ED 262 292

TITLE

INSTITUTION

SPONS AGENCYREPORT NOPUB DATENOTE

AVAILABLE FROM

PUB TYPE

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

DOCUMENT RESUME

CE 042 741

Prepare Yourself for CBE. Module K-1 of CategoryK--Implementing Competency-Based Education (CBE).Professional Teacher Education Module Series.Ohio State Univ., Columbus. National Center forResearch in Vocational Education.Department of Education, Washington, DC.ISBN-0-89606-176-08667p.; For related documents, see ED 260 271, CE 042598, and CE 042 602.American Assocation for Vocational InstructionalMaterials, 120 Driftmier Engineering Center,University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602.Guides - Classroom Use - Materials (For Learner)(051)

MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.Case Studies; *Competency Based Education; CompetencyBased Teacher Education; *Educational Needs; HigherEducation; Individualized Instruction; Job Skills;Learning Activities; Learning Modules; *NeedsAssessment; Secondary Education; *Self Evaluation(Individuals); *Teacher Evaluation; Teaching Skills;Vocational Education; *Vocational EducationTeachers

ABSTRACTThis module, one in a series of performance-based

teacher education learning packages, focuses on a specific skill thatvocational educators need to integrate competency-based education(CBE) into the vocational education curriculum. The purpose of themodule is to help the instructor understand the educationalphilosophy on which CBE is based and how this is applied in practice,assess his/her readiness for CBE, and develop a plan for gaining theknowledge and skills he/she needs. Introductory material providesterminal and enabling objectives, prerequisites, a list of resources,and general information. The main portion of the module includesthree learning experiences based on the enabling objectives. Eachlearning experience presents activities with information sheets, casestudies, model critiques, inventories, workshoots, and checklists.Optional activities are provided. Completion of these three learningexperiences should lead to achievement of the terminal objectivethrough the fourth and final learning experience that provides for ateacher performance assessment by a resource person. An assessmentform is included. (YLB)

****************

Reproductio*

****************

*******************************************************

ns supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

*******************************************************

r\I(-/1

PrepareYourself

for CBE

cz)

A

f07,f4 _NAL041714.017,

"904,44. RE souurEop71aAr

ri eaucs4

TheCE,vrn

C,EsIwono,

71144nthis (Elfro

Atittrio

odonoth, bft,

Mos,^9

personSao

hass

CVazanna4

Thlakty

fir+ may, TO 4T)Pr9i,

Ln.nt O0to7 Canons

..w4M01)

4.C.Taoi,.414Ch.

40TINnr0f7d0Co.

"mittNiE

THE NATIONALCENTER

FORIESEARCH

INVOCATIONAL

EDUCATION

THE Ove0 KENNY ROADCOLUMElltS

OHO4324

HO STATEUNVERSTTY

2

AMERICANASSOCIATION

FOR VOCATIONAL

INSTRUCTIONAL

MATERIALS

The UniversityofGeorgia

120 (WinerEngineering

Center/Athens

GA 30602

FOREWORDThis module is one of a series of over 125 performance basedteacher education (PBTE) learning packages focusing uponspecific professional competencies of occupational instructors(teachers, trainers) The competencies upon which these modulesare based were identified and verified through research as being important to successful occupational teaching at all levels ofinstruction. The modules are suitable for the preparation of in-structors in all occupational areas.

Each module provides learning experiences that integrate theoryand application; each culminates with criterion-referenced assess-ment of the occupational instructor's performance of the specifiedcompetency The materials are designed for use by teachersin-training working individually or in groups under the direction andwith the assistance of teacher educators or others acting asresource persons Resource persons should be skilled in theteacher competencies being developed and should be thoroughlyoriented to PBTE concepts and procedures before using thesematerials.

The design of the materials provides considerable flexibility forplanning and conducting performance-based training programsfor preservice and inservice teachers, as well as business-industry-labor trainers, to meet a wide variety of individual needsand interests The materials are intended for use by local educa-tion programs, postsecondary institutions, state departments ofeducation, universities and colleges, and others responsible forthe professional development of occupational instructors

The PBTE curriculum packages in Category KimplementingCompetency-Based Education (CBE)are designed to enableoccupational instructors to install and manage training programsembodying the principles and concepts of CBE The modules arebased upon 84 teacher competencies identified as essential toinstalling and managing competency-based occupational instruc-tional programs

Many individuals and institutions have contnbuted to the research,development, testing, and revision of these significant trainingmaterials. Appreciation is extended to the following individualswho, as members of the DACUM analysis panel, assisted Na-tional Center staff in the identification of the teacher competen-cy statements upon which this category of modules is based: Odell

Chasm, Robert Dubanoski, Neil Reske, Bel! Nicholson, RobertRannells, Richard Sedlacek, William Shoat, Kris Sitler, MichaelStrohaber, and Ann Vescio. Appreciation is also extended to thefollowing Individuals for their critical reviews of the modules dur-ing the development process. Glen E. Fardig, Robert E. Norton,and Roger Harris.

Field testing of the materials was carried out with the assistanceof field-site coordinators, teacher educators, students, directorsof staff development, and others at the following institutions.DuPage Area Vocational Education Authority Center, Illinois; In-diana University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania State Universi-ty, Seminole Community College, Florida; Trident Technical Col-lege, South Carolina, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Univer-sity of Central Florida, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania;University of Southern Maine, and University of Vermont .

Recognition for major individual roles in the development of thesematerials is extended to the following National Center staff: Lucille-Campbell Thrane, Associate Director, Development Division, andJames B. Hamilton, Program Director, for leadership and direc-tion of the project, Michael E. Wonacott and C. Lynn Malowney,Program Associates, for module quality control; Cheryl M. Lowry,Research Specialist, and Billie Hooker, Graduate ResearchAssociate, for developing illustration specifications; Barbara Sheafor art work, Andonia Simandjuntak, Graduate ResearchAssociate, for assistance in field-test data summarization, andGlen E Fardig, Consultant, and Lois G. Harrington, ProgramAssociate, for revision of the materials following field testing.

Special recognition is also extended to the staff at AAVIM for theirinvaluable contributions to the quality of the final pnnted products,particularly to Marilyn MacMillan for module layout, design, andfinal art work, and to George W. Smith, Jr. for supervision of themodule production process.

Robert E. TaylorExecutive DirectorThe Nat.onal Center for Research inVocational Education

THE NATIONAL CENTER

FOR RESEARCH IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONTHE 0.10 STATE UTIVESISITT1960 KENNY ROAD COcumeuS OHIO 43710

The National Center for Research in Vocational E location s mis-sion is to increase the ability of diverse agencies institutions, andorganizations to solve educational problems relating to individualcareer planning, preparation, and progression The National Centelfulfills its mission by

Generating knowledge through researchDeveloping educational programs and productsEvaluating individual program needs and outcomesProviding information for national planning and policyInstalling educational programs and productsOperating information systems and servicesConducting leadership development and training programs

A,AVIM

AMERICAN ASSOCIATIONFOR VOCATIONALINSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALSTh. National Institute lot Instrucbonal Materials120 Dnftmier Engineering CenterAthens, Georgia 30602

The Amencen Association for Vocationai instructional Materials(AAVIM) is a nonprofit national institute

The institute is a cooperative effort of universities, colleges anddivisions of vocational and technical education in the United Statesand Canada to provide for excellence in instructional matenals

Direction is given by a representative from each of the states,provinces and temtones AAVIM also works closely with teacherorganizations, government agencies and industry

PreparelourseIt

lotCAE

ORGANIZE THECONTENT FOR

A CBE PROGRAM

ORGANIZE YOURCLASS AND LABTO INSTALL CBE

PROVIDEINS rRUCTIONAL

MATERIALSFOR CBE

CBE IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS

2

5

MANAGE THEDAILY ROUTINES OF

YOUR CBE PROGRAM

GUIDE YOURSTUDENTS THROUGHTHE CBE PROGRAM

INTRODUCTION

Things don't stand still in education. Just whenyou think you've got things running smoothly, alongcomes a new idea that makes you wonder whetheryou need to take another look at your program tosee if it can be improved. Competency-based edu-cation (CBE) is one of those ideas. It is being talkedabout, written about, and established all over thecountry. It appears to be, in the words of a familiarphrase, an idea whose time has come. And you arelikely to be affected.

The individual elements of CBE are not strictlynew to vocational educators:

Vocational instructors have always attemptedto make the content of their programs fit theneeds of business and industry, but CBE putsreal rigor into the process.

It has been one of the unique strengths of vo-cational education that its teachers have takena personal interest in their students. An individ-ualized, competency-based approach allowsthis to happen to a degree never before pos-sible.

Vocational teachers have long been concernedwith evaluating students on the basis of occu-pational skill. CBE gives them better tools withwhich to do the job.

In other words, it is the systematic way in which theCBE elements are organized to revitalize vocational-technical education that is new

Depending on the nature of your present pro-gram, there may be sweeping changes as CBE isintegrated into the curriculaand all to the good:

Your role as an instructor will change from thatof the dominant information-giver to the evenmore rewarding one of student support andmanagement.Your students will have new and greater re-sponsibilities for their own earring and, withyour help, will develop increased self-directionBusiness, industry, and labor will be moreclosely linked to your instructional program asthey assist you in identifying the o :cupationalskills to be taught and provide field settings inwhich your students can continue to learn.

3

....,":,

.."......."',-',',-

Accepted school administrative policies andprocedures will require a fresh lookmanyneeding to be revised so more students canlearn and so learning can take place more effi-ciently.

This module is designed to help you prepareyourself for CBEwhether you teach in a second-ary or postsecondary institution. It does this in twoways. First, it will help you understand what CBE isall aboutthe educational philosophy on which it isbased and how this is applied in practice.

Second, it will help you take stock so you can seewhat you need to do in order to successfully estab-lish a CBE program. It will assist you in assessingyour readiness for CBE and in developing a plan forgaining the knowledge and skills you need.

This module is not designed to give you all theskills required for planning, establishing, and main-taining a CBE program. This is a big job, and thoseskills are covered in the other five modules in thiscategory (see the diagram on p. 2 to understand therelationship of the modules in Category K). In thismodule, you will simply gain skill in preparingyourself to tackle'that job.

e

ABOUT THIS MODULE

Objectives

Enabling Objectives1. After completing the required reading, critique the per-

formance of a teacher in a given case study in explain-ing and describing CBE (Learning Experience I).

2 After completing the required reading and an initial in-ventory of your present readiness to operate a CBEprogram, develop a plan to gain the greater experi-ence you need to do so (Learning Experience II).

3 After completing the required reading, critique the per-formance of the teachers in given case studies in on-enting the school and community to CBE (LearningExperience III).

4 In a simulated situation, onent members of the schoolor community to CBE (Learning Experience IV)

PrerequisitesThe modules in Category K are not designed for the pro-spective teacher with no prior training and, or experience.They assume that you have achieved a minimal level ofcontent knowledge in your occupational specialty andskill in the core teacher competencies of instructionalplanning, execution, and evaluation They then build onor expand that knowledge ana skill level, specifically interms of implementing competency-based education.

ResourcesA list of the outside resources that supplement those con-tained within the module follows Check with your re-source person (1) to determine the availability and the lo-cation of these resources, (2) to locate additionalreferences in your occupational specialty, and (3) to getassistance in setting up activities with peers or observa-tions of skilled teachers, if necessary. Your resource per-son may also be contacted if you have any difficulty withaffections or in assessing your progress at any time

Learning Experience IRequired

1-3 peers to work with you in discussing and assess-ing a case study (required only if you select this alternate activity).

Learning Experience IIOptional

Newsletter Open Entries (quarterly newsletter topromote the exchange of CBVE information). Talla-hassee, FL. The Florida State University, The Centerfor Studies in Vocational EducationMenbership in organizations devoted to the further-ance: of CBE

4

Learning Experience IIIOptional

A vocational teacher in your service area experi-enced in onenting others to CBE whom you can in-terview.An administrator experienced in operating a CBEprogram whom you can interview

Learning Experience IVRequired

A group of peers to role-play members of the schoolor community whom you are orienting to CBE, and tocritique your onentation. If peers are unavailable, youmay present your orientation to your resource per-son.

OptionalVideotape or audiotape equipment to use in record-ing, reviewing, and self-evaluating your orientation.

Learning Experience VRequired

An actual teaching situation in which you can pre-pare yourself for CBE.A resource person to assess your competency inpreparing yourself for CBE.

General InformationFor information about the general organization of eachperformance-based teacher education (PBTE) module,general procedures for its use, and terminology that iscommon to all the modules, see About Using the NationalCenter's PBTE Modules on the inside back cover. Formore in-depth information on how to use the modules inteachertrainer education programs, you may wish to re-fer to three related documents:

The Student Guide to Using Performance-Based TeacherEducation Materials is designed to help onent preservice andinservice teachers and occupational trainers to PBTE in gen-eral and to the PBTE materials.

The Resource Person Guide to Using Performance BasedTeacher Education Materials can help prospective resourcepersons to guide and assist preservice and inservice teachersand occupational trainers in the development of professionalteaching competencies through use of the PBTE modules. Italso includes lists of all the module competencies, as well asa lit ting of the supplementary resources and the addresseswhere they can be obtained

The Guide to the Implementation of PerformanceBasedTeacher Education is designed to help those who will admin-ister the PBTE program It contains answers to implemcnta-tion questions, possible solutions to problems, and alternativecourses of action

7

40

a

ActivityThe competency-based approach to education is based on concepts some-what different from those that form the basis for the conventional approachto education. For information on the nature of competency-based education,read the following information sheet.

COMPETENCY-BASED EDUCATIONCompetency-based education (CBE) is consid-

ered by many to be one of the most significant edu-cational innovations of the last fifty years. CBE hasbeen endorsed at the local, state, and national lev-els, and it is also catching the attention of many in-ternational educators. CBE is a rapidly growing andsustained movement, which can lead to the im-provement of instruction.

When educators visit CBE programs to observethem in action, however, what they see frequentlydoes not tell the whole story. For example, in a fullyfunctioning CBE program what may be visible is thatstudents are working at their own pace on a highlyindividualized basis. Some students may have beenin the program for two weeks, some for six weeks.The teacher may not seem to be leaching" in theconventional sense of the word. CBE, in fact, mayappear to be quite unstructured.

Nothing could be further from the truth. Indeed, itis its rigorous structure that is the strength of thecompetency-based approach. Lets look at this con-cept in more depth to uncover just what that struc-ture is.

6

Essential Elements of CBETraditionally, educators at all levels have accepted

the notion that learning is the variable and time isthe constant. Whenever someone offers a coursethat involves a set number of hours of instruction,they are accepting this approach to education.

Having a set number of hours per course is ad-mittedly an administrative convenience that is hardto give up. However, with that approach, teaching isoften geared to covering as much information aspossible in the time permitted and hoping that stu-dents will learn enough to allow them to be success-ful.

Many people feel that vocational and technicaleducators should be establishing programs in whichlearning is the constant and time is the variable.Vocational educators in many states are currentlyworking hard to make this idea a reality in their pro-grams through the implementation of CBE.

CBE differs, often significantly, from conventionalapproaches to training because of the educationalphilosophy upon which CBE is based. That philos-ophy, stated very simply, is as follows:

Almost all learners can learn equally well if theyreceive the kind of instruction they need.

To make that philosophy work, CBE uses a verysystematic approach to developing and deliveringtraining.

The differences between CBE and conventionaleducation can be illustrated by examining the stepsinvolved in designing and offering a training pro-gram: determining what to teach, how to teach, whatto test, how to test, and how to structure studentprogress through the program.

