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AUTHOR Clubok, Arthur, Ed.TITLE Instructional Models in Methods Courses. Occasional

Paper No. 7.INSTITUTION Ohio Council for the Social Studies, Oxford.PUB DATE 86NOTE 33p.PUB TYPE Viewpoints (120) Reports - Descriptive (141)

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

IDENTIFIERS

MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.Higher Education; *Methods Courses; *PreserviceTeacher Education; *Social Studies; TeacherEducation; Teacher Education Curriculum*Instructional Models

ABSTRACTInstructional models are distinct sets of sequenced

teaching actions created to promote student azhievement of selectedlearning outcomes. They identify: (1) the tt.pe of information to bepresented to students; (2) the sequence in which it should bepresented; (3) the teaching tactics that stimulate necessarycognitive learning processes; and (4) the task: students must performsuccessfully to apply what they have learned. The study ofinstructional models helps preservice teachers 3evelop a cognitiveframework for making teaching decisions. An instructional modelsapproach rests upon two basic assumptions: (1) the classroomsituations, content goals, and students differ so widely that nosingle teaching method will ever be universally effective; and (2) awide range of instructional options exist, and teachers can adopt andadapt these models to their unique situations. The two families ofmodels most appropriate to social studies teachers are theinformation processing models and the social interaction models. Amodels approach in a methods course is a powerful means to helppreservice teachers become effective social studies teachers. Itprovides a cognitive framework for understanding instruction and abasis for responding appropriately to different curriculum goals. Amodels approach ensures that preservice teachers have the knowledgeand technical skills needed to make a significant contribution to theeducation of citizens. (SM)

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INSTRUCTIONALMODELS

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Occasional paper No. 7

INSTRUCTIONALMODELS

INMETHODS COURSES

Arthur QlubokEditor

Published by

The Ohio Council for the Social Studies

INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS INMETHODS COURSES

Bruce D. SmithAssoniate Professor of

Curriculum and InstructionUniversity of Cincinnati

College professors* who teach a secondary social studiesmethods course face a challenging, if not impossible,responsibility. Within the very limited amount of timeafforded by a methods course, professors must prepare pupilswho have studied one or more social science disciplines tobecome effective social studies teachers. That mission isnot accomplished easily. Repeated observation indicate thatthe quality of teaching in social studies is generally quitepoor (Shaver, et al., 1979; Melinger, 1981; Armento, 1985).An approach based on instructional models can enhance thepower of a methods course and contribute much to thepreparation of effective social studies teachers.

An instructional model differs from what is generallyreferred to as a teaching method. "Models are prescriptiveteaching strategies designed to accomplish particular(content) goals" (Eg4en, et al., 1979). While models arelinked to distinct but limited learning outcomes, methods arenot. For example, lecture, defined as a relatively longperiod of teacher talk, is a method. Lecture refers only toa mode of presenting content. Ausubel's Advance Organizer,however, is an instructional model because it it designed toachieve a specific purpose (comprehension of organized bodiesof abstract knowledge), describes the order in whichdifferent types of information should be presented tostud( its (from most to least inclusive levels ofabstraction), and identifies specific teaching tactics toactivate internal learning processes (promote progressivedifferentiation and facilitate integrative reconcilation).Another difference between methods and models is that tneformer are general, while the latter are precise. Forexample, inquiry refers to a general method. A few of themany models subsumed by that general category are theJurisprudential model (Oliver and Shaver, 1971), the InquiryTraining model (Suchman, 1962), and the Group Investigationmodel (Thelan, 1960). Precise details about teaching actionsand specifity of purpose distinguish models from methods.

*The words professor, pupil, student and teacher referrespectively to the following statuses: a. the collegeinstructor of a methods course, b. pre-service teachercandidates, c. students in a middle or high school class,and d. teachers of secondary social studies.

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The study of instructional models helps pupils todevelop a cognitive framework for making teaching decisions.Models establish "an organizational context and taxonomy forlooking at different kinds of teaching, providingalternatives for teacher educators, as well as teachers, andalso providing a base for studying teaching patterns thatheretofore have been somewhat elusive. Additionally, modelsof teaching can be used to shape curriculum ..., to aid indesigning instructional materials and to guide instruction inthe classroom" (Kilgore, 1984). The concept of Models ofTeaching (Joyce and Weil, 1980) provides some degree of orderto the otherwise disarrayed hodgepodge of methods,strategies, tactics, and beliefs in the literature aboutteaching social studies.

A models approach rests upon two basic assumptions.First, classroom situations, content goals, and studentsdiffer so widely that no single teaching method will ever beuniversally effective. Second, a wide range of instructionaloptions exist, and teachers can adopt and adapt these modelsto their unique situations. An emphasis on instructionalmodels responds to the immediate desire of pupils tolearn "practical" teaching tactics. Yet the approach permitsprofessors to integrate other important content (e.g.rational; curriculum; citizenship; economic, global, and lawrelated education; as well as other topics) into the course,but to develop these ideas in relation to the immediatelearning interests of their pupils.

Instructional Models

A model is a distinct set of ordered teaching actionscreated to promote student achievement of certain learningoutcomes. For example, figure one depicts two instructionalmodels designed to teach concepts. They identify (1) thetype of information to be presented to students, (2) thesequence in which it should be presented, (3) the teachingtactics that stimulate necessary cognitive learningprocesses, and (4) the tasks students must performsuccessfully to apply what they have 1Jarned. "Instructionalmodels are organized sets of prescriptions (for teacheractions) based both on an analysis of the structure ofknowledge and on an understanding of cognitive processes andlearning theories" (Reigeluth, 1983).

Models are prescriptive. They contain a set ofprobabilistic principles that assert "means-ends"relationships between certain teacher actions and studentlearning. Models identify variables that a teacher cancontrol and that contribute to successful studentachievement. Because the effects of instruction are mediatedby the cognitive processes of students, there are no teachingbehaviors that are uniformly followed by specific levels ofstudent achievement. Therefore, the principles in a model

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Ficure 1 Examales of Two Instructional Models

CONTENT GOAL: CONCEPTS

A concept is the content conveyed by a definition that gives the meaning of ageneral word, term, or phrase.

