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AUTHOR Lacour, Eileen D.; Wilkerson, Trena W.TITLE Efficacy in Education: A Synopsis of the

Literature.PUB DATE 91NOTE 28p.

PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070)

EDRS PRICE NFOl/PCO2 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Concept Formation; Elementary Secondary Education;

Higher Education; *Individual Power; LiteratureReviews; *Self Efficacy; *Teacher Education Programs;Teacher Persistence; Teaching Experience; TheoryPractice Relationship

ABSTRACTThe term efficacy is broadly defined as the power to

produce effect. Since 1977, with the advent of the concept ofself-efficacy, research has attempted to establish the type andstrength of the relationship between the concept and the educationprofession. The purpose of this document is to provide a conceptual,theoretical, and integrated review of available research literatureon efficacy in teaching. Literature is reviewed on several variables:teaching behavior; student teachers; stress; demographiccharacteristics; student outcomes; and teaching experi4nce. The paperprovides an overview of theoretical bases and suggests an apprcpLiatedefinition for use in education. It presents findings relative topersonal variables, student outcomes, teaching behaviors, and systemconsiderations. Appropriate questions are examinid and implicationsfor further research are addressed. (42 references) (Author/LL)

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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

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Efficacy

1

Efficacy in Education: A Synopsis of the Literature

Eileen D. Lacour and Trena W. Wilkerson

University of Southern Mississippi

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

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TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC).-

U.& DEPARTMENT OF EIXICAPONOPcs cd Educational Rommel and Improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER 1ERIC1

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Running head: EFFICACY IN EDUCATION

BEST COPY MAIM

Efficacy

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Abstract

Since 1977, with the advent of the concept of self-

efficacy, research has attempted to establish the type

and strength of the relationship between the concept

and the education profession. This presentation

provides conceptual, theoretical/and integrated review

of research literature available on efficacy in

teaching. The paper suggests several important

variables which have been identified in determining

this degree of success. The instruments used to

measure these significant contributors are analyzed

concentrating on those cited most often. The paper

provides an overview of theoretical bases and suggests

an appropriate definition for use in education. It

presents findings relative to personal variables,

student outcomes, teaching behaviors/ and system

considerations. Suggestions for future research and

appropriate questions are examined.

Efficacy

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Efficacy in Teaching

The term efficacy is broadly defined as the power

to produce an effect. In psychological and behavioral

definitions, self-efficacy originally referred to the

belief that one could successfully execute the behavior

required to produce desired outcomes (Bandura, 1977,

1982). Bandura (1982) further asserts that such a

concept is situation-specific: it is possible to have a

high sense of self-efficacy under one set of

circumstances and a low degree in another. This

analysis is based on the social learning theory which

maintains that choice of behavior and the amount of

effort expenditure are at least in part governed by an

individual's self-efficacy, rather than entirely the

result of a certain stimulus. Such efficacious beliefs

arise from different, often contradictory sources of

information conveyed through direct mediated events

(Bandura, 1977). In an extensive study, Ashton, Webb,

and Doda (1983) refer to the grounded theory uhich

suggests that the major social-psychological problem

facing educators is the maintenance of self-efficacy in

a profession that offers few supports for and a

Efficacy

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multitude of threats to the self-respect and self-

confidence of its members.

Brophy (1979) applied this position to the

education profession by defining teacher efficacy as

the beliefs regarding the extent to which teachers in

general can affect student performance. This approach

concentrates on educators' perceptions about the broad,

general relationship between teaching and learning

(Ashton, Webb, & Doda, 1983). Further research

indicates another aspect of self assurance in education

referred to as personal teaching efficacy which is

determined by the individual's belief about their own

personal ability to affect student performance (Denham

& Michael, 1981; Ashton, Webb, & Doda, 1983; Dembo &

Gibson, 1985).

INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE EFFICACY

A number of studies have measured efficacy using

two items which were developed through the Rand

Corporation (Armor et. al., 1976; Berman, Mclaughlin,

Bass, Pauly, & Zellman, 1977). The items are as

follows:

1. When it comes right down to it, a teacher

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really can't do much because most of

a student's motivation and

performance depends on his or her

home environment.

2. If I really try hard, I can get through to

even the most difficult or unmotivated

student.

Teacher response to these items is arranged in a Likert

5-point scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly

disagree.