What to teach. The firstand probably most im-portantstep in the instructional development pro-cess is determining what to teach: the content for aspecific program. In conventional programs, pro-gram content is often derived based on topics listedin textbooks, skills included in curriculum outlines,and the instructor's own prior occupational experi-ence. But textbooks, curriculum outlines, and the in-structor's occupational experience often do not re-flect the real world of work at the present time.

1

1

This leads to one of the basic strengths of thecompetency-based approach to training. The skillsto be taught are identified by people who know bestwhat tasks are performed in a given occupation: ex-pert workers in the occupation

CBE takes the view that it does not matter muchwhat curriculum specialists think wor i-s should beable to do, nor what instructors in the area think areprobably the most important sk,Ils in the occupation.Instead, what really matters in determining the con-tent for a training program are the tasks that current,skilled workers in the occupation actually perform.

Thus, the content of a CBE program is deter-mined by a rigorous process of identifying the tasksperformed by the worker on the jobthe competen-cies (or skills) needed by the worker. When youknow what tasks are performed by an employee inthe world of work, you then know what skills to teachin your program

Having arrived at this logical point in determiningthe content of a training program, CBE then goesone step further The competencies to be achievedin a training program are made public Thus, stu-dents know exactly what is expected of them in thetraining program They know, in advance, the spe-cific skills they must attain to succeed, both in theprogram and on the job

All this can be summarized into the first essentialelement of CBE

Competencies to be achieved are rigorouslyidentified, verified, and made public in advanceof instruction

How to teach. Another essentiai element of CBErelates to managing the learning process. It is of ut-most importance that learning be managed so thateach learner has the opportunity to developandbe evaluated onthe important occupational com-petencies that make up the program This meansthat learning cannot be lockstep or by the numbers

The competency-based approach acknowledgesthat people learn at different rates and in differentways One person may learn more quickly, anothermore slowly, depending on the kind of task beinglearned.

Some people need a theoretical overview of thetask before they can profitably attempt the taskThey want to know how the process works beforethey try to use ;t. Other people need a hands-on,trial-and-success approach to a task from the verybeginning They want first to see the process dem-onstrated and to try it out. Then they may be readyto learn about the theory behind it

One student might need the reinforcement ofpeers in group activities to learn effectively. Anotherstudent might be distracted by the group process;

this student might learn best independently Thevariation in the rate and style of learning from onelearner to the next can be enormous.

CBE makes a point of accommodating this widevariation in potential rate and style of learning byproviding for the individual development and evalu-ation of important occupational competencies. Tothe maximum extent possible, students are allowedto learn at their own best rate and in their own spe-cial way This requires a shift away from the moreconventional notion of whole-class, group-paced in-struction

It is not adequate, for example, to specify that allstudents will listen to a lecture, view a film, spend45 minutes at practice stations in groups of three,have 15 minutes to ask any questions, and then sitdown to take a test on the content to be learned.This will not meet the neeas of all learners. Thetypes of activities will be wrong for some, the se-quence of activities will be wrong for others, and thepace of the activities may be wrong for most.

If time, money, and effort are invested in a trainingprogram, why not manage that training so thatlearning does, in fact, take placein the most effec-tive and efficient way possible, Thus, the second es-sential element of CBE:

The instructional program provides for the indi-vidual development and evaluation of each of thecompetencies specified.

What to test. A necessary part of any trainingprogramwhether conventional or competency-basedis testing to determine whether learninghas occurred Therefore, another step in designinga training program is to determine exactly what is tobe tested.

In this matter, CBE again differs from more con-ventional approaches. CBE emphasizes proficiencyand performance above all else. Consequently, thefinal measure of competence is whether the studentcan actually perform each competency accordingto given criteria

This does not, by any means, ignore the impor-tance of knowledge and attitudes. Attitudes are crit-ical, but they can be tested through observation ofperformance. Knowledge is recognized as an es-senial prerequisite upon which performance isfoundedand knowledge should be testedbut itis not an end in itself

What ultimately matters--to both trainees andemployersis the trainees ability to perform tasks,not just knowledge of how to do so After all, if youhave a leaky faucet. what kind of plumber do youwant to fix it One who can wax eloquent on theprinciples of hydraulics? Or one who can stop theleak?

7 10

IThis leads to the third essential element of CBE.

Assessment of competency takes the studentsknowledge and attitudes into account but re-quires actual performance of the competency asthe primary source of evidence.

How to test. Another step in the process of de-signing a training program is to determine how toevaluate students' learning. In many conventionalprograms, a norm-referenced grading system isused. In such a system, the achievement of one stu-dent is compared to that of the other students, witha minimum grade requirement constituting success-ful achievement.

Furthermore, with such an approach, there isoften an element of the unknown. To test students'"actual knowledge," the exact questions to be askedare not given out in advance. And if no one gets 100percent of the answers correct, the test may begraded "on the curve." Thus, in conventional pro-grams learners may not know, until they get thetests back, how "well" they didin comparison tothe other students.

CBE, on the other hand, focuses on each stu-dent's ability to perform specified occupational tasksaccording to established occupational standardsAnd the view is taken that it does not harm the learn-ing process if everyone knows beforehand preciselyhow students' performance on occupational taskswill be evaluated. On the contrary, if learners knowin advance exactly how to judge whether their per-formance is correct, their learning will likely be bothmore efficient and more effective.

This approach to evaluating learning does de-pend, of course, on having valid, specific, high-quality

8

criteria by which to judge performance. Fortunately,an excellent source is available for determining thecriteria needed in developing the performance check-lists that will be used to evaluate performance: theoccupation itself.

Just as expert work,rs in the occupation are usedto identify the important occupational competencies,current occupational practices indicate what criteriaare actually used in the occupation to judge suc-cessful performance.

Thus, the fourth essential element:

Cnteria to be used in assessing achievement andthe conditions under which achievement will beassessed are explicitly stated and made publicin advance.

How to structure progress. Student progress ina CBE program depends on only one thing: attain-ment of the important occupational competencies.Students do not study a topic for two weeks, take awritten test on it, and then go on to the next topicregardless of how they did on the test.

In CBE, students move ahead to the next com-petency when they can successfully perform thecompetency currently being worked on. In theory, itdoesn t matter whether it takes a trainee one day,one week, or one year to successfully perform agiven competency. (In practice, reasonable timeconstraints usually operate.)

What matters is that the trainee learns and per-forms one competency successfully before movingon. Students cannot simply accept a poor or failinggrade on a particular unit and then attempt to pro-gress through further work, lacking prerequisiteknowledge or skill. Neither can they hope that apoor rating on one competency will be offset by anespecially high rating on another. Each competencycounts.

A parallel concept is that students are consideredto have completed the program only when they havemastered all the specified skills, not when the cal-endar or clock says they have. It isn't important thata student has been enrolled for an academic year orhas put in 1,240 hours of attendance. What is im-portant is that he or she has acquired the skillsneeded to get and hold a job in the occupation.

The fifth and last essential element of CBE, then,is as follows:

Students progress through the instructional pro-gram, at their own best rate, by demonstratingthe attainment of specified competencies.

11

1

You have seen thus far now the basic decisionsabout content, instruction, test ng and student prog-ress are made in competency cased programs De-signers and impiementers of eery well developedCBE program use these princ.c es in formulating in-structional and management procedures

Facilitating Characteristics of CBEIn addition to the five essentia elements of CBE

programs, there are a number of facilitating, or sup-porting, characteristics that should be part of anyCBE program These can be grouped into instruc-tional characteristics and administrative character-istics Although there are variations among pro-grams. most mature, fully functioning CBEprograms exhibit most. if not al of the characteris-tics listed in the following two facilitating categories.

It is these facilitating characteristics that help tobring the potential of CBE into fu, reality. They allowstudents to learn efficiently and instructors to teacheffectively They make vocationa.-technical educa-tion more rational and relevant than ever

Facilitating instructional characteristics. Theinstruction is designed to include the following ele-ments

The instructional materials used (e g . learningguides or modules) are Keyea to the competelces to be achievedEnvironments that duplicate or simulate thework place are available to students duringcompetency developmentBasic knowledge or bacKground theory islearned as it is needed to support competencydevelopmentStudents are informed about the traits and atti-tudes important to workers in the occupationand are periodically evaluated regarding theirattainmentEach student is given continual and detailedfeedback on competency developmentA variety of learning styles and teaching strat-egies is provided forStudents with appropriate prerequisite skillsand knowledge may bypass instruction on com-petencies already attained

Facilitating administrative characteristics.The program is organized and supported adminis-tratively to include the following elements

Program completion is based on satisfactoryachievement of all specified competenciesStudents can enter and exit from the programat different times

Individual student records are maintained andreflect student progress at any given point intime

Materials, space. and equipment are availablewhen needed by students and instructors.The record-keeping system permits studenttransfer into and out of the program without re-quiring duplication of instruction on competen-cies already achieved.The requirement of a designated number ofhours of instruction is removed from the criteriafor program completion.Records of competency attainment are pro-vided to students and prospective employersStudent grades, if used, reflect the level of com-petency achievement attained.Credit if awarded. is given for competenciesachieved as a result of instruction and for dem-onstration of previously acquired competen-ciesStudent fees are inclivid..:ally assessed and arebased on the time actually spent in the programand the instructional resources used

The ext. . of your involvement in the implemen-tation of these administrative characteristics will, ofcourse depend on your particular situation. It maybe that you are trying to implement CBE on yourown in your own program, in that case. your rolemay be to convince the administrative staff thatsome of these characteristics are required to sup-port your efforts

912

On the other hand, you may be part of a CB: im-plementation lean, in a ...-,s;huo,vlode effort ,r tatcase, it may be your responsbi;ity to actua,!y pro-vide kr these administrative ,-,haractenstics Or theschool may be moving systematically to ensure thatthe CBE program includes all these characteristics,and you may not need to be involved at all.

Implementing the Elements andCharacteristics

If you read about CBE in the literature and talk tovarious educators who have a great deal of experi-ence in implementing CBE, you will find some vari-ations in what people present as the essential ele-ments and facilitating characteristics of CBE.However, these variations tend to reflect differencesin emphasis rather than differences of opinion con-cerning what a fully functioning program looks like.

In fact, the goal remains the development of CBEprograms that possess all the essential elementsand most of the facilitating characteristics dis-cussed. But exposure of the concepts underlyingCBE to the realities of conventional vocational-technical programming has revealed some practicalconcerns. Trying to move, in one step, from a highlyconventional program to one that includes all the es-sential elements and facilitating characteristics ofCBE often has disastrous results

Faced with the idea that they will have to imme-diately implement a CBE program exhibiting all theessential eiements and facilitating charactensttcs,some schools have abandoned the idea of imple-menting CBE before they have even begun. For ex-ample, some secondary schools could not conceiveof taking such an extreme step as allowing for openentry, open-exit. Other schools knew :hey did not atpresent have the resources (staff, time, money) todevelop individualized learning guides. And, as a re-sult, these schools sometimes assumed that CBEwas not for them.

Consequently, some experts suggest that, inmany cases, CBE is more likely to be implementedsuccessfully if it is implemented incrementally. Inother words, it is far better to take one step at atimeand to get each element securely in place be-fore proceeding to thr next element.

To that end, you could focus first on establishingthe groundwork for CBE: rigorous identification of(1) the actual tasks performed by incumbent work-ers on the job and (2) the criteria by which perfor-mance r those tasks is assessed

The identified tasks. or competencies, can bused as a basis for developing instruction. And thecritena can be used in developing criterion-referenced performance checklists for measuringstudent achievement of the requisite competencies.

10

Furthermore, once both competencies and criteriahave been identified and established, these can bemade public to btildents in advance of instruction.

At that point you would have addressed three ofthe five essential elements:

Competencies to be achieved are carefullyidentified, verified, and made public in advanceof instruction.Assessment of competency takes tta student'sknowledge and attitudes into account but re-quires actual performance of the competencyas the primary source of evidence.Criteria to be used in assessing achievementand the conditions under which achievementwill be assessed are explicitly stated and madepublic in advance.

Initially, however, the instructional mode used toteach those competencies and to assess studentperformance may be fairly conventionalteacher-directed, group-based, and group-paced.

It is highly unlikely, though, that instruction will re-main conventional for very long. Once those threeessential elements are in place, the need to imple-ment the remaining essential elements and the fa-cilitating characteristics usually becomes quite ob-vious.

For example, it should become readily apparentthat, as students work to achieve competencies,they do not all progress at the same rate. What thenk.:o you do with those who are moving more slowlyor more rapidly than the group pace set? How doyou find time, within group instruction, to individuallyevaluate student performance on individual compe-tencies? Clearly the instructional delivery system

13

will have to be modified accordingly. In fact, it willneed to be modified to incorporate the remaining es-sential elements:

The instructional program provides for the indi-vidual development and evaluation of each ofthe competencies specified.

Students progress through the instructionalprogram, at their own best rate, by demonstrat-ing the attainment of specified competencies.

And in order for the instructional program to providefor the individual development and evaluation ofcompetencies and student self-pacing, you wouldinevitably discover that you need to implementsome or all of the facilitating instructional character-istics previously described.

The natural evolution of the implementation pro-cess does not end there. In fact, once the essentialelements and facilitating instructional charactens-ties are established, it will become equally dear thatthe system won t work well unless the existing ad-ministrative characteristics are rrk...lified or newprocedures are developedto accommodate theelements of the CBE system.

This is not to suggest that CBE should be imple-mented blindly, without planning in advance for thechanges that will ultimately be required to supportits implementation. Rather it is an acknowledge-ment that many conventional programs find it diffi-cult if not impossible to fully implement CBE all atonce.

Instead, therefore, it is recommended that suchprograms move slowly and methodically into imple-mentation such that the foundation is first laid . . .

and then the instructional design is systematicallymodified to accommodate that existing and solidlylaid foundation . . . and finally the administrative pro-cedures are revised as necessary to accommodatethe instructional design. In that way the changescan eve and the CBE program can grow into ma-turity incrementally and naturally.

Advantages of CBEMuch work is yet to be done to document the ef-

fects of competency-based instruction. Enough isalready known, however, to have identified a num-ber of genuine advantages of this approach. Thesemay be characterized as educational advantages(i.e., effects on students) and management advan-tages (i.e., effects on schools).

Among the most important educational reasonsfor implementing a CBE approach are the following:

More learners achieve competence than is possible in group-centered instruction.Learners may achieve competence in a shorterperiod of time.

11

The learner builds self-confidence and self-esteem by succeeding in learning.Students learn to help each other rather thancompete for grades.The content of instruction is well organized andconsistent.The final result is an entry-level worker who ismore uniformly prepared in basic occupationalskills and abilities.Students can learn according to their preferredlearning styles.Students are not required to repeat learning ofskills previously acquired.

Secondary and postsecondary occupational pro-grams designed to capitalize on the educational ad-vantages of CBE find that there are very significantadministrative and management benefits to this ap-proach as well. In fact, it can be argued that themanagement reasons for CBE are in themselvesjustification enough. Among the most important ofthese reasons are the following:

Students can obtain ready access to instruc-tional programs.Students with a wide range of skills can be ac-commodated.Programsrams are readily revised and kept current.The instructional staff can be utilized more effi-ciently.

Facilities can be utilized more fully and effi-ciently.

The placement of graduates in jobs is facili-tated.Students with special/exceptional needs cancomplete segments of an instructional pro-gramsegments selected with their specificneeds and abilities in mind.

Vocational-technical programs develop andmaintain stronger linkages with business, in-dustry, and labor.