A concept is an abstract category that classifies a number of differentobjects, events or situations into the same group because they all share oneor more common characteristics.

A concept is an idea composed of a mental category, a set of criteria fordeciding what to include or to exclude from the category, and, usually, alabel to name the category.

TWO INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS FOR TEACHING CONCEPTS

DEDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE

DEFINITION (Abstract Idea,

.EXAMPLES (Concrete Illustrations) '

EXAMPLES (Concrete Illustrations)+

DEFINITION (Abstract Idea).

INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURES

CONTENT PRESENTATION

Present Abstraction. (Define theconcept.)

Clarify Abstraction. (Elicit pare-phresed definition, present oreliat definition of terms, andemphasize concept's critical fea-tures.)

Relate Concept to Prior Learning.(Link to superordinate and con-trast with coordinate concepts.)

Present Examples (and Non-examples).(Provide examples that depict con-cept's critical features and ex-plicity direct attention to howthe common features are evidentin those illustrations. Providenon-examples that lack one ormore of the concept's criticalfeatures and describe how theydiffer from examples. Present astrategy for distinguishing be-tween examples and non-examples.)

CONTENT PRESENTATION

Present Examples (and Non-examples).State concept's name and associatewith examples.

Identify Concept's Critical Features.(Direct students to identify fea-tures common to all examples, orIdentify features shared by exam-ples and verbalize differencesobserved between examples non-examples. List and organizecritical features on board ortransparency. Cue students, ifnecessary, by asking questionsthat direct attention to any over-looked critical feature.)

Elicit Abstraction. (Request defini-tion of concept and clarify terms.)

Relate Concept to Prior Learning.(Link to superordinate and con-trast with coordinate concepts.)

PRACTICE: APPLICATION OF ABSTRACT IDEA

Present additional examples and require students to identify how the criticalfeatures are portrayed (or)

Present a set of examples and non-examples, and require students todistinguish between them, (and/or)

Require students to generate and justify their own examples.

Encourage student verbalization of concept's name, definition and criticalfeatures es appropriate.

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are probablistic and not deterministic propositions. Yet, asB. 0. Smith (1980) notes, "professional practice requiresonly probable, not exact, knowledge in order to besuccessful. That knowledge is probable and that there isoften more than one means to an end are reasons why judgmentis important to successful practice in any profession."

Instructional models should be presented to and learnedby pupils as heuristic guidelines for professional judgmentand action. Too often pupils enter a methods courseexpectirg (or desiring) to learn procedural routines thatwill make them effective social studies teachers. Models carnot be effectively implemented merely by followingalgorithmic rules that always produce the desired results.They do not work that way. Further, a real danger exists ifpupils mis-conceive the nature of a models approach toteaching. Fenstermacher (1980) warns that "r1rhaps the mostdebilitating aspect of bridging (between research andpractice with algorithmic) rules is its effect on thepractitioner's perception of his or her stature andcompetence. Persons expected to change their behavior on thebasis of rules imposed by others are denied a portion oftheir freedom to thins: and act independently."

When properly understood, models help pupils becomeprofessional teachers. A professional gather informationabout a problem, has a knowledge base of possible alternativestrategies, is aware of the probable consequences ofemploying each strategy and then chooses the strategy that ismost appropriate for the goals to be achieved. Professionaldecisions are made within the context of a cognitive beliefstructure. Yet research about "teacher thinking" suggeststhat many teachers operate primarily on the basis of tacitknowledge (Brophy, 1980; Shavelson and Stern, 1S81; Clark andPeterson, 1986). Although some degree of tacit thought mayalways be involved in any human endeavor as complex asinstruction, inexplicable knowledge is neither an ideal noreven an acceptable basis for making professional decisions.Bet finer (1983) reported that the teachers in one largescale study "were unable to do the analysis (of differenttypes of teaching) and, therefore, they were unable tocompare the relative costs and benefits of one form ofinstruction over another for different kinds of students."Mumby (1982) reported similar findings. Because modelsexplicitly identify the knowledge base and the instructionalvariables involved, they enable teachers to reflectanalytically about their instruction. The essence of amodels approach is thoughtful selection from a range ofalternatives the strategy tiat is most appropriate for ateacher's purpose and for the students in the class.Instructional models can help pupils in a methods course tobecome rational professionals who make and implementeffective decisions in an uncertain and complex environment.

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Models are based on an analysis of the structure of theknowledge to be taught and learned. A knowledge structure isan abstract representation that shows relationships amongdifferent types of information (e.g., among facts; concepts;conceptual structures - hierarchies, taxonomies, a7.4matrices; principles -descriptive, correlational an, Lasualpropositions; and theoretical structures ). Pupils in asocial studies methods course must have conscious cognitivecontrol over the ideas that comprise structures of knowledgein their subject area disciplines. B. 0. Smith (1983) makesthe point very clearly:

... in all instruction information is central. Theteacher and the student interact in and through thecontent. To teachers ... content is the lifeDlood oftheir occupation, for where there is no knowledge to betaught, there is little to be learned. To teach is notonly to know the content, but also to analyze it, totake it apart and put it together in new relationships,to understand and analyze its types, utility, biases,and the pitfalls the learner is likely to encounter inthe course of learning."

Pupils who lack an intact knowledge structure are verylikely to find meaningless the analytical distinctions amongtypes of information that are necessary to comprehend andapply instructional models. Recognition of the kind ofcontent to be taught is the first step in selecting anappropriate model. Further, because a model prescribes anoptimal sequence for the presentation of different types ofinformation, successful implementation requires the abilityto make conceptual distinctions. If a pupil has a thoroughgrasp of some social science discipline, a models approachcan successfully teach the intellectual skills necessary toanalyze content in preparation for instruction. Once pupilshave learned to apply these skills to one knowledge base,they can easily transfer their analytical abilities toany other body of organized information they may teach in thefuture.

