2001). Hansson’s (2001:176) survey of consonant harmony in
languages suggests that ‘anticipatory (right-to-left) assimilation
is the norm for consonant harmony processes’. It appears that
dorsal consonant harmony in this language falls into this category
of the default directionality. More details are discussed in
§6.1.
Thirdly, these data show that dorsal consonant harmony is operated
across the morpheme boundary. The operation is long-distant, as the
derived [q] and the triggering /q/ in the root are not necessarily
adjacent. Sometimes they are, as in /m-k-quan/ [mqqoan], while in
/kn-ubiq/ [qnubiq] they occur at both ends. This long-distance
assimilation suggests that the intervening segments are transparent
to this operation since the vowels are not affected. In /m-k-quan/
[mqqoan] the vowel [u] is lowered to [o] due to the adjacent [q],
thus it is local assimilation. On the other hand, the vowel [u] in
/kn-ubiq/ [qnubiq] is not affected by the assimilation, otherwise
it should also be lowered.
4 It is apparent that based on the data, /k/ is realized as [q] in
dorsal consonant harmony, yet this
is not a contradiction of their phonemic status as both /k/ and
/q/. It needs pointing out that phonetic realization should be
treated differently from phonemic contrast. The segment [q] is an
allophone of /k/ due to this rule application (cf. Dresher
2003).
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576
As Hansson (2001:94) notes, ‘dorsal consonant harmony violates
strict locality, in that it enforces agreement in [RTR] (Retracted
Tongue Root) (or [–high]) across an intervening string of
consonants and vowels, without spreading the feature to those
intervening segments’. This suggests that dorsal consonant harmony
should be regarded as non-local correspondence (cf. McCarthy 2007);
unlike nasal harmony where the targeted segments are all nasalized
through feature spreading (cf. Walker 2000). See more detailed
discussion in §6.
5. Typological characteristics of dorsal consonant harmony
Consonant harmony is defined as ‘any assimilatory effect of one
consonant on another consonant, or assimilatory co-occurrence
restriction holding between two conso- nants, where (a) the two
consonants are separated by a string of segmental material
consisting of at the very least a vowel; and (b) intervening
segments, in particular vowels, are not audibly affected by the
assimilating property’ (Hansson 2001:4). Following this definition,
the alternation between the velar [k] and the uvular [q] in Truku
Seediq applies to both situations. The domain of the operation is
confined at word-level, either tauto- or hetero-morphemic.
In the survey, Hansson (2001) cites from MacKay (1999) who mentions
those cases found in the Totonacan language family spoken in
Mexico. Several facts about dorsal consonant harmony in Misantla
Totonac are listed below:
(8) Misantla Totonac (data from MacKay 1999, cited in Hansson
2001:88) a. Harmony alternation in body-part prefixes /-ka:k-/,
/maka-/ /min-ka:k-paqa / [mi qa qpa] ‘your shoulder’ /min-ka:k-ta
:-ni/ [mi ka :kta:n] ‘you shoulder’ [sic!] /ut maka-qat/ [ut maqa
qt] ‘s/he scratches X (with hand)’ b. Harmony in other derivational
prefixes /maka-/, /lak-/ /maka-uqwan-la()/ [maqaqwa] ‘s/he tired X’
/lak-tanq/ [lata ] ‘s/he chops (bones)’ c. No harmony in
inflectional prefixes /ik-lak-tsa qa/ [iklaqtsaqa] ‘I chew X’ (*[i
qlaqtsaqa]) d. No left-to-right harmony /squ-kuhu-la()/ [sqkh] ‘It
was smoked’ (*[sqqh]) Another similar case is in Tlachichilco
Tepehua which also shows sensitivity to
derivational prefixes. See the following data:
Dorsal Consonant Harmony in Truku Seediq
577
(9) Tlachichilco Tepehua (data from Watters 1988, cited in Hansson
2001:91) a. Harmony alternations in derivational prefixes
/mak-taq’a:-j/ [maqtaa:j] ‘X washes hands (impf.)’ /uks-laqts’in/
[oqslaqts’in] ‘look at Y across surface’ /lak-tiq’i-/ [laqtee] ‘X
broke them (perf.)’ cf. /mak-ta:-j/ [makta:j] ‘X claps; X cooks
[tortillas] (impf.)’ /uks-k’atsa:/ [uksk’atsa:] ‘feel, experience
sensation’ /lak-huni:-/ [lakhuni:] ‘X told them (perf.)’ b. No
harmony in inflectional prefixes /k-’aqtaj-ni-/ [k’aqtajni] ‘I
began (perf.)’ (*[q’aqtajni]) /kin-aqs-a/ [kiaqsa] ‘it’s tight on
me’ (*[qiaqsa]) What is fundamental is that the cases of dorsal
consonant harmony exhibit similar
features as those found in Truku Seediq. It can thus be suggested
that for dorsal consonant harmony, the following characteristics
seem to be found across languages:
(10) Typological characteristics for dorsal consonant harmony a.