CBE TerminologyIt should be noted that, in this newly developing

movement, the terminology used in discussing CBEvaries widely. Terms and acronyms for such pro-grams abound. In addition, the terms used to de-scribe the different e'ements of CBE programs arenumerous, as illustrated in sample 1.

These differences in terms are not, in themselves,important. What is important is that all CBE pro-grams, regardless of the specific terms attached tothem, should be developed based on the essentialelements and facilitating characteristics describedpreviously in order to be considered trily compe-tency- or performance-based.

14

SAMPLE 1

TERMS

ielnarnentt..10 ,a-specified de-gree of and

ertn'_order to perform..Altolrequently called

ire0 by: a

Learning Package: A general term used to de-scribe the many types of student learning mate-

4tt!ti4 _ rials used in CBE programs. Two of the mostagiven commonly used types are learning guides andskiff' modules.

00,iti. Learning Guide: A type of learning packagestru0 that usually contains a terminal objective,vhicfr . ...... enabling objectives, directions for learningair.11*****97 I,. activities, a listing of the external supportive

10-11 1*_444404.,.., . resources needed,, and evaluation activities.ternt,a, _..;iii'-iffl,:rt*i"' sed-:education_ While learning guides are developed-in afPB.g);': !***7. 0.7 1 . .. . 2n.06-000 wide variety of formats, most dependon ex-insfetiOtio:n; 2 ,OrpernPetai4-based.yopa- temal resources to provide- the -content-0Olier -Vg):. :' needed.

CcflriPeteii0, -A.-gtaphic:portrayal--of all Module: A type of learning package that,the--.0 ,---ar4(5,aSSOOle -perfdrmed by usually includes a terminar,objeCtive;- en-4keriqii46-4-, Pc9.1. POPP. abling objectives, essentiai;cognitiv,e-,infor-

.

(CBE): An in-Oaring- itudirats ineStucl:Ote!.de%felqping

d:iiCCtipatiOrial compe-'Perkiiiiiaritatesta; Other

mation, andevaluation activitiee. While mod-Ctiterf,O0eltiTainiOdt : The evalua- tiles are also developedine-Widelcrarietyi oflion ;.ort,-occupa- formats most, are, self-contained, 'transport-41-044004pd*44040.404.40vance

te;artd-dasignetrIOrlridt9tdtiattrg=p-

CO'Occupational Analysis: Afirocess used to iden-

mentify the. duties -endtasks- that workers perform inany given ,OCcupatiOn: A .fiumber of -alternativeand acaeptableapprOaphes to occupational anal-

-that states tCisintended ysis are available- Also called job anal-ysis.

DutrAn arbitrary &1st-edit of related tasksinto abroad functional area or general areaof responsibility. Dutleaare also called dutyareas or general areas of competence(GAC).Task: A work activity that is discrete, observ-able, and performed within a limited periodof time, and that leads to a product, service,or decision, Tasks are also frequently re-ferred to as the skills or competencies thatstudents or trainees must possess in orderto be successful workers.

struOtieni-': bri:OditiparjOrta-rhetweertor.

rlescri ptiart-or.,,ssriet. -of state,is.tO: be, learned by student in

instrOof*Prograii:LO.e., a product480ningoutcOmes).

:peVel,Oping A,Curticu-OCOupabona: I that

oOOtipat:onar eiperts, together:Oa trained facilitator.

DACUL

under":

InS*000:..An approaoh for.manag riiptiOnar process which

)fiti,indlyideailearners (as op-poSethlo. r of..learners) acquire the knowl-edges:Anti, aititudi needed, in a mannerdesignedi'iffilaCOOMMOdate -their unique differ-Otide.0,J;

,Whereas curriculum .identifies theInStiVi:tiOnef:OOntent.(Whatiato be learned), in-struOtion;latheprOOSss--(the how or the means)by WhiCh,theititended'leaming will be achieved.

12 15

11

ti

o

-4

0

0C,

1316

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

NOTE: The following activities involve critiquing a case study in writing. Ifyou prefer, you may set up a seminar session in which you and a group ofone to three peers, who are also taking this module, can orally critique thecase study.

The following case study describes how one teacher explained and de-scribed competency-based education (CBE). Some of his views are accu-rate; some are off-base. Read the case study and critique in writing theteacher's views concerning CBE. In addition, indicate what you could say tohelp the teacher clarify his views.

CASE STUDYJenny Whitley and Millard Springer, vocational

teachers from Palmetto County Vocational-Techni-cal Center, are having an intense discussion in thestaff lounge. They are talking heatedly about imple-menting competency-based education in vocationalprograms CBE-is-the-subject of-a-workshop to beheld the following evening at the nearby state uni-versity campus.

Jenny feels more strongly than Millard that CBEcan and should be implemented in vocational edu-cation. She is, however, intrigued by some of whatMillard is saying. Finally, she asks him to stateclearly and succinctly his position on CBE.

"Look, Jenny, we know that CBE is said to providea 'fit' between job training and competenciesneeded on the job, right? But I fail to see how that isany different from what we have always aimed forWhat's the big deal?

"For example, in CBE, students' programs arebased on something called occupational analy-ses. These are evidently developed by actual CBEteachers. Well, haven't we always spent much timeand energy developing competency lists on the ba-sis of our own occupational experience?

"And, I don't know about you, but students in myprogram have always been evaluated on the basisof performance. They are expected to perform eachrequired competency in the lab, and I evaluate theprocess or product according to established occu-pational standards. Based on my own occupationalexperience, those standards are firmly etched onmy brain. Again, how is that different from CBE?

"On the other hand, when it comes down to imple-menting CBE, I find many of the requirements

downright impractical. For example, teachers inCBE programs have to develop a learning guide foreach competencycomplete with a wide selectionof learning activities so that every student in theclass can find one they like.

"Furthermore, CBE programs 'aresupposed to betotally individualized. That means that each studentdecides what competencies to pursue, in what or-der, and then works alone, at his or her own pace,to achieve those competencies.

"Seriously, Jenny, does that make sense to you?The reason those people are students is becausethey don't yet have occupational skills and experi-ence. On what basis, then, can they intelligently se-lect what skills they need?

"Now tell me truthfully, Jenny. Wouldn't you reallymind having to give up the control you have overwhat you think should be taught and learned?

"Why, our duties and responsibilities would be re-duced to practically nothing. You could set out astack of CBE learning guides and hand a progresschart to each student. Then you could tack a GoneFishing sign on the door and make a beeline for thestaff lounge. We could all sit in here and talk abouthow wonderful it was that our students were workingon their own.

"Of course, we would check on them occasionally.But, really, for what reasons? The learning processis time-variable. So, what should we care if somestudents seem to be taking all the time in the world?And the learning activities are all spelled out in thelearning guides. What could students possibly needfrom us in the way of instruction?

"Quite frankly, Jenny, CBE seems like some edu-cational patent medicine. And I just can't swallow it!"

14 17

Compare your written or oral critique of the teacher's explanation of CBE withthe model critique given below. Your response need not exactly duplicate themodel response; however, you should have covered the same major points.

MODEL CRITIQUE

Millard Springer appears to have gotten undulyupset in his somewhat inaccurate and defensivesummary. He needs correction on certain basic as-sumptions about CBE. He also needs clarificationregarding what he thinks would come to pass if CBEwere implemented.

Most of all, Millard probably needs reassurance.His reactions are not atypical. Many of his remarkswere made in defense of the quality of his existinginstructional program. In other words, he seems tofeel that to accept CBE is to admit that all his pastefforts were substandard. He knows that is not true.

Millard needs to understand that, in fact, CBE rec-ognizes and draws upon the numerous strengthsthat have always characterized good vocational-technical programs. Where CBE is different fromwhat has gone before is that it organizes these ele-mentsthese strengthsin a systematic and rig-orous way to provide a revitalized whole.

Millard is right in assuming that the identificationof occupational competencies and the assessmentof student performance of those competencies areessential elements of CBE. And he is to be congrat-ulated in having recognized the importance of thesetwo elements in his own instruction.

But Millard has failed to recognize the amount ofrigor involved in implementing these two elementsin a CBE program. He has always generated thecompetency list based on his own occupational ex-perience, and he assumes that the same approachmay be used in CBE programs. Yet, how long has itbeen since Millard was employed in the occupation?The longer it has been, the less likely it is that thelist he identifies will reflect reality.

Likewise, how accurate do you suppose his ideaof occupational standards would be if he's beenaway from the occupation for any length of time.Standards may change. In Millard's case, they couldchange somewhat from day to day, since he hasthem "etched on his brain" rather than specified inwriting. Millard has obviously not understood that, ina CBE program, competencies and standards aremade public in advance.

You could, for a start, describe for Millard the pro-cess of occupational analysis in a CBE program.You could discuss the importance of input from ac-tual workers and business and industry personnel.These people should be involved in identifying, se-quencing, and/or verifying competency lists. Theycan also assist in the subsequent development ofcompetency-based learning objectives, learning ac-tivities, and performance criteria.

this foundation, then, students are notblindly identifying what skills they will develop, asMillard fears. The competencies required are spec-ified and sequenced. Thus students know whatskills they must-acquire an &what skills-tre`prerequi:site to other skills. With this informationand theassistance of the instructorstudents can indeedplay a role in designing a program to meet their spe-cific occupational goals.

Millard Springer also needs to understand the dif-ference between the essential elements and the fa-cilitating characteristics inherent in a CBE program.CBE teachers do not necessarily have to developlearning guides. That is one good approach to facil-itating individualized instructionif the necessaryresources are available. But other existing instruc-tional materials can be used to accomplish thesame purpose.

Furthermore, Millard needs to know that individ-ualized does not mean that each student alwaysworks alone. Rather, it means that in a CBE pro-gram it is not acceptable to aim instruction at thegroup and ignore those students whose needs arenot met by that approach. Each student in a CBEprogram must be helped to meet each competency.Since, in reality, individuals have different needs andabilities and learn at different rates, the instructionmust reflect this fact insofar as possible.

In fact, the essential elements require that the in-structional program, (1) provides for the individualdevelopment and evaluation of the competenciesspecified and (2) a;,uws students to progress throughthe program, at their own best rate, by demonstrating

15 18

the attainment of specified competencies. The es-sential elements do not state that students must workalone, without interaction with peers or the guidanceand assistance of the instructor.

Indeed, the instructor in a CBE program is a verybusy person with numerous duties and responsibili-ties (as will become increasingly clear in subse-quent learning experiences in this module). Con-sider the tasks implicit in implementing a CBEapproach. How will the instructor provide individualassistance as needed, answer questions that arise,evaluate individual students as they perform eachcompetency, provide continual feedback on studentprogress, maintain records of student progress, andso on, if he or she is sitting in the staff lounge?

Contrary to Millard s final statement, CBE doesnot claim to provide easy answers to difficult instruc-tional-design questions. It is not an 'educational pat-ent medicine." Rather, it attempts to provide a struc-tured and systematic approach to ensuring thatstudents' needs are met by the instructional pro-gram and that students are indeed prepared to enterthe world of workas it exists today.

Let us hope that Millard's misconceptions andmisgivings are dealt with adequately in the CBEworkshop he will attend the following evening.

Level of Performance: Your written critique of the teacher's explanation of CBE should have covered thesame major points as the model critique. If you missed some points or have questions about any additionalpoints you made, review the material in the information sheet. Competency-Based Education, pp. 6-13,or check with your resource person if necessary.

1916

1

1

i

I

I

I

Learning Experience II

OVERVIEW

1720

Activity How does a program with the elements and characteristics of CBE operate?What is your role, as instructor, in operating a CBE program? For informationon operating a CBE program and how you can prepare for your role as in-structor, read the following information sheet.

GETTING READY TO OPERATE A CBE PROGRAMHow are the elements and characteristics of com-

petency-based education (CBE) carried out in theoperation of a CBE program? How is the differingemphasis of CBE on performance, student respon-sibility, time-variable learning, and so on, translatedinto reality? Let's consider each of the special char-acteristics of CBE in greater detail, in terms of itspotential effect on you, the vocational-technicalteacher.

Carefully Identified CompetenciesVocational-technical teachers have always

sought to give students the skills they need on thejob However, the procese of selecting those skillshas not always been thought through or systemati-cally accomplished to the degree necessary.

Typically, course content has been derived fromthe topic headings in a textbook. Or from the teach-er's examination of his/her own experience. Or froman official course outline derived from a combinationof sources and provided to the instructor.

Frequently, what was taught in the classroom andlab was affected by the kind of equipment available.Or by the amount of time scheduled for the course.Or by what the instructor felt most comfortable inteaching.

These approaches to selecting program contenthave served reasonably well but are no longer con-sidered good enough.

A truly competency-based vocational program isbuilt on some form of the process called occupa-tional analysis. The process may or may not be con-ducted by the particular school installing CBE. How-ever, whether it is done by the school or by anotheragency, it results in a list of skills needed by theworker in the specific occupation being analyzed.One form of occupational analysis involves the fo -lowing steps:

1. A search of the occupational literature is madeto construct a tentative list of tasks needed byworkers in the field.

2. The list is reviewed and revised by a commit-tee of workers and supervisors.

3. The revised list is presented to a large randomsample of incumbent workers who check eachitem to indicate whether they actually performthe task on the job, and how frequently theyperform it.

4 The results of workers' analyses are used toconstruct a final task list, learning guides, andcriterion-referenced performance test 'terns.

Other methods of occupational analysis may in-volve different steps. In one widely used form, ex-pert workers participate in an intensive three-daybrainstorming session led by a neutral facilitator. Inanother method, a panel of expert instructors pre-pares a tentative competency list under the guid-ance of a curriculum specialist. Then the list is mod-ified and verified by an ad hoc committee ofincumbent workers and supervisors from the area.

These kinds of rigorous analysis processes pro-vide a far more defensible foundation for instructionthan we have ever had before. Without a verified,up-to-date list of competencies, a program cannotbe considered to be competency-basedno matterhow carefully other aspects of the program are or-ganized.

18

21

ti

1

With a list of competencies in hand, you can thenwrite a series of learning objectives for studentsbased on the competencies Or you can go directlyto developing instructional packages, using taskstatementssupported by activity directions andcriterion-referenced checklistsinstead of formallystated objectives

The competencies or skills must be stated interms of worker performance in other words, theymust be observable so that you can assess stu-dents' actual performance of each skill based onspecified criteriathe criteria used for beginningworkers on the job With each competency defined,learning activities can be provided to help studentsachieve proficiency

Role of InstructorThe instructor is the single most important factor

in any vocational-technical programincludingCBE Without knowledgeable and competent in-structors assisting, guiding, evaluating, interacting.and helping students in the program to develop thedesired competencies, development of those skillswill not occur It is this interpersonal dimension, soimportant to the individualization of the program,that is in many ways unique to CBE.

There is no doubt that a teacher first experiencingthe competency-based approach will find that his/her role has drastically changed And the necessaryadjustment is not always easy

The instructor is no lonaer the dominant force inthe classroomgiving lectures to a large group ofupturned faces, administering pop quizzes or full-length examinations to the total class, planning thedaily or monthly routine of the group down to the lastefficient minute.

Instead, the focus has changed The student isgiven much more responsibility for learning, and theteachernow the learning manager or resourcepersonhas much more of a supporting role.

The rest of the modules in Category K expand onevery aspect of the instructor's role in CBE Butbriefly, it can be said to involve being an advisor,helper, and evaluator of the students in the program

As advisor, the teacher works with individual stu-dents to (1) clarify reer goals and (2) select a program of competencies to meet those goals.

As helper, the teacher (1) provides students withindividual instruction as they need it, (2) helps solvelearning difficulties, and (3) manages the learningenvironment so students can develop skills as effi-ciently and smoothly as possible.

