ED 432 668

AUTHORTITLE

INSTITUTIONSPONS AGENCYISBNPUB DATENOTEAVAILABLE FROM

PUB TYPEEDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

IDENTIFIERS

ABSTRACT

DOCUMENT RESUME

CE 079 012

Farrell, Glen M., Ed.The Development of Virtual Education: A Global Perspective.A Study of Current Trends in the Virtual Delivery ofEducation.Commonwealth of Learning, Vancouver (British Columbia).Department for International Development, London (England).ISBN-1-895369-74-61999-00-00178p.Open Learning Agency, Attn. COL Customer Serivce, 4355Mathissi Place, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada V5G 458;Web site: http://www.col.org/virtualed/ ($12 Canadian plusshipping).Collected Works General (020) -- Reports Research (143)MF01/PC08 Plus Postage.Adult Education; *Computer Uses in Education; *DeliverySystems; *Distance Education; *Educational Practices;*Educational Technology; Educational Trends; ElementarySecondary Education; Foreign Countries; Global Approach;Higher Education; Information Technology; *Open Education;Postsecondary Education; State of the Art Reviews; TrendAnalysis*Virtual Universities

This document contains 11 papers examining the methodologyand findings of a study of the virtual delivery of education throughout theworld. "Introduction" (Glen M. Farrell) explains the study methodology, whichentailed the identification of 10 global regions and commissioning of anindividual in each region to write a paper describing the state of practiceof virtual education in the region and the potential impact of virtualeducation initiatives on current practices in distance and open education.The authors and titles of the remaining 10 papers are as follows: "TheDevelopment of Virtual Institutions in Canada" (Glen M. Farrell); "Distanceand Virtual Learning in the United States" (Peter J. Dirr); "Distance andVirtual Learning in the Caribbean" (Peter J. Dirr); "Open and DistanceEducation Programmes in Latin America" (Victor Guerra Ortiz); "EuropeanTrends in the Virtual Delivery of Education" (Robin Mason); "VirtualInstitutions on the African Continent" (Vis Naidoo, Casper Schutte); "VirtualInstitutions in the Indian Subcontinent (Including Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka)" (Sugata Mitra); "Virtual Institutions inEast and Southeast Asia" (Michael Robertshaw); "Virtual EducationInstitutions in Australia: Between the Idea and the Reality" (SuellenTapsall, Yoni Ryan); and "Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education in NewZealand and the Pacific Islands" (Lalita Rajasingham). (MN)

********************************************************************************

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

********************************************************************************

(

The Development of

Virtual Education:

A global perspective

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffi of Educational Research and Improvement

ED CATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

This document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.Minor changes have been made toimprove reproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in thisdocument do not necessarily representofficial OERI position or policy.

1

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE ANDDISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS

BEEN GRANTED BY

(nit _C(f),-NTO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

0 The Development of

Virtual Education:

A global perspective

A study of current trends in the virtualdelivery of education, conducted withfunding provided by the Department forInternational Development, London, U.K.

DR. GLEN M. FARRELL,

STUDY TEAM LEADER AND EDITOR

The Commonwealth of LearningVancouver, Canada

3

THE COMMONWEALTH ofLEARNING

The Commonwealth of Learning is an International Organisation established by CommonwealthGovernments in September 1988, following the Heads of Government Meeting held in Vancouverin 1987. It is headquartered in Vancouver and is the only Commonwealth intergovernmentalorganisation located outside of Britain.

The purpose of The Commonwealth of Learning, as reflected in the Memorandum ofUnderstanding, is to create and widen access to education and to improve its quality, utilisingdistance education techniques and associated communications technologies to meet the particularrequirements of member countries. The agency's programmes and activities aim to strengthenmember countries' capacities to develop the human resources required for their economic and socialadvancement and are carried out in collaboration with Governments, relevant agencies, universities,colleges and other educational and training establishments among whom it also seeks to promoteco-operative endeavours.

The Chairman of the Board of Governors is Dr. H. Ian Macdonald and COL's President andChief Executive Officer is Dato' Professor Gajaraj Dhanarajan.

© The Commonwealth of Learning, 1999

The Development of Virtual Education: A global perspective.Dr. Glen M. Farrell, editor

ISBN: 1-895369-74-6

Published by:The Commonwealth of Learning1285 West Broadway, Suite 600Vancouver, British ColumbiaCanada V6H 3X8

Telephone: 604 775 8200Fax: 604 775 8210E-mail: info @coLorg

Web: hiv://www.coLorg

4

Contents

Foreword Prof Gajaraj Dhanarajan ix

Acknowledgements xi

1. Introduction Dr. Glen M. Farrell 1

Process and Methodology 2

General Observations 2

The Global Context of Virtual Institution Development 5

Emerging Models of Virtual Education 7

Change Strategies 9

Summary 10Appendix 1.1: Framework for Regional Reports 11

2. The Development of Virtual Institutions in Canada Dr. Glen M. Farrell 13

The Context 13Current Canadian Examples of Virtual Education 15The Emergence of Virtual Organisations 18

Summary 19

References 22

3. Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States Dr Peter J. Dirr 23

Introduction 23The Context 24Virtual University Degree Programmes 29Virtual School Programmes (K-12) 35Virtual Professional Development Programmes 39Virtual Training Programmes 40Double Glass Ceiling 42Conclusion 42References 44Appendix 3.1: The Di rr Grid of Tertiary Distance Education 48

4. Distance and Virtual Learning in the Caribbean Dr. Peter. Dirr 49

Introduction 49The University of the West Indies 50Other Institutions and Programmes 56Conclusion 57References 58

Contents V

5

5. Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin AmericaDr. Victor Guerra Ortiz 59

Introduction 59

Background 59

Present Educational Conditions in Mexico 59

Perspectives on Distance Education in Mexico 63Computer Technology and Telecommunications in Mexico 66

Distance Education in Argentina 70

Distance Education in Cuba 73

Distance Education in Venezuela 74

Distance Education in Colombia 74Distance Education in Peru 75Distance Education in Costa Rica 75Appendix 5.1: Literacy in Mexico by Age Group Z

6. European Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education Dr. Robin Mason 77

Issues and Perspectives 77

Current Examples of Virtual Education in Europe 79

Other Initiatives 84Summary 85

7. Virtual Institutions on the African Continent Mr. Vis Naidoo& Prof CasperSchutte 89

Introduction 89The Central Concept of Networks within ICT 90ICT in Africa 91

Internet Connectivity in Africa 92Satellite Footprints over Africa for TV 96Satellite Footprint over Africa for Radio 97South Africa: A Representative Example 98Primary and Secondary Education Institutions and Teachers' Training Colleges 110Commercial Organisations 113Industrial Organisations 114Broadcasting Organisations 115The African Virtual University (AVU): A Representative Example 116Some Other Representative African Examples 119General Conclusions 122

8. Virtual Institutions in the Indian Subcontinent Dr. Sugata Mitra 125

Introduction 125Computing Infrastructure 125Internet Accessibility 127Media 130Virtual Institutions 131

Online Activity 133Future Requirements 134Conclusion 134

VI Contents

6

9. Virtual Institutions in East and Southeast Asia Dr. Michael Robertshaw 135

Introduction 135

Cyber-populations 135

Cyber-languages 136

Competition 136

Regional Efforts 136

Progress by Country 137

Virtual Libraries 139

Appendix 9.1:The Development of Virtual Institutions in Korea lnsung Jung 140

The Context 140

Virtual Education in Primary and Secondary Schools 140

Virtual Education in Colleges and Universities 142

Virtual Teacher Training 144

Virtual Training in Enterprises 145

Conclusion 145

10. Virtual Education Institutions in Australia Mrs. Suellen Tapsall &Dr Yoni Ryan 147

Introduction 147

Defining the Beast 148

The Emergence of the Beast 149

Towards "Virtuality" 150

Facing the Issues 156

The Australian Perspective 158

In the Making 161

Last Words 164

References 164

11. Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education in New Zealand andthe Pacific Islands Dr. Lalita Rajasingham 165

Introduction 165New Zealand 166

Pacific Islands 169

Conclusion 170

References 170

Contents V i i

7

Foreword

This study, The Development of Virtual Education: A

global perspective, is but a snapshot of the state ofvirtual education at a given point in time. Therapid rate at which the new technologies arechanging in character, cost, and capacities makesit difficult for any study to remain valid in perpe-tuity. When The Commonwealth of Learning,with financial assistance from the Department forInternational Development, U.K., commissionedthis study, we were aware of the time sensitivityof the data that would be collected. Still, we wereconvinced that there was merit in proceeding,for two reasons:

Despite the ever-changing nature of the tech-nological environment, some valuable les-sons can be learned from those pioneerscurrently practising virtual education.

On the basis of those lessons learned, TheCommonwealth of Learning can take stepsto further benefit Commonwealth education.

This study clearly responds well to both thesereasons. As the 10 reports in the study reveal,even though current participation in virtual edu-cation is modest, the potential for spectaculargrowth in, and application of, this new way ofteaching and learning certainly exist. Nowhere is

the need greater to apply these new technologiesthan in many parts of the Commonwealth wherethe gap between the supply and demand foreducation is so great.

For The Commonwealth of Learning, thestudy clarifies where we could be most helpfulin our interventions around the Commonwealth.Such interventions need not be limited only tohelping build Commonwealth capacity in virtualeducation; they could also include using currentexperience, available technologies, and knowl-edgeable people to deliver training and educa-tion in selected areas which, for various reasons,could not be achieved in one or another nationof the Commonwealth.

The Commonwealth of Learning is greatlyindebted to Dr. Glen Farrell, Study Team Leaderand Editor, and the expert group that came to-gether to undertake this study for us. Togetherthey brought a wealth of experience and greatcommitment to this assignment. We are also grate-ful to Ms. Myra Harrison and Mr. Jim Butler ofthe Department for International Development,U.K., as well as the Department itself, for theirgenerous funding to undertake the study.

Dato' Professor Gajaraj DhanarajanPresident and Chief Executive Officer

The Commonwealth of Learning

June 1999

Foreword I X

8

Acknowledgements

The Commonwealth of Learning wishes to ex-press its appreciation to the Government of theUnited Kingdom, through its Department forInternational Development, for providing thefunding which allowed this study to be under-taken. For the implementation of the study, TheCommonwealth of Learning is particularly in-debted to those people who agreed to be mem-bers of the study team and provide reports onthe status of the development of virtual educa-tion institutions in their region. Each of them iscurrently involved in some aspect of virtual in-stitution development, whether as a teacher,scholar, entrepreneur, or in administration andpolicy development. Collectively they representa wealth of knowledge and experience and, moreimportantly, they are all active students of theapplication of information and communicationtechnologies to the process of education andlearning. They are:

Dr. Peter Dirr, President, Public Service Tel-ecommunications Corporation, U.S.A.:Distanceand Virtual Learning in the United States, andDistance and Virtual Learning in the Caribbean.

Dr. Glen M. Farrell, Consultant, Develop-ment of Education and Training Systems,Glen Farrell & Associates, Vancouver,Canada: Introduction and The Development ofVirtual Institutions in Canada.

Dr. Robin Mason, Head, Centre for In-formation and Technology in Education,Open University, Milton Keynes, UnitedKingdom: European Trends in the Virtual De-livery of Education.

Dr. Sugata Mitra, Research and Develop-ment Centre, NIIT Limited, New Delhi,India: Virtual Institutions in the Indian Subconti-

nent (Including Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal,

Pakistan, and Sri Lanka).

Mr. Vis Naidoo, Director, Centre for Edu-cational Technology and Distance Education,Ministry of Education, Government ofSouth Africa, Pretoria: Virtual Institutions onthe African Continent.

Dr. Victor Guerra Ortiz, SchoolNet Co-ordinator, Latin American Institute of Edu-cational Communication, Mexico: Open andDistance Education Programmes in Latin America.

Dr. Lalita Rajasingham, Director of Pro-grammes, School of Communications andInformation Management, University ofVictoria, Wellington, New Zealand: Trends inthe Virtual Delivery of Education in New Zea-land and the Pacific Islands.

Dr. Mike Robertshaw, Programme Leader,School of Science and Technology, OpenUniversity of Hong Kong: Virtual Institutionsin East and Southeast Asia.

Acknowledgements X

Dr. Yoni Ryan, Senior Policy Advisor (Flex-ible Delivery), Teaching and Learning Sup-port Services, Queensland University ofTechnology, Australia: Virtual Education In-stitutions in Australia: Between the Idea and the

.11E0'101.

Prof. CJH Schutte, Independent Educa-tion Consultant, Pretoria, South Africa: Vir-tual Institutions on the African Continent.

Mrs. Suellen Tapsall, Senior Lecturer inJournalism, School of Media Communica-tion and Culture, Murdoch University, Aus-tralia: Virtual Education Institutions in Australia:

Between the Idea and the Reality.

Dr. Glen M. Farrell also served as leader ofthe study group and was responsible for thepreparation of the final report.

X I I Acknowledgements

Introduction

DR. GLEN M. FARRELL

Provision for education will be the biggestchallenge for most governments as they at-

tempt to attain the ideals of peace, freedom,

and social justice, while striving at the same

time to position themselves to generate more

wealth and compete in the free global mar-

ket. Bold steps have to be considered by states

to provide their people with affordable access

to education; using methods of mass educa-tion will be inevitable. Even by using these

methods, not all aspirations will be met. In-

tervention by outside agencies is one solu-

tion, but it will come at a higher cost thanmost individuals in the developing parts ofthe world can afford. One solution available

for Governments of the Commonwealth isto use the newer technologies as vehicles tobring a variety of educational opportunities

to individuals in their respective countries.The knowledge, skills and a significant part

of the infrastructure to create a virtual campus

seems to be there in many jurisdictions butlittle is known of the what, why, and how of

such operations.

(From A Proposal to Study Trends in the Virtual

Delivery of Education, presented to the U.K.

Department of International Development)

With that rationale, the Commonwealth ofLearning proposed to the United KingdomDepartment for International Development thata comprehensive study be made of the globalstate of practice globally of virtual education inschools and on campuses in order to achieve thefollowing:

Get a snapshot picture of what is being doneby whom and where.

Study the potential impact of such initiativeson a range of current practices.

Provide Commonwealth Governments withinformation relating to technology and tel-ecommunication infrastructure as well as fi-nancial and human resource needs for set-ting up virtual learning facilities.

Enable existing distance education provid-ers of the Commonwealth to re-engineerthemselves to benefit from this emergingoption.

Review protocols and other administrativearrangements for awarding credits and cre-dentials under special circumstances throughCommonwealth co-operation in virtuality.

The Department for International Develop-ment agreed to fund the study and work beganin September 1998.

Introduction 1

Process and MethodologyThe study is intended to provide a global snap-shot of the state and practice of virtual educa-tion. It is not meant to be an exhaustive analysisof all virtual education initiatives. It should beseen as illustrative, based on the knowledge andperceptions of the individual members of thestudy team. We also see this as a work in progressbecause the interest and activity in the conceptwe have called virtual education is extremely dy-namic.

The Commonwealth of Learning identified10 global regions and commissioned an indi-vidual in each region to write a paper describing,from his or her perspective, the state of practiceof virtual education in that region. Study teammembers were selected on the basis of theirknown interest, expertise, and experience in thedevelopment of virtual education strategies andmodels. The regional reports were completed inFebruary 1999, and the study group convenedduring the first week of March in BruneiDarrusalam during the Pan-Commonwealth Fo-rum on Open Learning to review regional de-velopments and synthesise a global perspective.

The first task of the study team was to definethe study parameters and agree on a workingdefinition of virtual education (see Frameworkfor Regional Reports in Appendix 1.1). This wasa difficult task, and the definition initially agreedupon is admittedly broad. Making it more pre-cise would have meant excluding a great deal ofcurrent practice that involves some exciting andcreative use of information and communicationtechnologies. Having now gone through the ex-ercise of applying the definition, we have con-cluded that it remains a useful way to conceptual-ise the notion of virtual education. As develop-ment takes place, the definition may become morefocused on those teaching and learning interac-tions mediated entirely through the applicationof information and communication technologies.

At this stage, however, there are very few exam-ples where that is the case.

Within the Framework (Appendix 1.1) teammembers were encouraged to develop their re-ports to reflect the context of virtual educationdevelopment in their regions. Some of the re-ports focus on the state of information and com-munication technology infrastructure develop-ment in the region, while others (those where theinfrastructure is readily available), provide exam-ples of practice and discuss the related issues.Some team members, because of the size andcomplexity of their assigned regions and the lackof access to electronic data-gathering capacity,were compromised in their ability to make theirreports as comprehensive as they would havewished.

(Note: Throughout this publication, univer-sal resource locators (URLs) are included to per-mit readers to pursue additional information onsites and topics referenced. These URLs are validInternet addresses as of March 1999. Due to thenature of the World Wide Web and the re-struc-turing of home pages by Web masters, the ad-dresses might change by the time readers try toaccess the referenced sites. If you get an "Error404" or "Invalid Location" message when youtry to access a site, try removing the last part ofthe address to at least get to the home page ofthe host organisation.)

General ObservationsThe 10 regional reports reflect, not surprisingly,a great deal of variation in the stage of develop-ment of virtual models of education. Taken to-gether, however, they do provide a world viewfrom which the study team has distilled the fol-lowing observations:

The label virtualis widely and indiscriminatelyused around the world. Indeed, it is frequentlyused interchangeably with other labels suchas open and distance learning, distributed learning,

2 Introduction

networked learning, Web-based learning, and com-

puter learning. Furthermore, it is used in someregions to refer to systems that combinebroadcast and interactive teleconferencingtechnologies that operate in real time. Withsuch broad use of the term, you need toknow what the information and communi-cation technology applications are in orderto know what virtual education means in anygiven context.

In spite of the increased use of the termvirtual, there are very few examples of insti-tutions using information and communica-tion technologies to carry out all the func-tions included in our definition. The mostcommon applications of information andcommunication technologies are found inadministration, materials development anddistribution, and where possible, student tui-tion in the form of student-student and stu-dent-tutor interaction.

While there are still few examples of virtualinstitutions in the purest sense, the amountof development activity in all types and lev-els of educational organisations, both publicand private, is considerable in all parts ofthe world. No one seems to doubt that thedevelopment and deployment of informa-tion and communication technologies willhave a profound impact on access, institu-tional functioning, and the teaching and learn-ing process. However, teachers and admin-istrators have many questions and concerns(see the section below, The Global Contextof Virtual Institution Development).

The development of virtual institutions isstill experimental, rather unfocused, and notnecessarily matched to clientele learningneeds. While there are some exceptions (e.g.,the programmes offered in Communica-tions Studies at the University of Victoriain Wellington, New Zealand), generally the

applications of information and communi-cation technologies tend to be unsophisti-cated. Commonly, for example, the WorldWide Web is used by institutions simply as apublishing medium without addressing theinteractive potential of the technology. Thismay be because little attention seems to bepaid to the importance of staff retrainingand development.

There are some remarkable examples of thetransformation that can take place when avision for an educational system is developedand its implementation championed by de-cision-makers. Perhaps the clearest examplesare the initiatives that have been taken inKorea (see Appendix 9.1 in Virtual Institu-tions in East and Southeast Asia).

The emergence of virtual institutions is di-rectly linked to the development of, and ac-cess to, information and communication tech-nology infrastructure. However, majorsocio-economic and geographical disparitiesexist in such access. This disparity is perhapsthe most critical issue of virtual educationbecause those without access are likely to beincreasingly disadvantaged in acquiring skillsand knowledge. In spite of this obvious link-age, it seems that strategic planning for thedevelopment of information and commu-nication technology infrastructure typicallyproceeds with little, if any, consideration foreducational applications.

The application of information and com-munication technologies to the provision ofeducation is having a two-pronged effect onthe marketing of education by institutions.First, there is now an emphasis on strategiesthat respond to niche learning needs ratherthan on a broad array of programmes to acommon market group. In other words, themarket is being fragmented. Second, there isan unprecedented degree of competition,

Introduction 3

13

nationally and internationally, which is creat-ing problems for those institutions that havehistorically used revenue from high-demandprogrammes to subsidise the low-demandprogrammes. Some jurisdictions are attempt-ing to limit this growing competition throughlegislation, regulation, and accreditation re-quirements. However, the consensus seemsto be that these measures will, at best, beeffective only in the short term since the tech-nologies being used do not honour politicalboundaries.

It's generally believed that we will see theemergence of a relatively small number ofinternational providers who will dominatethe educational market through vast distri-bution networks and strategic partnerships.However, at this stage in the evolution ofvirtual institutions, this observation appearsto be more rhetorical than real. While thereis evidence of global providers and of theircontinuing emergence, there is, as yet, no in-dication that they will dominate the market-place.

The emergence of virtual institutions appearsto be coming from four separate sources:

1. Institutions that have historically beeninvolved in open and distance educa-tion on a single mode or dual-modebasis.

2. Traditional institutions, from schoolsto universities, that have never been in-volved in distance education. These in-stitutions are now beginning to applyinformation and communication tech-nologies to support their campus-based teaching in order to add qualityand increase productivity and flexibil-ity, with the belief that doing so mayreduce costs and increase revenue byattracting new students. This transition

is typically occurring on a programme-specific basis that, in many instances, iscreating a virtual institution inside a tra-ditional institution.

3. The corporate sector. Many large or-ganisations have developed internaltraining programmes based on infor-mation and communication technologydelivery and, increasingly, they, are mar-keting them using the virtual label.

4. Individuals who, for reasons rangingfrom altruism to profit, are motivatedto use the technology to create learningopportunities for anyone who is inter-ested. This study did not set out to ei-ther document or describe the emer-gence of this form of virtual educa-tion; however, it is becoming common-place on the World Wide Web and de-serves to be identified.

Cost reduction is frequently cited as an ob-jective to be served through the introduc-tion of information and communicationtechnologies within educational institutions.However, there is a paucity of valid and re-liable data on the question of costs.

There is rapid emergence, particularly in NorthAmerica, of new forms of virtual organisa-tions that do not act as direct providers ofeducational programmes. This observationreflects the shift to institutions "unbundling"many functions, such as the development anddistribution of learning materials, tuition, as-sessment, registration and record-keeping,award-granting, learner support, and generaladministration. These functions can now beshared through a wide variety of organisa-tional arrangements marked by specialisationand "added-value" partnerships involvingboth the public and private sectors.

4 Introduction

14

The Global Context of VirtualInstitution DevelopmentThe evolution of virtual institutions is occurringin the context of a wide range of forces that, onone hand, are driving the need for change, andon the other, serve to constrain change or at leastslow the pace. These changes range from thosethat are regionally specific to those that are glo-bally pervasive. The importance of any one ofthem is determined by the specific socio-eco-nomic context of a given state or nation.

FORCES DRIVING THE DEVELOPMENT

OF VIRTUAL INSTITUTIONS

Factors that influence the development of vir-tual learning models are as follows:

The increasing capacity, flexibility, and suit-ability of information and communicationtechnologies to educational applications, to-gether with the continuing decrease in the costof hardware.

The enabling capacity of the technologies to"unbundle" functions (as described above)that have traditionally been provided by oneinstitution.

The growth of knowledge, with its attend-ant consequence of the obsolescence ofmuch of what was previously learned, plac-ing an ever-increasing pressure on conven-tional models of education. People are seek-ing opportunities for lifelong learning, andwith diverse personal circumstances, theyrequire flexible access-to-learning opportu-nities and venues such as the home, the workplace, the community learning centre, as wellas the traditional campus-based institution.

The realisation that the quality of the learn-ing experience can be enhanced by apply-ing information and communication tech-nologies. In the conventional classroom wefind increasing use of the Internet to access

information, which enriches the learning ex-perience. Further, in the conventional distanceeducation environment, we find the technolo-gies being adopted to improve the learningprocess through interactive and collabora-tive learning to reduce the learners' sense ofisolation.

The demand from isolated learners for moreequitable access and service. This, of course,is not new, and was the reason for the devel-opment of correspondence courses. How-ever, the context is broader now as the ca-pacity of the technologies enables a remote,single-room school to access many of theinstructional resources available to schools inan urban setting.

The perception of many institutions, particu-larly in Europe and North America, that theapplication of information and communi-cation technologies will enable them to in-crease their market share in an environmentthat is increasingly competitive.

The need to be seen to be "keeping up withthe competition." Administrators worry thatstudent recruitment, donations, and grantsmay decline if this expectation is not met.

The expectation by policy makers and ad-ministrators that the development of virtualdelivery models will reduce costs, increaseproductivity, and enable expansion withoutcost increases.

FORCES OPPOSING THE DEVELOPMENT

OF VIRTUAL INSTITUTIONS

Opposing those forces that are driving the emer-gence of virtual learning models is another setof values, beliefs, perceptions, and realities thatserve to constrain the rate of change. The fol-lowing are examples:

In many parts of the world there is simplyno access to networks and in many others

Introduction 5

the cost of access is prohibitive. A relatedfactor is the amount of bandwidth that canbe accessed, which determines the possibleinformation and communication technologyapplications.

Many learners have no access to the neces-sary information and communication tech-nology appliances such as computers, tel-ephones, and televisions. Even within devel-oped economies, the disparity of access isso great that many policy makers fear thatadopting these technologies will result in awidening of the gap between the "haves"and the "have nots."

Copyright restrictions on the use of instruc-tional products and materials do not pro-mote sharing through collaborative inter-in-stitutional arrangements or through broadinternational delivery models.

The front-end cost of implementing high-quality virtual models constitutes a majorconstraint, even if it is believed that ultimatesavings are possible through standardisation,resource sharing, economies of scale, andincreased productivity. The cost of initialhardware, operating software, and instruc-tional material development typically requirecapitalisation funds that far exceed the re-sources of most institutions. In some casesthe problem is dealt with through internalreallocation of funds (e.g., from library ac-quisitions to technology support). There isalso a widespread practice of passing thesecosts on to the student through tuition feeincreases or special levies.

Current systems of learner support are notdesigned to function effectively in a virtual edu-cation environment, creating problems for allbut the most capable of independent learners.

Perhaps the most commonly reported con-straint is the reticence of most teachers and

faculty to embrace the use of informationand communication technologies. Lack oftraining in the use of the technologies is themost frequently cited reason for the reticence.However, concerns over job security, theneed for greater preparation as a result ofoperating in a public environment like theWorld Wide Web, plus the need to managean increased amount of communicationswith students are also contributing factors.

The educational philosophy of many teach-ers and faculty contributes to their reticenceof communication technology applications.If they believe that learning should be struc-tured and directed by teachers, then they arenot likely to be attracted to using informa-tion and communication technologies, whichenables a more constructivist or learner-cen-tred approach to education.

The transfer of course credits among institu-tions is a problem for those students whowould like to undertake a programme thatmight be available through virtual methodsbut would require taking courses from sev-eral different institutions. From the students'perspective, this is a serious constraint on theirability to function as true virtual learners.

Many people, particularly those who areyounger and with less experience as independ-ent learners, when given a choice prefer a tra-ditional face-to-face learning environment.These learners tend to be more organised andvocal than older, part-time learners and, there-fore, can be a significant political force againstinformation and communication technologyapplications in education.

While the above list is not exhaustive, it shouldremind educational policy makers and managersthat, in many respects, it is not the technologiesthemselves that are at issue, but the purpose andmanner of their use that are likely to influenceopinion of virtual education.

