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Lewin, KeithScience Education in Malaysia and Sri Lanka. IDSDiscussion Paper No. 74Sussex Univ. (England). Inst. of DevelopmentStudies.Swedish International Development Authority(SIDA).IDS-DP-74Jul 7534p.; Not available in hard copy due to marginallegibility of original documentInstitute of Development Studies, University ofSussex, Brighton, England BN1 9RE (50 pence)

EDES PRICE MF-$C.83 Plus Postage. HC Not Available from EDRS.DESCRIPTORS *Curriculum Development; Curriculum Evaluation;

*Curriculum Research; *Developing Nations;Educational Research;' *Elementary SecondaryEducation; Instructional.InnovatiOn; Relevance(Education) ; *Science Education

IDENTIFIERS *Malaysia; *Sri Lanka

ABSTRACTScience courses designed or adapted for use in

developing countries at the upper primary or lower secondary levelsof the school system seem rarely to meet criteria of relevance to thefuture lives of the majority of pupils. The objectives of many newprograms that aim to promote the understanding and application ofscientific principles are often undermined, which tends to favor therote memorization of factual information. This research programexplores the interrelations between policies to reform sciencecurricula, and examination orientation and other factors which affectthe successful introduction of innovative courses in these countries.Charts and figures illustrate the research findings. A selectbibliography is included in the report. (Author/MA)

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..4'r\I DISCUSSION PAPER.)

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Institute of Development Studiesat the University of SussexBrighton BNI 9RE, England

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Reprinted January 1975 by the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex, Brighton, England.

3

SCIENCE EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA AND SRI LANKA

IDS Discussion Paper No. 74

July 1975

by

K. qwIN

SUMMARY

Science courses designed or adapted for use in developingcountries at the upper primary or lower secondary levelsof the school system seem rarely to meet criteria of relevanceto the future lives of the majority of pupils. The objectivesof many new programmes that aim to promote the understandingand application of scientific principles are often underminedin the examination orientated atmosphere of the classroomwhich tends to favour the rote memorization of factualinformation. This research programme explores the inter-relations between policies to reform science curricula, andexamination orientation and other factors which affect thesuccessful introduction of innovatory courses.

Preface

The study which Keith Lewin .r.escribes in this paper,is a component of a larger programme of research ineducation, "Qualification and Selection in EducaionalSystems." The greater part of the programme isconcerned with how employers u.:(-! .school qualificationsand with how that use, mediated through examinations,affects teaching and learning in schools. (See I.D.S.Discussion Paper No 70.) There are three complementarystudies. One traces how people, whose school qualifica-tions have failed to secure them the employment theyhad hoped for, adjust their sights and accommodate them-selves o the opportunities actually available. (I.D.S.Discussion Paper No 71.) A second is looking at theevolution oi tile educational reforms in China, wherea deliberate attempt has been made to disociateschooling from selection for employment ar,d furthertraining. The third is Keith Lewin's, which explores.the interactions between attempts at curriculum reformin science at the lower secondary level and proceduresfor selecting young people for more schooling and forthe more desirable forms of employment. A feature ofthis study will be a detailed look at a particularinnovatory course to examine the extent to which ithas been successful in encouraging pupils to understandand apply scenific knowledge and, wher it has not,to establish factors which seem to be associated withthis lack of succeFs.

The Ministries of Education of Malaysia and Sri Lankahave agreed to permit tis tu,Ay and to cooperate withKeith Lewin in carrying it out.

The Swedish International Development Authority hasprovided the funds to enable its execution.

John OxenhamCoordinator

July 1975

SCIENCE EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA AND Sal LANKA

1. Introduction

Official statements that curl a in primary and lowersecondary schools should fit pupils for life outside theformal education system have been widely voiced over thelast two or three decades. As part of the effort to realisesuch intentions there have been many attempts to introducescience courses -- either specially designed or adaptedfrom existing courses which would shift the emphasisof learning from the rote memorization of knowledge toa deeper understanding of the principles and processes ofscience. It seems, however, very difficult to achievesuch a shift and succeed in reaching the goal of helping,pupils to make use of science in developing hitherto'traditional' occupations where typically more than halfthe.total number of school leavers are eventually employed.This research seeks toas!-4, the extent to which Ruchdifficulty can be attributed to

1. the nature and methods of curriculum development whichoften seem to have stressed academic considerations at theexpense of those relating to likely future occupations andlife styles;

2. the framework of internal and external incentiveswithin which school learning and school teaching take place;

3. the physical constraints under which reform is ex-pected to be implemented.

.The research will be undertaken in two parts. The firstWill be a study of the process of curriculum developmentand will take place in Malaysia and Sri Lanka 1.

The second part will be an investigation, in a sample ofschools, of the importance of difference factors in theimplementation of an innovatory science course.at the lowersecondary school level. This study will take place inMalaysia only.

1. Sri Lanka:has agreed to participate, both because ofitL experience in science curriculum reform and becauseit is participating in other components of the major researchprogramme "Qualification and Selection in EducationalSystems" (I.D.S.. Discussion Paper No 70). The researchstudies have been accepted by the Malaysian authoritiesas a result of continuing concern with the evaluation of arecent series of reforms in science teaching and coursematerials and because the researcher has a backgroundin teaching science in West Malaysia.

2.

9. The Problem

Attempts to.improve science education in the secondary:-;chool in the past have often revolved around:

1) curriculum reform; new specifications of whatis to be taught and how;

2) providing better physical and human resources;improvements in equipment, teacher-pupil ratiosand in teachers' knowledge and understanding ofteaching methods.

If the curriculum reform fails to live up to expectations(as has often been the case) this is usually attributed tolack of adeg!zate resources. The contention here, however,is, that this.overlooks impoxtant aspects of the situation;specifically:

(a in so far as curriculum reforms seek to correcttraditional over-emphasis on the straightforwardabsorption of facts and show greater concern forenquiring attitudes, approaches to problem solving,manipulative skills, etc., there is one factorwhich is always likely to thwart them, even if theresovrce problem were solved. This is what can betermed tho"backwash effect" of the pressure toteach towards examinations, the tendency (for avariety of reasons much worse in developing countriesthan in Europe) to identify examination passingas the be-all and end-all of schooling;

(b) these same characteristics of the structure ofschool systems, which define the secondary schoolas primarily the place where pupils are preparedfor the examinations which select for progressionthrouah the system and ultimately university entry,mean that the efforts of the curriculum reformersare likely to be less than radical in their specifica-tion of goals. Spec:;-fically, as between the twinobjectives of (i) diving a science training use-ful to the vast majority of students w!A) willproceed no further in full-time science educationthan the ninth or eleventh grade, or (i.) preparinga tiny minority for university training as profess-ional scientists, the latter aim is likeiy todisproportionately influence their efforts.