Models are based on an understanding of cognitiveprocesses and learning theories. The essential challengethat all teachers face is to arrange conditions in astudent's environment so that the internal processes oflearning will be activated, supported, enhanced andmaintained. Knowledge of the learning theory upon which amodel is based is an integral part of understanding themodel. To be effective, instruction must mesh with themental processes that students muse use to learn. It ispossible and often necessary to teach cognitive learningstrategies to students (Weinstein and Mayer, 1986). Both theplanning and the implementation of instruction are based onpredictilns that certain teaching actions will influencestudents' thinking procedures in ways that facilitate

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achievement of the desired learning. Teachers who h.ve aclear and detailed comprehension of the learning theory uponwhich a model is based will be able to make betterpredictions than teachers who lack such understanding.

Few social studies methods texts, unfortunately,explicate the learning theories that underlie the teachingmethods suggested. One of the most significant learningtheories for a models approach is information processingtheory, which describes how the human mind selects,comprehends, organizes, stores, and at appropriate timesretrieves and applies information (Travers, 1982; Wessell,1982). Professors need to help their pupils comprehendrelevant learning theory and perceive the connection betweenspecific teaching actions and particular learning processes.

In summary, knowledge of an instructional model is acomplex understanding. It involves a conceptual grasp of theparticular kind of content and intellectual skills the modelwas designed to help students master. It entails a vividimage of the sequence of steps a teacher takes and a grasp ofthe range of tactics available for accomplishing each step.It requires a detailed understanding of the learning theoryupon which the model rests. To quote Joyce and Weil(1980) "principles of teaching are not conceived as statictenents but as dynamically interactive with social andcognitive purpose, with the learning theory underlyingprocedures, ... and with the personal and intellectualcharacteristics of learning groups."

Models for Social Studies Teachers

Far too many instructional models exist to teach themall adequately in a single methods course, so decisions mustbe made about which ones are mose useful for social studiesteachers. Because a model is viable only for speicific andlimited purposes, depending upon the content and processesstudents are expected to learn, beginning teachers shouldmaster a basic "repetorire" of models that correspondsto the range of major learning goals in the social studiescurriculum. No consensus exists about which models shouldcomprise a basic repetorie. Nevertheless, professors mustmake that judgment.

A classification system to organize the universe ofmodels can clarify the factors that are related to thatdecision. Models can be classified in four useful ways:according to their family membership, their strategicapproach, their content inclusiveness, and their complexity.All four dimensions should be considered when selectingmodels for a social studies methods course.

Joyce and Weil (1980) distinguish among four "families"of models: the information processing family, the personal

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family, the behavioral family, and the social interactionfamily. Those categories are based on the similarity of theprinciple learning outcomes of the models within each family.The two families most appropriate for social studies teachersare the information processing and social interactionfamilies. Information processing models are designed to helpstudents comprehend and apply abstract knowledge and to useintellectual skills, including the capacities to generateconcepts, apply generalizations, and solve problems. Socialinteraction models emphasize the relationship of anindividual to society or to other persons in groupsituations and seek to improve a student's ability to relateeffectively to others and to engage in democratic processes.

Within the information processing family, models can bedivided into two categories based on their strategic approachto instruction: inductive and deductive strategies. From aninstructional perspective, the key difference between them isthe sequence in which various types of information arepresented to students. For example, the two models in Figure1 both present the same information, but in a differentorder. Variation in sequence effects the learning processesthat students must use. Deductive models activate processesnecessary for meaningful reception learning of abstractideas, while inductive models require discovery learning ofabstractions. The knowledge taught is the same for bothstrategies, but the processes that students use aredifferent. Notice that the application activities are thesame for both models. Learning is not complete when studertshave comprehended an abstraction; learning also involve. theability to retrieve that idea from long-term memory and applyit meaningfully in new situations. Unfortunately, many"discovery" models described in social studies methodstextbooks and published lesson plans based on those modelsstop instruction at a point when students have presumablycomprehended an idea and contain no application tasks. Suchinstruction is se iously flawed.

For many, though not all, deductive models there is aninductive counterpart. For example, Beyer (1985) presentstwo models to teach critical thinking: the directive (i.e.,deductive) and the inductive approaches. When possible, apaired set of models should be presented to pupils. Thedirect comparison highlights distinctions between the modelsand, perhaps more importantly, illustrates theirsimilarities. Because both approLches present the sameinformation, but in a different order, a teacher who isadequately prepared to teach an idea or skill with one modelis also prepared to teach the same idea with tirt other model.That insight helps pupils to see the flexibility ofthe model's approach to instruction and demonstrates thatinductive teaching is both feasible and within their range ofcompetence.

Within the social interaction family no distinctionexists that is similar to the inductive-deductive dicatomy inthe information processing family. Social models are usuallydescribed as inductive approaches, and they are certainlyuseful in that way. It is possible, however, to incorporatesocial models into a deductive sequence. For example, the"social participation" lessons in American Government:Comparing Political Experiences (Gillespie and Lazarus, 1979)develop comprehension of participatory citizenship roles witha deductive model and then use role play, a social model, asan application activity. This example again illustrates thatinstructional models are not rigid presciptions, but ratherare tools that a teacher can use flexibly to accommodatedifferent classroom contexts.

A third dimension for classifying models is thedistinction between micro- and macro-models (Reigeluth,1983). Micro-models are designed to teach a single categoryof content (i.e., a concept or a generalization or a skill).For example, the models in Figure 1 are both micro-models.Macro-models are designed organize a sequence ofinstruction that encompass more than one type of content.The ,dvance organizer model and the epitomine model(Reigelth, 1983) a' both examples of macro-models. Macro-models are useful for planning and organizing large chunks ofinstruction such as units, topics, and even courses. Socialstudies teachers need to master a variety of micro-models andat least a few macro-models.

Finally, models vary in their degree of complexity.Complex models tend to require highly developed adaptiveteaching tactics and, therefore, demand bc'll a sophisticatedunderstanding of the content to be taught and a thoroughgrasp of the intellectual processes involved in learning it.Complex models are not only difficult for teachers, but arealso challenging for students because of the heavy demandsthey place upon the information processing system.Therefore, it is vital that teachers who use them be preparedto provide appropriate learning guidance to students. Thedimension of complexity is a basis to distinguish betweenbasic and advanced level models. Undergraduate methodscourses should ensure that every pupil demonstrate theability to implement a range of basic models sufficient toteach all of the major content goals of the social studiescurriculum. The social studies profession may not be able toguarantee that every student be taught by a master levelteacher, but it should at least insure that no student istaught by an incompetent teacher, one who lacks any clearmeans to facilitate learning of the goals of socialeducation.