6 Introduction

16

Emerging Models of VirtualEducationAs stated earlier, the emergence of virtual edu-cation models is directly linked with the emer-gence of information and communication tech-nology infrastructure. For example, the emer-gence of postal systems enabled by the develop-ment of transportation technology led to thedevelopment of correspondence models ofeducation delivery. As the broadcast mediaevolved, first radio and more recently television,those technologies were applied to mass educa-tional programming, typically those of a generaland community education nature. Indeed manyeducators feel the potential for using these tech-nologies has been, and remains, woefully underutilised. With the more recent development ofreal-time interactive media such as audio- andvideo-conferencing, there has been broad use ofthese technologies in formal education to reachunder-served students. Applications have beenparticularly noticeable in North America andAustralia. Now the phenomenon of the Internetand the World Wide Web is driving the broadestscope of interest and involvement in technologyapplications ever witnessed across all levels ofeducational institutions.

With each of these developments of infor-mation and communication technology, the once-separate models of open and distance learning andthe so-called conventional, campus-based educa-tion has increasingly converged. Tapsall and Ryanhave elaborated on this phenomenon in their re-port on Australia, Virtual Education Institutions inAustralia: Between the Idea and the Reality, suggesting

an interesting model for looking at its evolution.One result of the convergence of teaching mod-els has been the emergence of new forms of edu-cational organisations. These models are not mu-tually exclusive and undoubtedly others will de-velop quickly. Here are a few current examples:

There has been rapid growth of virtual edu-cation within many so-called traditional in-stitutions. Virtual programmes are offeredby institutions that offer most other pro-grammes in the traditional manner. Moremature examples exist in the United States,Australia, and Canada; however, it is anemerging phenomenon in all regions.

Single-mode distance teaching organisations,using primarily print-based delivery and cre-ated originally with relatively clear and exclu-sive mandates, are now confronted with hav-ing to reinvent themselves. On one hand, theironce-exclusive mandates are evaporating, andon the other, they are constrained in the useof information and communication technolo-gies because their students typically have diffi-culty accessing the necessary appliances.

Broker-type organisations, designed to ac-quire or broker programmes from a varietyof institutional providers and add valuethrough flexible entry and credit transferpolicies, are emerging rapidly. Two exam-ples are the Public Broadcasting System (PBS)Going the Distance project in the UnitedStates and the University of the Highlandsand the Islands project in Scotland.

Information and facility provider-type or-ganisations have emerged in response to thesupport needs of learners as well as thoseof institutions. Examples include the Queens-land Open Learning Network in Australia,the University for Industry in the U.K., theMaine Network for Education TechnologyService in the U.S., the Confederation ofOpen Learning Institutions of South Africa,European Study Centres, and the SylvanCalibre Learning Network in the U.S.

Institutions that are authorised to award cre-dentials and to provide a variety of other serv-

ices such as learning assessment, educational

Introduction 7

17

planning, and learning records, but do notprovide instruction directly to students, arebecoming part of educational systems, es-pecially in North America. Examples areRegents College in New York State and thenewly created Western Governors Univer-sity in the United States. (Note, however, thatthe latter is still moving through the accredi-tation process.)

It is noteworthy that while the United Statesnever developed a single-mode distance teach-ing institution such as the U.K. Open Universityor the National Open School in India at eitherthe state or national level, it is there that we areseeing the most prolific development of thesenewer institutional forms.

It is also noteworthy that these newer typesof organisations, which are not focused on di-rect instruction, potentially transcend political,geographic, and legislative boundaries much moreeasily than the more traditional models.

The rapid growth of private sector provid-ers is another dimension of the emerging modelscene. These are three types:

1. Direct providers of instruction, usually witha focus on a particular niche market, havebecome prevalent and profitable. Examplesare The University of Phoenix and JonesInternational University as described in Dis-tance and Virtual Learning in the United States,

and National Institute of Information Tech-nology (NIIT) as described in Virtual Insti-tutions in the Indian Subcontinent.

2. Corporate training networks, developed ini-tially to meet internal training needs, are nowexploiting external market opportunities andare increasingly seeking formal recognitionfor the training they provide. Examples in-clude Quantas Airlines, as cited in VirtualEducation Institutions in Australia and SouthAfrica Telecom, as cited in Virtual Institutionson the African Continent.

3. Specialised service organisations that are fo-cused on providing consultation, projectmanagement, technical support, and privatetuition have evolved on a fee-for-servicebasis. Examples are the IBM Global Cam-pus and the McGraw-Hill Learning Infra-structure, as cited in Distance and VirtualLearning in the United States, Virtual Univer-sity Enterprises as cited in European Trendrin the Virtual Delivery of Education, and RealEducation, as cited in Virtual Education In-stitutions in Australia. (Note: Real Educationno longer operates in Australia but remainsactive in the U.S.)

The phenomenon of the "tele-centre" or"tele-learning centre" is emerging as a hallmarkof the virtual education environment. In conceptit is not new; the idea of a community learningcentre has long been a part of various modelsof adult education and was pioneered many yearsago with the Scandinavian concept of "learningcircles." However, in its current form the con-cept involves the creation of community-basedaccess points where connectivity to networks isprovided and access to information and com-munication technology appliances is made avail-able. While applications may not be exclusive toeducation, the idea of the technology-based com-munity learning centre provides an essential com-ponent of any virtual education system that as-pires to be broadly accessible. Countries like In-dia, which recently announced it will create in-formation kiosks throughout the country, andSouth Africa, with its commitment to develop-ing tele-centres, are examples of nations whichhave recognised the importance of ensuring ac-cess to citizens as a matter of public policy.

Although virtual education models have notyet influenced education at the primary and sec-ondary levels in a pervasive sense, there is evi-dence that this will start to occur rapidly. Initia-tives such as SchoolNet in Canada, SchoolNet

8 Introduction

13

India, School Net South Africa, and the OpenSchool in British Columbia, Canada, are exam-ples. The evolving model is likely to remain fo-cused on classrooms, but with more flexibility inthe role of the teacher. This role can be por-trayed as a continuum, at one end of which tech-nologies are used to support teachers and, at theother, teachers support learning where informa-tion is primarily accessed via information andcommunication technologies.

Change StrategiesTwo visions of change in educational systemsemerge from the regional reports in this publica-tion. One portrays technology as an overwhelm-ing driving force with the emergence of a fewglobal providers dominating the educationalmarket through vast distribution networks andstrategic partnerships. The second involves a moreexplicit, policy-based approach at national andstate levels which is concerned with issues suchas equity of access, curriculum relevance to la-bour market needs, accreditation, consumer pro-tection, and cultural sensitivity. These visions are,of course, not mutually exclusive as they can, andare likely to, co-exist. However, if they are to co-exist in a positive way, then it behooves educa-tional policy makers to ensure that the educa-tional leaders in their jurisdictions are makingdecisions in a careful manner and are managingthe process of change as constructively as possi-ble. Following are some strategies that the studyteam considers important:

1. Ensure that information and communicationtechnology development planning is linkedwith educational planning so that the applica-tion is both appropriate and sustainable interms of access to the infrastructure. Wher-ever possible, virtual delivery should be linkedto the development of tele-centres to enhanceaccess and add value to overall informationand communication technology development.

2. Use policy, legislative, and regulatory incen-tives to ensure that some portion of telecom-munication capacity (e.g., X% of cable chan-nels or Y% of bandwidth) is reserved foreducational use at costs that are affordableby institutions. If such incentives are avail-able free of charge to accredited institutions,they will help ensure that educational appli-cations become part of telecommunicationinfrastructure development.

3. Ensure that all facets of the concept of ap-propriateness are considered. In other words,the technology needs to be appropriate tothe skills and characteristics of the target learn-ers, the nature of the programme content,the current competency of the instructionalstaff, and available funding.

4. Show how the application of informationand communication technology in educationcan enhance existing practice. If teachersperceive that a given application will help themaccomplish their goals more efficiently andeffectively, they will more likely change theirbehaviour and be motivated to acquire thenecessary skills and knowledge.

5. Ensure that appropriate staff training anddevelopment programmes are available asan essential part of any change strategy.

6. If the purpose of increased utilisation ofinformation and communication technolo-gies is to achieve cost savings, ensure that thereis a clear plan in place indicating precisely howsuch savings will be effected and whetherthey will be real savings rather than simply atransfer of costs to students.

7. Encourage differentiated mandates amonginstitutions. There is an obvious cost benefitif complementary rather than competitivedevelopment can be achieved within educa-tional systems.

Introduction 9

19

8. Encourage and support initiatives of fac-ulty members. Change, particularly withinconventional institutions, often occurs at theinitiative of the individual teachers ratherthan by strategic decisions taken by the in-stitutions.

9. Consider how or whether institutional func-tions can be "unbundled," particularly be-tween those functions related directly to theprovision of instruction, and those that re-late to materials development and learnersupport. The goal is to enable the partnersto focus on what they each do besttheir"core business."

10. Recognise that the development of virtualeducation models will create change forcesin a variety of other ways:

Advising and counselling may need tobe managed differently.

Concerns over the quality assurance ofproviders using information and com-munication technologies will develop asnew players become involved.

Issues of credit recognition and trans-fer will arise between institutions.

Demands from learners for assessmentof existing skills and knowledge willbecome commonplace.

Decisions related to the allocation offunds will increasingly be between thecosts of "bricks and mortar" on onehand, and the cost of "bandwidth" onthe other.

11. Effective incorporation of the technologiesrequires a commitment by all parts of aninstitution. For example, the offering ofcourses on-line will be diminished if the reg-istry insists on "hard copy" processes.

SummaryAs stated at the outset, this study was designed asa "snapshot" of current practice and the state ofdevelopment of virtual education. Given thedynamic nature of information and communi-cation technology, the examples cited date veryquickly. However, what will endure is the phe-nomenon of change that educational institutionsat all levels, and in all parts of the world, areexperiencing. The decisions that face educationalleaders and practitioners are no longer simplyintra-institutional; increasingly they are systemicand international in scope and involve some as-pect of technological application. The world ofeducation has become a smaller place and, like itor not, more interdependent.

However, just as the emerging informationand communication technologies have made theeducational decision-making environment morecomplex, so have they led to a great deal of con-ventional wisdom regarding their application. Wecannot over-stress the importance of the con-cept of appropriateness when making decisionsabout information and communications technol-ogy applications. This study has revealed nothingif not that the use of information and commu-nication technology should be in the context ofclearly stated educational outcomes accompaniedby practical strategies for achieving them.

10 Introduction

20

Appendix 1 .1 : Framework forRegional Reports1. A Virtual Education Institution may be de-

fined as:

(a) An institution which is involved as a di-rect provider of learning opportunitiesto students and is using information andcommunication technologies to deliverits programmes and courses and pro-vide tuition support. Such institutionsare also likely to be using informationand communication technologies forsuch other core activities as:

(b)

Administration (e.g., marketing, reg-istration, student records, fee pay-ments, etc.)

Materials development, production,and distribution

Delivery and tuition

Career counselling/advising, priorlearning assessment, and examinations

An organisation that has been createdthrough alliances/partnerships to facili-tate teaching and learning to occur with-out itself being involved as a direct pro-vider of instruction. Example of suchorganisations would be the Open Learn-ing Agency of Australia, the emergingWestern Governors University in theUnited States, and the National Techno-logical University

2. The scope of the study should not be lim-ited to universities. Examples of virtual in-stitutions may include both the public andprivate sector and may focus on elementary,secondary, or tertiary levels as well as non-formal learning and continuing professionaleducation such as teacher upgrading.

3. In addition to describing the nature of thevirtual institutional examples and the natureand context of information and communi-cation technology applications, reportsshould also consider comments on issuessuch as:

Technology infrastructure limitationsthat have been experienced

Financial impacts

Human resource requirements

Learner acceptance

Teacher acceptance

Reactions of conventional institutions

General demographic characteristicsof learners being served

4. Some institutions or states may have plansfor developing virtual institutions which arenot yet operational. These should be includedin regional reports if doing so would pro-vide a more complete picture of develop-mental trends in the region.

Introduction 11

Development of Virtual

Institutions in Canada

DR. GLEN M. FARRELL

The ContextEducational institutions at all levels in Canada facea common set of challenges: decreased financialresources, increased diversity of their students'learning needs and preferred learning styles, in-creasing demand for more accessible pro-grammes with more relevant content, and in-creasing competition from other providers.

In response to these pressures, Canadian in-stitutions are increasing their use of informationand communications technologies (ICT). Forsome the goal is to improve the quality of theircurrent distance education delivery models. Forothers, particularly the more traditional universi-ties, it is to enrich the quality of the on-campuslearning experience, to improve access, or to meetperceived competitive forces. Further, many ad-ministrators and policy makers believe that bymaking use of these technologies, they can re-duce costs or increase enrolments without increas-ing costs.

However, the current state of ICT develop-ment is an extremely important variable influ-encing the development of virtual education. Forexample, limited access to bandwidth at afford-able rates has meant that text remains the pri-mary format for materials. Given that extensivereading of print on screen is difficult for manypeople, content material is most often provided

in hard copy with the Internet being used forconferencing purposes, access to supplementarydatabases, assignments, and administrative sup-port. Full multimedia and, therefore, pure virtuallearning, will evolve as bandwidth becomes moretechnically and financially accessible.

Education theory is also affecting the evolu-tion of virtual institutions in Canada. The debatebetween those who believe learning should bestructured and directed by teachers and those whobelieve that students should take more responsi-bility for their own learning is not new Until re-cently, the state of development of ICT has notfacilitated the latter as much as it has the former,with the result that the technologies have beenused predominantly to extend the teacher-directedmodel (e.g., online video-conferencing). How-ever, with increasing demand for competenciessuch as critical thinking, knowledge creation,teamwork, and collaborative learning, togetherwith the ability of technologies to enable muchmore learner initiative and control, the debate isoccurring in a different context. For those teach-ers who have viewed themselves as the centre-piece of their students' learning experience, com-bining the two approaches requires a major shiftin both behaviour and self-concept.

Of all the terms used to describe the increas-ing use of ICT in Canada, virtual is perhaps theleast common. Other terms being used, besides

The Development of Virtual Institutions in Canada 1 3

22

distance and open learning, include on-line learn-ing, distributed learning, network learning, independent

learning, gberschooling, and tele- learning. Some newly

created institutions, such as the Technical Univer-sity of British Columbia and College de L'Acadiein Nova Scotia, are defining themselves as virtual21" century organisations. Established distanceteaching institutions, such as Tele-Universite inQuebec, Athabasca University in Alberta, and theOpen Learning Agency in British Columbia,which were originally entirely print-based withtelephone tutoring, are moving rapidly to Web-based delivery. However, they are still more likelyto refer to themselves as distance teaching or openinstitutions.

All of the so-called traditional institutions arenow using these technologies, or are planning toin the near future, for instructional purposes. Forsome the focus is on a particular programme(e.g., the M.B.A. programme from Queen's Uni-versity delivered across Canada using a combi-nation of video-conferencing and e-mail). Forothers, it may involve using the technologies toenrich learning that is essentially classroom-basedby enabling more access to remote databases,access to instructor notes, or more collaborationamong learners. Most of these institutions do notrefer to these activities as virtual; on the otherhand, there are those that have developed a fewcourses for Web delivery and very proudly callthemselves virtual institutions.

Perhaps surprisingly, the most frequent use of"virtual" to describe the burgeoning use of thesetechnologies is found in the schools sector (K-12).Several provinces have created an infrastructureto provide services to individual schools as well asdirectly to students. Examples are the Alberta Dis-tance Learning Centre and Ednet in Alberta andthe Open School/ Regional Distance EducationSchools Partnership in British Columbia.

The private sector is also emerging as a sig-nificant player in virtual models of training andeducation. Canada has seen tremendous growth

in the number of private schools and collegesfocusing on training in the ICT industry. Theyuse technology to deliver their programmes andfrequently describe themselves as virtual organi-sations. Furthermore, the corporate world ismaking extensive use of ICT for internal train-ing, recognising that keeping the skills and knowl-edge of their workforce current is an essentialpart of their business strategy. In fact, this hasbecome such an important component that manylarger organisations have established their ownIntranet because of the proprietary nature of thecontent of their training programmes. Some de-scribe these systems, and the programming theyoffer on it, as their "virtual university"

A recent report from the Office of LearningTechnologies describes critical success factors inthe use of "learnware" in the private sector, par-ticularly by medium and small enterprises. Basedon eight case studies, the report describes thesefactors as follows:

Partnerships involving both private and pub-lic organisations in the development and de-livery of learning products.

A thorough analysis of learner needs priorto development.

Content of the learnware is realistic andcredible to the target audience.

Creation of a sufficient market in terms ofpartnerships, right pricing, and broad busi-ness-based approaches to marketing of thelearnware.

A delivery format that is appropriate for thetarget market.

Links to accreditation in the form of certifi-cates or degrees is important from a moti-vational standpoint and in the developmentof industry standards.

Under the Canadian constitution, the federalgovernment has a very limited role in education.Therefore, most initiatives are at the provincial

14 The Development of Virtual Institutions in Canada

23

level and are driven by several factors such as theneed to increase accessibility and control capitalexpenditures and the pressures from parents andstudents who are dissatisfied with the public edu-cation system and who are demanding more flex-ibility in delivery options.

However, no comment about the context inwhich the concept of virtual education is evolv-ing within Canada would be complete withoutmentioning some of the national programmes.The following is not an exhaustive list, but it il-lustrates the types of initiatives that are having amajor impact on the evolution of virtual educa-tion and training.

The Office of Learning Technologies, established

within the Department of Human ResourcesDevelopment Canada, works with provin-cial governments, institutions, private sectororganisations, and non-governmental groupsto promote the effective use of learning tech-nologies, support assessment, and researchrelated to the educational use of technolo-gies, and to help in the sharing of knowl-edge and experience.

SchoolNet led by Industry Canada, is an initia-tive of the federal and provincial governments,Canadian businesses, and the Canadian learn-ing community. The objective is to enhanceeducational opportunities through the use ofthe Internet. SchoolNet services includeteacher-designed networking projects, virtualenvironments for situation-based learning,online career materials, special pricing for hard-

ware and software, and access to universityand college course materials.

The Telelearning Network of Centres of Excel-lence, headquartered at Simon Fraser Uni-versity in British Columbia, is the only na-tional research programme in the world thatis examining networked learning across alleducational sectors, from kindergarten toadult continuing education. It involves an

interdisciplinary team of over 130 research-ers at 30 universities working with approxi-mately 160 private and public organisationsacross Canada. Its mission is to research,develop and demonstrate effective knowl-edge-building pedagogies that can be imple-mented through tele-learning to support thedevelopment of a knowledge economy. Alist of the projects underway is availablefrom Simon Fraser University.

The Canadian Association forDistance Education,

an organisation for professionals working indistance education, has its membership fromall sectors of public education, industry train-ing, hardware and software distributors, andnetwork providers. It is very active in organ-ising conferences and workshops, promot-ing research, and using its listsery to facilitatecollaboration and information sharing.

These types of national organisations are per-haps more important in the Canadian contextbecause of the exclusive provincial jurisdictionover education. They enable networking andpartnerships both regionally and nationally thatwould otherwise be difficult.

Current Canadian Examplesof Virtual EducationThere are a great many exciting initiativesunderway in Canada under the rubric of virtualeducationfar too many to attempt to list themall. The examples that follow, therefore, are in-tended to illustrate the range of virtual educationdevelopments that are occurring.

SCHOOLS SECTOR (K-12)

Alberta Distance Learning Centre (ADLC), abranch of the Ministry of Education, pro-vides distance learning programmes to stu-dents throughout the province and offersonline learning opportunities through its

The Development of Virtual Institutions in Canada 1 5

24

Online School. Students registered in theschool study from print-based materials and,for science courses, science lab kits. They work

independently with frequent interaction withteachers. Students are supplied with a com-puter, which has CD-ROM, modem,Internet browser, conferencing, fax, andprinting software. Virtual "chat rooms" areavailable for students to work collaborativelyand for parents to discuss educational issues.Counselling services, technical training, andongoing support are provided for both stu-dents and parents. Future plans call for theuse of new technologies that will allow post-ing of course materials while providing syn-chronous audio, whiteboard, and applicationsharing between "virtual classes" of studentsand an ADLC online teacher.

The EDEN Project (Electronic Distributive Edu-

cation Network) has been developed by aconsortium of six major district schoolboards in Ontario. The project provides afull service educational Web site offeringonline high school credit courseware anddelivery for use by teachers and schools any-where in the province. It is particularly use-ful for adults and teenagers who cannot ac-cess the traditional classroom, for smallschools that cannot maintain a full pro-gramme of traditionally taught courses, andfor school-based students who could ben-efit from a more flexible, individually basedlearning environment. A pre-service electronicaccess course is provided so students candevelop the necessary telecommunicationand tele-learning skills needed to succeed inthis environment. A programme of teachertraining is also part of the implementationstrategy. Students must have access to a com-puter that meets project specifications. Cli-ent software is provided to enableconferencing, e-mail, discussion groups, andreal-time teleconferencing with a shared

whiteboard. Content is provided in asequenced manner with files that can be ex-ecuted and downloaded and which includehyperlinks to the Web for research. Self-as-sessment is built into the process with teach-ers having the capability to monitor and in-tervene.

New Directions in Distance Learning (NDDL)is a programme offered by the Open School(a division of the Open Learning Agency inBritish Columbia), which offers high schoolgraduation programmes to students in smallschools, learning centres, and at-home learn-ers in the province. The programme oper-ates on a triad model with the student, anon-site facilitator, and a teacher (at a distance)working together to ensure the student issupported and remains motivated. Studentscan work independently towards secondaryschool completion using computerconferencing, e-mail, audio-con ferencing,audiographics, television broadcasts, andprint material with study guides and resourcematerials available online. Tutorials with in-dividual students or small groups are con-ducted using interactive broadcast and desk-top conferencing tools.

COJ EGE SECTOR

Mount Royal College in Calgary, Alberta is aleader among Canadian community collegesin developing virtual models of programmedelivery. Its Centre for Health Studies, forexample, has been offering distance educa-tion opportunities for more than a decade.It now delivers four certificate programmesusing a combination of print materials, in-structor/student telephone conferences, e-mail, computer conferencing, and selectedaudio and visual materials. It is currently de-veloping its programme in critical care nurs-ing for Web delivery.

1 6 The Development of Virtual Institutions in Canada

25

George Brown College in Ontario, like almostall of Canada's colleges, offers manycourses using synchronous audio/videoconferencing, correspondence, CD-ROM,and Internet conferencing . However, thecollege has also developed a complete Elec-trician Technician Certificate Program fordelivery via CD-ROM. This includes 23courses complete with text, video animation,computer-based testing, and lab softwareanimation packages. It can be purchased forindividual use and is the equivalent of thestandard two-year programme.

The College de l'Acadie was created in NovaScotia to serve the learning needs of bothAcadian and Francophone communities inthe province. The College has established anetwork of learning centres which now in-cludes the Province of Prince Edward Is-land. These centres are linked through dedi-cated audiographic and video-conferencingsystems, as well as the Internet, which allowspoint-to-multipoint teaching, studentconferencing, and e-mail. All students haveInternet access and their own e-mail address.A special partnership with College deRosemount in Montreal enables College del'Acadie to offer technology -supported sen-ior high school courses. The example ofCollege de l'Acadie, while not unique amongCanada's colleges, illustrates the emergenceof virtual institution networks that enable asingle institution to serve a wide geographicarea.

Kayas College is a creation of the Little RedRiver Board of Education in Alberta. Chal-lenged with a mandate to serve the educa-tional needs of the many Cree Nation com-munities spread across Western Canada, theBoard conceived the idea of a virtual col-lege with learning centres in many commu-nities linked together through a common

video-conferencing system. Programmes inNative Studies, adult upgrading, computertraining, and teacher assistant training are of-fered with remarkable results in terms ofattendance and student success rates.

UNIVERSITY SECTOR

Athabasca University, in Alberta, Tile-University

in Quebec, and British Columbia's Open Uni-versity, are Canada's three universities that de-liver all their programmes through variousdistance teaching systems and methods. Whilenone of these institutions describes them-selves as virtual, preferring instead the labelsof "open" and "distance," they are rapidlyevolving as virtual institutions according tothe definitions used in this study. Each began20 to 30 years ago using print course pack-ages combined with telephone, mail, or site-based tutoring. As broadcast television andaudio- and video-conferencing technologiesbecame available, they were incorporatedinto delivery models on a practical basis con-sidering costs, student access to equipment,and acceptance by the instructional staff andlearners. Indeed, the Open University andTele-University were Canadian pioneers inthe use of broadcast television.

That practical approach to the adoptionof ICT continues. Currently all three institu-tions use a mix of technologies: conferencingsoftware, the Internet, the World Wide Web,audio- and video-conferencing, radio, televi-sion, and print (the last still being a major com-ponent of their delivery systems). Neverthe-less, it is these three institutions that are at theforefront of large-scale application of virtualdelivery systems. Athabasca, for example, hasthe largest M.B.A. programme enrolment ofany university in the country. The programmeis offered entirely online using Lotus Notesvia the Internet to students from across

The Development of Virtual Institutions in Canada 1 7

26

Canada as well as internationally. Throughthe Open University it is now possible totake a full programme of first- and sec-ond-year degree courses through a combi-nation of print packages and online tutorconferencing. By the spring of 1999, therewill be 29 courses ready for full Web-baseddelivery, including a certificate programmein Workplace Training. Similarly, Tele-Universite is converting to Web-based de-livery.

Queen's Univerrityin Ontario, one of Canada'smost respected "traditional" institutions, pro-vides an interesting example of the applica-tion of information and communicationtechnology to a specific programme. Sev-eral years ago, Queen's decided to offer itsM.B.A. programme to students across thecountry using multi-point interactive video-conferencing. Sites were established in sev-eral larger cities where students meet for "realtime" lectures and discussions. This modelhas been supplemented by providing studentswith desk-top computers pre-loaded withthe necessary software to allow students towork in teams, download and upload as-signments, interact with faculty, and networkwith the video-conferencing system regard-less of where they may be. This feature wasan important development given that moststudents in the programme are employed inmanagement positions and require moreflexibility in their learning environment.

University College of Cape Bretonin Nova Scotia

is a good example of a dual-mode institu-tion with a history of community outreach,increasingly through the use of informationand communication technology. It is nowoffering a graduate-level certificate pro-gramme in educational technology entirelyon the World Wide Web.

Finally, individual faculty members at manyuniversities, the University of British Columbiaamong them, are making extensive use ofIntranets as well as the Internet to accomplishtwo objectives: First, they are making lecture notesavailable asynchronously to students to enablefiling assignments and to provide feedback. Sec-ond, they provide "hot links" via the Internet toother databases for research and course contentenrichment.

The Emergence of VirtualOrganisationsThe challenges identified at the beginning of thisreport are not only causing institutions to increasethe use of ICT, but also to seek partnerships thatoffer the opportunity to reduce costs, increasemarket share, or add value in other ways such asenhancement of programme quality. This taskbecomes easier as the technologies enable an"unbundling" of functions that have historicallybeen handled within a single institution. Functionssuch as advising and counselling, assessment ofcurrent skills and knowledge, learning plan de-velopment, provision of instruction, maintenanceof learning records, and the issuance of creden-tials can now be managed through virtual arrange-ments among a group of institutions with com-plementary services. These arrangements may bepermanent or short term, depending on needs.