These two elements formed the basis in the

development of other instruments to assess the degree

of efficacy. In an extensive study, the components

served as the basis for the measurement model which

studied the nature, antecedents and consequences of

efficacy attitudes among teachers (Ashton, Webb, &

Dada, 1983). Gibson and Dembo (1984) conducted a study

to establish construct validity of a teacher efficacy

instrument. This instrument, the Teacher Efficacy

Scale, consisted of 30 items in a Likert format.

Factor analysis revealed two factors which were

moderately correlated (r= -.19) and corresponded to the

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previously described Rand items. These same two

components coincieed with Bandura's self-efficacy and

outcome expectancy dimensions. Factor 1 refers to

Personal teaching Efficacy while Factor 2 is cited as

Teaching Efficacy. Greenwood, Olejnik, and Parkay

(1990) use this definition of the two Rand Items in

their study. They argue that there are at least four

different combinations of the two items:

1. Teachers in general cannot motivate students,

and I am no exception to this rule.

2. Teachers in general can motivate students but

I personally cannot.

3. Teacher- generally can motivate students and

I am no exception to this rule.

4. Teachers in general cannot motivate students

but I personally can if I try hard.

Based on these combinations, four efficacy belief

patterns were defined and used to classify

participants.

Glickman and Tamashiro (1982) used three items

derived from the Rand study which yielded a reliability

coefficient of .35 between components, which suggested

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Efficacy

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that the three elements may have measured the same

variable. Guskey (1987) also used the Rand items in

his teacher efficacy study in addition to other

.instruments designed to assess teacher responsibility

for student achievement, self-observation, and teacher

self-concept.

The Teacher Efficacy Scale (Dembo & Gibson, 1985)

was also administered in a study which included

preservice teachers (Evans & Tribble, 1986).

Saklofske, Michayluk, and Randhawa (1988) Ised a

slightly modified version of this same measurement

mechanism in their investigation of novice teachers.

Again, the two principal factors which emerged

paralleled those described by Gibson and Dembo (1984)

and were based on the Rand items.

Enochs and Riggs (1990) modeled his instrument to

measure the efficacy beliefs of beginning science

teachers on the Gibson and Dembo instrument. This

measure also reflects the previously described factors;

namely, personal teacher efficacy and outcome

expectancy. Korevaar (1990) utilized the Sense of

Efficacy Questionnaire designed by P. Den Hertzog (in

Efficacy

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press) to assess the teacher's sense of self-efficacy.

This measure included 20 Likert-type items dealing with

teacher's perceptions of their to affect

students' behavior and their perceptions of their

ability to affect cooperation with their colleagues.

Rose and Medway (1981) developed the Teacher Locus

of Control (TLC) Scale which was designed to measure

elementary school teacher's perceptions of control in

their classroom. The 28 forced-choice elements

indicated either internal or external control of

various classroom events. The TLC Scale was found to

correlate moderately with Rotter's Internal-External

Scale (1966). Parkay, Olejnik, and Proller (1988) used

this same instrument in their study of teacher

efficacy.

Other studies have attempted to address the

multidimensional aspects of efficacy in the school

environment. Hillman (1986) presents three self-

efficacy questionnaires to study the relationship

between student, teacher and principal interaction in

the educational environment. These instruments allow

the analysis of different efficacious dimensions

Efficacy

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through subscale examination. Martin (1990) viewed the

dimensions of efficacy as related to teacher,

leadership and decision-making efficacy. The

questionnaires were designed to measure teachers'

perceptions of the behavior of their supervisors and

the effect on efficacy.

REVIEW OF SELECTED LITERATURE

J4terature Related to Teachina Behavior

When examining teaching behavior in light of these

theories research suggests that the instructor's sense

of assurance is positively related to preservation of a

warm, accepting classroom environment and, conversely,

negatively corresponds to a teacher's use of harsh

control tactics (Ashton, Webb, & Doda, 1983).

Characteristics of efficacious educators include their

adherence to high academic standards, their

concentration on academic instruction coupled with

consistent monitoring of student behavior, and their

efforts at establishing non-threatening relationships

with low achievers (Ashton, 1984). Teachers with low

confidence tend to sort and stratify their students on

the basis of ability and often go so far as giving

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t.

Efficacy

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preferential treatment to the more competent students.