The dimensions of family membership, strategic approach,content inclusiveness, and complexity are combined to formthe classification system portrayed in Figure 2. Some models

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that this author recommends for consideration are identified,along with sources of information about each model. Eachmodel is labeled as appropriate for beginning level teachers(basic models) or for master level teachers (complex models).The beginning level models suggest a range from which a basicrepetorie might be selected.

The classification system might be useful to professorsas a means of locating in context the particular models theynow teach and deciding whether their courses contain anadequate range of models. Professors concerned withcurriculum development in the content areas (e.g., lawrelated or global educators) might also find theclassification system useful. They often want more timedevoted to these content areas in methods courses. One wayto accomplish that goal is to develop a "source book"containing detailed and exemplary lesson plans to illustratehow each of the models identified in Figure 2 could be usedto teach content in their subject area. Economic educatorshave recently published two such "books": Using Economics inSocial Studies Methods Courses (Weidenaar, 1982) and EconomicEducation in the Social Studies Methods Course (Williams,1984). Both contain exemplary lesson plans with enoughdetail to show pupils how many of the models in Figure 2 canbe implemented.

A Model for Educating Teachers

The single most extensive collection of theoretical andempirical stqdies about teaching teachers to useinstructional models is in a volume entitled FlexibleTeaching (Joyce, et al., 1981). Bruce Joyce's teachereducation model identifies four distinct levels of learningthat can result from a training program. It also specifiesfive instructional steps that help pupils to achieve thehighest level of learning.

Acquiring an instructional model involves progressivemovement through four stages of learning. Only when thefourth level is achieved have pupils mastered the model. Thefour levels are identified and illustrated as follows:

1. Awareness. At this level pupils are cognizant that aparticular model exists. For example, the first stagein learning the general inductive model for teachingconcepts is to become conscious of the approach, itsuses, and how it fits into the social studiescurriculum. Awareness entails an effective appreciationof the importance of the knowledge and processes themodel is designed to teach. Philosophical ideas fromsocial studies rationale need to be considered at thisstage to show how the goals of the model relate tocitizenship education.

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Figure 2. Instructional Models for Social Studies:Beginning (B) and Master (M) Level Teachers

ContentInclusiveness

-am les o Instruct onal ModelsInformation Processing Family Social Interaction

Deductive Strategy Inductive Strategy

General Inductive-Concepts(B)(Eggen,Enman)

Concept Attainment-Reception,Selection,Generation(M),Clari-fication (B)(Eggen;Weil & Joyce,1978-a)

Taba-Listing,Grouping,Labeling(B) (Eggen;Taba, et al., 1971)

General Inductive-Generalizations(B)(Eggen)

Taba-Data Retrieval(3) (Eggen,Taba)

Social ScienceInquiry (M)

Inductive Strategy-Heuristic Skills(B/M) (Beyer)

Algo-HeuristicTheory ofInstruction-Heuristic Skills(M) (Landa,1983)

Epitomine Model(M)(Reigeluthand Stein, 1983)

Cognitive Theoryof Inquire (M)(an operationalmodel of reflec-tive inquiry)

(Collins,1977;Collins 6 Stevens,1982 6 1983)

Family

Role Play (B)

Simulation(B)(Gillespie,1972;Weil & Joyce,1978-b)

Cognitive MoralDevelopment-Kolberg(B)

Modified Jurispru-dential Model (B/M(Ehman)

JurisprudentialModel/(N) (Newmann1970; Weil& Joyce-b)

Policy DecisionMaking Model (B)(Kurfman, 1977)

Micro-levelMemory Model(B)(Joyce & Wei1,1980;McKenzie,1980)

General Deductive-Concepts(B)(Eggen,et.a1,1979;Klausmeir,1980;Ehman,et.a1,1974)

General Deductive-Geoeralizations(B)(Eggen)

Direct Instruction-Alogritbmic Skills(13) (Rosenshine,1986, Askov & Kamm,1982)

Directive Strategy-Alogritbmic &Heuristic Skills(B) (Beyer,1985)

AdvanceOrganizer(B)(Eggen; Weil &Joyce-a)

-

Facts

Concepts

EmpiricalPrinciples(Generali-zations)

Skills

Values/NormativePrinciples

Macro-level

Theories-Topics,Empirical,Normative

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2. Knowledge of Instructional CLncepts and Principles. Atthis le',el pupils gain intellectual control over theconcepts and principles that comprise the model to belearned. For example, the models depicted in Figure 1contain many concepts ("definition," "critical feature,""example," "non-example," "superordinate" and"coordinate "), all of which must be comprehended tounderstand the model. Instructional concepts identifyvariables that a teacher can control when the model isimplemented; instructional principles assert theprobable effects of manipulating a variable on studentlearning. For instance, there is an instructional"concept called 'alternative representation,' which is adifferent way of commvnicating (some information) thathas already been said or shown. It might be aparaphrase of an earlier statement, or it might be adiagram that says the same thing visually as was justsaid verbally" (Reigeluth, 1983). An illustration of aninstructional principle is this assertion: if thecontent being taught is relatively difficult forstudents, then the use of alternative representationswill help students to comprehend and retain theknowledge better than they otherwise would.Instructional concepts direct attention to factors thatmake a difference; instructional principles predict thelikely consequences of manipulating a variable. At thisstage, pupils develop a cognitive structure for a modelbased on comprehension of relevant instructionalconcepts and principles.