As evaluator, the teacher (1) helps each studentdetermine when hetshe is ready for evaluation,(2) conducts objective evaluations of the student's

19

performance, and (3) provides continual feedbackto promote student learning.

In addition to these major roles, there may beother subordinate ones, depending on the situationand institution. Some instructors are also given re-sponsibility for developing instructional materials.Others serve as program coordinators. All theseroles may require significant change from what theteacher may be used to. But each has its own chal-lenges and its own rewards.

As many teachers new to CBE have said, "I'venever worked so hard in my life . but I wouldn'thave it any other way"

Role of the StudentThe major change in the role of the student re-

lates to the amount of active involvement required.Many of your students will be accustomed to group-oriented types of instruction in which their role is arelatively passive one. In a CBE program, they willbe required to take much more responsibility fortheir own learning.

Ideally. each student will, from the beginning, beinvolved in planning and implementing his/her ownprogram. This kind of student participation is criticalin CBE. Initially, student involvement may be quitestructured. However, as students proceed throughthe learning activities. they learn when to ask for as-sistance and when to proceed on their own

22

For example, in CBE programs, students may re-quest to have their performance of a skill assessedwhen they feel ready. When this occurs, studentsbecome aware of their progress and are more per-sonally engaged in the learning process.

Known Learning ObjectivesBefore a student begins any CBE program and

uses any instructional matenals, he/she should bedearly informed about (1) what skills he/she will belearning, (2) under what conditions the skills willbe evaluated, and (3) the specific criteria to be usedin determining whether competence has beenachieved. This information is generally provided inthe form of learning objectives.

In well-developed CBE programs, the specific cri-teria to be met are often spelled out on specially pre-pared performance checklists Students can exam-ine a given checklist and determine exactly what theinstructor will be looking for the techniques to beused, the results to be achieved, the qualities ex-pected.

The required level of performance is not some ar-bitrary standard It is the performance expected of abeginning worker in the occupation. The instructor'slong experience and expertise in the field allow him'her to rate performance.

Individualized, Time-Variable LearningAlthough the ideal CBE program may include no

formal courses, many CBE programs reflect varyingdegrees of integration within conventional pro-grams. CBE may be implemented as one part of aformal course, as two or three courses of studywithin an occupational service area, or in a total vo-cational-technical program.

Regardless of the program structure, in CBEevery student's program should be individualized.Each student should be pursuing a planned se-quence of competencies specifically selected tomeet his,'her individual abilities, interests, and ca-reer goals.

For example, some students may have achievedcertain occupational competencies through previ-ous experience (e.g., through military service, in-dustrial training, or life experience). These studentsshould be allowed to lest out" on the specified com-petencies, consulting with the instructor concerningthe time and conditions for demonstrating profi-ciency.

20

In a competency-based program, it is not impor-tant where or how the student learns achievementis what matters.

In CBE, every student's program should also beself-paced. During the time they are in the program,students should be allowed to work on achievingcompetencies at their own best rate. By best rate,we mean "at the optimal level for their capabilitiesand personal learning style"not just if and whenthey choose.

Ideally, at no point does a student have to attain acompetency by a specified time. Each can, in fact,repeat learning experiences or complete alternatelearning experiences until he, she is able to demon-strate competence.

Furthermore, students should be able to enter thetraining program whenever they are readynot justwhen the school finds it convenient to accept them.They should also be able to leave for a job whenthey have acquired some saleable skills. When theyare ready to return and complete the total program,there should be no waste of time or penalty.

In theory, it is possible to use the competency-based approach in a traditional group-basedcourse, but in practice this does not work out well.At the beginning of such a course, all students in theclass may be working on the same competency, butas they proceed, some students will achieve the skillmore rapidly than others.

As a result, the teacher is in a difficult position.Should the whole class be held up until the sloweststudent achieves the skill, or should instruction pro-ceed as soon as the more capable learners haveachieved the skill? In the second case, slower learn-ers get further and further behind in instruction asthe course moves on without them.

Individualized instruction and competency-basedlearning packages (modules or learning guides)provide one feasible answer. Use of learning pack-ageschosen by the student and resource personto meet the students particular occupational needsand individual interestsallows each student toproceed at his/her own pace and, when necessary,to "recycle," or repeat learning activities until com-petence is achieved.

Sampie 2 illustrates some of these points ingraphic fashion.

2J

e

SAMPLE 2

Supplementary Activities andResources

The student does not always work alone in a CBEprogram. Activities are planned to foster interactionamong students who are working on the same com-petencies. Small-group work (e g role-playing andsimulation activities) may be arranged Small-groupdiscussions may be planned

An audiovisual presentation may be made to alarge group An experienced worker or expert fromthe students occupational area may serve as a re-source person to help with special problems or con-cerns at the appropriate time Field trips. too, can beplanned as an excellent on-site resource

For example, students in child-care programsmay need to get together frequently to discuss thebasic techniques they are all learning Students in a

decorating painting, and drywall program may. as agroup view a filmed demonstration of a specialtechnique that cannot be demonstrated in the lab

Role playing and simulation activities may help asmall group of dental assistant students with pro-cedures and techniques for talking with patients andinteracting with employers An expert welder may beable to offer solutions and "tricks of the trade" to stu-dents who are all involved in similar kinds of weldingactivities

A trip to a food packaging plant may give studentsin a packaging program a chance to see what thelob environment is like and what actual job skills arePerformed during a real workday or job shift It is abit more difficult to schedule such events in an indi-vidualized program than in a conventional program,but it can be done

2.121

Performance as CompetenceIn CBE, competence is ultimately assessed by

performance. It does not stop with paper-and-pen-cil measuresunless, of course, the skill is a paper-and-pencil skill, such as editing typed copy.

For example, a gourmet chef's competence is notassessed by asking him,'her to describe how to con-coct a souffle. The proof of the pudding is in the eat-ing, as the old saying goes. Similarly, a student can-not simply read about proper procedures forhanging wallpaper, take a test on what heishe ab-sorbed, and accurately be called competent as apaperhanger.

Employers want to know that the workers theyhire will be able to perform without taking valuabletimeas paid workersto learn by trial and error.Of course, vocational-technical education has al-ways been concerned with performance, but theCBE approach places new and systematic emphsis on this principle.

In some occupational areas, of course, legal re-quirements demand that students be able to pass astandard written examination Nurse's aides aretested on technical vocabulary, law enforcementstudents need to demonstrate knowledge of the lo-cal legal code.

In most situations, however. paper-and-penciltests are interim measures. They are used to as-sess students cognitive skills or background knowl-edge before the student proceeds to the perfor-mance aspects of the skill. They are used to aid thestudent in reaching competencefirst throughknowledge, but ultimately through practice and per-formance.

Furthermore, performance. in CBE, does notmeal just trying once on a written or skill test Suc-cessful performance of a skill, in CBE. means meet-

22

ing occupational standardsperforming that skillaccording to established performance criteria madepublic in advance.

A student in a CBE program cannot "fail" a partic-ular competency and still successfully complete theprogram through grade averaging (e.g., 1 A + 1 B4- 1 C = B). Rather, students must successfullyperform each competency, one by one.

Preparing Yourself

As you can see, a CBE program operates differ-ently from most conventional programs. Perhapsthe most relevant difference to you is the change inyour own role and that of your students. One impor-tant task, then, in preparing yourself to impleme tOBE, is to assess your own readiness for the ro.eof learning manager in a CBE program. Howqualified and willing are you at present to act in anew capacity as learning manager?

First of all, consider your qualifications. Do youknow enough at this point about CBE in general? Ofcourse you are probably not prepared to write thedefinitive textbook treatment on the competency-based approach. In fact, you needn't be. Youshould, however. have a general understanding ofthe principles upon which CBE is based and the ap-plication of those principles in operating a CBE pro-gram.

Then, consider your willingness. How enthusias-tic are you about functioning as a learning manager,facilitator, and coordinator9 Are you comfortablewith the idea that students will be more responsiblefor their own learning? Can you contemplate calmlythe thought that, in a CBE program, you mightsometimes have students doing a number of differ-ent things at one time in the same room?

If your own attitudes are not appropriateit youfind yourself less than willingyou are less likely tobe successful in operating a CBE program. Shouidyou be unsuccessful at CBE. you will be doing adisservice not only to yourself, but also to your stu-dents.

Consequently, if you find that your attitudes to-ward CBE are inappropriate, you will need to takeaction. You will need to take a fresh look at CBE andyour role in it. You will need to keep your mind open,put your attitudes on hold, and allow yourself thetime and opportunity to think once more.

As you assess your readiness for CBE, you willprobably identify specific needs for additionalknowledge, skills, and experience in the area ofCBE. For example, although the information pre-sented previously on CBE is accurate and providesan initial overview, you may need additional knowl-edge about CBE from other sources. It may alsobenefit you to gather some firsthand experiencewith an operating CBE program, especially in yourown occupational specialty.

You should note these needs as you identifythem. Then you can plan specific means to fillthose needs. Let's look at some of the ways inwhich you can gain the additional knowledge andexperience you may need.

Participate in ProfessionalDevelopment Activities

There are numerous activities in which you couldparticipate to gain additional knowledge of the char-acteristics of CBE programs and how they function.These activities might involve a variety of sources,ranging from your local library, to local schools, tocolleges or universities.

One activity you might consider is reading reliablereference works. There is a good deal of literatureavailable on CBE general characteristics of CBE,differences between CBE and conventional ap-proaches, implementation and management con-cerns in CBE, and so on. Books, periodicals, disser-tations, and research studies should be available toyou through libraries in your community, yourschool, or a local college or university.

In consulting these resources, you should keep inmind that they should be current. CBE is an emerging field, with new developments taking place all thetime You need to take advantage of the latest workand thinking concerning CBE. A book publishedonly five years agowhich, under ordinary circum-stances, would probably be considered quite cur-rentcould be completely out of date.

You will probably also find courses, workshops,and conferences offered locally on the topic of CBE.These activities may be part of school- or district-wide staff development programs, especially if CBE

23 26

is being implemented locally. They may also be of-fered by local colleges or universities or by variousprofessional organizations operating locally.

You will need to take the initiative yourself in dis-covering what activities of this kind are available inyour -min situation. If you are an inservice teacher,you could urge your administration to offer activitiesof this nature to staff. You could also suggest to localprofessional organizations that they sponsor speak-ers, workshops, or conferences for the benefit ofyou and your colleagues.

Determine Local GuidelinesYou should also determine whether there arein

your school, district, or stateguidelines concern-ing CBE You will need to know, for example,whether your school has a model CBE program thatyou should follow. In addition, some states have leg-islation affecting CBE programs. You should, ofcourse, be aware of the provisions of any such leg-islation.

One logical starting point in identifying local CBEguidelines would be your resource person. If youare in a teacher education institutir_wi, your resourceperson should be aware of any state guidelines af-fecting the implementation of CRC. If you are in astaff development program, your resource personwill likely know of institutional or district policy re-garding C8E. If the resource person is not familiarwith such guidelines, he/she can help you identifyother sources to contact.

Contact Existing CBE ProgramsAnother excellent way in which to an the knowl-

edge and experience you need is to visit existingexemplary CBE programs within your own region.You can thus profit from the experience of otherswho are actuaNy involved in CBE Especially profit-able would be to locate a teacher in your own oc-cupational specialty who offers a CBE program.Your state department of education should be ableto help you identify such programs.

You could, first of all, simply talk to other instruc-tors involved in CBE about their experiences withCBE. How was their CBE program set up? Howdoes it function? What problems have they encoun-tered in implementing and managing the program'!What advice can they give you to help you avoidpossible difficulties?

You might also observe one of more CBE pro-grams in operation. Best of all would be to observea CBE program in your own occupational area. Asyou observe the program, you should look for evi-dence of the essential elements and facilitatingcharacteristics of CBE.

24

You could examine the instructional materials(e.g., modules, learning guides, media, pro-grammed materials) that students use. You couldobserve how the daily routines of the program aremanaged by the instructorperhaps with the helpof students, aides, or volunteers. You could observestudents participating in learning activities and as-sessment.

You might want to .,se a checklist of the elementsand characteristics of CBE to structure your obser-vation. Such a checklist is provided in sample 3.

Finally, you might actually participate as a studentin an exemplary CBE program. This would give youan excellent opportunity to experience firsthand the"feel" of CBE from the student's point of view.

Using student instructional materials yourself, youmay be able to see the need for clearly written, well-structured directions and activities. As you use theresource center and other physical facilities, youcan gain some understanding of how your own fa-cilities could be organized. Going through a learningexperience may also help you become more awareof the changed roles of student and teacher in CBEprograms.

Keep Up-to-DateLast of all, you need to ensure that you keep up-

to-date in the area of CBE. CBE is a relatively newconcept, just now coming into its own, just begin-ning to be implemented on a large scale. As edu-cators gain more experience in setting up and op-erating CBE programs, new concerns and newsolutions may appear. You will want to ensure thatyou keep abreast of such new developments inCBEfor your students' sake and for your own.

Thus, you will need to stay current with the litera-ture on CBE. You can do this by reviewing profes-sional journals and periodicals and new book acqui-sitions at your local libraries. You can attendlectures, workshops, or conferences sponsored,again, by your school, district, or related profes-sional organization. You might consider joining rele-vant professional organizations, if you do not belongto tam already.

It would also be very helpful, as you strive to keepup-to-date concerning CBE, to maintain contact withother professional colleagues who are involved withCBE programs. They may have new experierraideas, techniques, or materials to share withAnd, as you become more involved in CBE, you canshare your own knowledge and experience withothers.

27

SAMPLE 3

GBE PROGRAM EVALUATION CHECN..I

-, .

Directions: Indicate the extent-tosWhich-ths program beirg evaluatedimplemented each of the following esSential'elernentsacteristics by checking the apprOpriate box under the_k.evel-,qflion heading.

Essential Elements1. Competencies to be achieved by the studeptsheWe beti,m;,

a. carefully-identified

b. verified by local expertS o

c. made public-??,

- 4

2 Criteria for assessing each of-the verified' competencies have,.2

a derived from occupational standards

b. explicitly stated along with conditions

c. made public

3. The instructional program provides-for the:,a. individual development of each competency W-If

b. individual assessment of each competency .

4. Assessment of the students' competence:a. takes knowledge into account

b. takes attitudes into account tle,

c. requires actual performance of the competency as the majorsource of evidence

5. Students progress through the program:a. at their own rate

b. by demonstrating their competence

Facilitating Characteristics6. Instruction is individualized to the maximum extent possible

7. Learning experiences are guided by frequent feedback

25 2 6

ae

-01***: ,t190600--!**Wriiiiht- of Oat. requirements.

paced tattier, than -time- based:

it u or :is -14*centered *69,TOiligilPork 0446065 and *414n[ =theyob' :000000:

11;a. --e*Orki***0000 (e.g,rnodules ordeaming guides)' ,

-b. =ate

c. ere red, arld 'Optionapeamingeotivities pro-, ,

la The loefrObliehaf PrOgraMes e Whole Is carefUlly plahhedandh 'dafe used for program improvement

(OptionalActivity

To stay abreast of current information on CBE activities nationwide, as wellas announcements concerning available instructional materials and compe-tency lists, you may wish to subscribe to the nev,sletter, Open Entries, or tojoin organizations devoted to the furtherance of CBE.