Rela Jo actionThe degree of job satisfaction experienced by

teachers also can be correlated to the degree of

efficacy. Those educators whose work orientat.: n

follows prescribed norms generally report a hight.r

level of contentment than those with a more pragmatic

approach, with some indication that their

organizational commitment may also be greater (Reyes,

1990). Korevaar (1990) found differences between

levels of efficacy and teacher reaction to problem

situations. Teachers who have a higher sense of self-

efficacy are less likely to refer problems to others

(Meijer & Foster, 1988). The level of confidence also

seems to influence the recognition and definition of

problems as well as the appropriate management and

direction of referral.

JJiter4ure Related to Student Teachers

In the studert teaching experience changes have

been detected in efficacy levels. Student teachers

became significantly more custodial and controlling

both in pupil regulation as well as in social problem-

Efficacy

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solving during the practicum experience. Although the

sense of personal teaching efficacy did not decrease,

the general confidence in the ability of the profession

weakened for these novices following the practicum

exercise (Hoy & Woolfolk, 1990). Research also

indicates that teachers with low efficacy are less

effective in persistence and other task-related

variables. Although no significant difference was

found in Use-Of-Time between teachers with varying

degrees of efficacy, those with a lower level of

confidence spent more classroom time in small group

activities (Gibson & Dembo, 1984). Personal teaching

efficacy also showed a small but significant

relationship to certain teaching behaviors such as

lesson presenittion, classroom management, and

questioning techniques (Saklofske, Michayluk, &

Randhawa, 1988).

The use of cognitive modeling seems to be more

effective than direct instruction in elevating efficacy

assessment among perspective teachers with a low sense

of self-efficacy (Gorrell & Capron, 1989). Martin

(1989) suggests that there are developmental stages of

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Efficacy

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teacher efficacy whose formation begin early in the

teacher preparation program.

Literature Related to Stress

As stated earlier, the organizational structure of

the profession itself may make maintenance of high

personal efficacy difficult for educators (Ashton,

Webb, & Doda, 1983). Some studies suggest that the

stress induced by management over which teachers have

little control may actually interfere with their

optimal performance (Cichon & Koff, 1978). Other

characteristics of the school climate, such as

isolation, uncertainty, powerlessness and the lack of

recognition add to the obstacles in preserving

confidence (Ashton, Webb, & Doda, 1983). Inquiries

also show that educators with higher self-concepts are

more resistant to stress and better able to support a

sense of personal accomplishment. In a study of four

efficacy belief patterns, Greenwood, Olejnik, & Parkay

(1990) found a significant contrast in both teacher

locus of control and stress between teachers' with low

efficacy and those with a very high degree. These same

self-concepts partially determine perceptions of school

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Efficacy

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climate and job satisfaction. The impressions of

atmosphere and work fulfillment are related to views of

supervision (Chittom & Sistrunk, 1990). Investigation

suggests that teacher efficacy and effectiveness

decrease with controlling behaviors in the

instructional processes and is related to the degree of

participation in decision-making and leadership

afforded to classroom educators (Martin, 1990). There

appears to be a connection between the sense of

community and efficacy which are enhanced by

organizational features. The relationship is strong

between the responsiveness of the administration and

the feeling of community although staff development and

leadership of the principal did not generate a

significant effect (Newmann, 1989). Albertson and

Kagan (1987) affirm the relationship between control

orientation and stress, finding a strong correlation to

these factors; specifically weak administrative support

and teacher relationships.

Other research suggests that teachers

experience less stress when they have confidence in

their abilities and believe that teachers in general

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Efficacy

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can make a difference (Greenwood, Olejnik, Parkay,

1990). Highly efficacious teachers showed evidence of

less stress than their less confident counterparts,

while also displaying a locus of control which was

significantly more internally oriented. Sone analyses

indicate the existence of various dimensions of teacher

concerns which bear further study, particularly in

relationship to teacher efficacy (Reeves, 1982;

Kazelskis & Reeves, 1987).

Literature Related to Demographic Characteristics

Certain demographic characteristics yield

significant relationships to efficacy beliefs.

Greenwood, Olejnik and Parkay (1990) revealed the

existence of a substantial connection between gender

and efficacy as well as grade level and efficacy.

Female elementary teachers were strongest in the

beliefs that they, as well as teachers in general, can

motivate students. Age, race, educational experience

and teaching experience did not correlate highly with

efficacy. Contrasting findings were reported by Guskey

(1987) who found no differences among the grade levels

and the degree of efficacy.