3. Mastery of Techniques. At this level, pupils developthe competence to act on the basis of their cognitivestructure. The word technique refers to knowledge thatis precise, specific, and practical. For example, thesecond step of the general deductive model in Figure 1is "clarification of abstraction" to emphasize aconcept's critical features. After presenting adefinition verbally and writing it on the board, ateacher can use any of a variety of techniques to directstudent attention to critical features. The teacher canverbally direct attention to those features [e.g.,"Notice in the definition, that (name of concept) aresimilar in (number of characteristics) ways. First,they all have ...."]. Questions can also be used todirect attention to critical features [e.g., "How areall (name of concept) alike?", or "What would you belooking for if you wanted to decide whether somethingwas an example of (name of concept)?", or "All (name ofconcept) are similar in (number of attributes) respects.What are they?"]. These questions emcourage students tonotice and code information about a concept's criticalfeatures.

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Skilled implementation of a model depends upon masteryof a,propr±ate techniques. The organized knowledgegained at stage two is unlikely to effect a teacher'sclassroom behavior unless it is supported by appropriatetechnical skills. Yet, technical knowledge must beapplied within the context of a cognitive structure ofinstructional concepts and principles. For example,the previously cited techniques for directing attentionto a concept's critical features were designed tosupport student's cognitive processes by getting them toencode certain information as a result of teacherprompts. Such prompts are helpful in some situationsbut may be harmful to students in other circumstances.To quote Tobias (1982),

....providing additional instructionalsupport is likely to increase the students'cognitive processing of instructional input for newmaterial. In the absence of ...support, newmaterial might be so strange or difficult, andinduce so much frustration and uncertainty,that [information is missed] or otherwise minimallyattended to." But "providing instructional supportto students who have substantial experience with asubject [or cognitive processes] may do little toincrease achievement, and may actually becounterproductive. The extra support might...cause enough boredom, carelessness, or fatigueto reduce achievement compared to a 'learner'instructional strategy."

An instructional principle to govern the use oftechniques for prompting attention to critical featureswould be this one: if pupils have had little experiencein interpreting the information given in a concept'sdefinition, or if a student's paraphrase of a definitionomits a critical feature, then techniques to directattention to those features will help students to c.acodenecessary information. A cognitive structure for amodel without knowledge of techniques is vacuous,knowledge of a technique without a cognitive structureis mindless. Both kinds of knowledge are necessary foreffective and professional teaching.

4. Problem Solving Competence. At this level organizedknowledge and technical skills are transferred toclassrooms. The model is refined in practice, adaptedto various contingencies, and integrated with othermodels in a teacher's repertoire.

Pupils need to become aware of a model, acquire acognitive structure to think systematically about it, anddevelop the technical skills required to implement it. But amodel is never thoroughly mastered until pupils can implement

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it in the complex environment of a classroom.

A powerful training program is needed to help pupils toach:Ave that level of mastery. Research indicates thateffective training requires presentation of theory, concretedemonstrations, ample practice, structured feedback, and,sometimes, coaching for classroom application (Joyce, 1981;Showers, 1983; Kilgore, 1984). Joyce recommends a five steptraining program, which is described as follows:

1. Presentation of the Model. The first step is to providea description of the model, along with its curriculumrationale and its relation to a learning theory.Identification and classification of the instructionalconcepts and principles embedded in the model occursduring this step, as does discussion of its potentialuses and limitations.

Many social studies methods textbooks never move beyondthis step (Stanely, 1984). Joyce's research indicatesthat when training consists solely of the presentationof a model, very few teachers acquire necessarytechnical skills and almost none can apply it inclassrooms. But, if presentation is used in conjunctionwith the other components in his training model, then itenhances cognitive structure, facilitates skilldevelopment, and promotes classroom application.

2. Demonstration of Model. This step involves showingpupils an exemplary enactment of the model, eitherthrough live demonstration, films, or printedtranscripts of a teacher implementing it. Nearly allprofessors have favorite lessons they like to teach fordemonstration purposes. These are fun to do. Theimpact of demonstrations depends upon how pupilsperceive the activity. They may view it as an instanceof replicative learning. Nearly all pupils are capableof copying, to some degree, a lesson that they have seensomeone else teach. This orientation is often calledthe "bag of tricks" approach to a methods class.

Imitation learning is not the purpose of demonstration.Its purposes are to clarify the concepts and principlesof a model by providing a concrete example and toillustrate at least some technical skills forimplementing it. To achieve these purposes,demonstration lessons must be rigorously analyzed inrelation to the knowledge presented in step one. Pupilsmust discuss how each stage of the model was evident inthe demonstration. Any points of departure from themodel should be identified. Examples of relevanttechnical skills evident in the demonstration must benamed and defined.

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Joyce notes that several demonstrations are almostalways required for complex models. One or twodemonstrations have only a weak affect. He also reportsthat for most pupils demonstration alone is unlikely toresult in the development and application of skillsunless it is accompanied by other components of thetraining model.

3. Practice Under Simulated Conditions. This step involvestrying out a new model. It provides an opportunity toenact technical knowledge and use cognitive structure asa guide for choosing, sequencing, and implementing a setof tactical skills. Initial practice with a new model,especially if it is a complex one, should occur insimplified situations that allow pupils to concentrateprimarily on the skills necessary to enact the modelwithout devoting attention to the demands that impingeupon a teacher's thought processes in the complexclassroom environment.

Peer- and/or micro-teaching sessions provideopportunities to practice a new model. Researchindicates, however, that just the experience of peer- ormicro- teaching is not enough to affect the quality ofsubsequent teaching performances in classrooms(Schalock, 1979). These sessions appear to have a highimpact only when pupils have developed a clear andstable cognitive structure for a model prior to themicro-teach and when they are accountable fordemonstrating their ability to implement it. Mastery ofcomplex models usually requires several practicesessions before pupils develop both competence andconfidence with that approach.

4. Feedback. Feedback helps pupils become more aware oftheir teaching behaviors and can promote knowledge of a

range of alternative techniques. Joyce identifies twotypes of feedback: structured and open-ended.Structured feedback is based on a system for observingdefined, but limited details of teaching behavior. (The

evaluation instruments in Figure 3, which will bediscussed later, both illustrate structured feedbacksystems.) These systems are narrowly focused, they donot encompass all facets of a teaching performance, andthereby achieve the desired degree of precision. Open-ended feedback consists of informal discussion afterobservation of a teaching performance and may cover manyaspects of the performance, but without as much detailas a structured system.