26

2

As an aid in reviewing your attitudes and knowledge concerning CBE, com-plete the following inventory. Read each of the items listed, and place an Xin the appropriate box to indicate your feelings concerning that item, usingthe following scale:

1 = Feel extremely uncomfortable2 = Feel uncomfortable3 = Undecided4 = Feel comfortable5 = Feel extremely comfortable

READINESS INVENTORY

1 2 3 4 5

How comfortable would you feel if a learner:1. began learning at a time of his/her choosing 000002. completed learning activities according to his/her own sched-

ule 00E1003. worked at his/her own pace El4. studied what he/she needed to study El5. participated actively in setting his/her own objectives [1]

6. learned in a field-based (on-the-job) environment El7. accepted more responsibility for learning 000008. took advantage of his/her personal learning style El9. actively participated in the evaluation of his/her progress El

How comfortable would you feel if a learner did NOT:10. study in the same manner as other students in the same pro-

gram 111

11. use the same material for learning as other students E1000012. use the same learning experiences as others 00E0013. progress at the same rate as others in the class 0000E1How comfortable would you feel if you, as an instructor:14. taught the same subject in a different way from one term to the

next [10[110E115. used different learning activities for different students

16. worked with students individually

17. assigned out-of-class activities in exchange for classroom at-tendance

SOURCE. Adapted from a list by James Pollard, Spokane Community College

2730

0000E1

1 2 3 4 5

18. used media to present information 111 111

19. assisted students in self-evaluation rather than red-pencilingwritten assignments yourself [11110111111

20. asked a learner "How do you feel you did?" rather than simplyassigning a letter grade 11 lil El lil El

21. held learners accountable for successfully performing specificskills rather than for normative scores on paper-and-penciltests Ill 0

22. expected the learner to accept major responsibility for learning lil ElE123. used knowledgeable and experienced students to instruct

other students El 111 El 111 111

24. allowed learners to choose from a list of program competenciesrather than having them work to complete predetermined

ElElob-

El El CIjectives

25. prepared learning plans that assisted students in their learningrather than lesson plans that assisted you in your teaching EIEJElliill

26. were available when students needed you rather than requiringstudents to be in attendance when you were scheduled toteach Ill El 111 111

27. used student input to set goals for professional improvement 111

How comfortable would you feel if you, as an instructor, didNOT:28. rely primarily on lectures as a means of transmitting informa-

tion to students El El El 0 El29. expect every student in a class to achieve the same skills 01:10[111130. expect all students to achieve at the same rate lil lil

Level of Performance: Ideally, for each item, you should have placed an X in the 4 or 5 box. However, ifyou were honest, some of your items probably received lower ratings. Make a note of those items that ycurated 1, 2, or 3these are the areas in which you need greater knowledge, skills or experience before youcan successfully implement CBE. Then go on to complete tie next activity, in which you can develop aplan to gain the greater knowledge, skills, and experience that you need.

3128

t

I

I

ii

t

Ap-proach," offered by Local State University, June 1, 1985).

By completing the inventory in the previous activity, you have reviewed someof your attitudes and knowledge concerning CBE. As you reviewed your

Activity completed ratings, you should have identified specific areas in which youneed greater knowledge, skills, and experience.

Now, use the worksheet below to develop a plan to gain the specific knowl-edge, skills, and experience you need, as indicated by the results of yourinventory. In the column labeled "The Need; list your own specific needs asindicated by your inventory. Then, in the column labeled "How to Fill It," listthe specific means you will use to meet those needs.

It is very important that you be specific as you develop your plan. You shouldindicate the particular experience you plan to gain (e.g., knowledge of spe-cific methods used to individualize instruction in a CBE program). Then,wherever possible, you should indicate exactly how you could meet eachneed (e.g., attending the workshop "Individualizing Instruction: A CBE Ap-

PLANNING WORKSHEET

The Need How to Fill It

2932

The Need How to Fill It

i{

1

I

,

After you have developed your plan to gain the greater knowledge, skills,and experience you need to operate a CBE program, use the Planning Work-sheet Checklist, p. 31, to evaluate your work.

30 33

S

I

1

)

i

i

1

t

PLANNING WORKSHEET CHECKLIST

Directions: Place an X in the NO, PARTIAL, or FULL box to indicate thateach of the following performance components was not accomplished, par-tially accomplished or fully accomplished. If, because of special circum-stances, a performance component was not applicable, or impossible to exe-cute, place an X in the N/A box.

Nam.

Oat.

Resource Person

LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE

+oThe plan to gain greater knowledge, skills, and experience:

1. included the specific knowledge, skills, and experience needed, asindicated by the results of the inventory E] 0 El

2. provided for gaining the needed knowledge, skills, and experience bya. reading reliable, up-to-date references El 0 111b. participating in courses, workshops, or conferences 111

c. identifying local or state guidelines concerning CBE 111

d. consulting teachers who are involved in implementing CBE pro- El Elgrams 111

e. visiting and observing fully operational CBE programs

f. participating as a student in an exemplary CBE program 111

g. arranging to keep up-to-date concerning CBE 111

3. identified specific, appropriate activities for gaining all needed knowl-edge, skills, and experience El 0 111

4. was realistic and feasible in application

.>" .....4 ..e k

Level of Performance: A" terns must receive FULL or N/A responses. If any item receives a NO or PAR-TIAL response, review the material in the information sheet, Getting Ready to Operate a CBE Program,pp. 18-26, revise your plan accordingly, or check with your resource person if necessary.

31 34

NOTES

32 35

i

1

i

1

44444

34 37

1 1

1 I

1

1

0 11

a

(

1

1

Activity For information on the need to orient school and community groups to theCBE program, the types of information these groups need to have, and themethods you can use to orient them to CBE, read the following informationsheet.

ORIENTING THE SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY TO CBEIn order for you to install and conduct compe-

tency-based education (CBE) in your classes, you,of course, need to have a firm grasp of the concept.But to conduct a successful, effective, and smooth-running program often involves more than yourunderstanding and acceptance of the concept.There are other individuals and groups in the schooland community who need and want to be informedabout what is going onand whose support willhelp ensure an effective CBE program.

Thus, you may need to orient others in yourschool or community to CBE. Your role in orientationwill depend on your own situation. If you are pio-neering CBE in your institution, you may be the onlyperson available who can orient others to CBE. Onthe other hand, if your administration decides toswitch over to CBE, they will probably orient you tothe concept. You will need to use your judgment indetermining what role you should play in orientingothers to CBE.

When orientation is your responsibility, however,you need first to identify who needs to be oriented:What individuals and groups need to be kept in-formed? Whose support is required for the programto succeed? Second, you need to identify what in-formation each group needs in order to understandand support your efforts. And finally, you need toidentify and take advantage of various opportuni-ties to orient these people to what you are doing orwould like to do in terms of CBE.

Generally, such school and community groups asstaff and administrators in your own school and inother schools and agencies; parents; members ofcivic and service organizations; and persons repre-sentinr, ousiness, industry, and labor will need to bekept informed. But the types of information you needto prc vide to any groupand the amount of respon-sibility you will have for providing itwill vary de-pendino on a number of factors, such as the follow-ing:

Are you explaining a program that exists in yourinstitution or attempting to convince people thatthe idea of installing one in the future is worthconsidering?If you are involved in a CBE program, is it anew program, or has it existed in your institu-tion for some time?

If the CBE program is new, who initiated its in-stallation? The administration? Your vocational-technical department? You?What key groups in your institution and com-munity need to be kept informed?How much do people in the institution and com-munity already know about the vocational-technical program? About CBE?How much support exists for the vocational-technical program? For CBE?

Whatever your situation, you will want to presentthe proposed or existing CBE program in the bestpossible manner and to make your case convincing,interesting, and effective. This is true whether youare simply providing information or keeping peopleup-to-date on what you are doing.

As indicated earlier, you need to have a thoroughunderstanding of CBE yourself to be able to explainit to others. In addition, however, you should be fa-miliar with a variety of techniques and approachesfor presenting information and maintaining goodschool-community relations.'

LS

1 To gain skill in techniques for promoting and maintaining geldschool-community relations, you may wish to refer to appropriate mod.ules in Category G SchoolCommunity Relations

3538

Depending on the situation, you might want toprepare a bulletin board or exhibit. Or you mightchoose to give a presentation involving the use ofoverhead transparencies, slides. or the chalkboard.You might develop a brochure or a news release Oryou might organize an open house

Opportunities to orient school and communitygroups will not, of course, always involve elaboratepresentations or promotional techniques. In manycases, informal conversations (in person or over thetelephone) will be all that is necessary to provide theneeded information. But you should be able to makemore formal presentations if the need or opportunityarises.

Assuming that you are either involved in a CBEprogram or about to become involved, what oppor-tunities exist for you to orient others and gain theirunderstanding and support? What sorts of informa-tion should you provide to various groups?

Orienting Other StaffYou may find many opportunities within your own

institution for orienting other staff members Youmay be able to schedule some time on faculty meet-ing agendas for talking about CBE to the group as awhole Department meetings provide an excellentopportunity to discuss CBE in terms of occupationalarea needs and concerns And the staff lounge is afine place to talk to other teachers in a more informaland individual way.

To ensure that most staff members will hear aboutCBE, you may want to include an article in theschool or colleg3 paper or bulletin You will also wantto remain alert to other orientation opportunitiesspecific to your own facility, such as an open house,fund-raising events, and special activities.

36

The Information about CBE that you provide tostaff members will need to address their specificconcerns. And, as mentioned earlier, it will vary de-pending on the situation at youi institution.

If CBE is new to them, staff members will want toknow in what ways it will affect their instructionalplanning time and effort. They will want to know howthey will be able to manage and guide the progressof students who are working with different materialsat varying rates.

You will need to very simply and directly addressthese points. You may, for example, discuss how theextra time spent initially in planning a program witha student is well repaid when the teacher is free laterto work individually with the student.

You can explain that, as the student proceedsthrough his her program, the teacher will not becalled upon so much to dispense new informationdaily but. instead, will keep track of the student'sprogress and help the student to progress as rapidlyas possible.

You can also explain that, yes, the teacher mayhave to spend much timein the beginningin de-veloping or selecting record-keeping forms andcharts and progress report forms. However, as theprogram becomes fully operational, this kind of ac-tivity is much less called for. The appropriate formswill have already been drafted and ready for generaluse by the instructor and all the students.

Student evaluation and grading will also likely beof concern to teachers. For example, some teachersmay not know what a performance test is, how itdiffers from testing procedures already being used,and how the teacher's role in the testing procedureis changed.

You can indicate that evaluation is based on a stu-dents ability to actually perform a skill or set of skillsand not simply on passing written tests. You can de-scribe how performance is assessed based on ex-plicitly stated criteria, and you can explain that bothstudent and teacher knowin advancewhatthose criteria are.

You can also note that, ideally, evaluation of per-formance is not tied to grades Students either per-form satisfactorily or not. If not, they recyclere-peating activities and practicing the skill until theycan perform it successfully.

Orienting AdministratorsAn excellent way to discuss CBE with one or two

administrators is to arrange for an informal privatemeeting. However, if you need to reach more admin-istrators within a tighter time frame, you may wish toarrange some time on the agenda of an administra-tor's workshop or an in-school meeting of your own

33

administrative staff You may also want to provideadministrators with articles on CBE or with examples of CBE instructional materials.

Your onentation of administrators, just as that ofother staff members, will need to touch upon theirparticular concerns. Administrators, quite naturally,will want to hear about how CBE will affect account-ability and cost. That is, they will want proof that theresults of the program and job success of the stu-dents will be worth the resources expended.

Thus, you should be prepared to discuss how youplan to acquire CBE instructional materials and howmuch this might cost. You may need to explain theneed for a resource center in your facility and howthis can be installed. And you can explain that, whileCBE cannot predict 100 percent student success in'ife or job roles, it does respond to updating ofchanging job skills and that, therefore, it may be wellworth the initial cost of materials and resources.

If the program is to be organized on an open-en-try open-exit basis, administrators will be interestedin hearing about ways to manage such a system.You can explain how this type of system makes itpossible for every available work station in your fa-cility to be utilized to full capacity because, as soonas one student leaves the program, another can beenrolled and start work.

In addition, you can discuss the fact that, oncemanagement procedures and forms are decidedupon and (tatted and students are onented to theprocess, things begin to run smoothly with normalmonitoring

Administrators may also need to know about theneed for alternative grading procedures. Traditionalletter grades have little meaning in a CBE program.One final course grade does not reflect a student'sperformance and progress in the program. In a CBEprogram, the instructor knows exactly which occu-pational skills each student has. Why shouldn't thisinformatics be shared with others?

In a CBE program, it is more appropnate to reportthe different competencies that each student mas-tered This would be valuable information for em-ployers, for example They would know exactly whatskills their beginning workers have. And studentscould easily determine their qualifications for jobsthey see listed. A report of competencies masteredwould be, in many respects, the ideal.

Implementing this ideal procedure may not al-ways be a simple matter. Existing graduation re-quirementswritten in terms of courses and lettergradesmay initially prevail. However, if you workto ensure that your administration understands andsupports CBE and knows your needs as you imple-ment your CBE program, you can much improveyour chances that these needs will be met.

Orienting Referring Schools andAgencies

Personnel at other schools an,, governmentagencies that refer students to your program (suchas a feeder school or employment agency) shouldalso be informed about CBE. You may be able toarrange to make a presentation about your CBEprogram at one of their staff meetings or at a specialfunction.

You might also wish to contact specific individu-als, such as guidance personnel in the referringschools. Much of the counseling of students regard-ing their training programs rests with these persons.

The administrators, teachers, and guidance per-sonnel at these referring schools and agencies willhave their own special questions and concernsabout CBE For one thing, they will want to feel thatall the transfer or referral decisions made are justi-fied.

For instance, the Bureau of Employment Serviceswill want to know that the people they refer to yourprogram will be getting the kind of training theyneed. A private employment agency may want to beassured that referring people to your CBE facility fortraining will in no way adversely affect the agency'sreputation.

A referring school will want to be sure that send-ing students to a CBE program will result in suc-cessful training and high student interest. They mayalso want to work out with you articulation agree-ments, so the skills students learn in their school will

37 40

be given proper credit when the students enter thehigher-level program.

The referring schools and agencies, in otherwords, need to be assured that they can encouragesuitable students to enter your program and main-tain their own credibility.

You can begin by explaining that a student enter-ing a CBE program meets initially with a resourceperson (or instructor) in an interview session to plana program that will best fit his, her present level ofskill, as well as his, her occupational and personalheeus and goals. You can dez,c.iibe how each entering student's program is tailor-made.

For example, t:te student with no on-the-job ex-perience at all begins with basic, iearning objectivesand learning experiences. The student with somesummer work experience may be able to "test out"of basic learning experiences and begin work onmore intermediate competencies. The student whohas worked the occupation for two years andwho needs only a few competencies to be eligiblefor advancementcan enter a CBE program andwork only on those competencies.

Staff at employment services will need to be ableto interpret the transcripts or records of studentswho complete your program. You may need to explain how occupational competencies are listed andverified.

A competency profile chart or a competency list-ing can be extremely helpful in explaining what thecompetencies for your program are, how a studer isprogram is planned, and what level of skill he, shemust reach to successiu::, complete your program.Details of the rating scale you use will be extremelyhelpful here.

38

You may also need to provide information aboutyour CBE program to institutions your students at-tend for further training after leaving your program.Such institutions may need an explanation of stu-dents' competency profiles or ratings and how totranslate these into a conventional program struc-ture.

Orienting ParentsTeachers in seoui.dary school._ have a special

task that may not concern instructors at other levels.They should be sure to keep parents well informedabout the vocational program. Opportunities forcontact with parents are numerous.

A monthly parent-teachers meeting can provideone opportunity to talk to parentseither formallyor informallyabout CBE and its effect on theirsons and daughters. You can take advantage of thisopportunity by arranging in advance with the presi-dent or program committee chairperson for sometime on the meeting agenda.