This research is designed to explore both these asptsThe study falls naturally into two parts which may hereferred to for convenience as:

(a) curriculum design; the process of designing andadapting new curricula for use in Malaysia andSri Lanka;

(b) implementation; the relative importance ofdifferent factors for the attainment of thevarious cognitive educational objectives (particu-larly the level 'of recall of information) stressedin recent curriculum innovations in Malaysia.

3

3. The Malaysian Situation

The Malaysian school system provides for unrestricted accessto the first nine grades (the first six in the primaryschool, designated Standards 1-6, the last three in thelower secondary schools, designated Forms 1-3) with automaticpromotion from grade to oracle. The structure can besthe illustrated with a chart (see Figure 1). Despite theabsence of selection barriers, automatic promotion andthe extension of free education to most pupils only some50% of an age cohort attend school for a full nine years.

Although there are no terminal selection points within thefirst nine grades, in the fifth grade (Standard 5) thereis an assessment for allocating pupils places in residentialschools. Historicany most of these govenment run schoolshave their origins as educational institutions establishedto satisfy the need of The former colonial power for localmanpower to fill clerical and lower administrative positions.Subsequently.they have come to represent 'centres ofexcellence' within the education system and are much soughtafter as they tend to assure the future of pupils in highlevel administrative/professional occupations.

Towards the end of grade nine (Form 3) the first terminalseiection examination is held -- the Lower Certificate, ofEducation or Sijil Rendha Pelajaran (LCE/SRP). Thi5; servesboth as a school leaving qualification and as a selectioncriteria for grade ten (Form 4). Selection for the u7persecondary school -- grade ten and eleven (Form 4 and 5) --is based on the attainment of a specific total achievementscore derived from performance'in certain specified F.ubjects.The upper .secondary school system introduces streaming forthe first time and allocates pupils to Science, Art's orVocational Technical courses. The streams are differentiatedby the allocation of time to subjects of study and by theacademic ability of their pupils.. Science classes cream"off the most able students (approximately 10% of the agecohort), Arts takes most of the rest (approximately 105of the age cohort) and the Vocational/Technical s,:hoolsaccount for the remainder who are allowed to proceed.(approximately 6% of the age cohort). Few students whoqualify for 7orm 4 Science decline the option, as it isperceived to offer a areater likelihood of entrance to aprofession. Individual preferences/aptitude are notconsidered at this stage and the LCE/SRP selection criteriainclude arts and science subjects. It is officially possiblefor transfer between Arts and Science streams to occur,but this is quite uncommon. It is interesting to note irpassina that although those.not accepted for the Scienceor Arts stream go to Technical or Vocational schoolsif they are allowed to continue, they do follow courseswhich are high in academic content and which can be usedas an alternative route to higher education.

At the end of grade eleven (Form 5) there is a second terminalsel_ection examination -- the Malaysian Certificate ofEducation or Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (MCE/SPM). Approximately11% of the Grade ten (Form 4) intake are successful inreaching the Gradetwelve (Form 6) Science and Artsstreams (about 39 Of the age cohort) whilst the rest commence

4.

thy snarch for a job or some other form of educationor trainina,usuallv specifically job orien'tated. Thefinal selection examination in the formal school systemcomes at the end of grade thirteen with the Higher SchoolCertificate or Siiil Tinggi Pelaiaran (HSC/STP). Abouthalf of those sitting the examination are accepted touniversities and they represent approximately 1 -5 ofthe age cohort (This includes all disciplines)

It is pertinent here to translate these selection stagesinto terms of probably earnings and life-stvles. Pupilswho leave school before grade nine, ie. without even theLCE/SRP certificate aro likely to become self or familyemployed workers, mainly agricultural, on very low inomes.The closest they are likely to come to modern sectoremployment are peripheral jobs at the lo,cest Levels. Accessto modern sector employment is still possible for LCE/SRPgraduates and this is usually the minimum qualificationlevel for government clerks/office boys etc. but it isbecoming increasinaly difficult to successfully competefor these jobs as the ranks of grade eleven (Form 5)leavers swell. The MCE/SPM gradually seems to be replacingthe LCE/SRP as the necessary qualification to have tobe certain of white collar employment. Whilst the MCE/SPMis clearly worthwhile currency in the labour market, holciersmust usually be content witn starting salaries typicallyof the order of one quarter of those offered good honoursaraduates from the universities and correspondingly smalleropportunities for advancement and salary increments. Thu!-:a 45'7i, increment in time spent in formal education(16:11)leads to an increment in starting salary of approximately409. in short, formal qualifications, the examinationsthey involve and the learning styles they call fur are.substantial determining factors in the allocation oflife opportunities -- the more so ,ince the private sectortends to foll'aw government service in its use of educationalqualifications to seipct job applicants.

The responsibility for developino curricula for schoolslies with the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) whichwas established in 1973. Prior to this, curricUlum develop-ment work was undertaken by the Curriculum Section of theEducatj.on Plannina and Research Division of the Ministryof Education. Curriculum planning is centralised and isregarded as a federal respons3bility anki, although theopinions anC sugaestions of headmasters, parents andemployers are solicited with varying degrees of frequency,the task of preparing curricula is left almost entirelyto the CDC.

Several new science courses have been introduced intoMalaysian schools in the last few years based largelyon UK curriculum development projects. They have beenadapted for use in Malaysia by the CDC with expatriatesassistina local staff. Implementation has been on alimited scale initially, followed by quite widespreadusage in the second and third years after their introduction.

5.