The domain of the application is both root-level and stem-level. b.
The feature related to dorsal consonant harmony does not spread
locally. c. The prefixes involved with dorsal consonant harmony are
mostly
derivational.5
6. Theoretical interpretations
Based on the typological characteristics, this section attempts to
provide theoretical interpretation towards the issues on
directionality effect and motivation of dorsal consonant harmony.
The discussion on motivation is also linked with the phonological
contrast of the two consonants /k/ and /q/ in Truku Seediq. These
issues are addressed from phonetic, phonological, as well as
psycholinguistic perspectives. 6.1 Directionality effect
Adopting Bakovi’s (2000) analysis of vowel harmony systems, Hansson
(2001) puts forward two types of directionality effect in consonant
harmony systems: stem control and absolute directionality.
5 This typological characteristic states a tendency, though dorsal
consonant harmony in Truku
Seediq is also applied to inflectional prefixes, as discussed in
the following section.
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578
Stem-controlled consonant harmony is sensitive to the distinction
between derivational and inflectional affixes. As the cases in
Misantla Totonac (MacKay 1999) and Tlachichilco Tepehua (Watters
1988) have shown, harmony does not apply to inflectional prefixes
because the stem determines whether harmony is operated towards
certain affixes.
Another effect of stem control is bidirectional harmony when both
prefixes and suffixes are present. This is exemplified by the
following data in Kera where voicing harmony affects both the
prefix and the suffix.
(11) Stem-controlled voicing harmony in Kera (data from Ebert 1979,
cited in
Hansson 2001:186) a. /k-dar-ka/ [g-dar-ga] ‘colorful (coll.)’ b.
/k-dir-ki/ [gi-dir-gi] ‘colorful (masc.)’
With absolute directionality, harmony is operated either from
right-to-left or left- to-right, regardless of the morphemic
properties in between. Sibilant harmony in Ineseño (Applegate 1972,
cited in Hansson 2001:189) is a case in point. In Ineseño the
sibilant in the suffixes harmonizes from right to left any
preceding sibilants that come along. See the following
examples:
(12) Absolute right-to-left directionality in Ineseño: a.
/s-api-tho-it/ [-api-thol-it] ‘I have a stroke of good luck’ b.
/s-api-tho-us/ [s-api-tshol-us] ‘he has a stroke of good luck’ c.
/s-api-tho-us-wa/ [-api-tho-u-wa] ‘he had a stroke of good luck’ d.
/ha-s-xintila-wa/ [ha--xintila-wa] ‘his former Indian name’ e.
/s-i-tii-jep-us/ [s-is-tisi-jep-us] ‘they show him’
As these examples clearly show, it is the rightmost sibilant that
targets the preceding sibilants and determines their feature
qualities, thus an alveolar harmonizes the preceding sibilants to
be alveolar, or a palatal harmonizes the preceding sibilants to be
palatal.