Joyce's research indicates that initial practicefollowed by structured feedback is a powerful means todevelop the skills involved in using an instructionalmodel. Open-ended feedback has an uneven impact; some

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1 7

pupils appear to benefit from it, but many others donot. The power of structured feedback is enhanced whenpupils are provided with an opportunity to reflect ontheir own performances based on the system. Both typesof feedback have utility. Structured feedback isbeneficial during initial attempts to use a model; open-ended when a pupil is "fine tuning" the model.

5. Coaching for Application. For most preservice orinservice teachers, demonstration of a new modelcombined with presentation of appropriate theory andopportunities for practice followed by structuredfeedback, yield sufficient learning for them toimplement a model successfully in classroom situations.Yet, many other pupils need direct coaching. This stepinvolves helping pupils to analyze content, to developdetail lesson plans based on the model, and to rehearse,mentally, tactics for implementation.

Time is needed to master a model. A gradual progressionof learning activities is necessary to provide an opportunityfor ideas to be assimilated and techniques to be refined tothe degree that a pupil can actually use a model. A modelsapproach requires making difficult decisions because only aselect number of models can be taught and mastered in theshort time available to professors and pupils in anundergraduate methods program. Attempts to "cover" everyapproach to instruction are likely to make pupils aware of

many models, but masters of none. To make any realdifference, methods courses must focus on a select number ofmodels that will enable future teachers to teach thefundamental aspects of the social studies curriculum to their

students. Professors must devote the time and provide theinstruction needed for their pupils to master that basic

repertoire.

Not all pupils are equally prepared to benefit from a

models approach. The ability to comprehend and master avariety of instructional models is related to a pupil'sconceptual level, a construct that refers to variation alonga continuum that ranges from concrete to abstract thinking.Teachers at higher levels are more flexible, more capable ofusing alternative solutions, and more stress- tolerant thanthose at lower conceptual levels (Hunt, 1981). Bothpreservice and inservice teachers at higher levels acquire arepertoire of models more easily than those at more concretelevels. Lower level pupils have difficulty grasping the ideaof a repertoire consisting of distinct models, with each onebeing appropriate for specific but limited purposes, andinstead expect a single approach to be appropriate for allpurposes (Shigaki and Brown, 1981). The ability tocomprehend and implement inductive models is related toconceptual level (Hunt and Joyce, 1981). A high conceptuallevel does not automatically lead to mastery of an

15ti

instructional model, instruction and practice are stillnecessary, but it may be a prerequisite for success (Joyceand Showers, 1982). Lower level pupils require a lot ofcoaching for application if they are to become effectivesocial studies teachers.

Models in Methods Courses: Applications of Training Theory

If a methods course fails to provide preservice pupilswith clear and viable instructional models designed toachieve the goals of social education, then pupils willinvent their own approaches when faced with the demands ofteaching in a real classroom. Generations of social studiesteachers have continuously re-invented an approach calledtextbook teaching (Shaver, et. al., 1979; Goodlad, 1984).Mastery of appropriate models enables pupils to raise abovelow level textbook teaching and instead make a significantcontribution to citizenship education.

This section provides a few specific examples of howJoyce's training model might be applied ln social studiesmethods courses. The description is not 1 comprehensivecompendium of procedures for implementing a models approach,rather it suggests some practical applications forconsideration.

Professors who wish to incorporate models into theircourse will often find it necessary to research the sourcesidentified in Figure 2 to prepare a "presentation of themodel." Social studies methods texts do not always provideadequate information to help pupils develop awareness andorganized knowledge of a model. Stanley (1984) investigated37 texts for their adequacy regarding concept instruction andconcluded:

The results of this study indicate that most socialstudies methods texts do not provide sufficientinformation and guidelines for concept instruction.Among the most serious deficiencies in the tests are afailure to: (1) adequately define concepts; (2) discussresearch regarding concept instruction; (3) relateconcept definitions and research findings to the processof instruction; (4) discuss the limitations of theinstructional strategies they support; and (5) cfferspecific guidelines for applying instructionalstrategies in the classroom. Given the significance ofconcept instruction in social education, these areserious shortcomings.

For another example, many texts limit their presentationof "discovery" models to a description of internal learningprocesses but do not describe the specific actions teacherscan take to activate these processes. No texts adequatelydescribe the cognitive processes that students when learning

16

or the tactics teachers can use to activate these learningstrategies (Armento, 1986).

The language used to describe an instructional modelneeds to be carefully constructed. Professors who draw onthe sources cited in Figure 2 may want to revise some of thelanguage used by these authors. For example, although thiswriter has great respect for Weil and Joyce (1978a-b), theyuse language that is difficult and confusing for pupils. Thelanguage used to present a model should be of a relativelylow level of abstraction so it describes each step precisely.Yet, it must be abstract enough to subsume a number ofdifferent techniques for conducting each step. As a whole,the model must be comprehensive enough to include all of thesalient teaching actions required to implement it and yetcontain a small enough number of steps to permit a teacher tokeep the entire model in mind within the limited amount ofspace available in working memory.

Most presentations of models follow a deductivesequencer presenting a description of an abstract set ofideas about teaching followed by a concrete demonstration.Sometimes it is useful to vary the sequence and have students"discover" a new model through an inductive sequence such asthe following:

. Name the model, but do not describe it.

. Teach a demonstration lesson that clearly illustratethe major instructional steps.

. Ask pupils to identify verbally the kind of knowledgetaught (was it a fact, concept, generalization,skill, value?). Ask pupils to describe verbally theprocesses they used to learn that content.

. Ask pupils to write a description of the model bylisting the major instructional steps in sequence.

. Teach a second demonstration to teach a differentidea with the same model. Ask students to decidewhether the steps they previously listed occurred inthe second example.

. Ask students to revise their mr.4e1 descriptions; thenhave several write theirs on the boards.

. Discuss these, requiring pupils to cite concreteparts of the demonstration where they thought a stepoccurred and, if appropriate, reconciling andcombining ideas from different pupils' models.

. Present a handout that describes the model, relatepupil ideas to it, and move to a discussion of the

17

20

model's rationale and theory.