A schoolwide, departmental, or classroom openhouse also can provide an ideal opportunity to orientparents to the way in who., students are being pre-pared for employment through CBE programs. Moreinformal contact with parents may be arranged atschool social events or through individual phoneconversations, in-school conferences, or homevisits.

Whatever approach you use in orienting parents,you will need to address some key concerns. Par-ents will v.ant to know how the CBE program willaffect students' opportunities for employment andtheir daily routine.

In your orientation, then, you can explain thatCBE is based on competencies verified as necessary on the job. Therefore, each student can be spe-cifically and thoroughly prepared for the occupa-tional area he she wishes to enter. You can explainhow learning activities ate planned and sequencedto be time-variable and to enable a student to actu-ally perform job skills competently.

You can describe how students go through a typ-ical day in a CBE programhow they work at vary-ing rates, using a variety of materials and media tof.r their individualized programs, using the resourcecenter as well as the laboratory, and going out intothe field when specific learning experiences requirethem to do so.

The idea of a time-variable program, in which stu-dents can work at their own rates and complete theprogram at different times, may be quite new to par-ents. You will need to explain this carefully. Other-wise, parents may become anxious when their sonor daughter takes a longer time than another stu-dent to progress through the same program.

41

Because of the administrative complications in-volved, most secondary school docational programsare not, at present, organized on a true open-entry,open-exit basis. However, if your secondary pro-gram is so organized, it will be very important foryou to discuss this with parents.

You need to be sure they understand that stu-ients may enter the program at different times in theschool year and exit from the program wheneverthey have completed the worknot necessarily inFebruary or June. The idea of students' being ableto enter the job market at any time in the year mayappeal to parents, but they may have concernsabout other aspects of the self-paced approach toinstruction.

You may also wish to help parents understandhow CBE can aid in the maturation r., ocess by re-quiring students to take more responsibility for theirown learning. You could do this by describing therole of the resource person as one who helps thestudent manage his, her own instruction and who as-sesses the student on a performance basis whenthe student shows him 'herself ready to be as-sessed.

In other words. you can describe how a student ina CBE program becomes aware of his/her progress,need for assistance, and readiness to demonstratecompetence.

Orienting Civic and ServiceOrganizations

By orienting local affiliations of natiol tal organiza-tions in your community, as well as some special-interest groups, you can respond to several civic andservice organization needs. These organizations,whatever their particular concerns, are all interestedin the community in which they operate or provideservice. They are therefore also interested in what ishappening in the schools and need to be kept in-formed, for a variety of reasons, of changes occurringin teacher's and students' roles and in instruction

You may ;Ind local affiliations of larger national or-ganizations, such as the following

Chamber of CommerceLionsElksKiwanisLeague of Women VotersSierra ClubB'nai &nth

And you may find special-interest groups, such asthe following:

Local historical societyEnvironmental protection groupSettlement houseHospital associationLibrary associationCrafts clubTheater groupHalfway house

One of your primary reasons for orienting civicand service organizations to CBE may well be apurely informational one. These community groupsmay need to know about the implementation of CBEsimply because it is something that is going on inthe schools.

You may need to orient these groups simply toavoid misunderstanding, apprehension, and suspi-cion They need to know about new and innovativeprograms so that they will understand and appre-ciate the school's continuing efforts to serve thecommunity.

The members of these organizations may need toknow, ter example, w,-y they are seeing vocationalstudents out of class and "about town." You mayneed to explain how, in CBE, field experience maybe a part of a student's program. Learning activitiesmay have to take place in a hospital or a hair stylingsalon or a service facility

39 42

Organization members may aiso want to knowhow they can serve students in a CBE program. Aforestry student, for example, may need to volunteerfor a day at the local environmental protection groupoffice to complete one of his her learning experi-ences. A lighting technician may need to spend timewith a little theatre lighting crew during an actualproduction as part of one learning activity.

If yours is a postsecondary or adult education pro-gram, some of the people you talk to may be veryinterested in enrolling. The CBE approach can per-mit adult learners to select just those specific com-petencies they would like to learn, without having totake a complete course of study.

The neighborhood pharmacist, for example, maywant to learn the typing skills needed to enable himto type labels for prescriptions The local sculptormight be eager to gain skill in brazing sheet metals.You may well be able to accommodate people whohave such special needs and interests in a CBE pro-gram because you can construct learning experi-ences on the small building blocks of occupationalcompetencies.

Orienting Business, Industry, and LaborOpportunities for orienting business, industry, and

labor to CBE are abundant, and this orientation isessential to the complete effectiveness of your pro-gram. Opportunities can be found in meetings withyour occupational advisory committee, which ismade up of representatives from local business andindustry. You can find further opportunities in meet-ings with labor union officials, employment agencypersonnel, business leaders in the community, fac-tory managers, and trade organization members

It would be very wise to prepare descriptive ma-terials, such as a chart of competencies, to help youin your presentations. You may find these groupsmore accepting of the principles and logic of CBEthan some traditional educators.

Your advisory committee provides you with infor-mation about labor needs in the community and re-views the competencies needed in your specific oc-cupational area. Therefore, they will need to have afirm grasp of how the CBE program is structuredand what it is expected to produce.

Also, since students may join unions after leavingschool, labor union officials need to know in whatways CBE will prepare students for the labor marketand for successful placement in jobs. The union willwant to know how CBE can more effectively serveits new membership. Labor unions may also begreatly interested in the CBE approach as it can beapplied to their apprentice training programs.

40

Contacts made with business leaders in the com-munity will enable you to discuss their role as valu-able resources in the CBE program. A student in apersonne, management program may well need towork within a particular business for a period of timeto practice specific competencies. Another studentin an entrepreneurship program may need to inter-view a well-known business entrepreneur in thecommunity.

Plant managers should be similarly orientedThey need to understand how their future employ-ees are being trained and how they can serve theCBE program. For example, the manager of a tex-tiles plant needs to know that students in a fashiondesign program are being trained to identify the suit-ability of fabric designs for various markets. And theschool may need the assistance of plant supervi-sors in assessing students' on-the-job performanceof occupational competencies.

Personnel officers in business, industry, and otheragencies should understand the methods you usein your program to assess students and to verifytheir occupational skills. If you have developed aprogram transcript showing the rating the studenthas achieved on each competency (and, by the way,such a transcript is a valuable tool), employers needto know to ask prospective employees for it.

They should also know how to interpret the doc-ument. You might even lay the groundwork for get-ting their cooperation in adding new ratings to theoccupational transcript as the new employee attainsadditional skills on the job. Admittedly, informing andworking with employers is a long-term and continualtask, but you must make a start.

You may also want to orient trade organizationmembers to CBE. These organizations of managersand workers, active in many occupational serviceareas, need to know about CBE program activitiesthat touch on their particular areas simply to keepwell informed. Your students may be required tocontact some of these organizationsagain, aspart of their CBE field experiences. Some examplesof organizations related to vocational-technical ser-vice areas are the following:

Restaurant AssociationAutomotive Service CouncilPrinting IndustryCattlemen's AssociationSociety of EngineersAssociation of Retail Lumber DealersAssociation of BeauticiansConsumer Loan Association

43

\bur opportunities for contact with these organi-zations can range from simple phone conversa-tions, to scheduled appointments with organizationofficials, to attendance at trade association exhibi-tions and special shows. Whatever method of con-tact you,choose, you can orient these people so thatthey will' know how your students are tieing trainedIn their own particular trades and so that they canrespect the purposes and structure of the CBE pro-gram.

Orienting Prospective StudentsYou will need to discuss CBE with prospective

Students. They need to understand how the CBErogram may be different from what they are used

to and how their own role in learning changes in aCBE program. They will want to know the advan-tages of enrolling in a CBE program.

One advantage of CBE that you should explain tostudents is their own increased responsibility. InCBE, students have control over what they learn.Students identify the career goal for which they aretraining. They then have the chance to take moreresponsibility in selecting and completing theirlearning activities.

They are able to choose, for example, fromamong different learning materials and activities.They can proceed at their own pace. They mightwork alone, in a small group, or in a large group.Students daily make many of their own decisionsabout how to learn in a CBE program.

Along with increased responsibility, students haveincreased opportunities. By choosing their ownlearning materials, they can learn information in theway they prefer. Students who read well can chooseprint materials. Those who learn better by listeningmight choose an audiotape covering the same Infor-mation. Students who need concrete experiencescan participate in hands-on activities.

Furthermore, if the program uses an open-entry/open-exit system, students may be able to finishtheir program and leaveearlier than is possible ina conventional program.

Most important for students in CBE is the oppor-tunity to succeed. In other programs, students studya topic until the test, get a passing or failing grade,and go on to the next topic. In CBE, studentschoose materials and activities for each learning ob-jective and work until they can successfully demon-strate competence in that objective. Students can,within reason,-continue until they have learned.

Orienting students to CBE can become a stan-dard part of your program promotion activities. It'slikely that you already promote your program withprospective students. Whatever means you nor-mally use for promotion, you can use to describeCBE and its advantages for students. A new bro-chure, a group presentation, a bulletin board, a sim-ulation during an open housestudents can be ori-ented to CBE in many ways.

4441

Responding to Challenges about CBE

As you orient others to CBE, you will undoubtedlyreceive questions, comments, and even criticismsabout the competency-based approach. You willlikely find that many of these comments are similar.The reservations that people have about CBE tendto center around the same issues. Let's look atsome of these issuesand possible responses youcan make when confronted with them.

"CBE does not have an adequate researchbase." it is true that as yet there are few researchfindings that show that CBE programs, as a whole,better promote learning than do conventional voca-tional-technical programs. There is no conclusivelink as yet between CBE and the desired outcomesof vocational-technical education: student successin the world of work. Nor, for that matter, is there anysuch conclusive link between conventional pro-grams and these desired outcomes.

Educational research does, however, supportmany of the characteristics of CBE as learning en-hancers. Research has shown that learning is pro-moted in many individuals (i.e., students progressfaster and complete earlier) by such CBE elementsas the following:

Use of specifically stated performance objec-tivesProvision of frequent feedback to learnersIncreased individualization of instructionUse of incentives to motivate the learner (e.g.,time-variable progression through the programbased upon the demonstration of competen-cies)

Furthermore, standard program evaluation pro-cedures have shown, in many instances, that indi-vidual CBE programs are providing effective occu-pational instruction. Subjective data indicate thatCBE is perceived by many as an effective means ofproviding training for the world of work. Teachers,students, and employers report their satisfaction.Employers often feel that the amount of responsi-bility assumed by students in CBE programs pro-vides them with a skill that is valuable in the worldof work.

"Sum of the parts may not equal the whole."Some people feel that there is danger in the fact thatCBE breaks each occupation into its componentparts, or individual competencies. Their fear is that,when you put the parts back together, they won'tadd up to the whole. The ability of students to dem-onstrate competence in specific tasks, they claim,does not guarantee future success in the world ofwork.

42

One response to such a criticism oould be that itis impossible to look at any occtipation as.a wholewithout breaking it down into its parts. In CBE pro-grams, these parts are very carefully identified andcategorized. Then, the entire program is publiclylaid out, so that all can see how one competencybuilds on another.

Students in CBE programs have the opportunityto move toward competence in the whole occupa-tion through the step-by-step acquisition of the es-sential subparts. Students then have many oppor-tunities to put all the pieces together under thesupervision of a master worker: you or an on-the-job supervisor for students' field-based experi-ences.

"Programs are not humanistic." Part of all edu-cation today involves attending to the affectiveneeds and development of students. Some people,unfortunately, see CBE as a cold, mechanistic ap-proach that ignores the affective domain and dealsonly with the cognitive and psychomotor aspects oflearning.

Others imply that, in CBE programs, there arefewer chances for students to explore, express, andcomprehend their feelings. Some people questionwhether CBE comes to grips adequately with thehumanistic and higher-level cognitive needs of stu-dents.

45

it

I

Supporters of CBE argue strongly that compe-tency-based programs need not be dehumanizing,mechanistic, or restrictive Objectives in the affec-tive domain may be hard to measure, but this is trueregardless of the means of instruction. CountlessCBE programs have identified affective competen-cies and provide their students with instructiongeared to those competencies

Furthermore, students in CBE programs oftenhave more opportunities for interpersonal contacts.They often have more chances to explore, express,and comprehend their feelingsand the feelings ofothers, as well Perhaps, as with conventional vo-cational-technical programs. CBE programs will beas humane as the persons who are operating them.

"Instructional management is more difficult."Managing a CBE program is admittedly differentfrom managing instruction in a conventional pro-gram. You have to coordinate different activities oc-curring at the same time. Students have to be kepttrack ofthey might be in your lab or shop, in alearning center or off on a field-based experience,for example

Students will be learning different things, each re-quiring different materials, resources, and activities.If careful records are not kept of student progress, itis difficult to know who has learned what. All in all,delivering lecture demonstrations to the entire classand then testing their knowledge periodically is eas-ier to manage

Consider, however, what you gain by attending toall these individual management tasks. Your stu-dents will have the chance to develop a sense ofresponsibility They can learn at their own rate. Onestudent, who picks up information quickly, can go onto another activity. Another student, who needsmore time to absorb the same information, is al-lowed to spend the time needed. Students canchoose from a variety of matenals, activities, andgrouping arrangements to learn in the way they pre-fer or need

In addition, as students become more respon-sible, they can assume some of the duties related tomanaging instruction They can make their ownchoices about how and when and with whom tolearn. That is, they can manage some of their ownlearning.

Furthermore. managing instruction in a CBE pro-gram may look more difficult than it actually isThings often appear more difficult when they arenew and unfamiliar. It is likely that, as you gain ex-perience in managing a CBE program. it will be lessdifficult than you thought.

CBE programs may be costly.' Some data areaval.abie on the costs of operating CBE programs.Two major types of costs are involved, however de-veiopmental (or start-up) costs and operationalcosts

As with most other new programs, there are initialcosts involved. Personnel must be trained. Theymust also be provided with the time needed for suchactivities as planning the program, developing or se-curing materials, and working out the managementprocedures

However, after a developmental stage of three ormore years, the cost of operating a CBE programseems to be comparable to operating existing pro-grams

Grantee, more expensive materials and equip-ment more costly assessment procedures, andmore record-keeping devices are sometimes in-volved However, there are offsetting savingsthrough greater use of self-contained instructionalmaterials, use of unsupervised peer-group studysessions, and the elimination of many typical classmeetings Also, you can often make fuller use ofyour facilities as students use them at their ownpace

"There's a shortage of high-quality software."Unfortunately, as with almost any other educationalmovement, some people turned out hastily pre-pared, poorly developed, and untested CBE mate-rials Others placed new covers with different titleson old materials. It can be costly, in time and money,to produce high-quality, research-based, tested ma-terials. Securing appropriate instructional materialsfor a CBE program often was not easy.

However, high-quality software does now exist.Competency-based student instructional materi-alsproduced to high standards of qualityareavailable from commercial publishers, educationalresearch agencies, materials development consor-tiums, individual teachers, and many other sources.Several standardized learning ackage formatshave been developed and are n( idely acceptedand used

Although there may yet be much to do, much isbeing done More and better materials are appear-ing almost daily

43 4 6

,OptionalActivity

41%21

OptionalActivity

You may wish to arrange through your resource person to meet with andinterview a teacher in your vocational-technical service area who has expe-rience in orienting people in the school or community to CB'. You couldstructure the interview around such key questions as the following:

In order to implement a CBE program or operate one effectively, whatgroups in the school or community need to be informed about and sup-portive of the CBE program?What types of questions or concerns arise most frequently in discus-sions with various groups concerning the CBE program? How did youanswer these questions?What methods do you use in orienting others to CBE? Informal conver-sations? Formal presentations? How successful were these methods inhelping you create understanding and support?