Based on the hetero-morphemic data in Truku Seediq, dorsal
consonant harmony appears to be operating from right to left, with
the morpheme-internal /q/ harmonizing the velar stop in the prefix.
However, it is necessary to clarify whether this effect is due to
stem control or absolute directionality. Three criteria are taken
into account: first, evidence from the comparative data in the
other genetically-related dialects; secondly, whether the harmony
process distinguishes inflectional from derivational affixes; and
finally, whether the harmony is found to be bidirectional. As the
following table shows, if the harmony is sensitive to derivational
affixes or if bi-directionality is found, then it
Dorsal Consonant Harmony in Truku Seediq
579
is stem-controlled. Alternatively, diachronic data may shed light
on the factor which triggers the operation.
(13) Criteria for directionality effect in consonant harmony
stem/root control fixed directionality inflectional vs.
derivational + −
bi-directionality + −
Morpheme-internal restriction suggests that directionality of
dorsal consonant harmony in Truku Seediq is right-to-left. As
stated earlier in §2, so far the */k…q/ sequence is not attested in
this dialect,6 while only very few examples of /q…k/ roots are
found. It is noted that the word-final [k] in the /q…k/ sequence is
derived from /p/ or /b/. If harmony is operated due to stem
control, such a sequence should not have existed.
It appears that dorsal consonant harmony in Truku Seediq does not
make a distinction between derivational and inflectional prefixes,
7 unlike those cases in Tlachichilco Tepehua and Misantla Totonac.
The following data show that in the negative construction with the
negator ini, the stative verb following ini must be a non- finite
form with the prefix /k-/ attaching to the stem (Tsukida 2005). The
prefix is changed to [q] if there is a uvular stop within the
domain of the harmony. See the following examples:
6 In Li’s (1998) comparative study on the Atayalic dialects in
I-Lan, the sequence */k…q/ is not
found in the wordlist in the appendix. Wherever in some dialects
there is /q/ (e.g. in Squliq subgroup), in the others it
corresponds to // if preceded by /k/ (in Cole subgroup). For
example, Skikun tqbaq corresponds to Pyahaw tkba ‘ask’ and Syanuh
qsuqi to Ryuhi kcui ‘late’. Also, though the /q…k/ sequence is
found in some dialects, it corresponds to the /k…( or k)/ sequence
in the other. For instance, Pyanan, Lmuan, qmatak ~ Kulu, Ryuhi,
Mtlaan kmata ‘eat raw’; Kubaboo qmatak ~ Knyan kmatak, Pyahaw
kmarap, Kulu matak ‘cut’. These examples suggest that the sequence
*/k…q/ is avoided in these dialects.
7 I would like to thank one of the reviewers for pointing this out.
Although the distinction between derivation and inflection in
Formosan languages is still in dispute (cf. Starosta 2002), this
paper follows Payne’s (1997) criteria for distinguishing derivation
from inflection. Based on Payne (1997:26), ‘inflection vs.
derivation is less a distinction than a continuum. Some operations
fall in between the prototypical extremes.’ Overall, inflectional
operations do not change the lexical category of the word and tend
to occur outside derivational affixes. Also, inflectional affixes
are required by grammatical constructions as well as more
productive than derivational ones (cf. Bybee 1985). As the examples
in (14) have shown, the prefix k- is treated as inflectional. It
must attach to a stative verb in the negative construction
beginning with ini. It occurs at the left of the infix -m-, which
indicates future.
Amy Pei-jung Lee
580
(14) Dorsal consonant harmony with the prefix /k-/ to [q] a.
/naqih/ [naqeih] ‘be bad’ > /k-naqih/ [q-naqeih] ‘be bad’ ini
k-naqih ka dui. NEG STA-bad NOM car ‘The car is not damaged.’ b.