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Efficacy

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Elementary school teachers expressed a higher

sense of efficacy than either middle or high school

teachers and accepted greater responsibility for

student achievement (Parkay, Olejnik, & Proller, 1988).

Such findings were indicated in the work of Evans and

Dribble (1986) which showed significant gender

differences in teaching efficacy. This study pointed

to a significantly higher efficacious score among

female beginning elementary teachers than the upper

grade counterparts.

Literature Related to Student Outcome

Perceptions of efficacy tend to differ among

practitioners depending on the type of student outcome.

Specifically these belief patterns vary based on the

success or failure of the student activity, and whether

it involved a single student or a group. When the

performance was negative, the teachers expressed less

responsibility for single students than for a group,

believing that the single occurrence was dw... to factors

beyond the control of the teacher (Guskey, ivo7).

The relationship of self-efficacy to academic

achievement is well documented in the Effective School

16

Efficacy

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Research (Good & Brophy, 1986). Gorrell (1990)

suggests a conceptual framework for self-concept theory

based on research findings relevant to self-efficacy

beliefs and academic achievement. While not implying

causality, a positive relationship between teacher

efficacy and self-concept was evident in the work of

Thomson and Handley (1990) who recognized the existence

of various aspects of efficacious teacher behaviors in

addition to self-concept. Teacher's sense of efficacy

is significantly related to the manner in which

students are grouped in the classroom environment as

well as their academic achievement (Tracz & Gibson,

1986).

Literature related to Teaphina Experience

Several studies indicate that there is no

significant relationship between teaching experience

and the degree of efficacy (Greenwood, Olejnik, Parkay,

1990; Guskey, 1987). However, in their examination of

first year, fifth year, and former teachers, Glickman

and Tamashiro (1982) found a higher sense of efficacy

among the first and fifth year practitioners than those

who had left the classroom.

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Efficacy

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RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Since the advent of the concept of self-efficacy

and its application to teaching, much research has been

done in investigating what makes schools effective

(Good & Brophy, 1986). Although these studies identify

several efficacious teacher behaviors which are

critical to productive schools, many questions about

the specific relationship of efficacy to teaching

remain unanswered. One area of particular interest is

the determination and definition of possible patterns

of efficacy in education.

Other areas include the need for clarification of

the link between ability variables and efficacy,

perhaps using teacher performance as the measure

(Ashton, Webb, and Doda, 1983). In addition,

examination of personal variables and how they

correspond to different pupil control orientations may

be helpful in identifying which of these

characteristics result in a humanist approach to the

classroom as well as support efficacious behavior

(Willower, Eidell, & Hoy, 1967). The organizational

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Efficacy

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context, particularly on the secondary level, should be

examined as well as boundary arrangements and core

teaching tasks (Rosenholtz & Simpson, 1990). Of

special interest is the relationship of these system

variables to pupil achievement (Good & Brophy, 1986).

Separate aspects of teacher efficacy also should

be examined in depth. In analyzing teacher concerns,

Fuller (1969) argued that the anxieties of beginning

teachers could be classified on the basis of self,

feelings of adequacy, and acceptance. Further

investigation refined these dimensions to 11 factors

arranged in a hierarchy (George, 1978). Important

differences in factors were established in a subsequent

study although similarities with the initial

organization were identified (Kazelskis & Reeves,

1987).

A central question in analysis of efficacy is how

to maintain and increase efficacy in both beginning and

experienced teachers. Specific efficacious patterns

must be identified and defined, distinguishing specific

teacher behaviors as well as those of students,

administrators, principals and staff (Greenwood,

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Efficacy

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Olejnik, fi Parkay, 1990). These findings should be

studied to establish what, if any correlation, exists

with student achievement (Hillman, 1986). Finally,

specific subject areas should also be inspected to

ascertain the existence of possible efficacy patterns.

Compilation of this review of literature suggests

other areas in need of investigation. The implications

for teacher education are worthy of serious

consideration. The changes in efficacy that occur as

the candidate progresses through a program as well as

those changes which develop in the course of an

individual's teaching experience must be addressed. In

addition, examination of the belief patterns of those

persons who enter and stay in teaching should be

compared and contrasted with those in other professions

(Greenwood, Olejnik, & Parkay, 1990). Finally, further

validation of instruments is recommended.

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Efficacy

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4'4

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Efficacy

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1

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