These types of arrangements are developingmost rapidly at the level of trade and technicalprogrammes. For example, the Canadian Asso-ciation of Technologists has defined various lev-els of professional certification and associatedcompetency standards. They are developing ar-rangements with a variety of private and publicorganisations to provide services such as skill as-sessment, training opportunities, and credit trans-fer opportunities. By defining standards, award-ing certifications, and brokering partnerships with

1 8 The Development of Virtual Institutions in Canada

21

other organisations for assessment and deliverypurposes, the association is, in effect, functioningas a virtual institution.

The Open Learning Agency (OLA) in BritishColumbia has developed the Canadian LearningBank to serve lifelong learners who need adviceon career paths, training and educational oppor-tunities, assessment of current skills and knowl-edge, assessment of credentials earned outsideof Canada, and consolidation of their learningrecord. This last service, a "record of learning,"is turning out to be the most critical start-up serv-ice. OLA does not intend to provide all suchservices itself. Rather, it is entering into a varietyof arrangements with other organisations thatoffer complementary services. An example is arecent agreement with the University of Cam-bridge Local Examinations Syndicate to providesecondary school-level competency testing.

Contact North is Canada's largest distanceeducation network. It facilitates access to educa-tion at all levels in 100 communities across north-ern Ontario by enabling other institutions to of-fer the needed programmes through the techni-cal networks it operates and manages. Part of itsmanagement role involves the co-ordination ofinformation to prospective learners, central fa-cilitation of registration, and training for the ap-propriate use of ICT.

A long-standing example of this type of vir-tual organisation at the university level is the col-laboration between three of British Columbia's"traditional" universities (University of BritishColumbia, University of Victoria, and SimonFraser University) and the Open University.Through this arrangement, a student may takedistance education courses from any of the in-stitutions and have the credit applied to an un-dergraduate Arts degree awarded through theOpen University. This collaboration has theobvious advantage of providing the studentwith a great deal of flexibility and, from the

institution's perspective, it reduces costs throughless duplication of materials development costsand by maximising enrolments in any givencourse.

Another example is Newfoundland'sTelemedicine and Educational Technology Re-sources Agency (TETRA). Begun years ago asan audiographic network for use by physiciansin remote communities, it is now a multi-channelnetwork used by both health and educationalproviders. It includes a Virtual Design Centre,jointly supported by the Royal Bank and Memo-rial University, through which experienced instruc-tional designers and media specialists in the uni-versity work with peers from the College of theNorth Atlantic and with colleagues from privatemedia and design firms to create media-basedlearning materials.

SummaryAs a reason for creating its Institute for LearningTechnologies, Mount Royal College in Calgarystates that:

Teaching and learning will become profoundly

rich, complex, and diverse. Educational insti-

tutions will share an educational role with cor-

porations and a host of newly emerging edu-

cational providers not bound by classrooms,

institutional settings or bordersnor even bytime itselfin a global, knowledge-basedeconomy that is already shaping our lives.

This vision is widely shared among educa-tional leaders and policy makers in Canada. It isthe vision they have in mind when they use theterm "virtual learning." It doesn't mean, how-ever, that they believe that the traditional learningformats we have now will all give way to virtuallearning. Rather, it is seen as expanding optionsfor learning, options that will continue to includecampus and school-based face-to-face instruc-tion along with the electronic classroom that can

The Development of Virtual Institutions in Canada 1 9

be accessed through a computer from home, thework place, or a community learning centre.

The implementation of this vision presents avariety of both opportunities and challenges. S.D.Wynne, in "An Overview of Virtual Schooling inNorth America and Europe" (a report to theOpen School Division of the Open LearningAgency, November 1997), summarised theseopportunities and challenges for elementary andsecondary schools. They can be generalised tothe Canadian experience at all levels.

The opportunities include:Increasing the focus on interactivity

More individualised instruction for students

Enhanced time and place flexibility

Greater potential for students to reach glo-bal audiences

Potential for greater cost effectiveness

Better provision of computer and technol-ogy skills

The challenges raised are:

Concern over adequate socialisation forsome students

Lack of technology standards/requirementsin teacher training

High costs of technology

Problems of equity of access for those whoare not computer literate or don't have ac-cess to computers

Resistance by some teachers and administra-tors

Inability for some students to function in aless structured environment

While these observations sum up the experi-ence of "virtual education" development inCanada to date, realising the opportunities andmeeting the challenges will require attention tospecific issues rather than generalities.

TECHNOLOGY

The use of ICT across the Canadian educationalmap is increasing rapidly. At the institutional levelit tends to begin with applications that allow theinstitution to replicate the classroom to the greatestextent possible. In other words, the acceptabilityof "doing things virtually" is greater when theuse of the technologies reinforces the existing wayof doing thingsat least at the outset. Further,and perhaps more appropriately, the use of thetechnologies is limited by the lack of access tobandwidth at affordable rates and by inequityof access on the part of learners to the necessaryappliances such as computers.

FINANCIAL IMPACT

The implementation of virtual learning is prov-ing to have significant cost implications. Two fac-tors that serve to increase costs are the develop-ment of instructional materials for media-baseddelivery and the costs of training or retrainingthe teachers and staff. There are both front-endcapitalisation costs as well as operating costs suchas network access and equipment maintenance.These increases are predictable in any applicationof ITC where the development of virtual learn-ing is treated as an "add-on" to existing educa-tional practice, and where the opportunities foreconomies of scale are not achieved within theinstitution or through external partnerships. How-ever, the analysis changes considerably if the fullcosts of operating a traditional institutional struc-ture (e.g., space, staff, operations, transportation,etc.) are considered, particularly when these typesof costs are increasing while the cost of the tech-nologies is declining.

The cost-effectiveness debate changes whenit shifts from a cost/student analysis to a focuson the costs of increasing the completion ratesamong distance education learners. The evidenceis mounting from evaluation studies in Canadaand elsewhere that the increased flexibility and

20 The Development of Virtual Institutions in Canada

29

interactivity offered through virtual delivery mod-els results in increased satisfaction and comple-tion rates.

HUMAN RESOURCE IMPACT

The major impact is on the role of the teacher.The evidence is clear that the willingness of teach-ers and faculty to adopt the use of ITC and tochange their pedagogical strategies is a majordeterminant of the speed of development ofvirtual education models. Attention to trainingneeds and the fostering of an organisational cli-mate that rewards innovation is critical. So also isthe need to ensure that instructional design andtechnical support expertise is not only availableto support teachers, but also to lead the processof change. Indeed, some Canadian educatorsview the lack of an available pool of instruc-tional designers as a significant constraint to thedevelopment of virtual models.

LEARNER AND TEACHER ACCEPTANCE

Feedback from learners tends to be positive, pro-vided that there are no major technical problemsand that the content is relevant and credible. Theycite increased flexibility and equity of participa-tion (especially among females) as reasons forpreferring a virtual education experience.

There do not seem to be any generalisationsthat can be made concerning the demographicsof the learners. Many of the statements madeabout the learner characteristics required for suc-cess in a distance learning environment are notvalid in the context of virtual learning, primarilybecause the isolation factor, that has long been acriticism of distance education, has changed. In-deed, as well as the increased flexibility and eq-uity of participation, students also applaud thegreater opportunity for discussion and collabo-ration that they have through a virtual model.

Teacher and faculty acceptance should beevaluated from both an individual and collective

perspective. On one hand, much of the innova-tion in virtual learning in Canada, across all edu-cational sectors, is the result of the vision anddetermination of individuals who have had thesupport of administrators. As with the adoptionof any innovation, they are the ones who wantto be at the forefront of change and tend topave the way for those who follow. On the otherhand, teacher and faculty organisations have gen-erally been extremely cautious about supportingthe increased use of technology. Generally theysee their mandate as ensuring the welfare of theirmembers in a time of rapid change, and that,they argue, is best done through a "go slow"approach that will enable the consequences ofchange to be more predictable.

ACCEPTANCE OF CONVENTIONAL

INSTITUTIONS

What a difference a decade makes! Less than10 years ago the deans of the graduate schoolsof the universities in Western Canada passed aresolution that would deny admission to theirschools by any applicant who had taken any oftheir undergraduate courses through distanceeducation. Although they were quickly broughtto heel by their presidents and the respectiveprovincial ministers of education, the anecdoteillustrates the attitudes that prevailed not verylong ago. Fast forward 10 years and we findevery one of those institutions not only usinginformation and communication technologiesin both their on-campus and off-campus teach-ing, but often providing leadership in the de-velopment of virtual learning through researchand application. In fact, one could argue thatthe leadership for the evolution of virtual learn-ing may well shift in the next decade from theso-called single-mode distance education insti-tutions to some of those institutions that usedto be called "conventional."

The Development of Virtual Institutions in Canada 21

30

MARKET OPPORTUNITIES

The development of virtual learning models ishaving perhaps its most significant impact oneducation through the creation of new marketopportunities. The effect of "unbundling" themany functions involved in the education proc-ess that historically have been performed by asingle institution means that there are many morespecialty roles that can be performed by associa-tions, non-governmental organisations, govern-ment departments, entrepreneurs, for profit busi-nesses, and the educational institutions that havelong enjoyed the monopoly. Here are just a fewexamples of these market opportunities:

Developing instructional materials

Assessing skills and knowledge

Accreditation, awards, and grantingcredentials

Brokering learning opportunities that areprovided by others

Providing learner support services such asadvising/counselling, planning, and offeringa record of learning

Managing a knowledge database

Franchising programme delivery

Developing partnerships to address specificmarket opportunities such as continuing pro-fessional education

Examples of all of the above initiatives arenow part of the Canadian educational scene.

Finally, it must be remembered that the de-velopment of virtual learning is not turning outto be the "silver bullet" that many Canadian edu-cators and policy makers expected. The use oftechnology does not reduce costs automatically,

nor does it always improve the learning experi-ence. The benefits are available only when therehas been a thorough analysis of the results to beachieved, the inputs necessary to achieve them,and the technologies that are most suitable. Onlythen can the question of the appropriateness ofa given strategy be addressed and the cost effec-tiveness of implementing it assessed.

ReferencesFarrell, G. M. "Some Canadian Websites Worth a Visit."

ODIN. Fall, 1998. www.icde.org

Green, L. and A. Stahmer. "Partnering for Learnware: Criti-cal Success Factors in the Use of Learnware andIndustry Associations in Canada by Human Re-sources Sector Councils." Office of LearningTechnologies, July, 1996. httpl / olt-bta.hrdc-drhagc.ca/publicatIgreen.html

Haughey, M. and B. Muirhead. "A Review of Online Learn-ing Practices and Issues." A Report to the SchoolTechnology Task Group, Alberta Ministry ofEducation, 1998.

Industry Canada. "Distance Learning in Canada." A Reportof the Office of Learning Technologies, March1997.

Mount Royal College, " The Vision Behind MRC's Institutefor Learning Technologies." www.mtroyaLab.ca

Twigg, C. A. and D.G. Oblinger. "The Virtual University."A Report to the Joint Educom/IBM Roundtable.Washington, D.C., Nov. 5-6, 1996.

Wellburn, E., "Educational Vision, Theory and Technologyfor Virtual Learning in K-12." A Report to theOpen School Division of the Open LearningAgency. Vancouver, Canada, Nov. 1997

Wynne, S.D. "An Overview of Virtual Schooling in NorthAmerica and Europe." A Report to the OpenSchool Division of the Open Learning Agency.Vancouver, Canada, Nov. 1997.

22 The Development of Virtual Institutions in Canada

31

---1- ce and Virtual Learning in

the United StatesDR. PETER J. DIRR

IntroductionThere has been an explosion of interest in dis-tance and virtual education in recent years in theUnited States. In one sense, this is a recent phe-nomenon, coinciding largely with the evolutionof the World Wide Web as a commercial com-munications vehicle. In another sense, however,this could be said to be the fourth generation ofdistance education in the U.S.

The first generation was the introduction ofcorrespondence education in the 1800s, especiallyits use by the land grant universities starting in thelate part of the century to deliver agriculturaleducation to farmers in rural areas. The secondgeneration came with the introduction of televi-sion to deliver educational opportunities to allpeople in their homes. This stage began with thecommercial television offering of Sunrise Semes-

ter and Continental Classroom in the 1950s and ex-panded with the introduction on public broad-casting of tele-courses in the 1970s and 1980s,reaching its apex with the quality courses of theAnnenberg/CPB Project in the 1980s and early1990s.

The third generation emerged in the late 1980swhen colleges and universities began to sporadi-cally offer online courses when the Internet wasstill largely funded by the U.S. government andwas a "club" of university faculty and military

personnel. This was an era of experimentationand searching for ways to use the reach of theInternet while still taking advantage of all thathad been learned from the two preceding stages.

As we approach the end of the 20th century,distance education in the United States is enter-ing its fourth generation with the introductionof complete "virtual programmes" of study.Until institutions of higher education (IHEs),which includes both colleges and universities,achieved a critical mass of online courses, it wasdifficult to know what impact virtual educationwould have in the United States.

This paper examines selected leading-edgeinitiatives in distance and virtual education in theUnited States at the close of the 20th century. Itdoes not pretend to be a comprehensive studyof all virtual education programmes in the coun-try. In fact, for every institution included in thispaper, there are dozens that have not been in-cluded.

The programmes described in this paper sharesome common characteristics:

They are complete programmes, that is, theyoffer complete degrees, certificates, or di-plomas.

They rely entirely or substantially on infor-mation and communications technologies(ICI) to deliver and support instruction.

Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States 23

They are all "leading edge," that is, they ex-emplify some of the more advanced appli-cations of the pedagogical approaches andtechnologies being used in distance and vir-tual education today.

The focus is on virtual degree programmes,which reflects the condition of education in theU.S. today. For the most part, we do not havefreestanding distance education institutions, butrather distance education programmes embed-ded within traditional institutions, or dual-modeinstitutions. According to recent studies, approxi-mately four out of five traditional IHEs nowoffer distance education courses.

This paper also describes a few applications atthe elementary/secondary level as well as applica-tions in business and industry, primarily for pro-fessional development and workforce training.

The ContextSome broad trends in education in the UnitedStates provide a context for better understand-ing the examples of distance and virtual educa-tion in later sections.

INTERESTING EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS

Contrary to what some might think, higher edu-cation is still not universal in the U.S. Of the 160million adults in the country, 54.8% have a highschool diploma or less, 18.7% have some col-lege but no degree, 19.3% have an associate orbachelor's degree, and 7.2% have a graduate de-gree. (These and the following statistics are takenfrom The Chronicle of Higher Education Almanac,August 26, 1998.)

Higher education in the U.S. is highly diversi-fied. There are no "national" universities fundedand operated by the federal government (al-though a few specialised institutions, such asGallaudet College for the Deaf, receive a majorportion of their funding from the governmentbut are run as independent institutions). In all,

there are 4,009 IHEs in the U.S.: 1,701 publicand 2,308 private. They enrol a total of 14,367,520students (86% of which are at the undergradu-ate level), and employ a total of approximatelyone million faculty members. The combined an-nual budgets of the IHEs is $183 billion. Asidefrom providing grants and guaranteed loans toneedy students, the federal government spends$12.2 billion per year on research and develop-ment at universities. State governments providea total of $52.5 billion in operating funds andstudent aid. Together, the IHEs award about 1.7million undergraduate degrees and 518,000graduate degrees each year.

The age of higher education students in theU.S. has changed dramatically over the years.Whereas the traditional age of 18- to 24-year-oldsused to constitute almost the entire university popu-lation, it is now only slightly more than half. In1995, the latest year for which statistics are avail-able, 56.5% of the higher education students were18- to 24-year-olds, 39.5% were 25- to 49-year-olds, and 4.1% were over 50 years old.

A KALEIDOSCOPE WORLD: THE

PERVASIVENESS OF CHANGE

One of the forces driving the expansion of dis-tance and virtual learning in the United States ischange: change in pedagogical thinking, changein the communications infrastructure throughoutthe country, and change in the capacity and func-tionality of information and communicationstechnologies (ICT). The pace of change is so greatthat it is almost impossible to get a stable picturethat will be valid for any length of time.

In the first place, our understanding of thenature of learning and the relationship betweenthe learner and the educational institution is chang-ing. At the lower levels (elementary and second-ary schools), the emphasis is on student-centredlearning that is project-based and activity-oriented.It is based largely on the pedagogical theory of

24 Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States

33

the constructivists (i.e., that students must learnto construct new learning from disparate sourcesof information).

At the higher education level, the change isreflected in a more "customer-centred" approachthat affects not only how students are treated asthey interact with the institution, but also the verynature of the courses themselves. The coursesare more practical, with content that the studentscan apply immediately in their jobs.

Second, the ICT infrastructure in the U.S. hasexpanded greatly, to the point where most house-holds have a full range of telecommunicationstechnologies. It is not unusual, for example, formiddle-class households to have several televi-sion sets, cable television service, a couple ofVCRs, one or more computers, two telephonelines, a cell phone, video games, and more. It isimportant to note that educational applicationsare not driving the increased accessibility of thesetechnologies: commercial interests are. Educatorsare the beneficiaries of this expanded availabilityof the technologies.

Third, the technologies have much greatercapacity and functionality. Cable systems regu-larly carry 130 channels of programming and areexpanding to offer telephone and high-speed dataaccess as well as television programmes. Com-puter storage of 8 to 10 gigabytes and process-ing speeds of 400 megahertz are now availableat reasonable prices. Data travel through telephonelines at up to 53 kilobytes per second. And we inthe United States are blessed with an affordablefixed-price telephone system so that we can usethe Internet for an unlimited amount of time eachmonth for one low monthly charge.

Furthermore, the technological differencesamong the media that once separated them fromeach other are quickly disappearing. The emergenceof a single communications platform that supportsthe interoperability of technologies is no longer adream. We live in the "age of convergence."

This expanded capacity of the technology hasencouraged the development of new applica-tions in education. For example, Real Video wasdeveloped to "stream" live television and radioprogramming, but what potential it holds foreducational applications! Likewise, video-conferencing networks (such as the 400+ siteSprint Video Network) were developed to fa-cilitate business meetings. But what potential theyhold for remote site-based distance education!

All of these changes are converging to createa time of unprecedented opportunity for newways of delivering and supporting educationalopportunities. Virtual learning is a major benefi-ciary of the changes.

GROWING COMMERCIAL INTEREST IN

EDUCATION

In the United States, higher education, and espe-cially distance education, has become big busi-ness, and that has attracted commercial interests.This trend is evident in many places. For exam-ple, New York University (NYU) is setting up afor-profit subsidiary to develop and offer dis-tance education programmes. NYU hopes togenerate enough revenues from distance educa-tion courses to subsidise some of its higher-coston-campus courses. They believe that the num-bers of potential students worldwide supportthis expectation. Through its Virtual College ofthe School of Continuing and Professional Edu-cation, NYU has begun to offer many onlinecourses and degree programmes

NYU's perception of the growing market fordistance education is shared by The PennsylvaniaState University, which last year announced thatit would establish World Campus to serve stu-dents worldwide. Perhaps adding fuel to the fireis the success being experienced by the Univer-sity of Phoenix, a private virtual university thathas seen its enrolment rise from 31,000 in 1992to 48,000 in 1998 and a reported 61,000 in 1999.

Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States 25

The trend toward commercialism is furtherevident in advertisements that appear every weekin The Chronicle. Hardly a week passes when RealEducation (www.realeducation.com) does not have

at least one full-page and several quarter-pageads welcoming new institutions that have con-tracted with the company to set up completeonline degree programmes. The same issues ofThe Chronicle often feature ads from the Pangaeanetwork ("the world's first online service whollydevoted to education and training"), which willdevelop "a virtual campus devoted to reachingand teaching unserved students locally, nation-ally, and internationally"(www.pangaeanetwork.com).

As well, you are just as likely to see ads byMicrosoft, Prentice-Hall, and other commercialinterests.

Earlier in 1998, The Chronicle had an article de-

scribing how the Caliber Learning Network(www.cakberlearning.com), a joint venture of Sylvan

Learning Systems and the telecommunications gi-ant MCI Communications, was positioning itselfto expand its teacher education and other profes-sional development courses that are delivered na-tionwide by satellite, video- conferendng, and per-sonal computer networks to learners located attheir places of business and in shopping malls.

AT&T, the long distance telephone giant, hasestablished the AT&T Learning Network, andthrough it has assembled a "virtual academy"(www.tramline.com) "to help address the growingneed teachers have to access professional de-velopment opportunities in new ways." AT&Thas tapped several institutions with distance edu-cation programmes to provide in-service pro-fessional development opportunities for teach-ers. The participating institutions include West-ern Governors University, Penn State's WorldCampus, George Washington University, Mon-tana State University, and T.H.E. Institute. The"premier courses" that these institutions are pro-viding help teachers meet two requirements: to

effectively integrate technology in their class-rooms, and to maintain their professional cre-dentials with relevant and timely content.

These companies are just a few of the grow-ing number of commercial companies that aretapping into what they see as a large and grow-ing source of revenue: distance higher educa-tion and professional education. Others includeIBM, with its e-business Solutions programme(www.ibm.com / e-business), Lotus (now a subsidi-ary of IBM), with its LearningSpace platform(www.lotus.com /learningspace), InternationalThompson Publishing's World Class Learning(www.worldclasslearning.com), and Embanet, a small

Canadian company that is wooing U.S. institu-tions (www.embanet.com). A few are marketing iso-

lated computer applications, but most are sell-ing complete turnkey solutions in which they re-ceive a continuing revenue stream from the tui-tion generated.

THE IMPORTANCE OF PARTNERSHIPS

AND ALLIANCES

When information and communications tech-nologies were first available to IHEs, and theInternet was a friendly, faculty-led environment,some began to explore ways of transferring someof their courses to this new medium. At first, itseemed simple, quick, and inexpensive. However,as those institutions gained experience with theprocess, they began to realise that if they were toserve students well, it was not sufficient to create"shovelware" courses (i.e., old class notes justshovelled into an electronic format). They beganto apply instructional design principles to theprocess, and the cost and timelines began to grow.

Soon, the institutions realised that if they wereto use the power of the new technologies to theirfullest, they could not do it alone. It made senseto partner with other like-minded institutions andcommercial companies that had skills that theIHEs lacked. Thus, new alliances of institutions

26 Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States

and companies began to emerge. Some are di-rect alliances, with universities joining together todevelop and offer a new degree programme.Others are third-party alliances, such as the 180institutions that co-operatively offer degreesthrough the Public Broadcasting Service/AdultLearning Service's Going the Distance programme

(www.pbs.orgiadultlearning).

A NEW PARADIGM

FOR VIRTUAL LEARNING

As IHEs became more experienced at offeringvirtual courses, some realised that the new deliv-ery platforms demanded a new paradigm oflearning. It was no longer feasible to use the "sageon the stage" paradigm of traditional education.The learners needed to play a much more activerole and they needed wide flexibility in when andhow they accessed faculty members, other stu-dents, and instructional resources. The role ofthe faculty member had to change. The types andquality of instructional resources that supportlearning had to move beyond the traditional text-book model.

Many institutions have tried various new ap-proaches. One paradigm that holds great prom-ise is "The Four Conversations," which places astrong emphasis on the dialogic nature of learn-ing. It maintains that all learning consists of fourtypes of dialogue:

1. The "conversations" a learner has with aninstructor

2. The "conversations" among groups oflearners

3. The "conversations" a learner has with in-structional resources

4. The "conversations" a learner has with him-self or herself (i.e., reflection)

The challenge for communications-based dis-tance and virtual education programmes is to

make appropriate use of communications tech-nologies to support each of the four dialogues.

FOCUS ON A WHOLE SYSTEMS APPROACH

In recent years, IHEs have begun to devote asmuch attention to student support services as tothe course materialsonline support servicessuch as course and programme information, reg-istration, access to library resources, ordering froma bookstore, access to financial aid information,easily accessible counselling service, and othernon-academic services normally available to on-campus learners. These efforts have been partlyfuelled by federal government programmes, es-pecially the Fund for the Improvement ofPostsecondary Education (FIPSE) (www.ed.gov/offices! OPE/FIPSE). Some private foundationshave also been supporters. The idea behind theseefforts is that the distance learners are not sec-ond-class enrolees; they should have all the serv-ices of the institution made as easily available asthe course materials themselves.

"UNBUNDLING"

THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS

Until recently, the university was a self-containedsociety. Faculty members developed courses andcourse materials, offered those courses, and as-sessed student performance. The university pro-vided pre-enrolment, enrolment, financial aid,record-keeping, and transcription services. It alsoprovided instructional support services such as alibrary, computer labs, bookstore, and studentunion, complete with clubhouses, dining roomsand restaurants, and meeting places. Many pro-vided complete housing services.

More recently, universities have begun to ex-amine this process and ask which are the "core"functions that must be performed by the univer-sity and which functions might be more efficiently"outsourced" to other organisations or compa-nies. For example, many, if not most, universities

Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States 27

36

today contract with food-service companies tooperate the dining rooms and restaurants oncampus. Others are turning their bookstore op-erations over to commercial companies. Someare contracting out the maintenance of campusfacilities.

All of the outsourcing to date has been in thebusiness and administrative area, but now someuniversities are considering unbundling studentsupport services such as counselling and finan-cial aid. A few are even examining the feasibilityof unbundling some of the core instructionalservices, such as assessment (especially a few uni-versities that are working closely with employersto develop tailored degree programmes).

OTHER DRIVING FORCES BEHIND

VIRTUAL LEARNING

Other forces driving the development of virtuallearning in the U.S. include the following:

Available and affordable hardware: Increasingly,

Americans are acquiring telecommunicationstechnologies and services to use in all aspectsof life.

User-friendly software: Most software is nowmuch easier to use, making access to the tech-nology much easier.

An evolving vision of the possible: Until recently, it

was difficult to imagine how disparate tech-nologies could be brought together into asingle-delivery system and even more diffi-cult to imagine the changes that had to bemade in course materials and student sup-port services. Now, as more and more edu-cators exchange their experiences, someshared visions are beginning to emerge.

Affiance: The strong economy of the past sev-eral years has meant that individuals have moredisposable income to spend on education andthe technological infrastructure needed toobtain it at a distance. It also means that edu-cational institutions have more resources

(from increased tax revenues and tuition fees)to put into programme and course devel-opment.

Learner mobility: It is not uncommon for 20%of the U.S. population to move every yearfor job-related reasons. This has made it dif-ficult for learners to complete degrees at asingle institution. It has also led many col-leges and universities to seek ways to servetheir learners at a distance.

Skilled and trained course developers: More col-

leges and universities are hiring staff in newpositions to support technology-assisted in-struction. These individuals often bring newskills and perspectives to the institution, es-pecially new ideas on course development,the creation of learning materials, and deliv-ery means.

Improved course development/ management software:

Until recently, when a faculty memberwanted to offer a distance education course,he or she had to develop it completely fromscratch, often without much help. The bur-den on the faculty member was great, andthe burnout rate was high. Now, there aremany affordable and easy-to-use softwarepackages that relieve many of the burdensof developing and offering courses online(e.g., First Class, Top Class, WebCT).