/m-huqil/ [mho qeil] ‘be dead’ /k-m-huqil/ [qmho qeil] ‘about to
die’ /k-m-p-huqil/ [qmphoqeil] ‘want to kill’ ini=nami
k<m>p-huqil sdiq. NEG=1PL.EXCL.NOM STA<FUT>CAU-die
people ‘We don’t want to kill people.’ c. /m-taqi/ [m-ta qei] ‘to
sleep’ ini taqi ka laqi nii. NEG sleep NOM child this ‘This child
does not sleep (still awake).’ /k-m-taqi/ [qmta qei] ‘want to
sleep’ ini=ku k<m>taqi. NEG=1SG.NOM STA<FUT>sleep ‘I
don’t want to sleep.’
There is no strong evidence showing that harmony is bidirectional,
as in Truku Seediq there is no such suffix with a uvular segment
that is affected by the process. Therefore, the argument for dorsal
consonant harmony being caused by stem control is rather
weak.8
The diachronic comparative data also shed light on the issue. For
example, Li (1981:279) reconstructs the word ‘bird’ as *kabah-niq
‘bird’ in Proto-Atayalic, which is reflected in Squliq and Skikun
as qh-niq, in Mayrinax as kabah-niq, and in Truku Seediq as qbhni.
Also, *kahu-niq ‘tree’ (Li 1981:295) is reflected in Mayrinax as
kahu-niq, in Skikun as qhu-niq, and in Truku Seediq as qhuni. In
Truku Seediq the harmony must have occurred before the word-final
*q changed to //. It appears that the fossilized suffix /-niq/
triggered dorsal consonant harmony, which operated diachronically
from right to left in Squliq and Skikun. The same situation must
have occurred in Truku Seediq. Therefore, from a pan-Atayalic point
of view, dorsal consonant harmony in
8 Dorsal consonant harmony in Truku Seediq has no effect on
enclitics. See the following example: s-ahuq=ku paah babaw.
RF-loose=1SG.NOM from above ‘I fell because of loosening from
above.’
Dorsal Consonant Harmony in Truku Seediq
581
these dialects seems attributed to the effect of fixed
directionality, i.e. in this case from right to left.
6.2 Motivation
Motivation for consonant harmony has its root in phonetics. In
Truku Seediq the /k…q/ sequence is so far unattested, while there
are few /q…k/ sequences. Acoustically, the former sequence appears
to contradict the direction of pulmonic airstream since the
outgoing air always encounters the uvula before the velum.
Similarly, Rose & Walker (2004) mention that production and
perception difficulties arise when similar but different consonants
occur in an utterance. Such difficulties can also be seen from
tongue twisters such as {She sells sea shells by the seashore.}.
Speech errors in general utterances and tongue twisters also reveal
that there is a tendency to improve processing ease ‘by overriding
differences between the consonants and making some or all of their
properties match’ (ibid.:489). These ‘production-based pressures’
motivate the formal agreement between similar segments. Therefore,
they conclude that a correspondence relation between similar
segments is constructed in speakers’ grammar.
From a psycholinguistic perspective, it is proposed that consonant
harmony is associated with speech planning (Hansson 2001, Walker
2006). Previous research has demonstrated that during production
speech is planned in advance (see Fromkin & Ratner 1998 and the
references cited therein). Hansson (2001) proposes that in
consonant harmony the constraint ANTICIPATE[F] also comes into
play. Given the directionality of dorsal consonant harmony as
right-to-left, speech processing tends to involve anticipation
rather than perseveration.
Walker (2006) distinguishes two situations of segmental interaction
related to consonant harmony: genuinely non-local interactions and
covertly local interactions. The major difference lies in whether
the intervening segments participate in the process. For genuinely
non-local interactions the intervening segments are transparent to
the process, i.e. unaffected by the process, whereas for covertly
local interactions the intervening segments appear to be
transparent due to lack of perceptibility of the feature.