The rapid Spread is in part a result of pressures generatedon schools by parents to provide the new courses as soonas possible so they can be seen to be "progressive" andgive pupils the greatest opportunity of succeeding inthe competition for modern sector iobs. As a resultthere has been little in the way of controlled pilotstudies on which to base decisions to implement courseson a large scale.

Name Level Basis

Integrated Science Scotti:shfor M.A.aysian Forms 1-3 Integratedschools Science

Modern Physics/Chemistry/Biologyfor MalaysianSchools

Modern Science forMalaysian Schools

Forms 4-5ScienceStreams

Forms 4-5ArtsStreams

NuffieldPhy.;ics/Chemistry .Biology '0'level

NuffieldSecondarySciente

Year ofHL:..:oduction

1 969

1972

1974

The proaressive implementation of these courses tan be seenfrom Figure 2.

Currently traditional and new science courses are beingtaught in schools prior to universal adoption of the latter.Traditional courses are assessed by Cambridgelapprovedpapers largely using classical structured questions whichhave tended to stress recall at the expense of other objectives.The integrated science course is terminally assessed by a75-questicl- multiple choice paper, approximately 50% ofquestions being at the recall level and the remainder testinghigher cognitive objectives (i.e. comprehension, applicationetc.). pre_testing and full item analysis .,re performed onthese papers. The Nuffield based courses use multiple choicequestions (405 of the total marks and predominantly recalltype questions) and a selection of free response, semi-structure(and structured questions aimed more particularly at highercognitive level objectives. (50% of the marks). A practicalexam is still conducted (10% of the marks) though this islikely to be dropped for administrative reasons. The form 6science curriculum is based on the Cambridae 'T' syllabusalone and is a:44essed IAJ:t.h the usual written and practical papers.

4. Science Education in Sri Lanka

The formal education system in Sri Lanka was restructured in1972 with the expressed aim of providing a more relevantgeneral education for the majority of school leavers,ratherthan catering for the needs of the small number of pupils,likely to obtain modern sector jobs. Pait of this restructuringhas involved the introduction of science teaching into alljunior secondary schools (grades 6-9) and the writing of a new

1 The Cambridge University Examination Syndicate.

sciene course to replace the locally produced 'Ordinary'level course.

Initial entry into the school system is now at age sixyears and primary school extends to grade 5.(See Fig 3).The junior secondary school (grade 6-9) ;:nmpletes the openaccess span of the system with a termi. Li selectionexamination, the National Certifical± len-?.ral Education.(N.C.G.E.) in ten subjects includi .7,t0.1ematics,Science,Social Studi, Pre-Vocational Stuc:.4.... The last, aswell as s(=.ekino to encourage awareness of ocal occupationsand use of local expertise in the classroom, also specificallyhopes to encourage an awareness of the use that can bemade of mathematics and science in local occupations.

1975 will be first year of the N.C.G.E. and the intentionis to keep the proportion of students permitted to continueto grades 10 and and 11 approximately the same as it hasbeen in the past. About 40% 1 of an age cohort enteringgrade 1 succeed in reaching grade 9 and of these only1O-12% of the number sitting the te!minal examination(now the N.C.G.E.) proceed to higher grades.(i.e. some 4-5%of the age cohort.)

.The N.C.G.E. will-be followed by a Higher National Certifi-cate of Education (G.N.C.E.) in grade 11, the details ofwhich have yet to be finalized. In the science -zubjectsit is likely that a core course in the first year (grade 10)will be followei by more specialized options in thesecond ( oracle 11). The proportion of thbse taking H.N.C.E:who proceed to ,niversity is likely to 'be, of the orderof 10-15% (i.e. about 0.5% of the age cohort). Thesefigures cover all disciplines at, university level. Aboutone third of the university students study in science relatedsubjects.

Unemployment rates in Sri Lanka are very high, and areconcentrated particularly in the younger age groups.

School leavers and youth unemployment rates for variouslevels of education in 1970.

Level of Education % in group acied_15-24 vear,.-;unemployed.

No education 18

Grades 1-5 28

Grades 6-8 47

Grades 9-10 72

, Grades 11-12 84

University Science 2

Arts 50

Although the figures above have to be interpreted withcaution (since 'unemployed' is a term which often only ha.,:;meaning to those who expect to be employed in modern sector

Jj 1. This figure is calculated from current drop out ratesThn nitolm+-inn ic rnnflIcnri hw thn

occupations) they have lent weight to the argument thatthe sort of skills the formal education system has encouragedhave not been those for which there is a high demand. The,tension of science teaching to all lower.secondary schoolshas been -;eoll both as a way of embracing educational equallyof opportunity and also providing the basis for a widerscientific literacy to increase the efficiency of localoccupations and develop worthwhile skills.

New curricula for schools are developed by t:-,e CurriculumDevelopment Centre in Colombo, an organization whose originsdate back to 1950. Most of the changes in science couresbe:re 1972 resulted from the activities of the CDC whichhas considerable experience in the writino and implementa-tion of innovatory courses. The programmes produced in1972 and subsequently, though not resulting from the CDCsinitiative, have been produced largely by CDC staff writinggroups.

The present grades 6-9 science programme was produced locallyby CDC staff with the intention of providing a coursesuitable for teaching in all lower secondary schools(previouslyscience was taught only in about 20% of the lower secondarysehols). The programme is specifically intended to "Cater

the need for widespread understandino of simple scientific(cesses and concepts, rather than the more detailed and

specific requirements of academic high flyers who have achence of becomino professionals. Although some of the activitiesin the 6-0 programme are based on those found in Britishcourses (e.g. Nuffield Secondary Science) much of thecontent has been locally produced.

Since the beginning of the implementation process in 1972year by year evaluation exercises have been undertaken andthe final examination, based in part on perceptions gainedthrough the evaluation, will be taken for the first timein 1975. This will cunsist of a one hour multiple-choicepaper and a separate three hour longer answer paper.

5. The Researth

The research will take place in two phases. The first phasewill be common to Malaysia and Sri Lanka and opportunitiesto compare the characteristic features of the methods ofcurriculum development in each will be taken where and whenthey arise. It is likely to be particularly instructive toconsider the operational differences between a well-establishedindigenous curriculum development capacity (as in Sri Lanka)and a recently organized curriculum centre with a legacy7of curriculum adoption (as in Malaysia).