You may wish to arrange through your resource person to meet with andinterview an administrator who has experience in operating a CBE program.You could structure the interview around such key questions as the following:

How was the CBE program initiated?How were school and community groups oriented to the CBE program?

What was the role of the instructional staff in providing the necessaryorientation or information?What administrative questions needed to be addressed before the CBEprogram could be installed?What types of questions about CBE are you most frequently asked byparents and other community members?

47

I

i The following case studies describe how three vocational teachers ap-proached their responsibilities in orienting school and community groups toCBE. Read each of the case studies and critique in writing the performanceof the teacher described. Specifically, you should explain (1) the strengths ofthe teacher's approach, (2) the weaknesses of the teacher's approach, and(3) how the teacher should have treated his/her responsibilities.

CASE STUDIES

Case Study 1:Bill Bohanan, a retailing instructor at Webster

Technical Institute, was feeling pretty pleased withhimself. His administrator had received a request forassistance from the personnel director of a localfood chain, and Bill had been asked to handle therequest.

The personnel director wanted some help in re-viewing and evaluating an examination to be usedto screen prospective employees. Billwho hadbeen using a competency-based approach in hisclasses for the past yeartook one look at the testand decided to throw it out and start over.

Bill carefully avoided paper-and-pencil tech-niques, which the original exam had relied on com-pletely. Instead, he developed an excellent perfor-

mance test. He based the test on the competencies,performance objectives, and specific criteria estab-lished for his own CBE program.

When Bill delivered the test, the personnel direc-tor was busy, so he left it with her secretary.

On his way home, Bill stopped for groceries atone of the chain's local stores. While waiting in thecheck-out line, he got into a conversation with thestore manager, who complained about how difficultit was to find competent help.

Bill agreed sympathetically and wondered if heshould bring up the new screening test. Oh well, hethought, she'll find out cbout it eventually.

4845

Case Study 2:Miss Chavous had spent a busy afternoon talking

to employers at prospective training stations for herco-op students. So far, no one had made a definitecommitment, but she felt sure she would be suc-cessful. The CBE program was functioning beauti-fully, and her students had never been so involvedand motivated.

In talking to each employer, she had describedthe program in glowing terms. First, she had ex-plained how her students were taking more respon-sibility for their own learning. She stressed that theywere even helping to plan their own programs.

46

Then. she had discussed her role in CBEthatshe functioned as a learning manager rather thanas a dispenser of information. Finally, she had ex-plained proudly that her students were having notrouble using her carefully developed CBE mod-ulesdue. in part, to her well-stocked learning-resources center

All in all, she was sure she had made a good im-pression and that the employers she had spoken towould be eager to provide training stations for stu-dents like hers

49

e

Case Study 3:The instructors who were gathered in the faculty

lounge at Intercoastal Community College weremore than a little upset. During the previous facultymeeting, the college president had informed themthat the institution was going to implement a totallycompetency-based program.

Workshops and training sessions wouk. be heldto orient faculty to the new concept and help withthe transition. Outside consultants would be broughtin to help run the sessions and to provide concreteadvice

Most of the instructors at the college knew littlemore about OBE than the name. A few knewenough to hint darkly about increased work loadsand complex management problems. Even instruc-tors who were ordinarily open to new and differentInstructional approaches were apprehensive. Theywere concerned about making such a drasticchange in the teaching-learning environment theywere accustomed to

47

The only instructor who wasn t concerned was Mr.Wisner, who had been using CBE in his dat6 pro-cessing classes for the past six months. His onlyconcern was that it was probably going to be boring&fling through all those workshops and training ses-sions It occurred to Mr. Wisner that, if he let his ad-ministrator know he'd been using CBE for sixmonths, he might be able to skip the orientation ses-sions

But. come to think of it, he might be able to getsome help in developing a more complete list of thecompetencies needed by workers in the occupation.The occupational analysis he'd worked from wassomewhat out of date And, since he'd gotten it froma colleague in another state, he wasn't entirely sureit fit local conditions.

Mr Wisner gave himself a pat on the back for hav-ing recognized a long time ago that CBE was theway to go Judging by the conversations going onaround him, his fellow faculty members had a lot ofcatching up to do

50

4851

Compare your written critiques of the teachers' performance with the modelcritiques given below. Your responses need not exactly duplicate the modelresponses; however, you should have covered the same major points.

MODEL CRITIQUES

Case Study 1:Bill Bohanan missed two opportunities to let

people in the business community know about CBEin general and his program in particular. As a result,he has been much less help to the food chain (andits store managers) than he realizes. In addition, hemay have temporarily closed off an avenue of sup-port and assistance for his CBE program and itsgraduates.

Bill might have been right. A performance test,based on specific competencies needed by workerson the job, might indeed be what is needed. Butwhat will be the .action of the personnel director toa test that bears no resemblance whatever to thetypes of tests she is accustomed to, or to the testgiven Bill to review and evaluate?

We don't know for sure whether the directorknows anything about CBE. If she doesn't, she maywell fail to understand (or agree with) Bill's approachand may simply reject the exam. Paper-and-penciltesting is not "bad" by definition. In fact, it's possiblethat the director is looking for certain characteristicsin employees that could best be identified throughthis type of test, at least in part.

In any case, Bill should have met with the director(preferably before he revised the test) to explain therationale for performance testing. He should havepointed out the relationship between the skills thatthe test requires employees to perform and thecompetencies needed on the job.

Bill also should have used this opportunity to ex-plain his CBE program, as well as its potential forpreparing more competent employees This sort oforientation would not only have been helpful to thedirector, but it could have resulted in increased field-experience and placement opportunities for Bill'sstudents as well.

Bill also missed an opportunity to talk to the storemanager, in an informal way, abcot the manager'sneeds and the way in which Bill's CBE program attempts to meet those needs.

Just hearing about a new screening test (from Billor anyone else) might not have meant much to thestore manager. However, hearing that a particularteacher in a particular program in a particular schoolwas geared up to train students in the skills neededby her employees would no doubt have been ofgreat interest to her.

By chatting with the manager about the CBE pro-gram and the new screening test, Bill might, in fact,have gotten some good suggestions about the cri-teria that should be used to measure performance.In addition, he might have helped to ensure that hecould look forward to the store manager's support ofboth his program and its graduates in the future.

Case Study 2:Miss Chavous is obviously a highly motivated, or-

ganized, and energetic teacher who appears to beusing CBE effectively. Unfortunately, the employersshe contacted may never get a chance to see howwell-prepared her students are in the basic skills ofthe occupation.

Apparently, Miss Chavous told the employerseverything about the CBE program except whatthey really needed to know. In what competenciesare students being trained? What level of skill arestudents expected to reach? In what ways are stu-dents in her CBE program better prepared to func-tion on the job?

In other words, Miss Chavous gave the employersaccurate, but not particularly relevant, informationabout CBE. In addition, her comments about thefact that her students take more responsibility fortheir own learning, help to plan their own programs,and so on, may have had a different effect on herlisteners than she planned.

Since Miss Chavous did not define competency-based or discuss how the competencies were iden-tified, the employers may have missed the point she

4952

was trying to make. They may not have realized thatsuch students tend to make more mature, respon-sible workers. In fact, they might have gotten themistaken impression that students in a CBE pro-gram can blindly decide, on their own, what theyneed to know and what skills are necessary for suc-cess in the occupation.

Before she visits another prospective training sta-tion, Miss Chavous needs to think more carefullyabout the types of information concerning CBE thatwould address the specific concerns of her audi-encein this case. employers

Case Study 3:Mr. Wisner recognized a good thing when he saw

it Unfortunately. it never occurred to him that otherpeople might benefit from his experience or that hehimself might do a better job with CBE if he had sup-port and input from others.

Having decided to make a major change in hisinstructional approach, Mr. Wisner reaily shouldhave explained to the administration what he wasgoing to do and why Had he done so, the adminis-tration might have decided earlier to install CBE

Furthermore, they could then have made use ofMr Wisner s knowledge and expens,nce in planningthe installation of CBE at the college He could havebeen asked to give presentations at faculty meet-ings or to orient other instructors and members ofthe community to the concept and how it operates

Mr. Wisner could also have helped to plan theworkshops and training sessions For example, hemight have been able to help identify the specificconditions and constraints at this particular com-munity college that would need to be considered intrying to implement CBE

Whether asked to do so or not Mr Wisner couldand should have informed his fellow instructorsabout CBE and why he was using it He seems to

be convinced that it is an excellent way to trainworkers in he skills of the occupation. This is notinformation that he should have kept to himself.

Since there Is little support for or understanding ofCBE among the other faculty, Mr. Wisner wouldhave needed to explain the basic concepts carefully.He could also have used his own successful expe-riences in usine CBE to ease some of their con-cerns

For example, he could have shared with them hissolutions to various management and record-keepingproblems He could have described the techniqueshe has used in developing CBE materials, orientingstudents to the concept, devising specific perfor-mance objectives and criteria, and so on.

By informing others about his CBE program, Mr.Wisner could also have received some help himself.For example, it seems that he has not bothered toorient his occupational advisory committee or otherlocal employers to his CBE program. Had he doneso, members of this group could have helped in re-viewing and updating the competency list.

By explaining aoout CBE to this group, he mighthave gotten other help in implementing his programas well. He might have opened up more opportuni-ties for field expeneoces or job placement for hisstudents. for instance.

Finally, had Mr. Wisner been a little more willing totalk about what he was doing, he might have gertensome suggestions about how he could do somethings better He should not, for example, havebased his brand-new CBE program on an outdatedcompetency list from a colleague in another statePerhaps Mr. Wisner can benefit from the upcomingworkshops and training sessions after all.

Level of Performance: Your wntten critiques of the teachers performance should have covered the samemajor points as the model critiques If yo., missed some points or have questions about any additionalpoints you made. review the material in the information sheet. Orienting the School and Community to CBE,pp 35-43, or check with your resource person if necessary

0 ,J50

Learning Experience IV

OptionalActivity

fti

Develop a complete plan for a presentation designed to orient selected mem-bers of the school and community to CBE. Your presentation could be de-signed to orient members of any one of the following groups: instructors,administrators, parents, employers, union representatives, members of civicand service organizations, prospective students, or other similar groups.

In planning your presentation, consider the characteristics of your hypothet-ical audience and situation, and structure your presentation accordingly. Forexample, you might wish to assume that you will be addressing a group ofsomewhat hostile teachers who are attending a faculty meeting to discussthe need for curriculum revision.

Include in your plans an outline and a list of any supporting materials youwish to use.

In a simulated situation, present your orientation to a group of peers. Thesepeers will serve two functions: (1) they will role-play the audience to whomyou are giving your presentation, anu (2) they will evaluate your perfor-mance. If peers are not available to you, you may present your orientation toyour resource person. NOTE: Before giving your presentation, be sure yourpeers or your resource person are familiar with the roles they are to play(e.g., administrator unfamiliar with CBE, faculty hostile to the concept).

If you wish to self evaluate, you may record your performance on videotapeor audiotape so you may review your own presentation at a later time.

Multiple copies of the Presentation Checklist are provided in this learningexperience, pp. 53-63. Give a copy to each peer or to your resource personbefore presenting your orientation in order to ensure that each knows whatto look for in your presentation. However indidate that, during the orienta-tion, all attention is to be directed toward you and that the checklists are tobe completed after the presentation is finished.

If you taped your presentation, you may wish to self-evaluate using a copyof the Presentation Checklist, pp. 53-63.

5255

PRESENTATION CHECKLIST

Directions: Place an X in the NO, PARTIAL, or FULL box to indicate thateach of the following performance components was not accomplished, par-tially accomplished, or fully accomplished. If, because of special circum-

1 stances, a performance component was not applicable, or impossible to exe-

1

cute, place an X in the N/A box.

Name

Date

Resource Person

LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE

otr

The teacher's presentation:1. was geared to the particular audience involved

2. provided information appropriate to the needs of the target audience

3. provided information that was accurate and sufficiently detailed

4. had a clearly defined purpose

5 gave evidence that the teacher grasps the basic principles and prac-tices of CBE

6. was well organized

7 provided a balanced view, presenting both the benefits of CBE as wellas the potential difficulties faced in implementing the CBE approach

Level of Performance: All items must receive FULL or N,A responses. If any item receives a NO orPARTIAL response, the teacher and resource person should meet to determine what additional activitiesthe teacher needs to complete in order to reach competency in the weak area(s).

53

56

NOTES

i

i

I

54 57!

PRESENTATION CHECKLIST

Directions: Place an X in the NO, PARTIAL, or FULL box to indicate thateach of the following performance components was not accomplished, par-tially accomplished, or fully accomplished. If, because of special circum-stances, a performance component was not applicable, or impossible to exe-cute, place an X in the N/A box.

Name

Date

Resource Person

LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE

The teacher's presentation:1. was geared to the particular audience involved

2. provided information appropriate to the needs of the target audience

3. provided information that was accurate and sufficiently detailed

4. had a clearly defined purpose

5. gave evidence that the teacher grasps the basic principles and prac-tices of CBE

6. was well organized

7. provided a balanced view, presenting both the benefits of CBE as wellas the potential difficulties faced in implementing the CBE approach El

Level of Performance: All items must receive FULL or N,A rest' -roses. If any item receives a NO orPARTIAL response, the teacher and resource person should rr.det to determine what additional activitiesthe teacher needs to complete in order to reach competency ir. the weak area(s).

58

55

i

PRESENTATION CHECKLIST

Directions: Place an X in the NO, PARTIAL, or FULL box to indicate thateach of the following performance components was not accomplished, par-tially accomplished, or fully accomplished. If, because of special circum-stances, a performance component was not applicable, or impossible to exe-cute, place an X in the N/A box.

Name

Otte

Resource Person

r/LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE

!ce.41 4' 0 44,

The teacher's presentation: / Ill 01. was geared to the particular audience involved

2 provided information appropriate to the needs of the target audience

3. provided information that was accurate and sufficiently detailed/

4. had a clearly defined purpose /5 gave evidence that the teacher grasps the basic principles and prac-

tices of CBE 11] 11]

6. was well organized /7 provided a balanced view, presenting both the benefits of CBE as well

as the potential difficulties faced in implementing the CBE approach

Level of Performance: All itpms must receive FULL or N,A responses. If any item receives a NO orPARTIAL response, the teacKer and resource person should meet to determine what additional activitiesthe teacher needs to complete in order to reach competency in the weak area(s).

57 59

I

I

I

PRESENTATION CHECKLIST

Directions: Place an X in the NO, PARTIAL, or FULL box to indicate thateach of the following performance components was not accomplished, par-tially accomplished, or fully accomplished. If, because of special circum-stances, a performance component was not applicable, or impossible to exe-cute, place an X in the N/A box.

Name

Date

Resource Person

LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE

The teacher's presentation:1. was geared to the particular audience involved ,/'

2. provided information appropriate to the needs of the target audience [i] [i] [i]3. provided information that was accurate and sufficiently dcrtailedi4. had a clearly defined purpose

5. gave evidence that the teacher grasps the basic principles and prac-tices of CBE

6. was well organized

7. provided a balanced view, presenting both the benefits of CBE as wellas the potential difficulties faced in implementing the CBE approach El 0 El

Level of Performance: All items must receive FULL or N,A responses. If any item receives a NO orPARTIAL response, the teacher and resource person should meet to determine what additional activitiesthe teacher needs to complete in order to reach competency in the weak area(s).