An attitude of customer service: As colleges and

universities have had to compete to attractstudents to their programmes, they have be-gun to adopt some of the business practicesof successful companies. Many colleges anduniversities are now instituting "one-stopservice centres," where students can have alltheir questions answered and conduct all theirtransactions with the university.

`just - -in- time " thinking. This is another cue that

colleges and universities are taking from thebusiness world. In the past, many businesses

28 Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States

37

used to build large inventories of their goodsin order to keep their factories operating ata high level. Today, businesses tend to pro-duce only what is needed to meet the imme-diate demand. This practice reduces costs ofproduction, warehousing, and distribution.Colleges and universities are emulating thispractice by creating and offering only thosecourses they need to meet the immediatedemand. And, if they create and producetheir own course materials, they are produc-ing them in just the numbers they need toserve the students they anticipate in the im-mediate future.

Entrepreneurial .oitit: Perhaps one of the mostimportant forces driving the developmentof distance education and virtual learning isthe spirit of entrepreneurship that is in thehearts of many of the leaders of the field.In some cases, this is demanded by the insti-tutions, which often require distance educa-tion programmes to be self-supporting. Onlyan entrepreneur with a strong sense of busi-ness could know how to assess the needs ofthe marketplace, develop products (coursesand programmes) to meet those needs, de-liver them conveniently, support them withsolid service, and price them appropriately.

The growing interest in virtual learning hasspawned the development of a new monthlyonline journal, the Virtual University Gazette(www.geteducated.com/ vugaz.htm) that tracks new

programmes not only at universities but also thoseoffered by the professions and business and in-dustry. The Gazette is published by Vicky Phillips,CEO of Lifelong Learning (Waterbury, VI), adistance learning consulting firm.

Phillips has also co-authored, with CindyYager, The Best Distance Learning Graduate Schools,

a 322-page publication that profiles 195 ac-credited graduate schools that offer completedegrees at a distance. Published by The

Princeton Review and Random House Publishers(www.randomhouse.com), the 1999 edition has sev-

eral chapters of advice for the reader on topicssuch as what to look for in distance educationprogrammes, how to select among delivery tech-nologies, and how to seek financial aid to payfor the degree.

Virtual University DegreeProgrammesBy law and tradition, education in the UnitedStates has been a local and state responsibility.That is one reason why the U.S. has not had anationwide institution equivalent to the OpenUniversity in the U.K. Although U.S. universi-ties have for years drawn students from all overthe country, their programmes have been per-ceived as local, not national. Each institution islicensed in the state in which it operates and isaccredited by a regional accreditation associa-tion. It is only in recent years, as institutions havebegun to introduce distance education pro-grammes that do not honour traditional institu-tional boundaries (or even political boundaries),that this system of licensing and accreditationhas been challenged.

A recent study by the Western Cooperative forEducational Communications (WCET), a pro-gramme of the Western Interstate Commissionfor Higher Education (WICHE) (www.wiche.edu)documented the extent to which 1,400 of thenation's 3,000 colleges and universities offer dis-tance education courses and programmes. Thestudy found that 79% of all the institutions offerone or more distance education courses (broadlydefined to include correspondence courses, tele-courses, Web-based courses, site-to-site video-con ferencing, and other delivery modes), andone-third offer one or more complete degreeprogrammes at a distance. Those data are con-sistent with the findings of other recent studies.

Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States 29

33

Most of those institutions offering complete dis-tance education programmes do so as an exten-sion of their campus-based programmes, whichcontinue to dominate their mission. Only a fewU.S. IHEs, such as National Technological Uni-versity, Western Governors University, and theUniversity of Phoenix, can be considered "virtualuniversities" in the sense that other countries havesuch institutions.

Interest in virtual learning at the university levelis so great that many traditional universities arerushing to create Web-based courses just so thatthey can say they are offering virtual learningopportunities. Some of the virtual degree pro-grammes listed below are offered by "virtualuniversities," while others are offered by "dual-mode" institutions.

REGENTS COLLEGE

Regents College of New York State (www.regents.edu)

bills itself as "America's First Virtual University."It is an unusual institution in that it does not itselfoffer courses of study, but rather certifies whatthe student has learned from other sources. Theyput it this way:

We believe that what a person knows is more

important than how or where that knowl-edge was gained. Since 1971, we have beenproviding adult learners the means to dem-

onstrate and validate the learning they have

achieved, whether by traditional college class-

room study, college-level proficiency exami-

nations, or evaluated military and industry

training.

Regents grants its credits and degrees by evalu-ating the student's prior learning, offering examsfor various courses, and "banking" credit earnedthrough various other pathways. They currentlyoffer 30 associate and bachelor's degrees in Busi-ness, Liberal Arts, Nursing, and Technology. Amaster's in Liberal Studies has just been added.

A large portion of the Regents College stu-dent body is comprised of members of the U.S.

military community. Because military personnelare transferred often, they often find it difficultto pursue college degrees. Regents overcomesthat barrier by recognising credit earned at anyU.S. regionally accredited IHE as well as trainingcourses sponsored by the Department ofDefense, other government agencies, and busi-ness and industry. Credit award is based on therecommendations of the American Council ofEducation (ACE), and the college awards over50,000 college credits annually for military expe-rience alone. Since 1971, over 79,000 adult learn-ers have earned Regents College degrees, andmore than 33,000 of those (42%) are militaryservice members.

Regents College currently enrols approxi-mately 17,400 students per year. About 11,000of them are pursuing Nursing degrees (makingRegents the largest Nursing programme in theUnited States); 4,000 are in Liberal Arts; 1,300are in Business, and 1,100 are in Technology.

Regents offers a wide range of support serv-ices for its students. Its Electronic Peer Networksupports discussion groups, chat rooms, and astudent directory. In development are a bookexchange, message board, and a distance learn-ing centre (which will contain student ratings ofdistance courses and examinations taken fromUS. colleges and universities).

In recent years, Regents College has greatlyexpanded the availability of its course examina-tions by partnering with Sylvan TechnologyCenters. Through those Centers, Regents Collegeexams are available six days per week through-out the United States and in Canada, AmericanSamoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, Saipan (NorthernMariana Island), and the Virgin Islands. The col-lege has also partnered with Specialty Books, oneof the nation's leading collegiate bookstore op-erators, to provide its students with access to al-most 600,000 course books and computer soft-ware that can be ordered by phone toll free, withshipment promised within 24 hours.

30 Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States

39

Regents College is sensitive to the fact thatmost of its students are working people withlimited resources. Accordingly, they try to keeptheir costs low. The current fee for evaluating apotential student's prior learning portfolio is $150,half of which can be credited towards enrol-ment fees.

NATIONAL

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

National Technological University (NTU)(wwwntu.edu) is a freestanding virtual universitythat evolved over a decade from projects de-signed to provide continuing education for en-gineers. Engineering schools that were membersof the American Association for MultimediaContinuing Education for Engineers(AAMCEE) would videotape on-campuscourses taught by their faculty members andmake those courses available to engineers at theirwork place. They would contract with employ-ers who would pay their engineers' tuition plusa premium so that the engineers did not haveto leave work to take the courses. Over time,some of the participating institutions developedmicrowave systems to deliver their courses toengineering companies in their regions. Eventu-ally, NTU was formed to deliver those coursesnationwide by satellite. Since its formation, NTUexpanded its horizons beyond the engineeringprofession and now offers courses in engineer-ing, business, and nursing.

Today, National Technological University is aco-operative effort of 50 major universities pro-viding graduate and continuing education fortoday's busy professionals and managers. Themember universities are linked by satellite telecom-munication and compressed digital video tech-nology to more than 1,000 work locations inter-nationally, and by interconnections to other re-gional networks to another 350 sites in NorthAmerica. There is no resident campus. There is aone-time fee for access to the NTU Network,

which does not include the tuition and registra-tion fees for courses taken at the site.

In 1996-97, professional workers were ableto choose from more than 500 academic coursesproviding 22,000 hours of instruction, plus an-other 500 days or 3,000 hours of continuingeducation. In that same year, 1,300 working pro-fessionals and managers were admitted to NTUdegree programmes. Continuing education en-rolment exceeded 110,000.

NTU offers 14 master's degree programmesdesigned specifically for technical professionals.It does not award bachelor's or doctoral degrees.

UNIVERSITY OF PHOENIX

The University of Phoenix (www.uophx.edu) is aprivate virtual university that has been accreditedsince 1978. It was one of the first universities torecognise the need for targeted degree and con-tinuing education programmes for adults.

Today, with over 61,000 students, the Uni-versity of Phoenix promotes itself as the largestprivate accredited university for working adults.It has provided degree and certificate pro-grammes to more than 371,000 people in theUnited States, Puerto Rico, and elsewhere.

The cornerstone of the University of Phoe-nix's educational philosophy is the recognition ofthe distinction between the younger student (stilldeciding on a career) and the adult student (whohas already established personal and professionalgoals). They have developed academic pro-grammes that allow mature students to benefitfrom the integration of work and school. Mostof the university's faculty members are workingpractitioners, experts in their field.

The University of Phoenix offers graduateand undergraduate degree programmes and cer-tificate programmes, many of them online. It hasstructured its courses so that students take onecourse each five to eight weeks because researchshows that adults learn best in an atmosphere ofconcentrated immersion. The programme runs

Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States 31

40

throughout the calendar year, allowing studentsto start anytime at their convenience. Courses areoffered on-site at University of Phoenix learningcentres situated in 14 states, several foreign coun-tries, as well as through the World Wide Web.

WESTERN GOVERNORS UNIVERSITY

The Western Governors University (WGU)(www.wgu.edu) is a new, student-centred university(it accepted its first students in the fall of 1998)founded on the principles of distance and vir-tual learning. It brokers and offers courses fromdozens of colleges, universities, and corporationsfrom all over the world. It delivers the coursesusing both high-tech and low-tech approaches,from Internet to satellite to "snail mail." The uni-versity uses a competency-based approach toeducation that allows the learner to build a port-folio of skills already learned and take only thosecourses needed to complete a degree. The stu-dent chooses courses from the university'sSmartCatalog, a directory of programmes, ad-vising services, and resources available. An onlinelibrary containing more than 60 full-text databasesis included.

The initiative to create Western GovernorsUniversity came from the governors of 13 stateswho recognised that they could not individuallyafford to provide sufficient continuing educa-tion opportunities to adults in their states. So theypooled their resources to create a single, region-wide institution. The administration chose not todevelop and operate all the subsystems of theuniversity within the university itself. One of thefirst steps they took in creating the university wasto solicit proposals for the development of theSmartCatalog, the library, and the university book-store. They were among the forerunners in im-plementing the idea of "unbundling" andoutsourcing selected university functions. WGUeven outsources its instructional programme, withcourses being provided by about two dozen"education providers."

The academic programme of Western Gov-ernors University is young and expanding. Cur-rently it consists of an Associate of Applied Sci-ence in Electronic Manufacturing Technology andan Associate of Arts degree, as well as many in-dividual courses taught by faculty members andprofessionals at institutions and corporations thatare participants in WGU.

In the first two weeks after the WGU openedits Web site, 75 people applied for admission,despite the university's projection that up to 5,000students would enrol in its first year. Universityofficials said computer glitches were partly toblame and they also noted that they had alreadyfilled thousands of requests for information bymail prior to the initiation of the Web site. Itshould be noted that the university did not havea very effective campaign promoting the open-ing of its Web site for enrolment. It might takesome time before the university's name is firmlyembedded in the various search engines that learn-ers use to find such opportunities.

CALIFORNIA VIRTUAL UNIVERSITY

California is the only western state that chose notto participate in the Western Governors Univer-sity. California policy makers believed that theyhad enough of a critical mass in that state aloneto warrant the establishment of different ar-rangements for distance and virtual education.They chose, instead, to establish the CaliforniaVirtual University (CVU). Like the WesternGovernors University, it was planned to belargely a broker of instruction and student sup-port services. The university's literature statedplainly that "the California Virtual Universitydoes not grant degrees or certificates, or an-swer individual questions about courses." Rather,the university intended to help learners furthertheir educational goals by linking them to onlinecourses and other services offered by the state'scolleges and universities. Through the universi-ty's Web site (www.california.edu), you can find out

32 Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States

about courses and certificate or degree pro-grammes offered at a distance by California'sIHEs and be linked to a campus to enrol or findmore information.

The institutional response to the CaliforniaVirtual University idea by the IHEs in the statewas swift and strong. When it was launched inthe beginning of 1998, 65 public and private ac-credited colleges and universities were listed inthe university catalogue, offering about 800 dis-tance education courses. Six months later, theparticipation had grown to 95 institutions offer-ing about 1,600 courses. Ultimately, 240 collegesand universities were expected to participate inCVU within three years.

Like the WGU, the California Virtual Uni-versity had strong support from the state's gov-ernor (since voted out of office). Also like theWGU, CVU planned to "unbundle" the tradi-tional functions of the university. Not only wouldit rely entirely on its participating institutions forthe instructional component, it also turned theoperation of its Web catalogue of online coursesto a non-profit foundation that was formed byeducators. In effect, the California Virtual Uni-versity Foundation, which includes the state's mainuniversity systems (University of California, Cali-fornia State University, and California Commu-nity College organisation) and several corpora-tions, such as Sun, Cisco Systems, Pacific Bell,Oracle, and International Thomson Publishing,would operate CVU as an independent institu-tion. Each of the corporate partners contributed$75,000 to CVU's start-up costs. The universityalso received a $250,000 grant for its launch fromthe Sloan Foundation.

In spite of the early enthusiasm for CVU, itencountered an unexpected hurdle. The threeparticipating university systems balked at fund-ing CVU at a rate of $1 million each for threeyears. The funding shortfall resulted in CVU ceas-ing operations as an independent organisation

only eight months after being spun off from thestate government. CVU will, however, retain apresence on the Internet. The California Boardof Regents agreed to maintain CVU's Web site,which lists available courses from more than 100participating institutions. The ultimate fate ofCVU remains to be seen.

CONCORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF LAW

Concord University School of Law (www.concord.kaplan.edu) is a new institution established by Kaplan

Educational Centers in October 1998 to offer ajuris doctorate degree wholly online via state-of-the-art technology. The target learners are work-ing students, professionals, family caretakers, learn-ers in rural communities, and others whose cir-cumstances prevent them from pursuing a legaleducation at traditional institutions. The degree is afour-year graduate programme.

Students view lectures on the Internet at theirown convenience 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.The lectures are presented using streaming tech-nology. Students have online access to a law li-brary to complete their assignments and fulfilcurriculum requirements, including case studies,legal arguments, and statutory codes. They alsotake interactive exams online.

In establishing Concord University, Kaplan, asubsidiary of The Washington Post, is building onits years of expertise in offering LSAT prepara-tion classes that help students succeed in lawschool. The university will complement Kaplan's1,200 study centres in the U.S. and abroad, whereit offers test preparation, training, and career fairs.

COLORADO: A HOTBED OF DISTANCE

AND VIRTUAL LEARNING

For some reason, the state of Colorado seemsto have nurtured more distance and virtual learn-ing programmes than almost any other part ofthe United States. It is the birthplace of the West-ern Governors University. It also is home to

Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States 33

42

Colorado State University, where the NationalTechnological University was born. It has seenthe creation of Mind Extension University (nowKnowledge Online), the College Connection, andthe International University by Jones IntercableCompany. It boasts the Colorado CommunityCollege Online, and a host of other distance andvirtual learning programmes such as the Colo-rado State University Master's in Business Ad-ministration.

The Colorado State University MBA (www.bkcolstate.edu /mba) can be earned in two or fouryears. Students are sent a videotape of eachclass once a week, which can be viewed athome, according to each student's schedule.Professors assign projects, which must becompleted within a specified time. Much ofthe coursework is completed using theInternet

Interaction with the faculty and otherclassmates can occur via Internet, fax, or tel-ephone. Each student in the programme isrequired to have access to a computer andto the Internet.

Colorado Community College Online (www.ceconline.org) is composed of the 13 colleges in

the Colorado Community College and Oc-cupational Education System (CCCOES).Through CCC Online, students can earn fullyaccredited Associate of Applied Science de-grees and certificates in various disciplines(Business, Occupational Safety, EmergencyManagement and Planning). CCC Onlineenhances instructional services to students byoffering online communication with facultyand fellow students who may be anywherein the world.

Students may take courses "anytime any-where" at their convenience. CCCOES col-leges have standing transfer agreements withmost of the four-year public and private

colleges in Colorado. In addition, there aretransfer agreements with colleges both in-state and out-of-state that offer bachelor'scompletion programmes also using distance/electronic technology. Among these are RegisUniversity, Governor's State University, andInternational University.

Jones International University (JIU) (www.jonesinternational.edu), a for-profit institutionwith an emphasis on educating the workforce,has made quiet but meteoric progress in be-coming recognised as a legitimate providerof distance and virtual education. It becamethe first virtual university in the United Statesto be fully accredited by a regional accredi-tation agency.

JIU began offering courses in 1995. Itsofferings include two degree programmesin business communications (a master's anda bachelor's) plus a number of certificateprogrammes. Courses are aimed at workingadults who have attended college but havenot completed a degree.

The reaction to JIU's accreditation wasswift, with the American Association ofUniversity Professors (AAUP) lodging a pro-test with the North Central Association ofColleges and Schools. In the AAUP's view,JIU must be providing inferior educationsince most of its faculty are adjunct, the uni-versity's courses are not offered on traditionalacademic schedules, the university lacks tra-ditional resources such as a library (it oper-ates an electronic library with an on-call li-brarian) and research laboratories, and manyof its students (about 90%) do not seek com-plete degrees. The accrediting associationstood behind its decision, noting that JIUmeets the association's standard requirementsin non-traditional ways.

34 Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States

43

UNIVERSITY OF MAINE SYSTEM: UNET

The University of Maine formed its Networkfor Education and Technology Services (UNET)(www.unet.maine.edu) in 1997 by merging what had

been the Education Network of Maine with thesystem's computing and data processing services.UNET provides distance learning and studentsupport services to learners throughout the state.The system has built a statewide network of learn-ing sites, most located on university campuses orin high school buildings.

Through UNET, students can pursue a va-riety of associate, bachelor's, and master's de-gree programmes, as well as certificate pro-grammes. Most of the courses are site-based,although some have been converted to Web-based courses that are offered through theWebCT software application.

PRIVATE VIRTUAL DEGREE PROGRAMMES

ON THE DRAWING BOARD

The rapid growth of interest in distance educa-tion and its apparent acceptance by a growingsegment of the higher education community hasled to the emergence of several new, private, for-profit virtual universities that are in various stagesof becoming accredited universities.

Magellan University (www.magellan.edu) was es-

tablished a couple of years ago and nowclaims to offer 70 courses. Their online cata-logue lists 14 short courses in advanced math-ematics, 6 courses leading to Microsoft Cer-tified Systems Engineer (MCSE) certification,and over 50 "flexible-length" courses in desk-top software training (e.g., Microsoft Word,PowerPoint, Excel). College credit is currentlyavailable only for the MCSE courses througha partnership with Pima Community Col-lege, in Tucson, Arizona. The university hasbeen in the process of developing its owndegree programmes for some time.

Athena University (www.athena.edu) is adminis-

tered by VOU Services International. Vir-tual Online University (VOU) was establishedin 1994 and has been offering online teach-ing since the World Wide Web was priva-tised. In 1997 it was reorganised and rein-corporated into VOU Services Internationalto reflect its consultations and collaborationswith colleges and universities worldwide.With offices located in Columbia, Missouri,VOUSI has established collaborations withinstitutions in China, Europe, Africa, and theMiddle East.

Athena University is a non-profit institu-tion founded to provide high-quality educa-tional opportunities on the Internet as inex-pensively as possible. (Tuition is currently only$100 per credit hour.) Its focus is on pro-viding an integrated, interdisciplinary curricu-lum in the liberal arts. It provides bachelor'sdegrees in History, Languages, Math, Scienceand Computers, and a master's in BusinessAdministration. It is not clear from the lit-erature whether Athena University is an ac-credited institution.

Virtual School Programmes(K-12)For the past century and a half, the United Stateshas built a system of elementary and secondaryeducation (K-12) based on the principle of lo-cal and state control of schools. The federal rolein education is minimal, and the federal contri-bution to elementary and secondary education isless than 10% of the total cost. Consequently, theUnited States does not have a tradition of na-tional schools, but that might change because ofthe availability of information and communica-tions technologies and the impact they are hav-ing on education.

Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States 35

44.

Nevertheless, there is a need for some instruc-tional services that might be shared by localschools, services that are too expensive forschools to afford individually. There is also a needfor teacher training that cuts across traditionalschool district boundaries. The latter need hasbeen magnified by the recent adoption of newacademic standards in most subject areas, neces-sitating in-service education for all current schoolteachers and new formation programmes forpre-service teachers.

Home schooling, a fast-growing phenom-enon in the U.S., has created an additional mar-ket for companies that are providing or contem-plating the development of K-12 instructionalprogrammes that take advantage of informa-tion and communications technologies.

The virtual learning programmes chosen asexamples in this section are considered to be lead-ing edge because of the infrastructure they areputting in place or the potential impact they willhave on the way elementary and secondary edu-cation is offered in the 21" century.

THE STAR SCHOOLS PROJECT

Two of the main roles the U.S. federal govern-ment plays in education are to encourage equityin educational opportunity and to stimulate ad-vances in educational practices. The Star SchoolsProject (www.edgov / proginfo / S tarS chools) was in-

stituted to contribute to both areas. It was notedthat many rural and poor schools could not af-ford to hire and retain qualified teachers in math-ematics, the physical sciences, and foreign lan-guages at the high school level, so the U.S. De-partment of Education instituted the StarSchools Project in 1988. It funds multi-yearprojects that use ICT to bring outstanding teach-ers of those subjects to schools that had previ-ously been unable to offer such courses to theirstudents.

It is estimated that in one year, the Star SchoolsProject serves more than 1.5 million students in

all 50 states. In recent years, Star Schools projectshave included instructional modules, video fieldtrips, enrichment activities and semester-long andyear-long courses. Through Star Schools, stu-dents can question astronauts about the princi-ples of physics. Japanese- and German-languagestudents can talk with native speakers and visitJapan and Germany through live and interactiveteleconferences. For most students served, distancelearning is their only access to science, math, for-eign language, and advanced placement courses.

THE UNIVERSAL SERVICE FUND

In passing the Telecommunications Act of 1996,the U.S. Congress mandated that a portion of alltelephone bills should be set aside to fund thedevelopment of telecommunications infrastruc-ture and services in the nation's elementary andsecondary schools and public libraries. While theregulations have taken some time to approveto implement this Act, the principles of theUniversal Service Fund (www.edgov / Technology /

eratefacts.htm I) are worth noting for their poten-tial impact on virtual learning throughout thecountry (and, perhaps, the world).

The fund was created to make telecommuni-cations services affordable for every school andlibrary. A school or library will receive discountsof 20% to 90% (the exact amount depends onthe number of disadvantaged students in a schoolor community) on telecommunications services,internal connections, and Internet access. Dis-counts are applied to the full price, and the schoolor library will pay for the remainaing portion.The portion paid from the programme fund willgo directly to the service provider.

Universal Service Fund discounts can be ap-plied to a school's or library's internal connections,telecommunications services, and Internet access.Although the fund will not pay for desktop com-puters, learning software, or teacher/librariantraining, schools and libraries can use the fundsthey save on telecommunications infrastructure

36 Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States

45

to support these elements of a comprehensivetechnology plan.

One benefit of the fund that is already beingrealised is that it has forced schools and schooldistricts to develop long-term technology plans.

FLORIDA HIGH SCHOOL AND THE

FLORIDA DISTANT LEARNING NETWORK

In 1996, the Orange County (Florida) PublicSchools introduced an experimental Web Schoolthat offered online courses, SAT preparation, andcomputer programming, to Orange County stu-dents. Just as Orange County was venturing intocyberspace, Alachua County (also Florida) wasalso proposing an online school to span the state.Thus, from collaboration between the two coun-ties, The Florida High School (wwwjhs.n0 offi-cially began in August 1997 as a joint project,with 15 educators serving in administrative, in-structional, and developmental jobs.

The project's mission is to place a completehigh school online by the year 2001, which willinclude those courses and services to enable stu-dents to make a successful transition to post-sec-ondary educational institutions and to the workplace. To maintain high quality, course contentwill meet the requirements of the Florida Sun-shine State Standards as well as important crite-ria such as the SCANS competencies that aresupported by both the education and businesscommunities.

Florida High School's first students enrolledfor courses that began in January 1999.

The state of Florida has also created theFlorida Distant Learning Network (FDLN)(wwwfrn.edu /fdln) to assure its citizens access toadvanced telecommunications services that willcomplement the provision of educational andhealth care services. The idea behind the legisla-tion establishing FDLN was to establish a co-ordinated system for cost-efficient advanced tel-ecommunication services and distance education.

CALIFORNIA

DISTANT LEARNING PROGRAM

The California Distant Learning Program (CDLP)(num rs cs. k1 2. ca.us) probably comes the clos-est to virtual learning programmes of other coun-tries at the elementary and secondary level. Thisis the first K-8 online distance learning pro-gramme to appear in California, and it is per-haps the only complete programme in the U.S.at this point. The Ready Springs Charter Schoolin Penn Valley, California is offering this innova-tive learning option for elementary-age students.Students and parents who choose this pro-gramme will find three curricula online, allowingfor choice in education.

CDLP seeks to recognise the unique interestsand learning styles of each student, offering op-tions to design a specific plan for each child thatis age-, interest-, and academically appropriate.The curricula include Natural Learning Rhythms,a holistic curriculum offering age-appropriateteaching techniques; a multi-sensory curriculumbased on hands-on learning activities; and a tra-ditional academic curriculum suggesting skills astudent should address or master at each gradelevel. Parents, students, and a CDLP resourceteacher co-ordinate and co-create a course ofstudy based on each student's interests and skillslevel.

CDLP is part of the public school system.Any parent who is a resident of California mayenrol their child with the CDLP if they are notenrolled in another public school.

CABLE IN THE CLASSROOM

In 1989, the cable industry established Cable inthe Classroom (CIC) as a public service to schoolsthroughout the United States. The idea behindthe programme (www.dconli ne.orgl home.htm) is to

place in the hands of teachers instructional re-sources that take advantage of the power of thetechnologies to enhance teaching and learning.

Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States 37

46

Two types of cable entities join forces to sup-port Cable in the Classroom: cable system op-erators (such as TCI, Time Warner, Media One,and Cablevision), and cable programme net-works (such as Arts & Entertainment, CNN,Discovery, and ESPN). The cable system opera-tors have committed to provide every schoolpassed by their systems with a free cable connec-tion and free basic cable service each month.Consequently, more than 80,000 of the nation's90,000 elementary and secondary schools have acable connection. The cable programme net-works have committed to provide more than500 hours of programming each month, pro-gramming that is educational, free of charge,commercial-free, and cleared for recording andretention by teachers for at least one year. ThroughCIC, the cable industry has also trained more than7,500 teachers each year for the past 10 to usethese technologies effectively in their classes.

While not a virtual learning institution in itself,CIC provides teachers throughout the U.S. withvast multimedia resources that can be used indistance and virtual learning. The resources covermost subjects and all grade levels. For example,Nickelodeon offers programming and supportmaterials for young children, and the Arts &Entertainment channel (A&E) offers, amongother things, biographies that are appropriate foruse in high school courses. Some of the pro-gramme networks, such as Discovery, have goneto great lengths to correlate their broadcast pro-grammes to the new academic standards andhave placed those correlations and extensive cur-riculum materials on their Web sites. The CICWeb site is a "gateway" to the sites of all thecable programme networks.