Segmental transparency can be considered an instance of a
derivational opacity effect (Walker 2000). For example, nasal
harmony is a covertly local interaction because the feature is
continuously extended over an adjacent sound sequence. The process
also affects the intervening obstruents, yet they remain oral
because of a constraint which prohibits nasalized obstruents. Since
dorsal consonant harmony is considered as a genuinely non-local
interaction (Hansson 2001, Walker 2006), the drive which enforces
agreement between the interacting segments in such a process should
be different from that of covertly local interactions which gain
similarity through feature- spreading.
Amy Pei-jung Lee
582
Within an Optimality-theoretical framework (Prince & Smolensky
2004), Hansson (2001) proposes the constraint family CORR-CC as the
drive which motivates consonant harmony, and considers that the
distinctive feature for dorsal consonant harmony is [RTR]
(Retracted Tongue Root). He suggests that IDENT[RTR]-CC dominates
the constraint ranking so that the non-uvular segment is realized
as [+RTR], hence uvular.
Rose & Walker (2004) propose that the participant segments in
consonant harmony share a certain degree of similarity, which
motivates a correspondence relation, reminiscent of Correspondence
Theory by McCarthy & Prince (1995, 1999). This correspondence
relation is configured as the modal of ABC (AGREEMENT BY
CORRESPONDENCE, as shown below),9 which also encompasses both MSCs
(MORPHEME STRUCTURE CONSTRAINTS) and alternations, a phenomenon
termed as LONG DISTANCE CORRESPONDENCE AGREEMENT (LDCA). The
correspondence relation is established by co-indexing. No feature
links across the intervening segments is posited because they are
considered neutral. This is also echoed by McCarthy (2007) who
provides sibilant harmony in Chumash as evidence to argue for
segmental correspondence in long-distance consonant
assimilation.
(15) ABC configuration (Rose & Walker 2004:476) Cx V Cx V | |
[αF] [αF]
Indeed, for consonant harmony to occur, the interacting segments
must be
intrinsically similar in major features to start with (Hansson
2001, Rose & Walker 2004). To measure similarity, Rose &
Walker (2004) propose a ‘similarity-based correspondence hierarchy’
as follows:
(16) Similarity-based correspondence hierarchy (Rose & Walker
2004:491), using
voicing agreement as illustration CORR-T↔T » CORR-T↔D » CORR-K↔T »
CORR-K↔D ‘identical stops’ ‘same place’ ‘same voicing’ ‘any oral
stops’
This ranking implies that ‘the more similar the pair of consonants,
the higher ranked
the requirement that they correspond’ (ibid.:491), so that the
nature of gradient similarity can be captured. Rose & Walker
(2004) assume that these correspondence constraints are universal,
and languages with consonant agreement differ in their ranking of
these constraints vis-à-vis faithfulness constraints such as
IDENT-CC (FEATURE).
9 Rose & Walker (2004) use ‘agreement’ rather than ‘harmony’ to
describe the cases showing
LDCA.
583
For instance, under the ABC configuration Rose & Walker
(2004:501) analyze root-internal co-occurrence restriction on
laryngeal features in Chaha and Bolivian Aymara, and reach the
following factorial typology:
(17) Chaha CORR-T’ ↔T » CORR-K’↔T » IDENT-IO(cg),
IDENT-OI(cg)
(18) Bolivian Aymara CORR-Th ↔T » IDENT-IO(sg), IDENT-OI(sg) »
CORR-Kh↔T That is, both languages require MSC constraints on roots
with stops of the same
laryngeal features [constricted glottis] and [separated glottis].
But Bolivian Aymara differs from Chaha in that heterorganic stops
are exempted from this requirement; hence CORR-Kh↔T is ranked below
faithfulness constraints.
Contrary to the similarity-based argument proposed by Rose &
Walker (2004) is the approach of contrastive hierarchy (Jakobson
& Halle 1956, Dresher 2003),10 which is elaborated by Mackenzie
(2005) on consonant harmony. The central claim of this approach is
to consider similarity as depending on featural specifications
which are ‘influenced by the system of contrasts in a given
language’ (ibid.:170). Therefore, instead of considering the level
of similarity as universal, this approach regards that the
motivation for two segments to interact in consonant harmony is the
underlying contrasts in the phonemic inventory of a given language.