59 60

PRESENTATION CHECKLIST

Directions: Place an X in the NO, PARTIAL, or FULL box to indicate thateach of the following performance components was not accomplished, par-tially accomplished, or fully accomplished. If, because of special circum-stances, a performance component was not applicable, or impossible to exe-cute, place an X in the N/A box.

Name

Date

Resource Person

LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE

The teacher's presentation:ElEl1. was geared to the particular audience involved El

2, provided information appropriate to the needs of the target audience

3. provided information that was accurate and sufficiently detailed

4. had a clearly defined purpose

5. gave evidence that the teacher grasps the basic principles and prac-tices of CBE ft

6. was well organized

7. provided a balanced view, presenting both the benefits of CBE as wellas the potential difficulties faced in implementing the CBE approach

Level of Performance: All items must receive FULL or N,A responses. If any item receives a NO orPARTIAL response, the teacher and resource person should meet to determine what additional activitiesthe teacher needs to complete in order to reach competency in the weak area(s).

61 61

PRESENTATION CHECKLISTI

wDirections: Place an X in the NO, PARTIAL, or FULL box to indicate thateach of the following performance components was not accomplished, par-tially accomplished, or fully accomplished. If, because of special circum-stances, a performance component was not applicable, or impossible to exe-cute, place an X in the N/A box.

Name

Date

Resource Person

LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE

The teacher's presentation:

*'.

1. was geared to the particular audience involved

2. provided information appropriate to the needs of the target audience

3. provided information that was accurate and sufficiently detailed

4. had a clearly defined purpose

5. gave evidence that the teacher grasps the basic principles and prac-tices of CBE

6. was well organized

7. provided a balanced view, presenting both the benefits of CBE as wellas the potential difficulties faced in implementing the CBE approach

e

Level of Performance: All items must receive FULL or N,A responses. If any item receives a NO orPARTIAL response, the teacher and resource person should meet to determine what additional activitiesthe teacher needs to complete in order to reach competency in the weak area(s).

63 62

Learning Experience V

TerminalObjective

For a definition of 'actual teaching situation: see the inside back cover

f

6365

FINAL EXPERIENCE

TEACHER PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT FORMPrepare Yourself for CBE (K-1)

Directions: Indicate the level of the teacher's accomplishment by placing anX in the appropriate box under the LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE heading. If,because of special circumstances, a performance component was not appli-cable, or impossible to execute, place an X in the N/A box.

Name

Date

Resource Person

LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE

assessing his/her readiness for CBE, the teacher:1. reviewed his/her knowledge of the essential elements and

facilitating characteristics of CBE

2. reviewed his/her attitudes toward the implementation ofCBE

3. determined his/her need for greater knowledge, skills, and/or experience relating to CBE

1r o o 4

In

4. identified specific means to use to gain the needed knowl-edge, skills, and/or experience

5. began to carry out his/her plan to gain needed knowledge,skills, and/or experience relating to CBE

In orienting others to CBE, the teacher:6. accurately identified those groups in the school or com-

munity that needed to be oriented to CBE

7. identified the types of information most appropriate to theneeds of each group to be oriented

8. identified the most effective method or approach to use inorienting each group

9. outlined the specific content or activities to be used toreach each group

10. included in each outline:a. information appropriate to the needs of each group 0b. accurate, thorough, up-to-date information

c. a clearly defined purpose

d. a well-organized sequence of information and/or activi-t 0ties 0

67 64

4..b

4' cP

b40°s 4zo

o6. cP<

11. displayed a grasp of the basic concepts of CBE El12. delivered the outlined presentations in an organized man-

111ner

13. provided listeners with the opportunity to ask questions El14. provided a balanced view of CBE, presenting both the ben-

efits and the potential difficulties in implementing this ap-111 111proach

Level of Performance: All items must receive N,'A, GOOD, or EXCELLE NIT ssponses. If any item re-ceives a NONE, POOR, or FAIR response, the teacher and resource person would meet to determinewhat additional activities the teacher needs to complete in order to reach compb:sr,cy in the weak area(s).

6568

ABOUT USING THE NATIONAL CENTER'SPETE MODULES

S

OrganizationEach module is designed to help you gain competency in aparticular skill area considered important to teaching success A module is made up of a series of learning expenences, some providing background information, some providing practice experiences, and others combining thesetwo functions Completing these experiences should en-able you to achieve the terminal objective in the finallearning expenence The final experience in each modulealways requires you to demonstrate the skill in an actualteaching situation when you are an intern, a student teacher, an inservice teacher, or occupational trainer.

ProceduresModules are designed to allow you to individualize yourteacher education program. You need to take only thosemodules covenng skills that you do not already possess.Similarly, you need not complete any learning experiencewithin a module if you already have the skill needed tocomplete it. Therefore, before taking any module, youshould carefully review (1) the introduction, (2) the objec-tives listed on p. 4, (3) the overviews preceding each learning experience, and (4) the final expenence. After compar-ing your present needs and competencies with the informa-tion you have read in these sections, you should be ready tomake one of the following decisions

That you do not have the competencies indicated andshould complete the entire moduleThat you are competent in one or more of the enablingobjectives leading to the final learning experience andthus, can omit those learning experiencesThat you are already competent in this area and areready to complete the final learning experience inorder to "test out"That the module is inappropriate to your needs at thistime

When you are ready to complete the final learning evenence and have access to an actual teaching situation,make the necessary arrangements with your resource per-son. If you do not complete the final experience success-fully, meet with your resource person and arrange to (1)repeat the expenence or (2) complete for review) previoussections of the module or other related activities suggestedby your resource person before attempting to repeat thefinal experience.

Options for recycling are also available in each of tilt.learning experiences preceding the final experience. Anytime you do not meet the minimum level of performancerequired to meet an objective, you and your resource person may meet to select activities to help you reach compe-tency. This could involve (1) completing parts of the modulepreviously skipped, (2) repeating activities, (3) reading sup-plementary resources or completing additional activitiessuggested by the resource person, (4) designing your ownlearning experience, or (5) completing some other activitysuggested by you or your resource person

TerminologyActual Teaching Situation. A situation in which you areactually working with and responsible for teaching sec-ondary or postsecondary vocational students or other oc-cupational trainees. An intern, a student teacher, an in-service teacher, or other occupational trainer would befunctioning in an actual teaching situation. If you do nothave access to an actual teaching situation when you aretaking the module, you can complete the module up to thefinal learning experience. You would then complete thefinal learning experience later (i.e., when you have accessto an actual teaching situation).Alternate Activity or Feedback: An item that may substi-tute for required items that, due to special circumstances,you are unable to complete.

Occupational Specialty: A specific area of preparationwithin a vocational service area (e.g., the service areaTrade and Industrial Education includes occupational spe-cialties such as automobile mechanics, welding, and elec-tricity.

Optional Activity or Feedback. An item that is not re-quired but that is designed to supplement and enrich therequired items in a learning expenence.Resource Person: The person in charge of your educa-tional program (e.g., the professor, instructor, administrator,instructional supervisor, cooperating, supervisingiclassroom teacher, or training supervisor who is guiding you incompleting this module).Student. The person who is receiving occupational in-struction in a secondary, postsecondary, or other trainingprogram.

Vocational Service Area: A major vocational field: agri-cultural education, business and office education, market-ing and distnbutive education, health occupations educa-tion, home economics education, industrial arts education,technical education, -r trade and industrial educationYou or the Teacher/Instructor: The person who is com-pleting the module.

Levels of Performance for Final AssessmentN/A. The criterion was not met because it was not appli-cable to the situation.None. No attempt was made to meet the criterion, al-though it was relevant.Poor. The teacher is unable to perform this akiii or has onlyvery limited ability to perform it.Fair: The teacher is unable to perform this skill in an ac-ceptable manner but has some ability to perform itGood: The teacher is able to perform this skill in an effec-tive mannerExcellent: The teacher is able to perform this skill in a veryeffective manner

66

Titles of the National Center's Performance-Based Teacher Education Modules

Category A: Program Planning, Development, and Evaluation

A-I Prepare for a Community SurveyA-2 Conduct a Community SurveyA-3 Report ihe Findings of a Community SurveyA-4 Organize an Occupational Advisory CanmateeA-5 Maintain an Occupational Advisory CommitteeA-8 Develop Program Goals and OtsecaresA-7 Conduct an Occupational AnalysisA-8 Develop a Course od StudyA-9 Develop Long-Ranga Program PlansA-10 Conduct a Student Follow-Up StudyA-11 Evaluate Your Vocational Prow=

Category B: Instructional PlanningB-1 DMernino Needs and Interests of StudentsB-2 Develop Student Perfnrmance ObjectivesB-3 Develop a Unit of Instruction8-4 Develop a Leeson PlanB-5 Select Student Instructional Materials13-6 Prepare Teacher-Made Instructional Materials

Category C: Instructional ExecutionC-1 Direct Field TripeC-2 Conduct Group Discussions. Panel Dacussions, and SymposiumsC-3 Employ Brainstorming, Buzz Grotp. and Question Box TechniquesC-4 Direct Students in Instructing Other StudentsC-5 Employ Senutabon TechniquesC-8 Gude Student StudyC-7 Direct Student Laboratory ExperienceC-8 Direct Students in Applying Problern-Sawng TechniquesC-9 Employ the Project MethodC-10 Introduce a LeesonC-11 SUMMIllin a LessonC-12 Employ Oral Questioning TechniquesC-13 Employ Reinforcement TechniquesC-14 Provide Instruction for Slower and More Capable LearnersC-15 Present an Illuarated TalcC-16 Demonstrate a Manipulative StallC-17 Demonstrate a Concept or PnnapleC-18 Individuakze InstructionC-19 Employ the Turn Teaching ApproachC-20 Use &Piece Matter Experts to Present klormabonC-21 Prepare Sulam Boards and ExhibitsC-22 Present Inbormabon with Models. Real Objects, and Flannel BoardsC-23 Present Informabon with Overhead and Opaque MaterialsC-24 Prawn! Inlormabon with Filmstnps and SlidesC-25 Present Informabon with FilmsC-26 Present information with Audio RecorcfngsC-27 Present information with Televised and Videotaped MaterialsC-28 Employ Programmed InstructionC-29 Present Inlormabon with the Chalkboard and Flip ChartC-30 Provide for Students' Learning Styles

Category D: Inetructiorml EvaluationD-1 Establish Student Performance CisternD-2 Assess Student Performance' KnowledgeD-3 Assess Student Performance: AttitudesD-4 Assess Student Performance: Skies0-5 Determine Student GradesD-6 Evaluate Your Instructional Effectiveness

Category E: Instructional ManagementE-1 Project Instructional Resource NeedsE-2 Manage Your Budgeting and Reporting ResponsibilitiesE-3 Arrange for Improvement of Your Vocational FacilitiesE-4 Maintain a Fin; SystemE-5 Provide for Student SafetyE-6 Provide for the First Aid Needs of StudentsE-7 Assist Students in Developing Sell-DtsapkneE-8 Organize the Vocational LaboratoryE-9 Manage the Vocational LaboratoryE-10 Combat Problems of Student Chemical Use

Category F: GuidanceF-1 Gather Student Data Using Formal Data-Collection TechniquesF-2 Gather Student Data Through Personal ContactsF-3 Use Conferences to Help Meet Student NeedsF-4 Provide Informabon on Educational and Career OpportunitiesF i Assist Students in Applying for Employment a Further Education

Category G: School-Community Relations6-1G-2G-3G-46-56-6

G-76-86-96-10

Develop a Scthool-cornmunity Relations Plan for Your Vocational ProgramGive Presentations to Promote Your Vocational ProgramDevelop BrOdlUfeS 10 Promote Your Vocational ProgramPrepare Displays to Promote Your Vocational ProgramPrepare News Releases and Articles Concerning Your Vocational ProgramArrange for Television and Radio Presentations Concerning Your Vocational

ProgramConduct an Open HouseWork with Members of the CommunityWork with State and LOCItlEckicatorsObtain Feedback about Your Vocational Program

Category H: Vocational Student OrganizationH-1 Develop a Personal Philosophy Concerning Vocational Student

OrganizationsH-2 Establish a Vocational SNident OrganizationH-3 Prepare Vocational Studer,. Cigerkotion Members for Leadership RolesH-4 Assist Vocational Student Orgarkzeon Members n Developing and

Financing a Yearly Program of Ac OmanH-5 Supervise Activities of the Vocatikat Student OrganizationII-6 Guide Participation in Vocational Student Organization Contests

Category I: Professional Role and DevelopmentI-1 Keep Up to Date Prolesslonaky1-2 Serve Your Teaching Profession1-3 Develop an Active Personal Philosophy of Education1-4 Serve the School and Community1-5 Obtain a Suitable Teaching Position1-6 Provide Laboratory Experiences for Prospective Teachers1-7 Plan the Student Teaching Experience1-8 Supervise Student Teachers

Category J: Coordination of Cooperative EducationJ-1 Establish Guideline or Your Cooperative Vocational ProgramJ-2 Manage the Attendance, Transfers. and Terminations of Co-Op StudentsJ-3 Enroll Students In Your Co-Op ProgramJ-4 Secure Training Stations for Your Co-Op ProgramJ-5 Place Co-Op Students on the JobJ-6 Develop the Training Ability of On-the-Job InstructorsJ-7 Coordinate On-the-Job InstructionJ-6 Evaluate Co-Op Students' Onthe-Job PerformanceJ-9 Prepare for Students' Related InstructionJ-10 Supervise an Employer-Employee Appreciation Event

Category K: Implementing Competency-Based Education (CBE)K-1 Prepare Yourself for CBEK-2 Organize the Content to a CBE ProgramK-3 Organize Your Class and Lab to Instal CBEK-4 Provide Instructional Materials for CBEK-5 Manage the Daly Routines of Your CBE ProgramK-6 Guide Your Students Through the CBE Program

Category L: Serving Students with SpociaUExceptional NeedsL-1 Prepare Yourself to Serve Exceptional StudentsL-2 Identify and Diagnose Exceptional StudentsL-3 Plan Instruction for Exceptional StudentsL-4 Provide Appropriate Instructional Materiels for Exceptional StudentsL-5 Modify the Learning Environment for Exceptional StudentsL-6 Promote Peer Acceptance of Exceptional StudentsL-7 Use Instructional Techniques to Meet the Needs of Exceptional StudentiL-8 Improve Your Communication SkillsL-9 Assess the Progress of Exceptional StudentsL-10 Counsel Exceptional Students with Personal-Social ProblemsL-11 Assist Exceptional Students in Developing Career Planning SkillsL-12 Prepare Exceptional Students for EmployabilityL-13 Promote Your Vocational Program with Exceptional Students

Category IA: Assisting Students In improving Their Basic SkillsM-1 Assort Students in Achieving Basic Reading SkillsM-2 Assist Students n Developing Technical Riming SkitsM-3 Assist Students in Improving Their Writing SkitsM-4 Assist Students in improving Thar Oral Communication SkillsM-5 Assist Students in improving Their Math SkillsM-6 Assist Students In improving Thar Survival Skits

RELATED PUBLICATIONS

Student Guide to Using Perlomunoe-Based Teacher Education MaterialsResource Person Guide to Using Performance -Basso T eather Eclucauon MaterialsGuide to the Implementation of Performance-Based Teacher EducationPerformance-Based Teacher Education The State of the Art. General Education and

Vocational Education

For Information nrjarding availability and prices of these materials contact AAVIM, American Association for Vocational InstructionalMaterials, 120 Drifbnior Engineering Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, (404) 542-2586

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 67 ISBN 0- 89606 -176 -0