As cable companies gear up to offer Internetservice through high-speed cable modems, theyhave extended their commitment to educationto include one free cable modem to each schoolthat is passed by the new service. They alsohave funded the expansion of CIC's training

programme to create the CIC Professional De-velopment Institute which will, starting in 1999,train between 50,000 and 75,000 teachers eachyear to integrate not only video technologies butalso the Internet and World Wide Web effectivelyinto their classes.

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA HIGH

SCHOOL TO COLLEGE PROGRAM

The University of Pennsylvania has teamed upwith the Sylvan Learning Corporation to offerhigh school students a distance education oppor-tunity to experience a university-level course whileat the same time earning university credit. Throughthe PennAdvance Program of its College ofGeneral Studies, the University of Pennsylvania(www.advance.upenn.edu) invites high school students

"to discover what it's like to take a real Penncourse and earn a Penn transcript." Courses areoffered in Calculus for the Natural Sciences, In-troduction to Psychology, and IntroductoryMicro Economics.

PennAdvance courses are delivered in collabo-ration with the Sylvan Academy (and its CaliberLearning Network) (www.glvankarm'ng.com) and are

taught with a combination of advanced technolo-gies that create powerful learning experiences forevery student. The courses use a combination ofbroadcast delivery and Web-based support al-lowing students to receive an Ivy League learn-ing experience in various cities across the coun-trywithout requiring the students to travel tothe university in Philadelphia.

A live broadcast is delivered to studentsweekly at a Caliber Learning Center in their neigh-bourhood. Instructors and students interact livethrough Caliber's combination of satellite broad-casting, two-way video-conferencing, and com-puter networking. In between the weekly broad-casts, the course Web site extends the learningexperience. Using live chat, e-mail, and threadeddiscussions, the Web site functions as a commu-nications center. Each student can get the help he

38 Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States

47

or she needs from the instructors and from fel-low students. Homework and quizzes are sub-mitted online for instant grading, and the entirecourse syllabus, lecture notes, practice problems,and reference materials are available to the stu-dent through the Web site.

Virtual ProfessionalDevelopment ProgrammesOften, virtual learning programmes are offeredoutside the framework of the traditional educa-tion system, both at the elementary/secondaryand the higher education levels. Some of the pro-grammes listed below are offered by profes-sional associations, others by traditional universi-ties. Some are tied in with professional licensingcertification, others are not.

ENGINEERING EDUCATION

In addition to the National Technological Uni-versity described above, several traditional U.S.universities use information and communicationstechnologies to extend their traditional engineer-ing degree programmes to engineers located any-where in the U.S. or beyond. Columbia Univer-sity, for example, has established the ColumbiaVideo Network (CVN) for precisely that pur-pose (www.cvn.columbia.edu).

Established in 1986 to meet a growing needfor flexible graduate engineering education de-livered to the working professional, CVN prom-ises its virtual students the same benefits and privi-leges of a Columbia Education enjoyed by on-campus students. Virtual learners (Columbia callsthem "off-campus students") enrol in Columbiacourses taught by Columbia University profes-sors, have full access to Columbia University fac-ulty, and the same Columbia University degreeas on-campus students. CVN delivers course lec-tures to off-campus students by videotape orthrough video-conferencing, while course mate-rials and syllabi can be easily accessed on the

World Wide Web. Degree programmes are of-fered in Computer Science, Electrical Engineer-ing, Mechanical Engineering, Engineering Man-agement Systems, and Materials Science.

TEACHER EDUCATION

Columbia University, through its Teachers Col-lege, offers a virtual certificate programme inteacher education (vim tc.columbia.edu / academic/ceoi / distlearn.htm) in instructional design and com-

puter mediated instruction. The online coursesare rich in human interaction and include collabo-rative projects. Students may take them at the timeand place of their choosing within broad timeparameters set by the university. They are not re-quired to travel to the Teachers College campusbut Web access is required. The courses may betaken for three credits or for non-credit. Coursefees are $610 per credit or $495 for the entirenon-credit course.

The courses are delivered through softwarethat enables group collaboration, allowing stu-dents to contribute at home, at work or whiletravelling, at any time or place of their choosing.Discussions are text-based and unfold over thecourse of hours or days. Students have the op-portunity to converse and work with classmateswhose geographical locations may span regionaland possibly national borders.

In California, there is a major effort underway to provide basic credential classes to themany elementary school teachers who are beinghired without credentials. The California StateUniversity System has developed the DistributedLearning Network in conjunction with SimonSchuster Publishing, KCET public television sta-tion, and Los Angeles County classroom teach-ers to create video course modules in readingmethods, mainstreaming of special educationstudents, classroom management, educationaltechnology, and cross-cultural language and aca-demic development strategies. Those courses areaired statewide and are supplemented with e-mail,

Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States 39

48

telephone conferences, and dedicated Web pages

for each course.

HEALTH SERVICES EDUCATION

A young and still-developing service for health care

providers is Continuing Education for Health-CareProviders (CEHP) Online. Currently limited largelyto the dental profession, CEHP Online contractswith prominent authors to create online courses onprofessional topics in dentistry. CEHP Online al-lows professionals to attend courses in the privacyof their offices or homes, 24 hours a day fromanywhere with just a computer and a telephone line.

It encourages them to become part of a globalprofessional community.

Virtual Training ProgrammesIn the past, most businesses would have turned touniversities and community colleges to train theiremployees. Today, however, many businesses aresetting up their own training programmes and evencomplete institutions. The focus of these efforts isoften the development of training that is more fo-cused and immediately practical than the coursesIHEs are interested in providing.

Not all business training programmes pro-vide virtual learning opportunities. However, sincemany businesses in this day of global commercehave operations scattered throughout the world,many are turning to distance and virtual learningto continually upgrade the skills of their scatteredworkforce and to educate their customers aboutthe benefits of new products as they are intro-duced. Consequently, corporate training pro-grammes range from internal staff developmentto wide-scale customer education. A few exem-plary programmes provide some sense of thevast range of training applications.

WORKFORCE TRAINING

It is difficult to grasp the extent to which busi-nesses are using distance and virtual education

methods to train today's workforce. All busi-nesses are feeling the need to provide more train-ing than ever before. Shorter product cycles anda rapidly expanding knowledge base has put tre-mendous pressure on businesses to upgrade theskills of their workers in a timely, effective, andeconomical manner. The American Society ofTraining and Development (ASTD) estimates thatin the next 10 years, 74% of today's workers willneed retraining. Those numbers, plus the fact thatmany workers cannot afford to interrupt theircareers for full-time study in traditional settings,have forced corporations to explore new formsof workforce training. In some cases, the scopeof the challenge is enormous.

Many companies have begun to use the in-formation and communications technologies todeliver training in those same technologies at adistance. It is now possible, for example, to takecomplete certificate training programmes onlineand to become certified as a Microsoft Engineeror a Novel Network Administrator.

The Ford Motor Company recently received an

award from One Touch Systems for train-ing a total of 405,980 worker-students in1997. The U.S. Social Security Administration,

which operates the largest and busiest inter-active video training network in the federalgovernment, received an award for the mostparticipants in one class-1,408 students.JCPenney Company was cited for having the most

student interactions in one class. These arethree large organisations that are regularlyusing information and communicationstechnologies to train vast numbers of theirworkforce.

DisitalThink (www.disitalthink.com) is a new,privately financed company (founded in SanFrancisco, California in March 1996) thatpromotes itself as a Web-based trainer. Itscourses create an online community of stu-dents, tutors, and instructors in classes that

40 Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States

49

are "more interactive than textbooks andmuch more convenient than brick-and-mor-tar, fixed-time classroom instruction."

Digital Think contracts with best-sellingauthors and topic experts to create origi-nal content for Web-based courses. In ad-dition to the role played by the instruc-tors, tutors answer e-mail messages andengage in threaded discussions and chatsessions with the students. Digital Think sellsWeb-based courses directly from its Website to corporate training departments.Course prices currently range from $125to $450 per student.

Digital Think's training courses are offeredfor continuing education units (CEUs), whichare convertible to college credit under anarrangement with the University of Phoenix(see the Virtual University Degree Pro-grammes section above).

Dowling Institute (www.dowling.edu), located in

New York, offers a suite of Microsoft Of-fice training programmes via e-mail andonline. It has served students from all overthe world. Each course consists of 15 or 16lessons and costs $60.

Quick Start Technologies (www.quickstart.com/etraining) provides online access to the toolsand study materials necessary to prepare forMicrosoft certification exams. Those resourcescan also be used to just brush up on productknowledge. The courses are highly affordableat a cost of $199 per student for unlimited90-day access to the virtual campus.

Wang Global Virtual University now providesInternet training and mentoring programmesto its workforce of over 2,500 MicrosoftCertified Professionals through Scholars.com(wwwscholars.com) and will be providing tech-

nical training to its 15,000 technical consult-ants worldwide through the same platform.

Many other companies are making similar usesof information and communications technolo-gies to train their workforce and to introducetheir products to customers.

THE PUBLIC BROADCASTING SERVICE

Since 1981, the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)has worked with colleges and universities through-out the United States to deliver video-based col-lege-level courses. For many years, the courseswere offered on an ad hoc basis and lacked thecohesiveness of a complete degree curriculum.(There were not enough high-quality, broadcast-ready courses to provide a complete degree pro-gramme. Upper division courses were especiallylacking.) To address that limitation, in 1994 PBSinstituted the Going The Distance project(wwwpbs.org/ adultlearning/ al: / sq. The purpose ofthe project is to assist colleges and universities indeveloping complete degree programmes usingtele-courses and other media-based courses(many of which are distributed by PBS). The ul-timate goal is to offer a virtual campus to everycollege in the U.S. So far, 180 IHEs in 38 statesare participating in the project, and 70 public tel-evision stations air many of the video-basedcourses.

In 1996, PBS, seeing another need and anopportunity, established The Business Channel(wwwpbstbc.com). It offers a wide variety of work-shops and short courses that it markets to busi-nesses throughout the U.S. The Business Channelevolved from PBS's Adult Learning Satellite Serv-ice, which had been offering such programmesto businesses by satellite delivery on a subscrip-tion basis since the late 1980s. The Business Chan-nel is now an interesting mix of satellite deliveryand Web-based instruction.

One stream of instruction delivered by TheBusiness Channel is an executive education pro-gramme that has been developed at the Massa-chusetts Institute of Technology (Mn). The in-creasing complexity of modern organisations has

Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States 41

50

created a demand for continuous education forexecutives, and PBS and MIT have joined forcesto fill that demand. Typically, one course is of-fered each month.

In total, the PBS Business Channel offers ap-proximately 800 training programmes in areassuch as executive education, leadership, change,sales and service, computers, human resources,and team building. The video component is de-livered via a direct broadcast satellite (DBS) dishthat is installed at the work place. Rich resourceson The Business Channel Web site enhance thevideo lessons.

Double Glass CeilingMost distance and virtual education programmesin the United States have run up against a double-pane glass ceilingtwo barriers that are often notapparent but present real barriers to further de-velopment. The first bather is that the programmesare technology-driven. The programmes them-selves are often initiated because a new technol-ogy becomes available (e.g., a video-conferencingfacility or a new television production studio). Even

those that have pedagogical starting points oftenbecome "tracked" into a process that uses one ortwo technologies that invariably introduce limita-tions to the programme.

The second barrier is that the distance andvirtual education programmes adopt a traditionalpedagogical paradigm. They create a learningenvironment that closely resembles the roles,processes, and resources found in face-to-facelearning programmes.

In succumbing to these two barriers, distanceand virtual education programmes fail to take fulladvantage of a range of resources available to theinstructor and learner alike. Furthermore, they failto employ the full power of some of the newinformation and communications technologies tosupport improved pedagogical approaches.

The concept of the double glass ceiling is

presented in graphic form in Appendix 3.1 atthe end of this report.

ConclusionThe report has attempted to provide a glimpseof some of the leading edge distance and virtualeducation programmes in the United States at thebeginning of 1999. It is not a comprehensive pic-ture, but it should provide a base for monitoringchanges in the evolution of distance and virtuallearning in the early part of the 21" century.

In conclusion, we can observe some issuesand concerns that might be shared between IHEsin the United States and elsewhere as they attemptto introduce or refine their distance and virtuallearning programmes.

Technology infrastructure: In the United States,the communications and information tech-nology infrastructure needed to support anduse distance education is quickly becomingavailable to all IHEs and to more than halfof all learners. Almost all IHEs already haveWeb pages, four out of five are offering oneor more distance education courses, and oneout of three already offers at least one com-plete degree programme on the Web. Mostinstitutions have high-speed access to theWeb. As for individual learners, almost allhave telephones and VCRs in the home andalmost half have a computer with access tothe Internet. While there is some chasm be-tween the "haves" and the "have nots" interms of the quality of the equipment, therapid drop in cost of even the most sophis-ticated technologies is closing that gap.

Financial considerations: Most distance and vir-

tual learning programmes must be "self-sup-porting" as far as the IHEs are concerned.Because many evolved from continuing edu-cation departments, which traditionally donot receive tuition reimbursement from stateor federal agencies, they have had to survive

42 Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States

51

on the tuition they charge to students. Somestudents must pay for the courses from theirown pockets, while others are reimbursedby their employers. Still others qualify forloans and scholarships from the federal gov-ernment and other sources. For example, theRegents College Web site lists three sourcesof funding available from New York State,nine sources of private loans, three collegescholarship programmes, and six othersources of potential funding that students canpursue to help them pay for their education.And recently the federal government has in-troduced a federal tax credit for lifelonglearning that lets certain taxpayers reduce theirannual tax bills by 20% of the amount theypay for qualified education during the year.

Learner and teacher acceptance of distance and vir-

tual learning: Many faculty members have tra-ditionally viewed distance and virtual learn-ing programmes as second-class education.On the other hand, students and employersdo not share that view. For students, accessand convenience are primary concerns, anddistance and virtual learning programmeshave both of those characteristics. Employ-ers look for quality educational programmesthat can be pursued conveniently by theiremployees. Since recent research has shownthat distance education programmes areequivalent to traditional ones, students andemployers have taken that as evidence that they

are being well served. That confidence of thestudents and their employers has led to an in-crease in enrolments in distance educationcourses, which in turn has begun to attract theattention of administrators who are constantlyseeking ways to increase enrolments in theirinstitutions. In some cases, the faculty are thelast to embrace the idea of distance educa-tion. Consequently, the pattern of acceptance

is often: employer 4 learner 4 administra-tor 4 teacher.

Reactions of conventional institutions: As recently

as the 1970s, many institutions used to noteon transcripts which courses were taken at adistance, reflecting the faculty bias that thosecourses were inferior. That situation haschanged in the past five or so years, to thepoint where there are very few institutionsthat make any distinction between distanceeducation and traditional courses, eventhough a sizeable number of faculty mem-bers might continue to harbour their bias.Institutional acceptance of distance educa-tion is also evident by the large percentageof institutions that offer distance educationcourses and the growing number that areoffering complete degree programmes at adistance. Many institutions view distance andvirtual education programmes as their"growth" area for the foreseeable future.

Characteristics of the learners being served. Perhaps

one of the forces driving the changed atti-tude of institutions towards distance and vir-tual education is the changing nature of thestudent body at most institutions. Whereasup into the 1970s the majority of college anduniversity undergraduates were in the 18- to24-year-old range, the median age now is inthe early 30s. Almost all undergraduates holdat least a part-time job as they pursue theirstudies. As sophisticated consumers with sig-nificant disposable funds, they know what itis to expect and receive customer service.They want to be involved in planning theirown education and they want that educationdelivered conveniently so that they can studywhen and where they are able. They are par-ticularly interested in courses that are practi-cal and that they can begin to use immedi-ately in their jobs.

Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States 43

References

PRINT RESOURCES

Arenson, Karen W "N.Y.U. Sees Profits in Virtual Classes."The New York Times. 1998.

Biemiller, Lawrence. "U. of Utah President Issues a PointedWarning About Virtual Universities." The Chroni-cle of Higher Education. October 9, 1998.

Bludnicki, Mary. "Supporting Virtual Learning for AdultStudents." T.H.E. Journal June 1998.

Blumenstyk, Goldie. "California Virtual University Will EndMost of Its Operations." The Chronicle of HigherEducation. April 2, 1999.

Blumenstyk, Goldie. "In a First, the North Central Associa-tion Accredits an On-Line University." The Chroni-cle of Higher Education. March 19, 1999.

Building An Internet Campus: A Do-It-Yourself Guide. WeberState University Online Campus. Ogden, Utah.1998.

"College Librarians Plan for Floods of Digital Users." TheChronicle of Higher Education. November 13, 1998.

"Consortium Unveils System to Ease Finding EducationalMaterial on the Web." The Chronicle of HigherEducation. September 19, 1997.

"Even at Western Governors University, Where enrollmentsgot off to a lackluster start earlier this fall, offi-cials are optimistic." The Chronicle of Higher Edu-cation. November 27, 1998.

"Few Students Enroll at Western Governors U." The Chroni-cle of Higher Education. September 25, 1998.

"For Profit Group Moves Into Teacher Education." TheChronicle of Higher Education. March 13, 1998.

Holland, Robert. "Distance Learning." Washington Times.August 23, 1998.

"If distance-education courses make money at Pennsylva-nia State University, some of the spoils will go tothe departments that helped create them." TheChronicle of Higher Education. November 20, 1998.

Lee, Chris. "Virtual U" Training. August 1998.

McCollum, Kelly. "Accreditation of On-Line UniversityDraws Fire." The Chronicle Of Higher Education.April 2, 1999.

"Online Librarians Help Guide Students Around Net'sStacks." The Wall Street Journal October 1, 1998.

PBS Adult Learning Service: Expanding the Distance Learning

Revolution. The Public Broadcasting Service. Al-exandria, Virginia. 1998.

"A Philanthropy Puts Millions Into Asynchronous Learn-ing Sloan Foundation Grants Emphasize On-line Programs That Create A Sense Of Commu-nity." The Chronicle of Higher Education. Novem-ber 13, 1998.

Phillips, Vicky, and Cindy Yager. The Best Distance LearningGraduate Schoolc: Earning Your Degree Without Leav-

ing Home. New York: Random House, 1999.

"Report on University of Phoenix Sends Stock Price Down."The Chronicle of Higher Education. October 2,1998.

Rossett, Allison. "No Cheers For Corporate U." Training.August 1998.

Scott, Janny. "Advanced Degrees Earned Off Campus andOn-Line." The LA Times. February 6, 1994.

Shive, Glenn. Distance Learning and Structural Change inAmerican Higher Education. Governors State Uni-versity. Illinois. October 31, 1998.

"Siemens Learns From Net." PC Week. February 16, 1998.

Stamps, David. "The For-Profit Future of Higher Educa-tion." Training. August 1998.

"Stanford Students Can Earn Degree With Clicks OfMouse." Washington Times. September 16, 1998.

Strong, Robert W. and E. Glynn Harmon. "Online Gradu-ate Degrees: A Review of Three Internet-basedMaster's Degree Offerings." The American Journalof Distance Education. Vol. 11, No. 3, 1997.

Take A Shortcut To Putting Your College Or University Online.Real Education. 1998.

Taking the Distance Out of Education. The University of TexasSystem. Austin, Texas. 1998.

"Trading a Classroom for a Keyboard and Eye Contact forE-Mail." The Chronicle of Higher Education. Feb-ruary 27, 1998.

University of Phoenix Online Degree Programs in Business andManagement. The University of Phoenix. 1998.

"Virtual University Growing By Leaps And Bounds." Wash-ington Times. September 21, 1998.

"What's it Like Taking Classes From A Virtual University?"The Chronicle of Higher Education. January 30,1998.

Wynne, Sheryl D. An Overview Of Virtual Schooling In NorthAmerica And Europe. Vancouver: Open LearningAgency, November 1997.

44 Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States

53

WEB RESOURCES

dlis.dos.statefim dlu : Home Page for the Florida DistanceLearning Library Initiative, a co-operative effortof Florida's public state universities and com-munity colleges, as well as public libraries throughthe State Library of Florida.

home.talkd.com/ UniversityWay : Home Page for Talk City'sUniversityWay, an online continuing educationservice that matches continuing education in-structors with institutions that offer continuingeducation courses online.

http:1 / wsuonline.weberedu : Home Page for the Online Cam-pus of Weber State University, which offers awide range of courses and student support serv-ices each semester.

www.acenet.edu/ calecl home.html : Home Page for the Centerfor Adult Learning and Educational Credentialsof the American Council on Education, whichprovides a College Credit Recommendation Serv-ice that is used by more than 200 corporations,associations, labour unions, government agencies,and training providers that offer courses.

www.advancexpenn.edu : Home Page of PennAdvance, theschool-to-college transition programme offeredby the University of Pennsylvania in conjunc-tion with the Sylvan Academy/Caliber LearningNetwork study centres.

www.archOelago.com : Home Page for the Archipelago Com-pany, a division of Harcourt Brace & Companypublishers, which is developing multimedia andonline college courses.

www.arthurdlittle.com/ som / som.htm 1 : Home Page for theArthur D. Little School of Management, whichoffers a one-year master's of Science in Manage-ment programme, as well as a series of executiveeducation and custom programmes.

www.athena.edu : Home Page for Athena University, a non-profit institution administered by Virtual OnlineUniversity Services International, which providesdegrees in Liberal Arts, Business, History, Lan-guages, Math, Science, and Computers.

wwwhitcolostate.edu /mha: Home Page for the distance edu-cation MBA programme at the Colorado StateUniversity.

www.bsu.etiu/ teachers/ academy' outreacb.html : Home Page for

the Indiana Academy, which offers interactiveaudio/visual satellite-delivery to K-12 studentsin subjects that are not available in some schools(e.g., AP Chemistry, Genetics, and Russian).

tvww.caliberlearning.com: Home Page for the Caliber LearningNetwork, which offers technology-delivered in-struction through a network of learning centreslinked together and enhanced by satellite broad-casting, video-conferencing, PC networking andthe Internet.

www.cabfornia.edu : Home Page for the California VirtualUniversity that links students with distance edu-cation courses and support services provided bymore than 100 colleges and universities in Cali-fornia.

www.ccconline.ors: Home Page for Colorado Community Col-lege Online, a co-operative programme of 13community colleges through which students canearn associate degrees and certificates online.

www.cecc.cccoes.edu : Home Page for the Colorado ElectronicCommunity College.

www.crcon/ine.org/home.htm: Home Page of Cable in the Class-

room, gateway to vast educational resources andteacher training provided free of charge by thecable industry.

www.concord.kolan.edu : Home Page for the Concord Uni-versity School of Law, a new (October 6, 1998)venture of Kaplan Educational Centers, whichoffers a juris doctorate degree entirely online.

www.cvn.columbia.edu : Home Page of the Columbia VideoNetwork, established by Columbia University toprovide graduate engineering courses to learnersthroughout the United States.

www.databeam.com: Home Page for DataBeam, a Lotus com-pany that has developed and markets LearningServer, a software package that supports live,interactive training (data, audio, and video) onthe Web.

www.tugitalthink.com : Home Page for DigitalThink, a pri-vately financed company that offers computertraining courses online for Continuing Educa-tion Units (CEUs) which are convertible to col-lege credit through an arrangement thatDigitalThink has with the University of Phoe-nix.

www.dowling.edu : Home Page for the Dowling Institute, of-fering a suite of online training programmes onthe use of Microsoft Office.

www.edgovl offices1 OPEIHPSE : Home Page for the U.S.Department of Education's Fund for the Im-provement of Post Secondary Education(FIPSE), which provides grants for projects de-signed to improve the availability and quality ofhigher education.

Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States 45

www.edgov /prog_info /StarSchoolr : Home Page for the U.S.Department of Education's Star Schools Project,which provides funding for innovative projectsthat use satellite technology to beam courses ofstudy in mathematics, science, and foreign lan-guages to K-12 schools that otherwise wouldnot be able to offer those courses.

www.edgov/Technology/eratefacts.html : Home Page for infor-mation about the U.S. government's UniversalService Fund, which provides grants to schoolsto help them install and maintain connections tothe World Wide Web.

www.e-education.com : Home Page for software developed bythe Jones Knowledge Group to allow instructorsto put their courses online.

www.embanet.com : Home Page for the Embanet Corpora-tion, which provides a turn-key solution for build-ing, hosting, and maintaining a virtual campus.

wwwjhs.net : Home Page for Florida High School, a state-wide project that aims to place an entire highschool online by 2001, including courses and stu-dent support services needed to obtain a highschool diploma.

www.firn.edu/fdln: Home Page for the Florida Distant Learn-ing Network, a state-wide service to ensure thatcitizens have access to advanced telecommuni-cations services to complement the provision ofeducational and health care services.

www.geteducaterlcom: Home Page of an "adult education anddistance learner's resource centre," including ac-cess to the Virtual University Gazette, a Directorof Online Colleges and Universities, and infor-mation on the publication, Best Distance Learning

Graduate Schools.

www.imcom : Home Page for the Internet Virtual Univer-sity, an online campus that colleges and universi-ties can customise and use.

www.lotus.com /learningspace: Lotus Page for information aboutLearningSpace, its software suite that supportsWeb-enabled distributed learning.

www.magellan.edu : Home Page for Magellan University, aprivate online institution that offers courses inadvanced mathematics and MCSE certification.

www.mhhe.trom/solutions: Home Page for McGraw-Hill's (Pub-lisher) Higher Education offerings which pro-vide online supplements to many of the compa-ny's textbooks as well as software and templatesthat allow universities and faculty members todevelop their own Web sites.

www.microsoft.com/ education/ hed/ onfine: Microsoft's Web Pagedevoted to online learning (articles, white pa-pers, products, and solutions).

www.ntu.edu : Home Page for National Technological Uni-versity, one of the first virtual universities in theU.S., with strong programmes of advanced studyin Engineering and Business.

www.pangaeanetwork.com: Home Page for The Pangaea Net-work, a company that helps colleges and univer-sities create their own virtual campus to reachunserved students.

www.paulallen.com/foundations : Home Page for the Paul G.Allen Virtual Education Foundation, which rec-ognises the "best" online course designs and pro-vides the developers with cash awards to designadditional courses.

www.pbs.org/adultlearning: Home Page for the Public Broad-casting Service's Adult Learning Service (PBS/ALS), which broadcasts college-level tele-courses, provides satellite-delivered trainingcourses and seminars, and maintains an extensiveWeb site of ancillary materials and student sup-port services.

www.pkorg/ adultlearning/ air/gtd: Public Broadcasting Serv-ice Web site for its "Going the Distance" project,to help IHEs develop complete degree pro-grammes using tele-courses and other media-basedcourses, with a goal of "offering a virtual cam-pus" to every college in the U.S.

www.pbstbc.com : Public Broadcasting Service Web site forThe Business Channel, which offers a wide vari-ety of workshops and short courses that it mar-kets to businesses throughout the U.S.

www.quickstart.com /etraining : Home Page for QuickStartTechnologies, a company that provides onlineaccess to study tools to prepare for Microsoftcertification exams.

www.randomhouse.com : Home Page for Random House pub-lishers, source of the publication "The Best Dis-tance Learning Graduate Schools."

www.realeducation.com : Home Page for Real Education, acompany that helps colleges and universities puttheir courses and campuses online.

nnvw.regents.edu : Home Page for Regents College, the firstVirtual University in the United States, offeringdegrees in Nursing, Business, Liberal Arts, andTechnology.