The second phase will be confined to Malaysia and willconcentrate specifically on the Integrated Science forMalaysian Schools programme.

Phase 1: Curriculum Desion

The first phase of the research will have threespecific components:

(a) institutional analysis of the CurriculumDevelopment Centre: -.(CDC)

(b) examination of the process of curriculum reform;

(c) analyis of the exam system as it relates tothe process of curriculum reform.

(a) Institutional analysis of the Curriculum DevelopmentCentre to provide a framework against which to view thedevelopment of specific courses. This will examine theCurriculum Development Centre in terms of:

(i) Status: What is the position of the organizationin the educational bureaucracy and what priorityhave its activities? In which fields does itoperate and what is the extent of its activities?What authority do its recommendations carry and arethey ever over-ruled? In particular, what are therelations, formal and informal, with the examinationauthorities?

(ii) Objectives: Wha-c are the explicit/implicitobjettives of the organization in science educationand where does the responsibility lie for definingthem? What are the general objectives of thecurriculum developers in science subjects and inwhat ways have these been modified in the lightof recent experiences? What are reforms in sciencecourses expected to achieve?

(iii) Personnel: How is the organization staffed? Whatis the normal method of appointment (short term/long term)? What proportions of the staff arepractising teacherS/consultants/administrators (rte.?How often are contract advisors from abroad utiliz(dand what role do they play?

iv) Orientation: Which areas of science curriculumdevelopment are considered priorities (for theacademically gifteC, for school leavers, etc.)?Is there a bias towards any particular kind ofwork e.g. improvement of coursecontent, introducingnew teaching techniques, attempting to changeteacher attitudes? What sort of educationalphilosophy underlies the work of the.organization?

(v) Mode of operation: How are the science personnelin the institution organized -- subject groups,interdisciplinary teams etc? Whatare the linesof authority? Where has the stimulus for newwork come from in the past -- the Ministry ofEducation, teachers, employers, Universities?What channels of communication exist between theorganization and others? Who is regularlyconsulted? In particular how do the examinationauthorities fit into the pattern of consultationand exchange?

The analysis Will start with a documentary survey of publishedgovernment papers/annual reports/commission reports to providedata for sections (i) and (ii); staff lists and appointmentshoard reports and records will provide information for section

(iii) if available and insights into section (iv) can begained from the nature of the published output of theorganization; section (v) will be approached through theanmial reports, internal reports and memoranda and fileinformation where available. The documentary survey willbe backed up by a systematic series of semi-structuredinterviews with staff members to provide data on theinformal structure of the institution and the perceptionsof its staff.

(b) Examination of the process of curriculum reform.

The emphasis here will be.on the processes by which newcourses are actually produced. By followino the progressnf courses from conception to implementation it should bepossible to chart tho most important factors influencingtheir final form. The answers to a series of inter-relatedquestions will be sought to this end, viz.

(i) What initiatives, stemming from what Pressurs.2s,led to the conception of a curriculum developmentproject? To what extent was its initiation dueto a need to meet projected manpower needs ofthe economy; an assessment of the likely futureoccupational circumstances of pupils and to theextent this is true, which pupils; a result.of pressure from professional interest groups;a need to satisfy the aspirations of pupils andparents; other political considerations?

ii) How, and on what criteria, was a decision arrivedat to accept/reject existing source material as abasis for a new course? How much of the materialwas generated locally and how was th ,. inclusion/exclusion of new teaching material justified?

(iii) What were the constraints on the introductiono.t- new teaching methods perceived to be? How werechanges in teaching techniques justified?

(iv) How was.the course development accomplisned --entirely within the institution, with assistancefrom practising teachers, with assistance frkAiioverseas? What sort of consultative procedureswere adopted and what organizations or groups ofindividuals were consulted? To what extent docourse materials reflec:t the consulting proceduresadopted.

(v) What processes of approval and assessment have newcurricula gone through before being accepted? Whatform has pro-testing taken and what effects havetho results of pre-testing had on courses? Whatprovisions aro there for on-going evaluationprogrammes once a course has been implemented?Do the course developers feel they have to modifytheir proposals substantially before they reach theclassroom, and if so do they have any strongreservations about the implementation of their courses?

vi) What provisions are made for the training ofstaff for the implementation of new curricula andhow successful are the curriculum developers ingetting their ideas across? To what extent arekey personnel used to propagate techniques etc.for new courses? What role does the inspectorateplay in curriculum reform and what criteria dothey and the Curriculum Development Centre use inassessing the performance of curriculum changes?

(vii ) How far have the exigencies of the existing publicexamination system and the importance of selectiontechniques influenced the development of courses?In particular to what extent have they led todevelopment constrained by the.need for coursesto be examinable? How much evidence is there tosupport the notion of.'backwash' from examinationsexerting pressure at the design stage of newcurricula?

(viii) How far has the need to provide a preparationfor entrance to the next cycle of educationdetermined curriculum content? How far has thisbeen treated as a fixed or as a variable constraint?Whose interpretation of the nature of the"preparatory" requirement has been accepted asauthoritative?

Material for this study will be collected through extensivesemi-structured interviews with curriculum development staff,practising teachers, school inspectors and educationaladministrators. The focus will be on the developmentof the Integrated Science Course (Forms 1-3) and the ModernScience Course (Forms 4-5) in Malaysia and on the Grade 6-9Science programme in Sri Lanka. In addition documentaryevidence will be sought from the files, reports, minutes ofmeetings ete. which record significant aspects of thedevelopment of these courses supplemented by close examinationof course materials (teachers- guides, pupil- texts , trainingcourse materials).

(c) Analysis of the examination system as it relates tocurriculum reform.

A dominant objective of recent curriculum reform attemptshas been to increase the effectiveness of teaching indeveloping understanding and problem-solving capacity ratherthan encouraging mere rote memorization. A major problemis to:design methods of assessment which adequately test thesucCess of the course in reaching these 'higher' objectives,(it being in the nature of many types of examination thatmemory is easier to test).