This contrast-based approach for consonant harmony views
similarities between segments as language-specific properties. The
contrastive hierarchy for an inventory can vary from language to
language, depending on the phonological processes a language
exhibits.
Mackenzie (2005) argues that similarity between participating
segments in consonant harmony is determined by contrastive features
in a language. A case study of consonant harmony in Bumo Izon is
presented to demonstrate that contrastive features play a role in a
phonological process such as consonant harmony. Bumo Izon (Efere
2001) exhibits a co-occurrence restriction of plosive and implosive
stops in a morpheme. The implosive // and // cannot co-occur with
the plosives /b/ and /d/ in any combination morpheme- internally,
as shown in (19). However, the labiovelar implosive // and the
velar plosive /g/ is free from this restriction, as shown in
(20).
10 Dresher (2003:47) argues for using feature hierarchy to
determine contrastiveness by ‘ordering
features into a hierarchy, and splitting the inventory by
successive divisions until all phonemes have been
distinguished’.
Amy Pei-jung Lee
584
(19) Bumo Izon (Efere 2001, citing from Mackenzie 2005:173) a. bubu
‘rub (powder in face)’ b. bd ‘cloth’ c. a ‘yesterday’ d. :: ‘cold’
e. aa ‘swamp’
(20) Bumo Izon (Efere 2001, citing from Mackenzie 2005:173) a.
igodo ‘padlock’ b. ugo ‘to pursue’ c. u gi ‘to wring (hand)’ d. au
‘crack (of a stick breaking)’ e. o daoda ‘(rain) hard’ A look at
Bumo Izon stop inventory shows that the voiced velar and
labiovelars stops
do not have voiceless homorganic counterparts which contrast in the
plosive/implosive distinction. Mackenzie (2005) proposes the
ordering [labial] > [dorsal] > [voice] > [glottis] for
feature specification of the stop series.
First of all, the feature [labial] distinguishes the labial
segments /, p, b, kp, / from the non-labial segments /t, k, d, g,
/. Secondly, the feature [dorsal] divides labial segments /kp, /
([+labial, +dorsal]) from /p, b, / ([+labial, –dorsal]), and
non-labial segments /k, g/ from /t, d, /. Later, the feature
[voice] further distinguishes voiced segment // from voiceless
segments /kp/ under [+labial, +dorsal], and // from /p/ under
[+labial, –dorsal]. It also distinguishes /g/ from /k/ under
[–labial, +dorsal], and /d, / from /t/ under [–labial, –dorsal].
Finally, the voiced implosives /, / are distinguished from /b, d/
by the feature [glottis].
This hierarchy stresses two points. First, those participating
segments /, , b, d/ in consonant harmony are contrastively
specified by [glottis] following the proposed feature order.
Secondly, the segments // and /g/ lack the [glottis] counterparts
and thus are exempted from co-occurrence restriction of
plosive/implosive distinction in consonant harmony. Mackenzie
(2005:175) thus argues that ‘asymmetrical inventories like that of
Bumo Izon highlight the importance of determining which features
are contrastive’, and that the approach of similarity fails to show
‘how /b/ and // are more similar to one another than /g/ and //’
(cf. Hansson 2001). 6.3 Proposal
Following the discussion above, this paper considers the approach
of contrastive
hierarchy more powerful in describing and interpreting phonological
processes in a
Dorsal Consonant Harmony in Truku Seediq
585
given language. This approach is adopted in this paper to interpret
both dorsal consonant harmony and the morphophonemic alternation of
bilabial and velar plosives in the imperative paradigm.
The inventory of obstruents (as in Table 1) in Truku Seediq show
that [voice] contrasts in labial, alveolar, and dorsal segments,
but not in pharyngeal ones. It follows that the underlying
phonological contrast is built on the feature [pharyngeal], which
divides the whole set of plosive inventory into two groups, i.e.