46 Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States

www.rscsfssd kl 2.ca.us : Home Page of the California Dis-tant Learning Program (CDLP), the first K-8online distance learning programme in Californiaand perhaps the only complete programme in theU.S. at this point.

www.scholars.com : Home Page for Wang Global Virtual Uni-versity, which provides online training andmentoring to the company's 2,500 MicrosoftCertified Professionals and 15,000 technical con-sultants world-wide.

www.sctcorp.com /aspire : Home Page for SCT's Aspire forHigher Education, software and services that al-low colleges and universities to develop distrib-uted learning delivery systems.

www .siemenscom.com /Learn.Everywhere : Home Page for the

Leam.Everywhere distance education manage-ment software from the Siemens Corporation,supporting an instructor led, real-time, interac-tive learning environment capable of reachingstudents, staff and faculty across a campus, schooldistrict, or around the globe.

www.tc.columbia.edu/ academic/ ceoi / distlearn.htm : Home Page

for a certificate programme in teacher education(Instructional Design and Computer MediatedInstruction) offered at a distance by ColumbiaUniversity

www.tolu.com : Home Page for TechOnLine University, asource of continuing education courses (but nocomplete degree programmes) for engineers.

www.unet.maine.edu: Home Page for the University of Maine'sNetwork for Education and Technology Serv-ices, a state-wide delivery system which also pro-vides faculty and student support services fordistance education.

www.uolcom/ website : Home Page for UOL (University OnLine) Publishing, a McLean, Virginia for-profitcompany that provides interactive and on-de-mand courseware for training and education.

www.uophx.edu : Home Page for the University of Phoenix,a private university and one of the largest dis-tance education institutions in the U.S.

www.vousiarom : Home Page for Virtual Online UniversityServices International, a source of professionaldevelopment and lifelong-learning materials.

www.withe.eduI telecom' telecom.htm : Home Page for the West-ern Cooperative for Educational Telecommuni-cations (WCET), a division of WICHE that fa-cilitates resource sharing, information sharing, andpolicy advocacy in the use of educational tech-nologies and telecommunications.

www.wiche.edu : Home Page for the Western Interstate Com-mission for Higher Education (WICHE), a policyorganisation representing 15 Western states inthe U.S.

www.wisc.edu /depd : Home page for the University of Wis-consin's Distance Education Professional Devel-opment Center, which offers a distance educa-tion programme leading to a Certificate of Pro-fessional Development in Distance Education.

www.worlddasslearning.com : Home Page for InternationalThompson Publishing's World Class Learning suiteof products that facilitates "anytime, anywhere"learning.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States 47

Appendix 3.1:The Dirr Grid of Tertiary Distance EducationThe examples shown in the grid below clearly show that most of today's distance and virtual educationprogrammes are technology-driven and based on a traditional academic paradigm. You are encour-aged to plug other distance and virtual education programmes into the grid. I am especially interestedin learning about programmes that might appropriately fall into the lower right quadrant of the grid.

Motivatingfactors:

Technologydriven

Consumerdriven

Traditionalacademic 4limmolimmimmiI+paradigm

Newacademicparadigm

(a) (a)(a) (a)

(b) (b)(b) (b) (b)

(c) (c) (c)(c) (c) (c)

(d) (d) (d)(d) (d) (d) (d)

(f) (f) (f)(f) (f) (f)

(g) (g) (g)(g) (g) (g)

(e) (e) (e)

(h) (h) (h)

(j) (j) (k) (k)

Notes:(a) Educational television programming of the 1950s, such

as Sunrise Semester

(b) Telecourses of the 1970s-80s

(c) Audio- and video-conferencing of the 1980s to 1990s.

(d) One-off Internet courses and "shovelware" of the 1990s,(These applications tend to be driven primarily by onetechnology and follow the discursive approach of atraditional classroom. They transfer the traditionalclassroom paradigm to a new medium.)

(e) Interactive CD-ROM courses of the 1990s. (Some oftoday's CD-ROM course projects, while still technol-ogy driven, are reaching to use the technologies inways that were not possible before the advent of to-day's technologies.)

(f) Video and audio courses of the Annenberg/CPB Projectof the 1980s and 1990s. (These courses had three uniquecharacteristics: first, they were created to serve a socialneed to provide tertiary-level educational opportunitiesto those who could not take advantage of traditionalopportunities; second, they took advantage of advancededucational design to allocate to various media the partof the instructional process they could do best; and,third, they had built-in quality control procedures.)

(g) Approach of the Western Governors University. (Thesuite of products and services provided by WGU is alsodesigned to serve a social need to make educationalservices available to larger numbers of learners at timesand places of their choosing, using a variety of appro-priate technologies.)

(h) Approach of innovative corporate universities of the1990s. (Some corporate universities are developingnew pedagogical paradigms that often mix new instruc-tional approaches (such as shorter, more intensecourses) and new applications of the technologies.)

(j) Approach of the University of Phoenix. (This is a highlyconsumer-driven model that uses a mixture of tradi-tional and newer instructional approaches and tech-nologies.)

(k) New services such as those offered by the PBS AC-CESS Project. (While not a programme of study, thisproject is developing a suite of services that will helplearners craft an individualised distance education pro-gramme by taking appropriate advantage of a varietyof instructional packages and support services deliv-ered through a variety of technologies.)

48 Distance and Virtual Learning in the United States

57

_ ance and Virtual Learning

-I in the CaribbeanDR. PETER J. DIRR

IntroductionAlthough often linked to the United States, theCaribbean is a region so different that it is diffi-cult for an outsider to imagine the context in whichdistance and virtual learning exist. The 30 or morecountries that comprise the region are composedof a series of islands and archipelagos and arediverse even among themselves. Some are com-pact (e.g., Barbados, with a population of 262,000persons in 166 square miles of territory), whileothers are dispersed (e.g., the Bahamas, with apopulation of 273,000 persons on 700 islands

Table 4.1

and cays scattered over 5,382 square miles). (SeeTable 4.1) Some lack telecommunications infra-structure (e.g., Haiti, with only one telephone forevery 150 people), while in others, most of thepopulation has ready access to telecommunica-tions (e.g., the Bahamas, with one telephone forevery two persons).

Many of the countries in the Caribbean areconsidered lesser developed. Their populationslive at poverty levels well below the world aver-age. The education systems in many Caribbeancountries lag behind highly developed countries,

Comparative Statistics for Selected Caribbean Countries Compared tothe United States

Country

Area

(sq. ml.)Population

(000's)Life

ExpectancyAdultLiteracy

Per CapitaGDP

Persons/Telephones

Persons/TV Sets

Bahamas 5,382 273 72 93% 11,115 2.3 4.6

Barbados 166 262 76 99% 7,538 3.0 3.8

Dominican Republic 18,704 7,900 68 83% 1,600 41.6 10.9

Guyana 83,000 735 65 98% 766 22.3 23.0

Haiti 10,714 7,500 55 35% 400 150.0 234.4

Jamaica 4,240 2,600 75 85% 2,171 12.3 7.9

United States 3,700,000 270,000 76 97% 28,600 1.5 1.3

Source: U.S. State Department, March 1998

Distance and Virtual Learning in the Caribbean 49

so that traditional opportunities for tertiary andsecondary education are not available to the ma-jority of the population.

Precisely because of the geographic and eco-nomic conditions that confront the countries ofthe Caribbean, distance and virtual education atboth the secondary and tertiary levels could ben-efit individual countries and the region in gen-eral. Yet few Caribbean tertiary institutions areinvolved in distance and virtual education.

A sense of "regionalism" seems to permeatethe Caribbean countries. Sixteen of the countriesare members or associate members of the Car-ibbean Community and Common Market(CARICOM). Eastern Caribbean countries thatare members of the Organization of EasternCaribbean Countries (OECS) share a commonjudicial system. (See Kenny D. Anthony,www.oas.org,/ en/ pinfo/ legodhtm) In recent years, they

have developed a regional Education ReformStrategy for Eastern Caribbean states to improvethe quality and availability of education.

Speaking at a recent meeting of the Organi-zation of American States, the Governor Gen-eral of St. Lucia pointed to three mechanismsundertaken in the region to improve tertiary edu-cation capabilities of the countries. The first wasthe OECS Education Reform Strategy; the sec-ond was a regional network of institutions, theAssociation of Caribbean Tertiary Institutions(ACTI); and the third was the development ofcentres of education specialisation, which are as-suming regional roles. (See Pearlette Louisy,www.aos.org/ enl pinfo/ week/ 030698ae.htm.)

The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) hasprovided continuing support to educational insti-tutions in the Caribbean, including assistance withplanning and developing distance education pro-grammes. COL has helped train Caribbean fac-ulty members in ways to re-package face-to-facecourses for distance education delivery. It has alsofacilitated co-operative working relationshipsbetween Canadian and Caribbean educational

50 Distance and Virtual Learning in the Caribbean

institutions, and has supported a project to up-grade the skills of technical and vocational in-structors in the Caribbean. The Commonwealthof Learning Document Archive lists severalhelpful reports, including a Strategic Plan forproviding tertiary education in "non-campuscountries" (NCCs) through distance education,and other scholarly papers and reports. Seewww.coLorg/ catibe.htm. (Also, a search of "Car-ibbean" or individual country names fromCOL's home page (www.coLorg) will provide ac-cess to several relevant reports on COL's ac-tivities and research.)

The University of theWest IndiesThe University of the West Indies (UWI) (=v.uwichigedu.bb) has emerged as one of the leadingtertiary institutions and the leader in providingdistance education to residents of most of thecountries in the Caribbean. While other institu-tions in the region have initiated distance educa-tion courses and programmes (see below), anexamination of the UWI distance education ac-tivities provides insight into some of the issuesand accomplishments in the region.

The University of the West Indies is an inde-pendent institution that serves 15 countries in theCaribbean: Anguilla, Antigua & Barbuda, Baha-mas, Barbados, Belize, British Virgin Islands,Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica,Montserrat, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vin-cent & the Grenadines, and the Republic of Trini-dad & Tobago. The university was established asa traditional university with a single campus atMona, Jamaica in 1948. Originally named theUniversity College of the West Indies, it was af-filiated to the University of London. UWIachieved full university status in 1962, one yearafter it had opened its second campus at St. Au-gustine, Trinidad. A third campus was opened in1963 at Cave Hill, St. Michael, Barbados. As a

59

regional institution, UWI places a strong empha-sis on Caribbean issues in both its teaching andits research.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DISTANCE

EDUCATION AT UWI

The University's present distance education pro-gramme evolved out of a "challenge pro-gramme" that was started in 1973 by the Facultyof Social Sciences in response to a need in non-campus countries (NCCs) for upgrading andtraining of mid-level government employees. Thisprogramme allowed those employees to studyon their own using print resources from the uni-versity and then "challenge" the exams in the sub-jects they were studying. The university providedno additional support to the students beyond acopy of the course syllabus and, where neces-sary, a list of recommended reading.

The university soon learned that most studentscould not pass the exams using this form of study,and so it established study centres in the NCCs,where local tutors provided tuition for students.

In the early 1980s, the U.S. government of-fered UWI use of the ATS6 satellite for academicuse. The U.S. Agency for International Develop-ment (USAID) also funded a feasibility study thatexplored offering academic programmesthrough satellite uplinks and downlinks. Thisled the university to establish a new adminis-trative unit, the University of the West IndiesDistance Teaching Experiment (UWIDITE).By 1983, UWI was offering courses by audio-conferencing, print materials, and local face-to-face tutorial support.

The local tutors were bolstered by tele-conferences with campus-based university tutors.Where possible, the academic programmes builton existing infrastructures, including local tertiarylearning institutions (ills). By the 1990s, this proc-ess had become the norm for UWI's distanceeducation programme. The audio-conferencingsystem was expanded over the years to include

more sites with funds from the Canadian Inter-national Development Agency (CIDA) and theCaribbean Development Bank (CDB).

As early as 1990, the university made a de-termination to expand its "outreach and dis-tance education" activities. A July 1992 AppraisalReport noted several issues that needed resolv-ing if such expansion were to be successful. Theyincluded:

Enrolment: The report called for increasedrepresentation of students from non-cam-pus countries. NCC enrolment had declinedfrom 13% of the total student population in1960-61 to 5% in 1989-90. Distance edu-cation was seen as one way to increase theenrolment of potential students from NCCs.

Management of outreach: The report observeda "bewildering array of offices, units, andfaculties operating with minimal co-ordina-tion or even knowledge by the UniversityCentre (which was charged with oversightof outreach and distance education at thattime) which were intended to deliver theuniversity's outreach." And none of thoseentities was integrated with the university fac-ulties, which had primary responsibility forprofessional continuing education and ar-ticulation or franchising relations with terti-ary learning institutions. Consequently, dis-tance education was viewed by the facultiesas peripheral to the main mission of theuniversity.

Inadequate information ystems: The report found

"inadequacies in programme planning, com-munication, record keeping, gaps in services,and duplication of efforts," and, "inadequa-cies of data on student registration, especiallyfor non-credit courses."

Pedagogy and support: Distance educationcourses often lacked sufficient back-up ma-terial, and technical problems plagued theUWIDITE conferencing system.

Distance and Virtual Learning in the Caribbean 51

Training: A great need was found for "ex-tensive training in all aspects of distance edu-cation." At the same time, the report notedthat there were no agencies devoted to im-proving pedagogy anywhere in the univer-sity.

Computerisation: Although this report predated

the explosive use of computers and theInternet worldwide, it envisioned the use ofcomputers university-wide for various edu-cational purposes, including the support ofdistance education.

Needs assessment: The authors of the reportfound deficiencies in how the university de-termined the need for outreach and distanceeducation, as well as its own needs for changein order to adapt to a rapidly changing edu-cational environment.

One of the outcomes of the 1992 AppraisalReport was a recommendation to develop aDistance Education Unit, reporting directly tothe Board for Distance Education and chairedby the Vice Chancellor of PVC Academic Af-fairs. That recommendation was accepted, andsince 1996 distance education at UWI is man-aged through the Board for Non-CampusCountries and Distance Education (BNCCDE).That Board is an office of the University Centre,located at the Cave Hill campus in Barbados. Itoversees three executive arms: the Distance Edu-cation Centre (DEC), the School of ContinuingStudies (SCS), and the Tertiary Level InstitutionsUnit (TLIU).

Another issue that surfaced in 1992 waswhether distance education would be freestand-ing or integrated within the existing universitydepartmental structure. It was seen as a funda-mental issue to choose between a dual-modedistance education operation and some form ofautonomous distance education programme(what was referred to as a possible "fourth cam-pus" of the university). The latter would have

centralised all responsibilities for distance educa-tion and perhaps have permitted greater flexibil-ity than some campus-based faculties might bewilling to tolerate. But the Renwick Report rec-ommended against this option on the groundsthat it might preclude opportunities for mutualenrichment of the on-campus and off-campusprogrammes, and the possibility that the distanceeducation programme might be seen as beingof lesser stature than on-campus programmes.Dual-mode was intended to assure that neithermodality was superior.

The dual-mode route was chosen. Conse-quently, distance education at UWI today largelyconsists of courses that the university faculty pro-duces. Distance education has become an inte-gral part of the workload of the university de-partmentspart of the normal duties of thefaculty. And just as the academic programmesare dual-mode, so are the support areas of theuniversity, offices such as the registrar and infor-mation services. One by-product of the deci-sion, however, was a parallel decision to keepthe matriculation requirements the same for bothmodes, which has made UWI distance educa-tion programmes less "open" to non-traditionaladult students than distance education pro-grammes at some other institutions.

Another fundamental issue faced at that timewas what role technology would play in the de-livery of distance education. On the one hand,technology could make rich educational oppor-tunities more widely available. On the other hand,if the access to technologies became an integralpart of the delivery system, it could limit partici-pation by large numbers of potential students,especially in poorer countries. The decision wasmade that, given the under-representation of stu-dents from NCCs, and in order to serve thosepotential students more completely, print mate-rials would dominate the support materials fordistance education courses. Teleconferencing (asused by UWIDITE) required regular attendance

52 Distance and Virtual Learning in the Caribbean

61

at university centres. Print-based materials couldbe used anywhere, any time the student wished.

In recent years, the typical structure of U\ICTI'sdistance education courses is a print-based studypackage with a heavy reliance on tutorial assist-ance. Often, the student must attend a prescribednumber of sessions in-person with a local tutor,plus some at a distance with a campus-based tu-tor through audio-conferencing.

The 1997-98 academic year saw a large jumpin distance education enrolments at UWI, whichhas been attributed to improved marketing ofcourses and the notion of distance education ingeneral.

A June 1998 paper on a new strategic planfor distance education reviewed the progress ofthe previous five years. Here is what it found inthe key areas that had been identified as concernsin 1992:

Enrolment. Looking at figures available at thattime, the authors reported that, "Here thepicture has remained bleak." Non-campuscountries (NCCs) are under-represented inon-campus enrolments. This need has notchanged much since the 1992 Appraisal Re-port. The NCC countries now contain 22%of the population of the UWI contributingcountries, but their nationals acquired only9% of the undergraduate degrees awardedby the university in 1993 and only 14% ofthe certificates. The northwest and easternCaribbean countries are especially hurt in thisdistribution. They each have 11% of thepopulation, but the northwest countries con-tributed only 1% of the on-campus regis-trations and the eastern countries contrib-uted only 5%. One solution the universityis pursuing is to place greater emphasis oninvolving local TLIs in distance educationprogrammes, promoting the notion of theuniversity as a hub and the TLIs as the spokesin an integrated regional system. However,the situation is compounded by inequities in

"sponsorship" in the NCCs. While the cam-pus countries sponsor all their undergradu-ate students and many of their postgradu-ates, most NCCs set significant limits on thenumber of students they sponsor. This isfurther complicated because the fees fornon-sponsored students from NCCs are sohigh that most potential students find itcheaper to attend North American institu-tions. (Roughly nine times as many studentsgo to North America as go to UWI.)

Management of outreach: Many changes weremade to the structure and management ofdistance education at UWI following the 1992report. BNCCDE now sets the policy foroutreach and distance education and directlysupervises three units: Distance EducationCentre (DEC), School of Continuing Stud-ies (SCS), and the Tertiary Level InstitutionsUnit (TLIU). DEC is responsible for the tel-ecommunications system and computer net-work used for distance education, embrac-ing three campuses, several other sites in thecampus countries, and sites in all of theNCCs. In 1993-94, UWIDITE was inte-grated into the DEC, linking the university'sthree campuses with University Centres inAntigua, Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, St.Kitts, and Dominica through local telecom-munications networks.

Since 1993-94, the university budget fordistance education has increased from J$23.5million to J$143 million in 1998-99. SCS isresponsible for a variety of non-creditcourses and for managing the sites used bythe DEC teleconferencing system. The TLIUfacilitates articulation between regional terti-ary-level institutions and the university andassists the TLIs in upgrading their resources.This new structure has not given control overall aspects of outreach and distance educa-tion to the BNCCDE. The professional

Distance and Virtual Learning in the Caribbean 53

faculties or schools retain responsibility forprofessional continuing education, althoughsome of the work involves DEC, SCS, orthe TLIU.

Inadequate information ystems: An almost acci-

dental step towards a solution of the needfor adequate information systems has beenthe slow but sure implementation of com-puter connectivity across the campuses, anactivity stimulated by a loan from the InterAmerican Development Bank. However,improvements in registration and other stu-dent data are moving very slowly, apparentlyreflecting an unwillingness to recognise thatdual-mode includes administrative as well asacademic functions.

Pedagogy and support: The university has im-plemented several measures aimed at im-proving pedagogy. They include:

1. Regularly assessing teaching staff.

2. Making teaching an explicit considera-tion in the assessment and promotionsystem.

3. Providing instructional developmentunits at each campus to help facultymembers.

4. Developing training manuals for fac-ulty members.

5. Developing a Certificate in Adult Edu-cation for tertiary level teachers.

6. A new programme for the productionof high-quality print materials and arange of other media.

7. Peer review of such materials, using stafffrom other campuses and institutions.

Self-instructional print-based mate-rials remain the fundamental resourcefor distance education courses, but insome cases Web pages play a large role.

Greater attention is paid to the role oflocal tutors and to providing studentswith local support systems. What hasproven particularly difficult to change,however, is the weaning of staff awayfrom proprietary course developmenttowards a team approach.

Training: There has been much achieved inthe actual training of all categories of staffinvolved in distance education, and inpolicy recognition for continuing this train-ing. The DEC is the main source for suchtraining and has produced some self-in-structional manuals for administrators andlocal tutors.

Computerisation: Five years ago, no one antici-

pated the appearance of the Internet or therange of software applications that wouldbe available. The university has capitalised onloans from the Inter American DevelopmentBank and the Caribbean Development Bankto equip the campus.

Needs assessment Using funds from the Car-ibbean Development Bank loan, DEC willcreate a new post for research and evalua-tion in order to conduct needs assessmentson a regular basis in collaboration with theBNCCDE Research Office.

One of the remaining challenges, not high-lighted in 1992, is the provision of library serv-ices. Limited resources are often spread too thinamong a public library system, the local TLIlibrary, and the University Centre. This com-pounds another challenge: the need to bring thecultural and intellectual atmosphere of a thriv-ing university to the NCCs through relevantactivities that might enhance the quality of pub-lic discussion throughout the region. An ex-panded and comprehensive distance educationprogramme was seen as one way to addressthese needs.

54 Distance and Virtual Learning in the Caribbean

63

UWI continues to respond to known needson several levels. Working with TLIs and otherlocal education providers in the NCCs, the uni-versity has expanded access through courses of-fered at remote locations. It has also identifiedseveral areas where distance education coursescan expand access, including Internet versions ofsome physics courses, strengthening mathemati-cal and statistical understanding among potentialstudents, and increasing English proficiencythrough remedial and preparatory courses. Someof these efforts cause the university to continueto examine its entry requirements and policies,which to this point have been rather traditionaland rigid and unfriendly towards "mature stu-dents." (See the reference above in the contextof the discussion of the nature of a dual-modeinstitution.)

The University of the West Indies' literatureindicates that distance education continues to beseen as the major source of increased access toprogrammes of all kinds. However, given thecircumstances of the Caribbean, for the imme-diate future, information and communicationtechnologies apparently will not play a major rolein distance education. Start-up costs for technol-ogy-based distance education programmes arehigh and some technologies are not readily ac-cessible to many of the students the universityhopes to serve through new distance educationprogrammes. The university is very conscious ofthe need to weigh carefully the value of the tech-nologies and not to under-utilise some low-techapproaches that might serve large numbers ofpotential students. Consequently, the university hasmade it a goal to strengthen its print-basedcourses so that the course materials can bear moreof the burden of tuition. The hope is that bystrengthening the course materials, the universitywill be able to facilitate anytime, anyplace learn-ing while reducing the currently strong relianceon local tutorials. At the same time, however, the

university is upgrading its technological infrastruc-ture (e.g., computers, connectivity, e-mail facili-ties) as part of a shared effort throughout theeastern Caribbean. As that upgrade is completed,the university expects to add video-conferencingto its current audio-conferencing facilities.

In summation, the University of the WestIndies has moved from viewing distance educa-tion as an experiment to be tried with individualisolated courses to its current stage of develop-ing and offering complete degree programmes.All of the courses offered are print-based.

In expanding its distance education, UWI hasdealt with many "usual" issues:

Finding ways to articulate distance educationprogrammes with the academic programmesof local tertiary institutions.

Helping faculty see the development andoffering of distance education programmesas team work rather than purely individualefforts.

Keeping open to the possibility that the dis-tance education courses might be a small el-ement in an academic programme that al-lows a co-operating TLI to expand its cur-rent academic offerings or introducespecialisations it would not otherwise be ableto offer.

Accepting that mixed mode delivery will bethe norm rather than the exception, not onlyfor distance education programmes but foron-campus courses as well.

Even as it expands its distance education pro-gramme, the University of the West Indies is awareof the fine line it must walk. Of all the tertiaryinstitutions in the region, UWI is best equipped toprovide educational opportunities to studentsthroughout the region. Yet, it must take carenot to step on the toes of other universities andestablished tertiary-level institutions. Rather, it mustconsider ways that, in each country, the various

Distance and Virtual Learning in the Caribbean 55

players might co-operate and collaborate, giventhat each institution will have its own aims, someof which might conflict with UWI's. The univer-sity has chosen to do what only a university cando, including the pioneering of new programmesthat others can adapt or adopt, and leaving toothers to do what they can do perfectly well ontheir own.

Other Institutions andProgrammesOther Caribbean institutions also offer some dis-tance education programmes and courses, somein conjunction with the University of the WestIndies. Throughout the region, traditional collegesand universities have experimented with distanceeducation and continue to do so. Most, how-ever, are constrained by the lack of facilities, equip-ment, and infrastructure, preventing them fromtaking advantage of the very technologies thatare making distance education a reality in otherparts of the world.

Over the past decade, there have been sev-eral region-wide projects sponsored by the Com-monwealth of Learning (COL) that have useddistance education approaches and technologiesto improve educational opportunity and qualityin the Caribbean. For example, COL helped theUniversity of Guyana develop a distance educa-tion programme of pre-university courses. De-livery included development of learning materi-als (using a new desktop publishing approach)and installation of an audio-teleconferencing net-work between Georgetown and seven regionalstudy centres.

SirArthur Lewis Community College, through its

Department of Continuing Education(DOGE), provides lifelong learning oppor-tunities to adults in St. Lucia. During the 1998-99 academic year, they are offering sevencourses leading to secretarial and business

studies diplomas. (See their Web site atwww. tco/. co. u k / orgs / sarthur/ sarthur. htm.)

Antigua State College has been the main part-ner with the UWI in Antigua. It has franchised

several UWI courses.

The British Virgin Islands: UWI works closelywith a local TLI to provide a degree in Edu-cation using a variety of resources and ap-proaches. The major competition has comefrom the University of the U.S. Virgin Is-lands (See their Web site at www.uvi.edu.)

Cayman: Articulation arrangements betweenUWI and the local community college onCayman, including provision for dial-up ac-cess to UWI's computers, is providinggreater access to higher education to islandresidents. However, most advanced tertiarytraining is undertaken in the United States.

Grenada: The national TLI, T. A. MarryshowCommunity College, and an active off-shoreinstitution, St. Georges University, work withUWI to offer courses.

Turks and Caicos: The Community Collegeon Grand Turk has a UWIDITE facility thatis just going into operation. A main concernis that they might not be able to find suffi-cient local tutors.

Jamaica: COL assisted the Ministry of Edu-cation in launching the Teacher TrainingProject, which upgraded 200 primary gradeteachers from a certificate to a diploma quali-fication in the pilot phase alone. Also in Ja-maica, under a World Bank project, distanceeducation is featured prominently in theteacher training and upgrading componentof a project to reform secondary education.