The focus of the research on the examination system here willbe to discover:

(i) How far the design of appropriate assessmentmethods was an integral part of the developmentof innovatory science courses and what constraintswere deemed over-riding

ii) How far there is explicitly seen to be aconflict between the use of exams for

(a) prediction of future educationalperfgrmance with the ensuing selectionfor further education opportunity

and (b) supporting the educational objectives of thecurriculum reforms

(iii) If any such conflict is perceived, how is itresolved?

The procedure here would be based on interviews with examinersand curriculum developers and would develop to include.consideration of the channels of communication between theexamination boards, curriculum developers, and schools.Much could be learnt from the way exams have been.set inthe past, what the mark schemes have been, what the proportionof questions at different cognitive levels has been, whatimportance is attached to the results each year and howstyles of examination have or have not been altered to suitnew objectives for curricula.

Phase 2: Curriculum Implementation.

The second part of the study will concentrate on theimplementation of the "Integrated Science for MalaysianSchools" curriculum of Forms 1-3 (Lower Secondary School)in Malaysia. The main reason for this choice is as follows:

As figure 1 shows, of the children who complete Form 3 only

1 in 4 (approximately) actually proceeds to Form 4 (Science)and about 1 in 15 to Form 6 (Science) and preSumably employmentin science based fields. It.is at the Form 3 level that theargument is strongest for insisting that the provision ofa 'terminal' sci2nce education for the great majority ofchildren who reach Form 3 should have precedence over'the preparation of future specialist scientists. It isat this level, therefore, that distortion of 'higher' levellearnino objectives by'examination pressure and other factors

is most serious.

The Integrated Science Course is specifically directed towardsthe attainment of cognitive objectives above the level ofrecall (whilst still maintaining substantial elements ofrecall amongst the objectives) and it is this, and itsexplicit statements of desired affective objectiv2s whichdistinguish it from its 'traditional' predecessors. Themajor educational justification given for its introductionin the Malaysian context has been the assertion that it ismore effective in attaining these objectives than the coursesit replaced.

Successful implementation of the Integrated Science Coursedemands a more 'heuristic' pupil-centred approach by teachersand less didactic exposition than has commonly been the case,and this is thought tohelp pupils in attaining higher-levelcognitive objectives. ln many practical learning situationsin Malaysia, however, the teaching of science has remained

I if:*

very much teacher-centred and didactic and the multiple-choice assessment exams seem to have encouraged continuinaconcentration on rote learning techniques since the questionsare often perceived as testing recall ability alono (thoughinfact they are constructed to test cognitive achievementat other levels).

The procedure in outline for this study will be as follows:

(1) To develop a measure of the success of differentschools in achieving cognitive objectives at differentlevels.

(2) To isolate within a sample of schools the factors whichappear to be associated with differences in achievementat the different levels.

Likely associated factors are:

(a) Selectivity of pupil intake;

(b) Training, (:,:perience and attitudes of teachers;

(c) Teaching styles ofteachers;

(d) Availability of physical resources in the schools;

(e) Differential strengths of the pupil/teacher concernwith examination success;

(f) Other socio-economic and cultural factors.

Development of the Measure of Cognitive Achievement.

Measurement of the differential success of schools inachieving cognitive objectives in three categories will beapproached through the analysis of public examination resultsin Integrated Science (LCE/SRP). The following procedurehas been agreed with the Examination Syndicate in Malaysiawhere data for the last four years are stored and a preliminarystudy has already been undertaken along these lines.

(i) Categorization of the 75 items on the multiple-choicepaper into

(a) Knowledge recall of useful information.

(b) Comprehension ability to extend a principleto a known classroom or textbook situation whereit is obvious to the pupil which principle shouldb(' used.

(c) Application - ability to apply a principle to anew situation where the pupil must first selectthe appropriate principle.

ii) Selection of 10 representative items from eachcategory from the LCE/SRP test paper.

17

(iii) Analysis of the results of particular schools in termsof responses to the selected items to establish thepattern of achievement,and its distribution betweenthe three categories identified.

(iv) Identification-of any inter-school variation in thepattern of achievement.

The cateaorization Of items in (i) will be done by referring' toclassification tables prepared independently by the ExaminationSyndicate; the CDC; the resea'rcher. Only those items on whichthere is a high degree of agreement will be considered forselection. Selection of test items to be used will beaccomplished by rejecting items which are poorly constructedor not clearly classifiable and taking from those remaininga spread of subject matter throughout the course.

The'analy-:is to establish different patterns of achievementbetween schools, where it exists, depends on the computationof a coefficient indicating the extent to which achievementin one category predominates over other categories. Froma record of the mean raw scores of schools on the 10 itemsin each category identified (i.e. Knowledge (K), Comprehension(C), Application (A)), three simple expressions can be usedto indicate the extent to which achievement on Knowledaetype items predominates. They are

X = K - C

Y = K - A

Z =K-C+ A2

where X, Y, and Z are the indicatina coefficients and K, Cand A represent the mean scores for a partieular school onthe 10 items selected in each category. Since the value ofthese coefficients is clearly related to the facilityl valuesof the items selected for the K, C, and A groups a correctionhas to be made to the raw scores before calculating X, Yand Z. The variations in facility which may arise between theK, C, and A items can be controlled for simply by measuringachievement in these categories above or below the mean scoresof the population of schools on these questions.

In considering the magnitude of the coefficients X, Y, andZ it is clearly necessary to consider simultaneously theoverall levels of achievement in Integrated Science withwhich they are associated. Schools with similar overallachievement which exhibit variations in X, Y, and Z arelikely to be the ones towards which most effort is justifiedin attempts to find factors associated with high or low

1. facility refers to the percentage of candidates correctlyre-)onding to an item.

18

rrectedlue of Z

High

Medium

Low

1 4

coefficient values. The results of a preliminarystudy indicate that there is likely to be a definitepositive correlation between overall achievement andcoefficient scores though there is clear evidence ofvariations in X, Y, and Z for similar overall achievement.Below is a representation 'of resalts achieved from thepreliminary study for the coefficient Z.

Lo w Medium

1-4

High

Mean overallschool score

Schools tend to he clustered around a line running fromLow Z/Low Score to High Z/High Score though there_is" clearlyvariation in Z values unrelated to overall score. Correctinathe overall score for achievement due to the selected items

.