Two useful demonstration lessons for applying thisstrategy to help pupils learn the inductive model depicted inFigure 1 are lessons 1.4 (concept of opportunity cost) and1.6 (concept of voluntary exchange) in Weidenaar (1982).Each one requires only about ten minutes to teach, and bothof them provide clear and sound examples of the model.Professors should show that they use the models they wanttheir pupils to learn.

Another way to present a new instructional model and,simultaneously, to develop an intellectual skill is to beginby challenging pupils to create their own model. Thisapproach not only arouses interest in the model to belearned, but also teaches the skill of model building. Thatskill is transferable. It helps to prepare pupils to dealwith future developments in social studies instruction. Thefuture will surely (hopefully?) bring new and powerful waysof educating citizens. Professional teachers need the skillsnecessary to construct and test their own models ofinstruction.

Instructional models can be derived from at least threedifferent knowledge bases, or from some combination of them.A model can be inferred from a theory, either a theory oflearning, (e.g. Ausbel's Advance Organizer) or an idealizeddescription of human competence (e.g. reflective thinking ordecision-making models). A model can be designed fromresearch (e.g. Bruner's Concept Attainment). Or a model canbe induced from systematic observation of exemplary teachersimplementing the model (e.g. Collins and Stevens' Theory ofInductive Teaching). Pupils in a methods course can be giventhe experience of creating their own models and receivefeedback about its quality.

To illustrate this approach, consider how it might beapplied to help pupils learn instructional models designed toteach critical thinking skills:

. Assign pupils to read fwo articles, "ImprovingThinking Skills-Practical Approaches" (Beyer, 1984)and "Critical Thinking: What Is It?" (Beyer, 1985 -b), as preparatory homework. Those sources clarifythe nature of critical thinking and provide somehints about instruction to teach it, but neitherexplicates a complete and organized model.

. Divide the class into small groups and assign thetask of drafting a model designed to teach criticalthinking.

. Synthesize/reconcile ideas by having each group writeits model in the board and verbally clarify and

1821

justify it. Discuss similarities and differencesamong the models.

. Assign "Teaching Critical Thinking: A DirectApproach" (Beyer, 1985-a) which describes andillustrates two models to teach critical thinking.(Pupils are often surprised and enlightened todiscover that an inductive model can be used to teacha skill). Have students compare their models tothose Beyer presented and reconcile differences.

Provide detailed lesson plans that illustrate bothmodels for teaching critical thinking skills. Usefulplans can be found in Smith (1983), O'Reilly (n.d.),and Munro and Slater (1985). Analyze these plansusing the methods described later in the paper.

This approach can be used for other models as well. Forexample, pupils could be assigned readings that describeKolberg's Theory of Cognitive Moral Development and shown afilm strip about that learning theory, be challenged tocreate a model of instruction to promote moral development,and then contrast their ideas with Fenton's model.

This approach reflects a problem solving orientation toinstruction - creating a solutica to the problem of how ateacher can facilitate learning of certain content goals. Ithelps pupils to make their ideas about instruction less tacitand more erplicit. Professional teachers need to be able toexplicate their ideas about instruction so these ideas canbecome an object for reflective self-analysis.

After a model has been presented and demonstrated,pupils will still need instruction designed to help them toclarify their cognitive structure of the model and to developneeded technical skills. An activity for accomplishing thosegoals is the analysis of detailed lesson plans.

Often this step is omitted in methods courses. Asequence of instruction that moves from presentation anddemonstration of a model to an assignment that requirespupils to construct their own original lesson plans ispremature. It will very likely yield simplistic work basedon superficial understanding. Ample instruction and thoughtarE required before pupils will be ready to create originallesson plans of high quality.

The lesson plans selected for an analysis exercise mustnot only be sound examples of the model being studied, butthey should also reflect the criteria of good planning. Theyshould be fairly detailed, containing suggested teachingprocedures, substantive content to present, questions to ask,and learning t.ctivities for students. For example, lessonplans that provide excellent illustrations of the deductive

19 22

model described in Figure 1 are the following: (a) Lesson 3"Systems and Their Characteristics: Culture, Socialization,and Values" (Fraenkel, et. al., 1977); (b) Lesson 1, "Money"(Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, 1979); and (c) LessonIII-1, "The Principle of Federalism" (Patrick and Remy,1985). Exemplary plans for the inductive model are these:(a) Lesson One, "What is Authority" (Law in a Fr Society,1977). (b) Lesson One, "What Is Political Behavior?"(Mehlinger and Patrick, 1972); and (c) Lesson 2,"Characteristics of Totalitarianism" (Thompson and Hedberg,1977). A valuable source of useful plans for analysis is, asthe title of a symposium at the 1985 NCSS conventionindicates, the "old 'new social studies' projects." Thesubstantive content of the lesson plans ought to reflectideas and skills generally taught in social studies courses(i.e., avoid esoteric topics). By the end of a methodscourse pupils should have a collection of viable lessons foreach model studied, and those plans may facilitate earlyattempts to apply a model later in their own classrooms.

The purposes for analyzing lesson plans are to helppupils (1) to clarify and apply the organized knowledge of amodel, (2) to develop analytical skills for planninginstruction, and (3) to develop knowledge of techniques forimplementing the model. Five types of questions can be usedto achieve these goals. They are named, defined, andillustrated as follows:

1. Model Identification/Classification Questions. Thesequestions ask pupils to show correspondence between thesteps in the abstract model and specific teaching actsdescribed in a lesson plan. For example, (a) "Whatmodel does this plan represent?", (b) How does the planfollow the model?", (c) "Does it depart from the modelat any point?", (d) "Where is the abstractionpresented?", (e) "Are examples presented?", or (f)"Are non-examples presented?"