Haiti: The Haitian Foundation for PrivateEducation (FONHEP) has developed apilot project to test the feasibility of dis-tance education as a vehicle for delivering

56 Distance and Virtual Learning in the Caribbean

63

high-quality instruction to the country's pri-mary schools. Emphasis is on interactive ra-dio instruction (IRI) as the primary learningchannel, supplemented by printed materials(e.g., posters, teacher guides, student work-books). Technical assistance is being providedby project ABEL (Advancing Basic Literacyand Education).

Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, St.Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent andthe Grenadines are participating in a distanceeducation pilot project being conducted un-der the auspices of the COL Organizationof Eastern Caribbean States (OECS). Thepilot will demonstrate the practicality of of-fering print-based courses by distance to anumber of different sites in the region.

Trinidad and Tobago: As recently as Decem-ber 1998, Trinidad and Tobago launched anationally co-ordinated system of distancelearning. It holds promise of advancing edu-cational opportunities to new cohorts of stu-dents.

Training workshops have been held through-out the Caribbean region to enhance institutionalcapacity and distance education. The workshopshave covered the use of the computer in dis-tance education, adaptation of distance learningcourse materials, planning and management ofstudent support services, and course design forinteractive audio-teleconferencing.

One promising development for the regionis the Caribbean University Network (CUNeT),a project directed by the University of PuertoRico to facilitate access to e-mail to universitiesand institutions in the Caribbean. Increasingly, there

are nodes of computers that connect several in-stitutions to the server at the University of PuertoRico through dial-up technology. Funding is pro-vided through the Organization of AmericanStates (OAS).

ConclusionThe very geography of the Caribbean regionrequires that tertiary-level institutions considerdistance education in one form or another un-less they intend to serve a small number of stu-dents each year (as many choose to do). So far,most of the distance education programmes havetaken the form of either place-bound classes (e.g.,in community learning centres) that are at a dis-tance from the provider institution, or print-basedcourses that can be taken anytime, anyplace bystudents who have the study skills and motiva-tion to pursue correspondence courses. Thosecolleges and universities that have tried to de-velop distance education programmes using to-day's technologies have run into barriers in theform of high costs, lack of faculty skills neededto take advantage of the technologies, lack ofstudent access to the technologies, and lack ofinfrastructure to deliver the instruction.

The University of the West Indies seems tobe the university that is most active in distanceeducation in the region. It has chosen to limit theuse of information and communication technolo-gies in the delivery of distance education coursesto avoid precluding any potential students fromtaking those courses (e.g., because they do nothave access to the technologies or because thecommunication infrastructure does not exist intheir part of the country).

Distance and Virtual Learning in the Caribbean 57

References

PRINT RESOURCES

Howell, Olivia Edgecomb, interview by author,February 1999.

Murugan, Krishnapillai. "Distance Education inthe Commonwealth Caribbean: Survivalof The Fittest." Paper presented at thePan Commonwealth Forum on OpenLearning, Brunei, March 1999.

"T&T launches national distance learning system,"Connections, 4, no. 1(1999).

WEB RESOURCES

www.oas.org/ en/ pinfo/ legaatin : Article by KennyD. Anthony on membership of the Or-ganization of Eastern Caribbean Coun-tries (OECS).

www.oas.org/ en' pinfo/ week/ 030698ae.htm : Speech

by Pearlette Louisy, Governor Generalof St. Lucia, at a meeting of the Or-ganization of American States (OAS).

www.coLorg/ caribe.htm : Home Page for Com-monwealth of Learning archive of in-formation about its Caribbean activities.

www.uwichigedu.bb / bnccde : Home Page for Uni-

versity of the West Indies Board of NonCampus Countries and Distance Edu-cation.

www.tcol.co.uk/ orgs / sarthur/ sarthurhtm : Informa-

tion page for Sir Arthur Lewis Com-munity College in St. Lucia.

www.uviedu : Home Page for the University ofthe US. Virgin Islands.

58 Distance and Virtual Learning in the Caribbean

67

10 and Distance Education

Pro r

Introduction

mmes in Latin AmericaDR. VICTOR GUERRA ORTIZ

At present, practically all Latin American coun-tries have adopted distance education as a fun-damental tool to combat educational backlog andto improve the quality of teaching. Perhaps themain reason for adopting this particular educa-tional model, based on the implementation ofnew technologies, is its high viability, since with arelatively small number of economical and quali-fied human resources, large sectors of thepopulations can be reached.

BackgroundMexico is one of the countries with the greatestexperience in the field of distance education.Over 31 years ago, Mexico launched thetelesecundaria, a televised basic distance second-ary programme, which currently has a total en-rolment of over 800,000 students. Other coun-tries have implemented effective distance pro-grammes as well.

The earliest ventures into open educationalprogrammes in Mexico go back to 1947, withthe establishment of the Public Education Min-istry's Federal Teacher Training Institute, aimedat training teachers without interrupting their regu-lar work schedules. This institute, the first attemptat open and distance education in Latin America,

offered correspondence and on-site courses. Themodel continued until 1975, when it was trans-formed into the General Office of Teacher Train-ing and Improvement, offering open coursestowards degrees in preschool and primary schooleducation. This institution, in turn, generated theUniversidad Nacional Pedagogica (UPN) Openand Distance Educational System.

Open and distance education in Mexico islegally based on the individual and social princi-ples stipulated in Article 3 of the Mexican Con-stitution. Therefore, Mexican law regards dis-tance education as one of the official educa-tional models upheld by the General Educa-tion Law, the National Development Plan for1995-2000, and the numerous programmesderived from these laws.

Present EducationalConditions in Mexico

Population: 95,000,000

Illiteracy: 8.42% (men) 12.66% (women)

Illiterate population by age groups: From 6to 14, 13.78% (men) and 48.05% (women);Over 15, 10.6% (men) and 51.52% (women)

Children of school age who do not attendschool: 12.02% in areas with under 15,000

Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America 59

63

inhabitants; 4.21% in areas with over 15,000inhabitants

Areas with under 100 inhabitants: 201,138

As is evident from the above statistics, there is asignificant number of children and young peoplewho do not attend school and who live mostly inscarcely populated areas, which makes traditionaleducation (i.e., building and operating schools) ex-tremely costly. (Further statistics are provided inAppendix 5.1 at the end of this report)

In Mexico there are 51 institutions offeringdistance education, all having either national, re-gional, state, or local coverage. They include thebasic (K-12), high school, and university levels.Both public and private institutions participate inthese programmes, although the latter has thegreatest scope, both in regard to population cov-erage and quality.

For the secondary school cycle, that is, theseventh, eighth, and ninth grades, there is thetelesecundaria, the televised secondary school pro-gramme enabling students in isolated areas, whocompleted their primary education, to continuetheir secondary school education with aids suchas television, supervisors, and written didacticmaterials.

The term teleducacion was first coined in Peruin 1960 to describe the long-distance transmis-sion of educational messages, mainly throughtelevision. Subsequently, with the incorporationof other communications, media, and pedagogi-cal resources, open and distance education pro-grammes were instituted. What differentiatesthem from traditional education models is thatthey provide an alternative to the on-site interac-tion between teachers and students.

In Mexico, the most successful, motivatingforce to televised educational programmes hasbeen the telesecundaria. It consists mainly of spe-cial televised programmes transmitted by theEdusat system, which requires even moreinteractivity in order to improve the teaching-

learning process, since the only model. fea-tures a tutor-teacher. It began operating in1968, mainly in communities with a popula-tion under 2,500 inhabitants. After 31 yearsof experience in the telesecundaria, Mexico hasattained a quality comparable to that of theon-site systems.

THE NATIONAL DISTANCE EDUCATION

PROGRAMME

The main purpose of the SEP's (Ministry ofEducation's) National Distance Education Pro-gramme (PROED) is to raise the level of educa-tional opportunities by incorporating electronicand computer technology media into education.Its intention is to expand its coverage, combateducational backlog, and promote training pro-grammes for human resources.

This programme consists of three fundamen-tals: the Educational Satellite Television Network(Edusat), the Educational Data Processing Net-work, and the National Educational Video Library.

BASIC EDUCATION

Primary school and teleprimariaMexico's entire basic education system receiveda tremendous boost to distance education withthe establishment of the telesecundaria in 1968. Itwas during the 1970s that this educational modelreached its peak. That same year, a presidentialdecree established the CEMPAE, (Center forthe Study of Advanced Educational Media andProcedures.) The CEMPAE was an organisa-tion that supported the development of edu-cational technology, and its implementation even-tually led to the creation of the pilot for thevery first genuine open secondary school pro-gramme in the country.

As a direct result of this experience, this modelsoon extended to the basic level (Intensive Pri-mary for Adults and Open Secondary Schoolprogrammes), which served as the basis for the

60 Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America

69

establishment in 1976 of the National AdultEducation System, an agency of the SEP.

During the past 40 years, Mexico has madetremendous efforts to extend its educational serv-ices to a larger number of people. Consequently,the average schooling on a national level has al-most tripled. In 1960, Mexicans over the age of15 had only completed an average of 2.6 grades,but as of 1998 that number was up to 7.7. Themagnitude of this progress can be more fullyappreciated when you consider that since 1960,the country's population has increased from 35million people to almost 100 million.

On the basic level, the work carried out bythe National Institute for Adult Education(INEA) has played a vital role. It has nationalcoverage and offers intensive primary pro-grammes for adults as well as open secondaryschool programmes. Its curriculum is based on a"didactic package" made up of texts, radio, andtelevision programmes

INEA's services also include literacy pro-grammes and informal job training courses aimedat people over the age of 15 with either no school-ing or whose basic studies are incomplete. Theyare given access to basic education in order toimprove their personal and employment oppor-tunities. It is estimated that in 1998, over 2.5 mil-lion adults attended the literacy, primary, second-ary school, and informal job training pro-grammes. This figure represents 14.4 % increasein one year, equivalent to over 320,000 additionalpersons who received this service.

The teleprimaria is another measure imple-mented by the Mexican government to providerelevant, high-quality education with greater cov-erage to all Mexicans.

TelesecundariaThe telesecundaria in Mexico continues to play asupremely important role at present, with morethan 12,000 schools totalling approximately800,000 students and 23,000 teachers.

In 1998, due to the establishment of 973 newunits (77% of the total of new secondary schools),a total of 817,200 students received thetelesecundaria service, representing an 8% increaseover the previous cycle. Within the past three years,this mode has reached 198,600 additional stu-dents, representing a 32% increase.

Educational NetworkThe Educational Network is a computerised sys-tem of information and communication basedon the Internet at the service of Mexico's stu-dent community. It provides both teachers andstudents with a series of pedagogical and in-formative resources aimed at improving the learn-ing-teaching process.

Educational Network launched its operationsin 1997 with a pilot programme. At the sametime, a teacher-training programme was held,with extremely positive results. At present, thereare 4,000 units installed in more than 1,000 edu-cational units.

The Educational Networks is, above all, acommunity of teachers, students, and parentsjoined together by this effective educational com-puterised system.

EdusatEdusat (Educational Satellite Television Network)is a closed-circuit system managed by the SEP. Thesystem, based on the most advanced digital tech-nology, launched its operations in 1994. Its 6 tel-evision and 24 audio channels broadcast all overMexico, southern United States, Central America,and part of Latin America. It is expected that,with the development of the Mexican satellite sys-tem, like the launching of the Satmex 5 satellite,Edusat will soon have continental coverage anddouble its number of channels.

To date, Edusat has surpassed its originallyprogrammed goal, which was to reach over9,000 schools throughout the country to providebasic education to remote, outlying areas. At

Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America 61

present, it reaches over 10,000 schools with a total

of 20,000 receivers.Edusat's programmes contain scientific, tech-

nological, and cultural information, as well asorientation programmes for parents, updatingcourses for teachers, support for preschool chil-dren, sports, and many other subjects, besidestransmitting several programmes offered by theopen circuit cultural channels 11 and 22.

HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION

On the secondary school level, which covers the10th, 11th and 12th grades, there are 21 institu-tions, most of them state government units of-fering both open and distance education.

Ever since the Colegio de Bachilleres wasfounded in 1976, it established its open edu-cation system (SEA) and became the pioneerin open secondary school programmes inMexico.

In 1979, the Open High School System wasestablished, as part of the activities planned bythe previous CEMPAE. CEMPAE continued toevolve its open programs, and in 1983, when theorganisation was declared extinct, both the INEA(created in 1981) and the General Office ofEducational Evaluation, also an agency of theSEP, were placed in charge of the entire basicand secondary school system, respectively.

The Inter-institutional and InterdisciplinaryCommission for Open and Distance Educationwas established in 1991 to serve as a mechanismfor standardising criteria and as a liaison amongthe different institutions. Among its most impor-tant activities are the creation of a national inven-tory of institutions dedicated to this mode ofeducation, training programmes for specialisedhuman resources, and the organisation of openand distance education congresses on a nationallevel. During its recent fifth national congress, oneof its principal achievements was the establish-ment of quality criteria and standards.

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

There are 24 institutions offering distance educa-tion at the university level. Eight of them oper-ate on a national or regional level, while the restare on the state level. Of these institutions, onlytwo are private.

UNAMIn the public sector, the most important is un-doubtedly the Universidad Nacional AutOnomade Mexico (UNAM). Its national coverage of-fers over a dozen university degrees. It is cur-rently in the process of developing other pro-grammes such as the tele-campus, aimed at sys-tematising and expanding distance educationalservices via receiving centres throughout thecountry.

UNAM established its SUA (open universityprogramme) in 1972. The philosophy behind thissystem is to extend university education to largesectors of the population through "theoretical-and practical methods of transmission and evalu-ation of skills, along with the creation of learn-ing groups that will work both in and outsidethe university's classrooms."

UNAM's open programme offers the bach-elor's of arts degrees in the following disciplines:

Accounting

Administration

Communications

Economics

Education

Geography

Hispanic Languages and Literature

International Relations

Law

Modern Languages and Literature

Nursing (as well as Technician in Nursing)

Philosophy

Political Science

62 Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America

71

Public Administration

Psychology

Sociology

ITESM Virtual UniversityThe ITESM (Technological Institute of Mont-errey's) Virtual University constitutes a compre-hensive postgraduate learning-teaching system andoperates via the most advanced telecommunica-tions technologies and electronic networks. Itsupports the ITESM's own campus and provideseducation to different sites in Mexico, LatinAmerica, the United States, and Canada.

ITESM Virtual University offers a total of12 master's degrees and doctorate programmesin the fields of Education, Administration, andEngineering and Technology. It also aims specialprojects at corporations, such as the AVE (Vir-tual Corporate Classroom) and the PEE (Ex-clusive Corporate Programs) as well as severalprogrammes aimed at developing and updatingteaching skills. Altogether, the university reaches29,887 students through its reception centresdistributed throughout the continent.

In addition, ITESM Virtual University alsooffers a development programme for second-ary school and basic education teachers, both inMexico and in other Latin American nations. Thisprogramme focuses on teaching abilities and spe-cial skills required for teaching Mathematics, Sci-ence, and Spanish.

Perspectives on DistanceEducation in MexicoThe teaching-learning process substantially im-proves with the use of information technolo-gies. In Mexico, the main elements in informa-tion technologies are computer science, telecom-munications, and educational television.

Today, the teaching profession almost alwaysresorts to a combination of these media. Ideally,

this combination will produce the best results,both in on-site and in distance education. Theextremely valuable educational infrastructureand models contributed by SEP should serveas the cornerstone to developing distance edu-cation in Mexico. Both Edusat and EducationalData Processing Networks are outstanding intheir basic education activities (as already men-tioned), but it must be stressed that they areopen to the entire national educational system,as corroborated by the fact that a number ofuniversities, mainly UNAM, avail themselvesof these services.

High school programmesVirtual institutions

Master's degree in Educational Technologyby ILCE

On-line B.A. programmes for the2000-2001 semester

ENEPNursingFCAAccounting

FCP yS and ENEP-AInternational Rela-tions

FD and ENEP-ALawFEEconomics

Joint distance postgraduate programmesComputer Sciences and Engineering (FI, FC,FES-C, IIMAS, IE and IM)

Oceanography and Limnology (FC, FQ,ENEP-I, ICCyL and IG)

Biomedical Sciences (FM, FMVZ, IE,IFC,JIB, IQ, CIFN and CNB)

Institutional master's degrees (IMP, UNAM)

Joint master's degrees: M.A. in Education andData Communications (Telematics) granted bythe Organizadon Universitaria Interamericana's(OUI) Colegio de las Americas

Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America 63

72

Continuing educationCertificate course: High Management inNursing Services (UAM, UNAM, U-Veracruzana)

Certificate course: Data Processing for Medi-cal; Decision-making (UNAM's School ofMedicine)

Certificate course: Construction Costs(School of Engineering)

Certificate course: The computer in teach-ing activities (DGSCA)

Teacher training programmesLaboratory for Computer Science Teaching(ENEP Iztacala)

Education technologiesUNAM's comprehensive network (ItedUNAM)

Every institution of higher education and agrowing number of level K-12 institutionsare equipped with Internet services. Installedcapacity: approximately 100,000 computers.

Over 30 international links (to the U.S.A.)

National Videoconferencing NetworkThe UNAM is the main centre of operations forthe National Videoconferencing Network, with80 units distributed throughout different educa-tional institutions and public sector organisationsin the country.

UNAM is equipped with 23 units on campusand 2 in San Antonio, Texas and Hull, Canada.

The UNAM is permanently linked to theUniversity of Texas video-conferencing sys-tem, equipped with 122 sites

Permanent link with TTVN (Trans-TexasVideoconferencing Network), the Texas A &M University's Video-conferencing Networkwith more than 90 sites throughout Texas

Its permanent Open School in San Antonio,Texas, serves as a link to any videoconferencingsite in the world equipped with ISDN

EDUSAT(Educational Satellite Television Network)

Approximately 30,000 educational units withEDUSAT, particularly in secondary schools

1,895 hours of transmission during 1997 viaEDUSAT

750 videos produced during 1997, rangingfrom one-minute informative spots to one-hour science videos

The trace of EDUSAT's satellites covers amajor sector of the United States and LatinAmerica

Educational Data Processing Network2,300 educational units and close to one mil-lion participating children

However, it is also necessary to guaranteeeasy access to the media by creating fullyequipped schoolrooms, centres, and laborato-ries near the user's place of residence. At first,because investment and access to courses, librar-ies, data banks, evaluation systems, and didacticmaterials are difficult to obtain, inter-institutionalco-operation is absolutely indispensable. Eachinstitution contributes part of the input, to thebenefit of all concerned. The basic input mustinclude the following:

Courses, educational spots, didactic mate-rial, curriculum, study programmes, etc.

Evaluation and certification systems

Internet 2 (high capacity and low cost foreducational purposes)

Interactive video-conferencing network forcourses requiring considerable interactivity

Educational television system for tele-conferences and video on demand

Libraries offering digital service.

Information distribution tools (Web, "pushtechnologies," CD video servers)

64 Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America

73

Table 5.1

Distance Education in Mexican UniversitiesDistance education programmes:

Public Institutions curriculum and objectives Media and technology used

Benernerita Universidad Autonoma Interactive video-conference

de Puebla Television via satellite

Centro de Investigac ion y Estudios Avanzados Inter-campus communication Interactive video-conference

Conferences

Instituto Politecnico Nacional Continuing education Interactive video-conferenceTelevision via satellite

Instituto Tecnologico de Sonora Continuing education Interactive video-conferencePostgraduate studies Television via satellite

Universidad Aut6noma de Baja California Inter-campus communication Interactive video-conferenceTelevision via satellite

Universidad Aut6noma de Baja California Sur Continuing education Interactive video-conferencePostgraduate studies Television via satellite

Universidad Autonoma de Chihuahua Continuing education Interactive video-conferencePostgraduate studies Television via satellite

Universidad Aut6noma de Ciudad Juarez Continuing education Interactive video-conferencePostgraduate studies Television via satellite

Universidad Aut6noma de Guerrero Interactive video-conferenceTelevision via satellite

Universidad Aut6noma de Nuevo Leon Continuing education Interactive video-conferencePostgraduate studies Television via satellite

Universidad Autonoma de Sinaloa Interactive video-conferenceTelevision via satellite

Universidad Aut6noma de Tamaulipas Postgraduate studies Interactive video-conferenceInter-campus communication Television via satellite

Universidad Autenoma del Estado de Mexico B.A. in other f ields Materials delivery (writtenmaterial and videos mainly)Television via satellite

Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana Inter-campus communication Interactive video-conferenceTelevision via satellite

Universidad de Colima Continuing education Interactive video-conferencePostgraduate studies Television via satellite

Universidad de Guadalajara Continuing education Television via satelliteB.A. and postgraduate studies Audio-conference

Universidad de Occidente Continuing educationand Postgraduate studiesInter-campus communication

Interactive video-conference

Universidad de Quintana Roo B.A. courses imparted Interactive video-conferenceby other universities Television via satellite

Universidad de Sonora Continuing education Interactive video-conferencePostgraduate studies Television via satellite

Universidad Juarez del Estado de Durango Continuing education Interactive video-conferencePostgraduate studies Television via satellite

Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de Mexico B.A., Continuing education,Postgraduate studiesInter-campus communication

Interactive video-conferenceTelevision via satellite, Internet

Universidad Pedagogica Nacional Continuing education Television via satellite

Universidad Tecnologica de Nezahualc6yotl B.A. Continuing education Interactive video-conference

Universidad Veracruzana

Private institutions

Inter-campus communication Interactive video-conferenceContinuing education Television via satellite

InstitutoTecnolegico Aut6nomo de Mexico Continuing education Television via satellite

Instituto Tecnologico de EstudiosSuperiores de Monterrey

Continuing education Television via satellitePostgraduate studies Internet

Universidad Anahuac Inter-campus communication Interactive video-conferenceTelevision via satellite

Universidad LaSalle Inter-campus communication Interactive video-conference

Universidad Regiomontana Internet video-conference

Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America 65

7 4BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Computer Technology andTelecommunications inMexicoDuring the past decade, Mexico has experienceda substantial growth in its computer and telecom-munications infrastructure. This increase has never

been under 20% a year.In the field of telecommunications, Mexico

has 12 telephone sets for every 100 inhabitantsand a modern digital telecommunications infra-structure that includes 1,000 miles of optical fi-bre and numerous international links.

It has satellites with continental coverage, themost modern being the Satmex 5. The compu-ter system includes 4.2 million installed comput-ers, 600,000 of which will have access to Internetas of this year.

Several tables describing the existing infrastruc-

ture and projects for the near future appear below.

CURRENT CAPACITY FOR COMPUTER

EQUIPMENT (INSTALLED AND ESTIMATES)

To fully understand the Internet services market,it is necessary to update the number of personalcomputers throughout Mexico by economicsectors. We estimate that, in 1998, the numberof PCs totalled 4,167,518, considerably less thanthe originally estimated figure. This discrepancyis mainly due to the prevailing international

Table 5.2

financial situation, characterised by instability and

economic deceleration.Furthermore, in 1998, the home sector main-

tained a growth of 23% compared to the previ-ous year, since several manufacturers offered at-tractive financing packages to stimulate the de-mand from home users and companies alike.

The education sector maintains its 5% par-ticipation for the next few years, although it isdefinitely still a market with ample possibilitiesfor expansion since the industrial sector hasagreements with private universities to promotethe use of technology in education.

The Internet services market continues to reg-ister significant growth in Mexico, with favour-able prospects for the next few years, especiallyin regard to the number of users. It is estimatedthat by the end of 1998, 1.3 million additionalusers were connected to the network either viamodem or corporate link systems.

Although the number of Internet users con-tinues to grow at a high rate, it is limited by thenumber of personal computers. In 1997, thenumber of PCs installed in Mexico totaled 3.5million, and by the end of 1998 this figure willhave reached 4.2 million, that is, a 19% increase.

Furthermore, it is estimated that, in 1998,384,000 computers were connected to Internetvia modem. This figure represents a 123% increasecompared to the previous year, which was bol-

Installed Capacity of PCs in Mexico

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Home 786,068 966, 003 1,158,443 1,365,001 1,614,331 2,013,909

Government 263,331 354,239 460,944 595,671 761,741 947,722

Education 175,554 208,376 242,602 283,653 331,192 394,884

Business 2,286,127 2,638,900 2,990,056 3,428,729 3,916,572 4,541,167

Total 3,511,080 4,167,518 4,852,045 5,673,053 6,623,835 7,897,681

Swore: SelettIDC October, 1998

66 Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America

75

stered by the new PCs on the market offering thepossibility of connection to online services.

In the services market for access via mo-dem, the business sector is the most important,followed by home users. The segmentation ofaccess accounts and users by economic sectoris based on two conditions: the place where theaccess computer is located and the economicsector that pays for the user's access. Likewise,for the services market for access to Internetvia dedicated line, the business sector is onceagain in the lead, this time, followed by the edu-cational sector. Prior to the boom in Internetaccess services in Mexico registered in mid-1995,the educational sector was the largest participantin terms of the number of users and personalcomputers connected via a dedicated line. As of1996, Mexican companies have been the princi-pal promoters of this service.

However, according to estimates by the Se-lect-IDC company, the number of users fromthe educational sector will soon surpass those inthe government sector, both in regard to dial-up

Table 5.3

service as well as in the dedicated line service.Select-IDC also estimates that within the next

few years, the educational sector will not be rep-resented by universities only, but also by otheracademic institutions such as preparatory and evensecondary schools. Internet access devices willgradually replace television sets as interactive teach-

ing instruments. Probably, at first, there will befrom one to three computers per school, con-nected by dial-up links, but the number of de-vices and especially of users can significantly in-crease over the next few years. In order for thisto occur, however, there are two matters thatmust be attended to: reducing the cost of PCsand increasing the number of telephone lines.

Private homes have a greater ratio of usersfor each account (2 to 1). Because we are refer-ring to a segment that includes users from everyindustry and if someone has an Internet connec-tion, sponsored by his or her company or edu-cational institution, there will be greater interestin paying access service to the home, which canbe used by one or more individuals.

Internet Access Accounts in Mexico1997 1998

Home 67,085 130,504

Government 10,144 23,407

Education 118,935 274,466

Business 177,030 436,987

Total 173,194 865,364

Source: Select-IDC, November, 1998

Table 5.4

Internet Users in Mexico1997 1998

Home 140,878 272,058

Government 13,855 30,555

Education 141,814 302,406

Business 299,137 741,901

Total 595,684 1,348,920

1999 2000 2001 2002

230,866 357,339 516,431 738,929

37,673 59,469 106,623 142,239

339,289 502,181 584,045 1,005,615

781,936 1,169,017 1,665,963 2,405,985

1,389,763 2,088,006 2,873,061 4,292,768

1999 2000 2001 2002

484,818 750,413 1,084,504 1,551,751

47, 406 73,040 125,242 168,797

369,031 528,185 599,217 1,005,615

1,331,990 2,047,991 3,015,381 4,033,529

2,233,244 3,399,629 4,824,345 7,033,529

Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America 67

Table:5.5

Internet Accounts Paid in Mexico1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Home 55,416 108,318 191,619 296,592 428,637 613,311

Government 9,807 20,221 32,464 51,166 91,476 122,111

Education 31$98 21,600 26,552 39,495 45,927 80,096

Business 167,039 406,023 726,428 1,084,744 1,543,666 2,230,443

Total 264,159 556,162 977,063 1,471,996 2,109,706 3,045,960

Source: Select-IDC, November, 1998

Table 5.6

Percentage Distribution of Installed Capacity of PCs in Mexico1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Home 22 23 24 24 24 26

Government 8 9 10 11 2 12

Education 5 5 5 5 5 5

Business 65 63 62 60 59 58

Total 10036 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Somme: Select-IDC, October, 1998

An examination of the network card for thefirst semester of 1998 registered an increase inthe market, which we had underestimated. Thismeans that the number of PCs in LAN increased,due to last year's conservative projection.