(i.e. subtractino K, C, and A values from overall score)produces little variation in the rank ordering of schools.

Isolating the Factors Associated with Success in AchievingObjectives above the Level of Recall

I. Selecting a Sample of Schools

There are two constraining factors to be met; the resourcesavailable to the researcher and the fact that the researcheris non-Malay. The former limits the sample of schools whichcan be studied intensively to approximately 15 in the Stateof Selangor (West Malaysia), the latter limits the sampleto schools using English as the medium of instruction ingrade nin (Form 3) in 1975. Accordingly all Enlish mediumschools in Selangor State which entered candidates for the1974 LCEISRP ]ntegrated Science examination will constitutethe population from which a sample will be drawn.

Whilst it is possible that results from the preliminary studymay not be reflected in the 'complete analysis of 1974 LCE/SRPIntegrated Science results this seems unlikely, since thepreliminary sample was chosen to be representative of thepopulation of acceptable schools in'Seiangor State. Assumingthe preliminary results are, reliable the procedure forselecting the school sample will be as follows.

(i) Calculating values of Z (a measure of the pre-dominance of recall of knowledge over other type .of achievement) and plotting them against measuresof overall achievement for all schools in thepopulation.

(ii) Extracting by random selection anumber of schools from each cell,ina overall score and Z valuesand High ranges, until the samplesize. (Some cells may, of course,in them.)

,roportionateproduced by divid-into Low, Mediumis of the requiredhave no schools

In addition to the care taken in selecting the sample, itwill be necessary to check whether the schools have changedin significant way since the 1974 LCE/SRP Integrated Scienceexamination. In each school, accordingly, the followingpoints will be investigated.

(i) Are the same teachers teaching grade nine(Form 3)as did in 1974?

(ii) If so have they received any additional trainingsince the 1974 LCE/SRP in Integrated Science?

(iii) Has there been any change in the nature or volumeof supplementary instructional resources?

(iv) Does the overall achievement and Z value differsignificantly for 1975 results?

2. Observing the Factors

(a) Selectivity of Pupil Intake: The residentialschools mentioned above allocate places in grades O-9(Form 1-3) mainly on the basis of the reults of an assess-ment of ability made in grade 5 (Standard 5), and tendtherefore to select more able pupils who are likely to scoreabove average on the LCE/SRF. If there appears to be some

16

.association between selectivity and non-selectivity andZ values then either (i) both types of school will bestudied and selecti\iity regarded as an independeht factoror (ii) if the sample of selective schools is too small,the selectivity factor will be controlled by c.oncentratingonly on non-selective schools. If no association isapparent then it will be possible to include both selectiveand.non-selective schools.

(b) Training, Experience and Attitudes of Teachers:Information will be collected on the trainina, experienceand attitudes bolh of teachers involved in teaching 1974examinees in the sample studied and of teachers involvedin teaching 1975 examinees in the same schools. (Whereteachers have been transferred they will be contacted forinterview if local, or sent postal questionnaires if not).The following steps willbe taken after the observationsdescribed in (c) below:

(i) Semi structured interviews probina opinions onthe objectives of .the Integrated Science course,preferred teachina styles,the perceived short-cominas of the course and recommended methods,the prevailing measures of assessment and selectionand their influence on teaching and learning.

(ii) Questicnnaire to elicit more concise responsesto the questions listed in (i) and to recordfactual information on sex, age, schooling,training, range of teachina experience, etc.

(c) Teaching styles: Teaching styles of teachers willbe categorized through the use of a time-based observationschedule. Each teacher in the sample will be observedon three occasions, including p:.i.ods which are recommendedby the course materials as predDminantly pupil activities.The schedule will be used to build up profiles of teacherswhich will_ enable them to be classified broadly into styles(for exampl,exemplified by didactic, teacher centred,behaviour or by the heuristic, more pupil centred behaviourexplicitly recommended in the Integrated Science materials).Indications of the extent and nature of classroom activitiesand pupil/teacher interaction over time will also be soughtfrom analysis of completed pupil worksheets and any otherpupil produced materials available.

(d) Supplementary Training Resources in Schools: Theavailability of physical resources will be determined throuahquestionnaire evidence and if necessary, school surveys.There is clearly a case for utilizing existing data on equip-ment usage (as well as possession) to interpret the signific-ance of data collected.

17

(e) Concern with success in Examinations:Differential strengths of pupil concern with examinationsuccess is probably best measured initially through simplepupil questionnaires and/or essay writing assignments. Anassessment of teacher examination orientation will be madeby includino suitable questions in the questionnaire andinterviews to establish, for example, how far classroomactivities are directed towards the needs of the publicexamination, how far the e.:amination is considered to bethe raison d'etre for teaching the course, how muchpractice is given in the examination technique. Theobservation studies should also provide evidence of teacherexamination orientation. In cases where coanitiveachievement is dominated by recall of factual knowledgeit is likely that scores on measures of eaminationorientation will also be high. If this proves to be sothen it points towards the necessity for making overtchange in the examination system if the sort of cognitiveobjectives stressed by the Integrated Science Courseare to be achieved by the majority of pupils.

(f) Cultural and Socio Economic Factors: Schoolsused in the study will be broadly cateaorised in termsof the socio-economic status of the families of pupilsand, if non-selective, of their catchment areas Ifit appears necessary attention will also be paid to thecultural composition of schools.

6. The Value of the Research.

It is hoped that the research will have value not only toMalaysia and Sri Lanka but also to other developing countieswith similar school structures and patterns of selectionwithin the school system, and similarly motivated attemptsto reform science cur.ricula.

A major result of the study of the process of designingreformed curricula will be to bring together in one reportan analysis of the experience gained with difference patternsof course development. This, it is hoped, would serve asadditional much-needed matetial on which to base furtherdevelopment strategy decisions in Malaysia and Sri Lankaand elsewhere.

The values underlyina the researcher's work are those towhich there is a good deal of public assent namely thatthe schools should concentrate on education for the majoritywho do not proceed to university rather than the minoritywho do. If gaps between the protestations and the realityare exposed, and people become consciously awa.e of thesources of the pressures pushing in directions contraryto declared policy, one has at the very least added topressures in the opposite direction.