[+pharyngeal] and [–pharyngeal] (hence [oral]). Among the oral
plosives, only the segment /k/ lacks its voiced partner, thus the
feature [dorsal] divides the oral plosives into two groups. This
leaves the non-dorsal segments, which are distinguished by the
feature [labial] rather than [coronal] for two reasons: First, the
bilabial segments interact with the dorsal segments for the
alternation in the imperative paradigm, and secondly, both labials
and velars are peripheral segments and share the feature [grave] as
opposed to dentals and palatals which are featured [acute]
(Jakobson & Halle 1975). Finally, the feature [voice] specifies
each non-dorsal plosive. The diagram is shown as follows:
(21) Contrastive hierarchy in Truku Seediq plosive inventory p, b,
t, d, k, q, wo
[–pharyngeal] ([+oral]) [+pharyngeal] p, b, t, d, k q, wo wo
[–dorsal] [+dorsal] [+dorsal] [–dorsal] p, b, t, d k q
wo [+labial] [–labial]
[–voiced] [+voiced] [–voiced] [+voiced] p b t d
This diagram shows the feature ranking of [pharyngeal] >
[dorsal] > [labial] > [voiced] in Truku Seediq in order to
fully specify each segment. The notion of feature dominance can
also be employed here. It can be seen that the segments [k] and [q]
contrast in [pharyngeal] feature, which dominates the [dorsal]
feature, so that the two segments are similar in being [dorsal] but
differ in being [±pharyngeal]. The segment [q] thus shares both
places [pharyngeal] and [dorsal]. This diagram highlights the
assumption that Truku Seediq makes the distinction between [oral]
and [pharyngeal] features in its phonemic inventory.
Amy Pei-jung Lee
586
This diagram also recalls McCarthy’s (1994) treatment of Arabic
gutturals. Given that the uvula sits at the boundary between tongue
back and tongue root, the uvular stop [q] is perceived as having
characteristics of being oral and pharyngeal, as shown in the
following structure:
(22) The Place node for the uvular stop [q]
Place 3 Oral Pharyngeal ! ! [dorsal] [pharyngeal]
This phenomenon of ‘double domination’ (Kenstowicz 1994:459)
probably renders the segment [q] some power to realize its closest
but contrastive segment [k] as identical. This can be considered as
the inner drive from the underlying system to activate the
agreement between the two segments, hence the dorsal consonant
harmony in the language.
In this way, we may be able to explain the reason why in dorsal
consonant harmony it is usually the uvular which assimilates the
velar but not the other way round. Following the contrastive
hierarchy in (21), we claim that consonant harmony is subject to
the feature hierarchy within the phonemic system in a language.
Therefore, it is the more dominant feature which has the power to
realize the underlying segments of the dominated feature to be its
identical, while simultaneously exercising the correspondence
relation.
The diagram in (21) also provides a new interpretation for the
labial and velar alternations in Seediq imperatives (Yang 1976, Li
1977, 1991, and Tsukida 2005). Recall the rule mentioned in §3 that
the labials /p, b/ and /m/ in the imperative paradigm are realized
as their equivalent velars [k] and [] in word-final position. The
diagram reflects that the feature [dorsal] dominates [labial], so
that the contrast in the system triggers the underlying labials to
be realized as the only legitimate dorsal segment [k] within the
[–pharyngeal] domain whenever the suitable phonological context
applies.
7. Concluding remarks
In this paper the phonological process termed dorsal consonant
harmony found in Truku Seediq is reported, showing that the
underlying velar segment /k/ in prefixes is realized as [q]
whenever there is a uvular /q/ in the stem. This alternation of
velar to uvular is discussed from historical, phonological, and
psycholinguistic perspectives.