2. Questions about Instructional Technique. Thesequestions ask pupils to identify the functions ofspecific teaching techniques suggested in the plan.Function is identified by stating "correct/ reasonable"hypotheses about the effects of a teaching techniqueupon student learning processes. Hypotheses mustreflect reasoned inferences based on the learning theorythat undergirds the model and that was presented topupils in step one of the training program. Thesequestions provide practice in applying a learningtheory. More generally, the questions promotea view of instruction as hypothesize-testing activity inwhich a teacher consciously anticipates the impact ofteaching behaviors and systematically observes whetherthe consequences are congruent with the expectations.For example, (a) "Are there any teaching actions

20 23

suggested in the plan that might help to promotetransfer of learning?", (b) "Look at the six questionssuggested at this point in the plan. Which one isdesigned to elicit a generalizing inference from thestudents?" "Why were the other four raised first?", or(c) "Which question on the list gets students toprocess information about the concept's criticalfeatures?" By applying this kind of analysis to avariety of lesson plans, pupils begin to developknowledge of a range of alternative techniques foraccomplishing each phase of the model.

3. Thought Experiment Questions. Tht_e questions describehypothetical situations that might occur during a lessonand require pupils to consider how they would deal withthese contingencies. The purpcses of thoughtexperiments are to help pupils learn (a) to anticipate arange of alternative student behaviors that might ariseduring the implementation of a model and (b) to developsome techniques to deal with these situations. Forexample, (a) "Question 3 in this inductive lessonasks students to name ways in which all four examples ofthe concept are alike. Suppose you called a stue--Int toanswer it and he said, 'I don't know.' What question(s)could you ask to hint or direct the student to notice acritical feature?" or (b) "Looking at question 3 again,suppose a student gave this response to it (professorgives a wrong answer but does not label it as such).How do you react to the student?" Practice can beprovided if these questions require a "mini-role play"response that requires pupils to enact, and not merelyto describe, the technique they would use.Justification for the technique employed should bediscussed and then followed by identification andassessment of alternative tactics.

4. Evaluation Questions. These questions ask pupils toassess the quality of the lesson. There are two typesof evaluation questions that should be raised. Thefirst are questions to appraise the quality ofeffectiveness of selected parts of the plan. Forexample, (a) "Does the example given on page 10depict the concept's critical or (b) "Are the sixquestions on page 14 of this lesson worded clearly?, Orare some ambiguous? How should it be re-worded?"

The second type of evaluation question focuses oncurriculum rationale for social education. Thesequestions require pupils to use ideas from previouslystudied philosophy and rationale documents in socialstudies and to do philosophical thinking to assess thesignificance of the content taught in a lesson. Forexample, (a) "Does the content in this lesson contributeto effective and responsible citizenship in some way?"

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24

or (b) "Imagine you started this lesson by tellingstudents the three objectives and a boy in the back ofthe room asked, 'Why do we 'gota' learn that?' How wouldyou respond to his question?" Philosophical thinking isnot easy for most pupils and they need repeatedopportunities to practice it if they are expected touse the normative principles of social education asguidelines for decisions in their own classrooms.

5. Modification Questiuns. These questions require pupilsto use their knowledge of models for adapting lessonplan. They reinforce the idea that models are tools toaid teacher decision- making and not prescriptions toreplace it. For example, (b) "Based on your evaluationof this plan, what changes would you make in theinstruction?", (b) "Suppose you wanted to convert thisdeductive lesson to an inductive approach. How wouldyou change the plan?", or (C) "Suppose you want toinclude about ten minutes of instruction about a valuesissue in this lesson. Where could you develop that?What model of values teaching could you use?"

The knowledge and skills taught through these analyticalexercises can be partially measured with essay examinationsin which pupils are given a new lesson plan and required torespond to a set of analytical questions tailored to it.Analysis of lesson plans helps pupils to assimilate,integrate, and apply ideas about instruction.

Practice is required to develop and to polish thetechnical skills needed to implement an instructional model.Consequently pupils need to teach lessons based on the modelwhile they are in the process of learning it. Researchsuggests that pupils receive too little information abouttechniques for implementing models. Regarding theinformation given in social studies textbooks about conceptinstruction, Stanely (1984) observed that ".... almost all ofthe texts fail to give explicit guidelines for how to employthe strategies they advocate ..." Micro-teaching sessionsare powerful means to facilitate mastery of technical skills.To be effective micro-teaching should be preceded bydevelopment of a stable and comprehensive cognitive structurethat defines a model and should be followed by structuredfeedback. Figures 3-a and 3-b contain observation/instruments for the two instructional models presented inFigure 1.

The instruments can be used before, as well as after, amicro-teach session. They convey expectations of what pupilsare to demonstrate in a session. Pupils can use the systemto analyze and evaluate demonstration lessons that theirprofessor teaches to illustrate a model. They can be appliedto selected video-tapes of exemplary micro-teach lessonstaught by previous pupils in the course. It encourages

22

2

Figure 3-a. Structured Feedback for Deductive Mode'

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23 26 BEST COPY AVAILARt

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24 27

pupils to see their peers successfully accomplish whatthey are expected to achieve. Use of the evaluationinstruments before micro-teaching helps to clarify the modelbecause it requires pupils to process relevant informationwhen they observe a demonstration.

Reflec _me self-analysis is necessary to benefit from amicro-teaching experience. Sessions should be video-taped.Pupils should review their performances in private andcomplete a self-evaluation based on the structured feedbacksystem. Later, the professor should meet with each pupil,review the tape, and complete an evaluation, being sure togive elaborate reasoning for each item assessed. Then thetwo evaluation should be compared, selected portions of thetape reviewed, and differences reconciled. It is thefeedback received during this dialogue, and Lot merely checkson a form, that promotes pupil learning. With the knowledgeand skills developed through practice and refined throughreflective self-analysis coupled with structured feedback,pupils gain the competence to implement a model duringstudent teaching. Then encouragement, perhaps coaching, andopen-ended feedback help them learn to adapt models todifferent student needs and to classroom contingencies.

Conclusion

A models approach in a methods course is a powerfulmeans to help pupils become effective social studiesteachers. It provides a cognitive framework forunderstanding instruction, a basis for respondingappropriately to different curriculum goals, and skills foradapting to student needs and classroom demands. Theapproach encompasses content traditionally taught in amethods course (e.g., curriculum, rationale, philosophy) butintegrates those ideas in the process of instructionaldecision-making. A models approach ensures that pupils havethe knowledge, the technical skills, and the values needed tomake a real contribution to the education of citizens.

25

2S

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