C3early in the implementation study it will be difficultto arrive at precise quantitative measurements of thevariables (but this is not to devalue the worth of wo/k

2

18

in an area which is often not studied in depth forprecisely this reason.) It should,however, be possibleto produce sufficiently strong prima facie evidence toilluminate any existing connections enhancing particulartypes of cognitive achievement, and thus point the wayfor future development. If one of the conclusions isthat the effect of examinations is so overwhelminglystrong that curriculum change in isolation from a radicalreview of the examindtion system is unlikely to be successful,then the case for such a review is greatly strengthened.Alternatives such as aptitude tests which have 1es-7 nowerful'backwash' effects on the implementation of a curricclummay need to be seriously considered.

The result of this research will not be in the form ofan extensive array of statistically validated associationsbetween factors contributina to school achievement.Nevertheless it Alould be possible to demonstrate someinterconnections with a 'high degree of plausibility andto advance suggestive conclusions to provide the basis forfurther, more extensive, research.

Ihe proposed research programme has been discussed withthe representatives of the Curriculum Development Centres,the Examination Departments and the Educational Pianninaand Research Divisions of the Ministries of Education inMalaysia and Sri Lanka, and its basic theme agreed upon.Clearance for the study has been given. Results fromthe study will be made available to all th(:= above-mentbnedinstitutions for use as additional evaluative material infuture policy-making. In addition, findings of the reseachwill appear as part of a book, and several papers areplanned.

SCHEDVLE OF ACTIVITIES

March - May 1975

Preliminary work at the Institute of Development Studiesand the Edt.cation Area, University of Sussex, to finalizedetails of fieldwork and coorindate with ongoing work atthe Institute on qualification and selection in theeducation systems of developing countries. During thisperiod data collected during an initial feasibility studywill be analyzed and fed into the programme of field work.

(ii) June 1975 - February 1970

Resturn to Kuala Lumpur to cunduct fieldwork programme.The researcher will be based at the University of Malaya..Fieldwork will build on a substantial quantity of datacollected during early 1975 on the development and imple-mentation of new science courses, and a.preliminary studyof the feasibility of using public examination results todiscriminate between different types of school achievementin the Form 3 Integrated Science Course. It is planned

19

that approximately 8 weeks will be spent finalizinathe curriculum development study and the remainder ofthe time analysing examination results and followingup tenative conclusions with investigations at theschool level into factors associated with the achieve-ment of higher level cognitive objectives.

(iii) February 1976 - March 1976

Field work in Sri Lanka to complete research study onthe process of curriculum development (initiated early1975).

(iv) March 1976 November 1976

Data analysis and writing up in the Institute of Develop-ment Studies and the Education Area, University of Sussex,and further data collection from UK residents involvedin curriculum innovation in Malaysia and Sri Lanka.

Addresses for communicationduring this period.

The Institute of Development Studiesat The University of Sussex,Falmer, Brighton, Sussex BN 1 9 RE

England

Malaysia Sri Lanka

Fakulti PerdidekanUniversiti MalayaLembah PantaiKuala LumpurMalaysia

2 '

c/o British CouncilGalle RoadColomboSri Lanka

1. progression of an age cohort through the Malaysian Education System

100

so

60-,

40-

20

Open Access Span ---

School leavers mostly int) 'traditional'i School leavers modern sectoremployment activities orientated

cn

P

H.

Common C u iculum

...--.._...-....,..:.: -....L...7.1___,,

de 1 2 3 4 5 a 7 ' 8 9 10 11 12 13

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 . 17 18

ool Primary Stcndards 1-6 Lower Secondary Upper SecorOary Form 6

Toms 1-3 Forms 4-5

H.Ot1

cFI-1 0

0p.) o

cl-* CommonCurriculum

0. co

Minimal attenuation'Highest abilitygroup streamed to

' science, lowest

, acceptable for

progression mostlyto Tech/Voc.

.Attenuation mostly,due to leaving for'non-degree colleges,

,pre-univeITAt7 courses

,and study '.C513.

IComparable numbers

in non-universitycourses. Less than

i'0.5% of cohort in

!science based coursi

at this level.

X

r4 11 H. a

PNu)

J.

0 1-3Science

University

2E

Number ofschools usinaprogramme

600

500

400

300

200

100

21

FIG. 2 IMPLEMENTATION OF NEW SCIENCE COURSES

Key ,Integratea Science

Nuffield Scienc',? ==========Modern Science

Progression of an age cohort through the Education SIstem in Sri Lanka

100-

rt

80-

Open Access Span

School

sectorchance

leavers modern

orientated. Littleof wage employment

Graduate

in

_

\School leavers into'traditional'occupations where they exist.

Little or no chance of

paid employment

) t

60

40_1

20-

Common Curriculum

1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10

Prithary

employment prospects

Professionalspoor science/arts.

only can be reasonably sure of a jo

7C-LUTTS-r"--"=r-

6 7 9 10 11

11 12 13 14

Junior Secondary

15 16

Senior

Secondary

Note; the figures for en-rolments in this tableare subject to errors

grisinr from high retention

and drop-out fates whichcannot be reliably determined

University29

Select Bibliography

1. Science Education, Curriculum Evaluation and CurriculumDevelopment.

Alexander, D. Nuffield Secondary Science: an evaluation.London. Macmillan. 1974.

Anderson, H.O. (Ed.) Readinns in Science Educa':ion for theSecondary School. London. Macmillan. 1969.

British Sociological Association, Conference, Durham.Knowledge and Control: new directions for theSociology of education, (Ed.) M.F.D. Young. London.Collier - Macmillan. 1970.

Comber, L.C. and Keeves, J.P. Science Education in Nineteencountries: . an empirical study. New York. Wiley. 1973

Egglestone, J.K. and Kerr, J.K. Studies in Assessment. London.English University Press. 1969.

Hooper, R. (Ed.) The Curriculum: Context, Design andDevelopment. Edinburgh. Oliver and Boyd. 1971.

Hudson, B. Assessment Techni ues. London. Methuen. 1973

Lewis, J.L. Teaching School Physics. Paris. UNESCO, 1972

Nuttall, D.L. and Wilmott, A.S. British Examinations.Techniques of Analysis. Slough, England. NationalFoundation for Education Research in England and Wales.1972.