Dorsal Consonant Harmony in Truku Seediq
587
A diachronic implication gained from this paper is that dorsal
consonant harmony is probably a pan-Atayalic phenomenon. Li’s
(1980, 1981) data reveal that tauto-morphemic restriction on
identical dorsal segments is seen in some Atayalic dialects such as
Squliq and Skikun. A comparison of the data in four
dialects—Squliq, Skikun, Culi, and Mayrinax (Li 1980) shows that
the direction of sound change is from velar [k] to uvular [q],
implying that dorsal consonant harmony is a later development. This
is also parallel to the directionality of synchronic
assimilation.
Dorsal consonant harmony in Truku Seediq is considered as non-local
assimilation, sharing similar typological features with the cases
presented in Hansson (2001). From a theoretical point of view, two
approaches regarding motivation of consonant harmony are discussed.
The similarity-based approach is based on Hansson (2001), Rose
& Walker (2004), and McCarthy (2007), who regard consonant
harmony as being triggered by similarity shared among the
participating segments, which in turn motivates the correspondence
relation. Alternatively, the contrast-based approach is advocated
by Dresher (2003) and Mackenzie (2005), who consider that
similarity is a language- specific property and may vary from
language to language. It is the underlying contrast in a given
language that determines similarity between the interacting
segments for a phonological process.
Following the discussion, this paper adopts the contrast-based
approach not only to interpret dorsal consonant harmony but also to
account for the other phonological processes exhibited in Truku
Seediq. First of all, this paper attempts to explain the reason why
in dorsal consonant harmony it is usually the velar that is
realized as the uvular, rather than the other way round. The
feature ranking of [pharyngeal] > [dorsal] > [labial] >
[voice] shown in (21) is proposed to reflect the underlying
contrast system of the Truku phonemic inventory. The dominant
features exercise the constraint to impose their counterpart to be
identical, thus the velar /k/ is realized as [q] whenever there is
a /q/ within the domain of the operation.
Secondly, the feature hierarchy (21) also provides a new
interpretation for the morphophonemic alternation between labial
and velar stops in the imperative paradigm. Given the feature
ranking of [dorsal] dominating [labial], the underlying labials /p,
b/ and /m/ are surfaced as the velars [k] and [], respectively.
Since there is no contrastive voiced velar plosive, the voiced
bilabial /b/ is still realized as [k] word-finally for the
alternation in the imperative paradigm.
In conclusion, this paper reports dorsal consonant harmony in Truku
Seediq and provides a discussion of the comparative data among the
Atayalic dialects as well as a theoretical interpretation. Dorsal
consonant harmony is a rare phonological phenomenon (Hansson 2001),
thus it is significant for our understanding in Formosan phonology
to identify this process in the Atayalic dialects. This
phonological process is viewed as
Amy Pei-jung Lee
588
non-local assimilation and triggered by fixed directionality from
right to left. Its operation is motivated by the ease of production
and the underlying contrastive hierarchy of feature ranking which
drives the interacting segments [k] and [q] towards a surface
correspondence.
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[Received 6 August 2008; revised 19 May 2009; accepted 6 June 2009]
Department of Indigenous Languages and Communication National Dong
Hwa University 1, Sec. 2, Da Hsueh Road Shoufeng, Hualien 974,
Taiwan
[email protected]
Dorsal Consonant Harmony in Truku Seediq
591
(cf. Li 1980)
(1)
(cf. Hansson 2001)
(contrastive hierarchy) (Dresher 2003, Mackenzie 2005) (feature
specification) /q/
(McCarthy 1994) /k/ [q]
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/ENU (Use these settings to create PDF documents with higher image
resolution for improved printing quality. The PDF documents can be
opened with Acrobat and Reader 5.0 and later.) /JPN
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/DEU
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/PTB
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/DAN
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/NLD
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/ESP
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/SUO
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/ITA
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/NOR
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/SVE
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/KOR
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/CHS
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/CHT
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>> >> setdistillerparams << /HWResolution [2400
2400] /PageSize [612.000 792.000] >> setpagedevice