Owen, J.G. Management of Curriculum Development. London.Cambridge Uni ,rsity Press. 1973.

Richmond, W.K. The School Curriculum. London. Methuen. 1971.i

Schools Council. Science for the Young School Leaver. London.Macmillan. 1965.

Schools Council Research Studies. Pattern and Variation inCurriculum Development Projects. London. Macmillan. 1975.

Scottish Education Department. Curriculum Paper No. 7. Sciencefor General Education. H.M.S.O. 1969.

Shipman, M.D. Inside a Curriculum Project. London. Methuen.1974.

West, R.W. The Summative Evaluation of Curriculum Innovations.University of Sussex, England. Education Area OccasionalPaper 1, 1975

Wiseman, S. and Pidgeon, D. Curriculum Evaluation. Slough,England. National Foundation for Educational Research inEngland and Wales. 1970.

9. Education in Malaysia.

Integrated Science for Malaysian Schools. Course Materials.Kuala Lumpur, Heinemann Educational Books (Asia). 1972.

Lee, E. Educational Planning in West Malaysia. Singapore.Oxford University Press. 1972.

Ministry of Education. Lapuran Keciceran (Dropout Study).Kuala Lumpur. 1974.

Ministry of Education. Modern Biology for Malaysian Schools.Kuala Lumpur. Longman Malaysia Sdn. Berhad. 1973.

Ministry of Education. Modern Chemistry for Malaysian Schools.Kuala Lumpur. 1Longman.Malaysia Sdn. Berhad. 1973.

Ministry of Education. Modern Physics for Malaysian Schools.Kuala Lumpur. Longman Malaysia Sdn. Berhad. 1973.

Ministry of Education. Modern Science for Malaysian Schools.Kuala Lumpur. Longman Malaysia Sdn. Berhad. 1973.

Universiti Malaya. Masatalah Pendidekan 1968-1974. (Problemsin Education). Kuala Lumpur. Khee Meng Press. 1974.

Universiti Malaya. Faculti Pelarjaran. Jurnal Pendidekan.(Education Journal). 1970-1974.

Wong, H.K. and Ee, T.H. Education in Malaysia. .Kuala Lumpur.Heinemann Educational Books (Asia). 1072.

Wong. H.K. and Gwee.Y.H. The Development of Education in Malaysiaand Sinaapore, Kuala Lumpur. Heinemann Educational Books,(Asia) 1972.

3. Education in Sri Lanka

Dore, R.P. 'Pre,vocational Studies: a comment on recentdevelopments in Ceylonese education'. I.D.S. Sussex,England. Discussion Paper No. 13, 1973.

International Labour Office. Matching employment opportunitiesand expectations: A programme of action for Ceylon.Report and technical papers. Geneva: 1971.

Jayasuriya, J.E. Education in Ceylon. ColomboAssociated Educational Publishers. 1969.

Journal of the Marga Institute - especially Vol.1, No.3/4,Vol. 2, No.2. Colombo.

Marga Research Studies. No. 1. Non-formal Education in SriLanka. Colombo. 1974.

Ministry of Education. Education in Ceylon. Volume 1, 2, 3.Colombo. 1972.

Ministry of Education. Medium Term Plan for the Developmentof Education1 1973-77. Colombo. 1973.

25

Ministry of Education. Interim Report of the Committee toInquire into and report on Public Examinations at SecondarySchool Level in Ceylon. Colombo. 1972.

Ministry of Education, Planning Division. Educational Reformsin Sri Lanka. Colombo. 1974.

Sumathipala, K.H.M. History of Education in Ceylon. 1796-1965.The Ceylon Historical Journal, Volume 13. Dohiwala.Prakasakayo. 1968.

Labour Utilisation: an Annotated Bibliographyof Village Studies

Compiled by John Connell

Edited by C. M. Lambert

THE VILLAGE STUDiES PROGRAMME

Institute of Development Studies, at the University of Sussex

This basic 300-page reference volume on the use and value of labour in villagesituations was compiled as part of a wider study carried out by the Village StudiesProgramme for the. International Labour Office. It summarizes information onlabour utilization in 450 village surveys from the Third World. The material isarranged regionally for Africa; the Middle East and North Africa; India; Oceania;Latin America and the Caribbean. Each entry includes a critical annotation, and astatement in coded form of the pattern of labour use, and demographic, sociological,agronomic and human resource variables.

£3.00 ($7.50)

IDS 1975

Village Nutrition Studies: an AnnotatedBibliography

Compiled by Sue Schofield

Edited by C. M. Lambert

THE VILLAGE STUDIES PROGRAMME

Institute of Development Studies, at the University of Sussex.

This bibliography analyses over 400 studies of village-level dietary patterns andnutritional status. It has been compiled as part of a more comprehensive surveyof village-level data from the Third World, undertaken within the Village StudiesProgramme at IDS. It constitutes a unique-collection of micro-level nutrition dataand is an invaluable basic guide to the assessment of rural nutrition situations andspecific improvement programmes.

Each entry describes the methods of data collection used in the survey and thecategories of data available, and provides brief evaluatory comments. Theemphasis throughout is on surveys of individual communities, but some addi-tional references to related studies in the area of health and nutrition are included.The information is arranged regionally for: Africa; Middle East and North Africa;India; Asia; Oceania; Latin America and the Caribbean.

£3.00 ($7.50) 300 pages

IDS 1975

. ACM elk

The Communications' and Publications Programmeof the Institute of Developinent Studies

Two series, printed Communications and xeroxed DiscussionPapers, report on completed studies and work in progress andarticulate the research problems on which IDS members areengaged. The IDS Bulletin contains brief articles on themes ofcurrent importance, and reports of IDS research findings.

The Development Studies Research Register (UK) is periodicallyissued with abstracts of ongoing work in many disciplines ofrelevance to problems of less developed countries, carriedout by researchers in the ux

A comprehensive List of-Writings on Development Stud:es byMemeers of IDS is updated from time io tiine ahd disseminatedvia thf: 'IDS mailing list.

For further information and free List of IDS Publica-tions, contact: IDS (Communications), at the Universityof Susser. Brighton Brilz gRE, England.