The greater number of LAN networks af-fects the estimate of dedicated lines with accessto Internet. The number of computers connectedto a rural region is placed at approximately 1.5million units, and it is expected that by 2003, thisfigure will total 3 million units.

One of the niches that will grow most is theinstalled capacity of standalone PCs at home. Itis estimated that the compound growth rate willbe around 21%. By the year 2000, home partici-pation will be similar to the business sector, andit was estimated that by the end of 1998, 36%of the installed capacity of PCs would be foundat home, whereas the business sector's participa-tion would be 53%.

SERVICES MARKET WITH ACCESS TO

INTERNET: CURRENT STATUS AND

ESTIMATES

Although the home represents the highest growthrate for the year 2000, the government and busi-ness sectors register the fastest growth rate forthe total number of installed computers, espe-cially those with access to Internet. The marketaverage registers a 64% growth rate, while thegovernment will have a compound rate of 71%and business 68%.

During the next few years, the institutions fromthe government sector will attempt to reduce thegap of Internet access for private institutions.However, this scenario does not seem altogetherfeasible because businesses will maintain their highgrowth rate, in view of their greater infrastruc-ture of installed computers.

68 Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America

77

Table 5.7

Installed Capacity of PCs in LAN

Home

1997

0

1998

0

1999

0

Government 73,602 161,040 245,313

Education 49,068 94,729 129,112

Business 638,980 1,199,662 1,591,299

Total 761,650 1,455,431 1,965,724

Swore: Select-IDC, October, 1998

Table 5.8

Services Market with Internet Access1997 1998 1999

Home 53,668 104,403 184,623

Government 9,366 21,908 35,631

Education 34,484 56,635 71,498

Business 166,938 411,788 736,477

Total 264,456 594,734 1,028,298

20000

2001

0

20020

342,779 427,122 498,996

163,228 185,705 207,915

1,973,062 2,196,095 2,391,022

2,479,068 2,808,923 3,097,933

2000 2001 2002

285,871 413,145 591,143

56,622 102,717 136,668

103,969 120,997 194,724

1,096,374 1,554,441 2,248,846

1,542,837 2,191,298 3,171,381

Somme: Select-IDC, November, 1998

Table 5.9

Distribution of Installed Capacity of PCs with Internet in Mexico,according to type of connection (percentage)

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Dial-Up 65 65 66 69 73 71

Dedicated 35 35 34 31 27 29

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Select-IDC, November, 1998

Table 5.10

Distribution of PCs with Internet in Mexico, according to type ofservice (percentage)

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2000

Home 20 18 18 19 19 19

Government 4 4 3 4 5 4

Education 13 10 7 7 6 6

Business 63 69 72 71 71 71

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

Some: Select-IDC, November, 1998.

Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America 69

78

Distance Education inArgentinaArgentina is one of the Latin American coun-tries most interested in incorporating distance edu-cation to meet the growing educational demandsof its population. The institutions and organisa-tions offering this option within their curriculaand study plans are described below.

ESA OPEN SECONDARY SCHOOL

PROGRAM

After conducting an exhaustive evaluation on theneed for providing continuing education to a sig-nificant sector of the population in the Misionesprovince who had only completed primaryschool, and reviewing the professional, technical,and economic possibilities for offering it via theSIPTED (provincial system for tele-courses anddevelopment), the ESA Open Education Pro-gram was launched in August 1997. Thus, ESAwas transformed into one more area of theSIPTED, a decentralised agency with the objec-tive of promoting, planning, and developing theimplementation of audiovisual methods to im-prove and facilitate academic and extracurriculareducation for the Misiones community.

The beneficiaries of the Argentinean distanceeducation system are young people and adultswho were not retained by the formal educationalsystem, inhabitants of rural areas, governmentemployees, and convicts.

The programme is characterised by a semion-site mode where the only requirement isattendance at the evaluation meeting. It imple-ments a multimedia educational approach(printed material, audio cassettes, and video) andincludes 73 units especially designed to fulfil theusers' particular educational requirements.

SIPTED's strategic tools in these regions areradio and television, since the topography, as wellas the high costs involved, make it difficult to use

the usual infrastructure. The duration and fre-quency of the radio transmissions are tailored tothe specific curricular requirements. The pro-grammes are produced and recorded by the ra-dio co-ordinator and curriculum specialists whouse colloquial, non-rhetorical language designedto awaken the listeners' interest and hold theirattention.

Television and video offer multiple possi-bilities, and ESA incorporates them as a com-plementary aid to the multimedia learning proc-ess. The province's open circuit is used for thispurpose and, as of July 1996, a one-hour tele-course entitled "Teleducacion: una miradaabierta" is transmitted every evening, fromMonday to Friday. The materials complementthe printed subject matter in each area. The videolibrary includes its own productions along withthose produced by other educational televisionservices, thus meeting the needs of 350 relatedinstitutions.

ARGENTINEAN AIR FORCE (FAA)

In 1972, Argentina's Air Force, fully aware ofthe need for providing its employees and theirimmediate families with the opportunity tostudy different levels of education when sta-tioned abroad, designed and instituted the Dis-tance Education Curriculum, approved via anagreement with the Ministry of Culture andEducation.

It started as an institutional project to fulfillthe needs of the Argentinean Air Force's employ-ees and staff. Today, it provides a fundamentalsocial and educational service that responds tothe cultural requirements of every citizen who,for any number of reasons, is living abroad.This plan is available to Argentineans anywherein the world where there is an Argentinean em-bassy, consulate, or cultural attache. The head-quarters are located in Buenos Aires, theArgentinean capital.

70 Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America

I

The distance education programme com-prises two levels: primary and secondary school,and grants the approximate equivalent of a B.A.and commercial degrees.

UNIVERSIDAD CATOLICA DEL NORTES

(CED)The Universidad Catolica del Norte's (CED's)principal mission is to contribute, via its distanceeducation programme, to the development of auniversity curriculum in order to efficiently attainthe university's educational goals on regional, na-tional, and international levels. The strategic ob-jectives are the following:

To develop distance education mode at thehighest academic level, consolidate its ownidentity, and contribute to the developmentof society as a whole.

To diagnose both current and prospectiveneeds, on a national and international level,for training programmes, specialisation andrecycling purposes in different areas.

To collaborate with different units in theuniversity itself for the production of non-resident academic courses and to provide thecorresponding technological and administra-tive macrostructure required for their opera-tion.

To explore new media alternatives and validmaterials for distance didactic communica-tion and to promote exchange of views withother similar organisations.

To improve the level of human resourcesand expand the CED's physical and equip-ment infrastructure.

UNIVERSIDAD DE BELGRANO

It is expected that by the 21" century, special skillswill be the most important instrument in per-sonal and institutional development. The Univer-sity of Belgrano (UB), via the UBFED, submits

an educational proposal that surmounts the ob-stacles of time and distance peculiar to a countryas large as Argentina.

UBFED is a federalist concept with whichthe University of Belgrano proposes to meet theeducational needs of the different local and re-gional realities by means of a distance educationalprogramme. To this end, television is the mostappropriate medium for reaching these sites, sinceit offers their residents the opportunity to im-prove and update their skills in different areas.

UBFED has the following characteristics:Multimedia material prepared by teams ofArgentinean and foreign specialists, whichincludes printed matter, TV programmes,and comprehensive CDs.

TV programmes designed and produced inthe UBTV studios in accordance with theacademic requirements of each discipline.

Tutoring service via telephone, fax, and e-mail.

On site meetings and final exams in differ-ent sites throughout the country.

Academic year comprised of three four-month courses.

UNIVERSIDAD DEL SALVADOR

In order to reconcile personal and job needs foreducational advancement with the interested par-ties' different and varied schedules, the Universidaddel Salvador has implemented a flexible methodof distance education. For the first time in the areaof linguistics, the Vice-Rectorate of Research andDevelopment's Office of Scientific Publicationshas programmed three non-resident workshopsin written expression. It is aimed at students in-terested in improving their writing skills withoutneglecting their corresponding professions, stud-ies, or activities.

The Universidad del Salvador offers work-shops in spelling, punctuation, and composition.

Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America 7 1

80

Table 5.11

Degrees and Courses Offered by the Argentinean Distance Education System

Academic Level Course Institution

Basic Education Open and Distance Secondary Education (ESA)

Primary and Secondary School(BA. and Commercial Certificate)

SIPTED (Provincial System for Tele-courses and Development)

FAA (Argentinean Air Force)

SecondaryEducation

Two-year Technical SchoolTechnical Education and Vocational Training

Technical Education for the Services Sector

FED (Universidad de Belgrano's Distance Education Department)

(CED) Universidad Cat6lica del Node's Distance Education Center

B.A. University Education

Vocational Training in EducationCivil EngineeringB.A. in Education

SEADH (Hernandarias Open and Distance Education System)

(CED) Universidad Cat6lica del Node's Distance Education Center

PostgraduateM.A.

Vocational Training in EducationEducational ManagementEducational EvaluationEducational Psychology

(CED) Universidad Cat6lica del Node's Distance Education Center

ContinuingEducationCertificateCourses

Professional UpgradingProfessional Upgrading in Strategic Management

Distance Education Programme in Dermatology (PREADERM)

Diploma in Management of Technical and Educational UnitsDiploma in Educational EvaluationDiploma in Family CounselingDiploma in Administration of Human ResourcesDiploma in Total Quality ManagementDiploma in Environmental ManagementDiploma in Public RelationsDiploma in Conduct Training for Children and Adults

Diploma in Management of Technical and Educational Units

FED (Universidad de Belgrano's Distance Education Department)

UB (Universidad de Belgrano)

(CED) Universidad Cat6lica del Norte's Distance Education Center

FED (Universidad de Belgrano's Distance Education Department)

Courses Televised course on New Technologies for Distance Education

Open Certificate CoursesBusiness TrainingEntrepreneurship and Creation of Small Businesses

Spelling WorkshopPunctuation WorkshopComposition Workshop

UNA (Universidad Nacional Abierta)

FED (Universidad de Belgrano's Distance Education Department)

Universidad del Salvador

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

72 Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America

81

These workshops can be joined any time duringthe year and offer personalised attention to thestudents, despite their absence. Although studentsare not present, everyone always has a teacher toguide them.

Literature teachers are directly responsiblefor these workshops and are always availableto the participants to help them with problemsthat may arise. They may be contacted for con-sultations via mail, fax, telephone, or e-mail and,in certain cases, even personal interviews arealso feasible. The flexibility offered tends tostimulate creative and reflexive skills in creatingand correcting written texts.

SEADH (I-TPRNANDARIAS OPEN AND

DISTANCE EDUCATION SYSTEM)

The SEADH is the first of its kind in Argentina,along the lines of the great institutions dedicatedto this particular educational model such as theOpen University in the U.K., the UniversidadNacional de Education a Distancia in Spain, theUniversidad Es tatal a Distancia in Costa Rica, andthe Universidad Nacional Abierta in Venezuela.

SEADH was conceived as an innovative al-ternative to the traditional educational mode,attending to the demands for ongoing trainingand professional advancement required bymodern society. Within this framework, theSEADH is a valid tool, not only for those con-templating a university education, but also forthose whose family or work commitments pre-vent them from regularly attending the conven-tional educational centres and adhering to fixedschedules and calendars.

Distance Education in CubaDistance education as an alternative began in Cubain 1994. With the introduction of e-mail, it hasproved to be, without being a formally super-vised process, an extremely valuable source of

information and feedback. It has especially filledthe needs of those living in remote areas whereit is difficult to offer constant, conventional at-tention. The greatest challenges are updating, pre-paring, and developing these resources.

This mode of educational technology, initi-ated by the cursos por encuentro system, has beenapplied to secondary as well as to postgraduatecourses. This is only a variation of the type ofprogramme where many mid-level technicianshave completed their B.A. degrees, with on-siteactivities taking place every two or three weeks.Audiovisual media are used and the study grouphas homework to do.

The following courses are taught in thisprogramme:

Training in the distance health programme

Organisation and development in the Vir-tual University of Medical Sciences

At present, distance education in Cuba is sus-tained by incorporating data communications withthe traditional non-resident model. Since no otherinteractive and methodological activities with thestudent can be substituted, it increases the possi-bilities for implementing this particular activity.

The structure of this university is comprisedof the following:

Its main headquarters: CENAPEM (NationalCenter for Medical Advancement)

INFOMED: the structure that allows for thedevelopment of this process

ENSP: National School of Public Health

CECAM: Center of Computer Applicationto Medicine

CENAPET: National Center for TechnicalAdvancement

Medical Sciences Network

25 Schools, including Medicine, Stomatol-ogy, and B.A. degrees in Nursing

Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America 73

15 provincial centres for Academic and Pro-fessional Advancement (should be connectedto the network by next year)

Reference centre

4 national centres

4 medical schools

4 national research centres

Every five years, all health care professionalsmust accumulate a given number of academiccredits and submit to a re-evaluation processwhich requires an effort on the part of the sys-tem to provide these professionals with accessto these credits. Therefore, the use of distanceeducation constitutes a decisive tool.

Table 5.12

Degrees and Courses Offered by theCuban Distance Education SystemAcademic Course Institution

Level

Development of HumanResources for theHealth Sector

CENAPEM(National Center forMedicalAdvancement)

Virtual UniversityMedical Sciences

ENSP(National School ofPublic Health)

Distance Education inVenezuela

UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL ABIERTA

The programme offered by the UniversidadNacional Abierta forms part of the IESADproject (Innovation for Distance University Edu-cation for Latin America and the Caribbean) totrain multiplying or innovative agents in distanceeducation. It is aimed at professional teachersand related fields, interested in obtaining a gen-eral, updated perspective of open and distanceeducation. It includes three courses:

Basic principles of distance education

New technologies for distance education

Design of curriculum for distance education

Table 5.13

Degrees and Courses Offered by theVenezuela Distance Education SystemAcademic Course InstitutionLevel

(Short Courses) Innovators inDistance Education

UNA(UniversidadNacional Abierta)

Distance Education inColombiaIn some Central and South American countries,there have been significant breakthroughs in the field

of distance education. A case in point is Colombia.In 1983, Colombia's legislation decreed the imple-mentation of open and distance education.

The principal goals for Colombia's distanceeducation programme are to prepare and trainpeople without neglecting the traditional teach-ing methods. Students have access to personal-ised consultations and so they, too, can form studygroups at the university level.

The idea is for students to change over fromthe traditional classroom, where all activities havea given value while neglecting the cognitive proc-ess and the mastery of certain skills. In this sense,they modify their concept of master classes byseeking greater interaction between the subject andthe object. The motivating factor is the search forinformation and the incorporation of readingmaterials into the learning process. Furthermore,they learn to develop their special skills for re-search and value judgement purposes.

One of the main challenges confronting dis-tance education models is the difference betweeneach specialty. The distance education model has

74 Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America

83

not sufficiently perfected the axis of skills uponstressing the acquisition of learning itself (cogni-tive axis) and the socialisation of the students inregard to autonomous, responsible learning.

The purpose of education is to attain greatercompetitiveness in the students in every aspect,so that the student-teacher relationship is based

on the intelligent, productive command of lan-guage, on theoretical references, and on the ex-change of information to present existing prob-lems and conceive their creative solutions. Thisprocess tends to create a spirit of co-operationthrough the network system to train academic,scientific, technological, cultural, and other typesof organisational structures. It is also conduciveto the development of critical and creativethought in every area of human knowledge. Aswell, it develops reflective skills and ethical rea-soning in community life, democratic participa-tion, emotional life, and the appreciation of whatis aesthetic, cultural, and enjoyable.

The institutional educational projects and theacademic government organisations will be in charge

of instilling public awareness toward greater par-ticipation in the new educational culture.

Distance Education in PeruIn Peru, distance education presents several con-trasts. Schools have installed computer laboratoriesand hired professional or university technicians tohead them and teach computer courses. Specialisedpersonnel with different pedagogical backgroundshave been hired to teach these courses, and theircurriculum is defined according to the guidelinesestablished by prestigious computer centres.

Many of these centres have become mini-com-puter schools that merely provide instructionsregarding the use of professional software pack-ages instead of adequately preparing teachers toimpart regular courses with the aid of dataprocessing techniques.

In Peru, only the Universidad de San Ignaciode Loyola has developed a project of this type.They have an agreement with a Mexican univer-sity that commercialises courses in Peru. Unfor-tunately, its high cost has transformed it into anelitist activity. Furthermore, only a very small per-centage of the population owns a computer; thisis a country that consumes special skills insteadof producing them.

What must be done is to create policies forcomputer use in education and encourage theirimplementation, develop educational softwarematerials in accordance with the needs of thecountry, or else, incorporate other applied tech-nologies to education. Universities must agree toprovide free service to certain sectors of thepopulation as well as provide data for the net-work for this model to function properly.

Distance Education inCosta RicaIn 1977, the Costa Rican legislative assembly cre-ated the Universidad Estatal a Distancia (UNED).At that time, there were 29 university centresthroughout the country, offering over 30 uni-versity degrees on a four-month basis. They hadover 12,000 active students during each aca-demic period.

A large number of young, recent secondaryschool graduates, homemakers, educators, work-ers, and others are only a few of the studentsinterested in distance education courses. In everypart of the country there are people eager forself-improvement and who, for different reasons,have not had access to formal education.

UNED also offers courses for foreigners; theonly requirement is a secondary school diploma.And these are the countries that, in our judgement,represent present-day distance education in LatinAmerica. As can be observed, the enormous chal-lenges that must be faced demand greater effortsin order to provide greater social benefits.

Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America 75

APPENDIX 5.1:Literacy in Mexico by Age Group

Population aged 15 years or more, total and able to read and write, perfive-year age groups. 1990,1992, and 1995 (Mexico)

1990 1992 1995

Age group Total

Able toread & write Total

Able toread & write Total

Able toread & write

15-19 years 9,644,403 9,268,722 10,000,883 9,614,849 10,142,071 9,730,017

20-24 years 7,829,163 7,395,703 7,985,691 7,632,724 9,397,424 8,991,528

25 -29 years 6,404,512 5,929,468 6,562,704 6,152,535 7,613,090 7,192,154

30-34 years 5,387,619 4,921,654 5,773,021 5,298,479 6,564,605 6,105,261

35-39 years 4,579,116 4,019,224 5,118,139 4,528,529 5,820,178 5,290,888

40-44 years 3,497,770 2,955,583 3,878,136 3,331,319 4,434,317 3,919,727

45-49 years 2,971,860 2,376,584 3,311,565 2,674,420 3,612,452 3,051,793

50-54 years 2,393,791 1,854,185 2,689,993 2,075,599 2,896,049 2,336,765

55-59 years 1,894,484 1,407,978 2,375,211 1,655,760 2,231,897 1,725,085

60-64 years 1,611,317 1,119,088 1,991,915 1,337,770 1,941,953 1,415,173

65 yearsand over

3,376,841 2,105,878 3,761,990 2,237,256 4,027,690 2,619,770

Total 49,610,876 43,354,067 53,449,248 46,539,240 58,681,726 52,378,51

Source: INEGI XI Censo General de Poblacidn y Vivienda, 1990, Encuesta Nacional de la Dindmica Demografica, 1992 and Estados

Unidar Mexicans. Conteo de Poblacidn y Vivienda 95. Definite results. Basic tabulations.

Enrolled students at the beginning of the course, according to school level1990/91-96/97 (Mexico)

(Thousands)

School Level 1990/91 1991/92 1992/93 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97

Preschool 2,734.1 2,791.5 2,858.9 2,980.0 3,092.8 3,170.0 3,238.3

Primary 14,401.6 14,397.0 14,425.6 14,469.5 14,574.2 14,623.4 14,650.5

Job Training 413.6 407.3 402.6 391.0 428.0 463.4 498.8

Secondary 4,190.2 4,160.7 4,203.1 4,341.9 4,493.2 4,687.3 4,809.3

TechnlcaVa 378.9 410.9 410.2 406.5 407.0 388.0 383.8

High School 1,721.6 1,725.3 1,767.0 1,837.7 1,936.4 2,050.7 2,222.3

Teacher Tralning/b 109.0 104.8 111.0 120.2 137.3 160.0 188.4

B.A. 1,097.1 1,164.0 1,144.2 1,192.7 1,217.2 1,295.0 1,329.7

Postgraduate 45.9 47.5 51.5 55.1 66.0 77.8 94.3

Total 25,092.0 25,209.0 25,374.1 25,794.6 26,352.1 26,915.6 27,415.4

a: Technical level

b: B.A. in Teacher Trai n ing

Source: INEGI, bared on data provided by SEP. BEST COPY AVAILABLE

76 Open and Distance Education Programmes in Latin America

8 5

e w14111 pean Trends in the Virtual

D\elivery of EducationDR. ROBIN MASON

Issues and PerspectivesThe European Union, through its various researchand development funding initiatives, has been amajor driver of educational change in Europeover the last 10 years. First through the DELTAtelematics programme, and now through a widerange of programmes such as Fourth Frame-work, Leonardo, Socrates, and Adapt, a largenumber of projects have been initiated acrossEurope. Some of these investigate the technol-ogy backbone, some the pedagogical approaches;others set up European study centres, yet othersdevelop software and courses. All of these are anecessary part of the movement towards virtualteaching and an integrated environment for pan-European delivery of courses.

The rush by traditional campus-based institu-tions into distance education has been headlongin North America over the last 10 years or so.The last five have seen this phenomenon in theU.K. and Scandinavian countries. My survey ofother European countries leads me to hypoth-esise that, as the power and prestige of the tradi-tional old universities are still intact, they may leap-

frog over the interim step of distance education,and go straight to modest forms of virtual edu-cation. At this point, these modest forms usuallyinvolve a connection with a university abroad (e.g.,in the United States).

It is clear that the new growth area in educa-tion is the lifelong learning market. And althoughthe rhetoric about virtual education is that it willextend to the disadvantaged, the remote, thehousebound, and the unemployed, those whoare signing up for virtual education are the ad-vantaged, the upwardly mobile, the "over-em-ployed" (i.e, those who are already incrediblybusy), and the well educated. There is evidencefrom practitioners that virtual education is moreappropriate and more successful for the advan-taged learner: one who is motivated, has goodlearning skills, and has easy access to technology.

Before focusing on those issues peculiar toEuropean attitudes and approaches to virtualeducation, it is necessary to acknowledge the simi-larities of the concept of the virtual university inEurope compared with attitudes elsewhere. Thedegree of over-excitement about virtual educa-tion, the overuse of the term "virtual university,"and the expectations of its cost-saving proper-ties and messianic solution to problems in edu-cation are as undiluted here as elsewhere. Forexample, the search term virtual university and Eu-

rope, on the Web search engine AltaVista giveswell over 100,000 hits, although none of what Iconsider the front runners in virtual educationactually appear in this list. So there is much pos-turing and unsupported use of terms with littlesubstance behind the rhetoric.

European Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education 77

In turning to the unique aspects of the Euro-pean scene, by far the most notable is the mix oflanguages. Virtual education is "linguistically sen-sitive," making even the concept of a pan-Euro-pean course fall at the first stumblingblock. Eng-

lish is the de facto common language for muchcross-country online teaching in Europe, but thispractice inevitably excludes many southern Eu-ropean participants. A number of models have

been tried on EU-funded projects to handle thelanguage problem: teaching material in English,but tutoring in the local language; simultaneoustranslation of video-conference presentations;focus around three central languages. But it isevident from the examples given below, that manyof the virtual initiatives remain within one coun-try, use English only, or partner with same lan-guage countries outside Europe.

There are also cultural difficulties with pan-European courses. While many centre on linguis-tic misunderstandings, others operate at a moresubtle level. They are particularly evident in onlinetext-based discussions where the intricacies ofhuman interaction highlight differences in modesof address, approaches to collaborative work,tone of voice, and attitudes to assessment. Ofcourse, these differences can be found in teach-ing situations whether face-to-face or online any-where in the world, as all countries become moremulticultural. In Europe, they are the norm ratherthan the exception

The differences in pedagogical approaches toeducation are equally as daunting a barrier to vir-tual education as is language. Student-centred,constructivist notions about learning hold swayacross mainstream educational providers in theU.K. and northern European countries (TheNetherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Finland). Tra-ditional, teacher-centred transmissive approachesstill dominate thinking in France, Germany, andthe Latin countries. The notion of virtual educa-tion can and does encompass both approachesand various technologies support one approach

more strongly than the other. For example, video-conferencing replicates the lecture and is appro-priate to a teacher-centred approach, whereastext-based asynchronous messaging supports astudent-centred approach. Just as so many tech-nologies have converged on the Web, so bothpedagogies are supported by it as well: closed-loop teaching material with multiple guess assess-ment on the one hand, and resource-based, in-teractive and collaborative courses on the other.

The deregulation of the telecommunicationsinfrastructure in Europe has been 10 to 15 yearsbehind that of North America, and that has madea big difference in the development of virtualeducation models. The high cost of local calls,much less long distance ones, in Europe has beena significant disincentive to online teaching. TheU.K. has led the way in this deregulation, just as ithas in all forms of online and virtual education.Other countries are catching up quickly and thenew growth area is expected to be in Germanywith the anticipated lowering of call charges. Ineastern Europe, the telephone infrastructure hasbeen too poor to support home-based access tothe Internet, and in any case, distance educationstill has the reputation of being second best there.Through the Phare programme www.phare-pcu.bg

the EU is now funding several initiatives in vari-ous eastern European countries, but most are inthe "awareness raising" stage.

Finally, the system of credit transfer in NorthAmerica has never existed in Europe and is asignificant barrier to some forms of virtual edu-cation. Students need, on the whole, to com-plete all of their degree with one institution, al-though there are now EU-funded schemes tophysically go to other institutions for periodsof up to a year.

Training is the one sector of learning that cutsacross many of these barriers in Europe. Com-panies with a global or international presence haveinitiated training schemes in virtual environmentsand, with some exceptions, could be said to be

78 European Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education

leading the way in virtual teaching in Europe. Themost notable are still in the information and com-munication technology (ICT) and telecoms field,but others are in the planning stages.

Primary and secondary education has alsoreceived heavy funding from EU research anddevelopment monies. In the early days, this in-volved simple link-ups between schools to ex-change e-mails about "life in my country." Re-cently much more ambitious schemes haveemerged, usually funded by national governmentsto provide computers and network access inschools.

Training for teachers has also finally been rec-ognised as a major barrier to the developmentof the technology and every European countryhas schemes in various stages of implementationto increase teachers' ICT skills. Italy, Germany,Sweden, and the U.K. are prominent examples.One of the most interesting EU-funded initia-tives is Netd@ys which aims to promote Euro-pean school projects on the Internet, encouragepublic and private, partnerships, and support theestablishment of a European SchoolNet.

Current Examples of VirtualEducation in EuropeTwo major types of examples of virtual educa-tion can be examined. The first consists of ex-amples of virtual education in which existingproviders of learning opportunities are movingto ICT-based provision of courses directly tostudents. The second type encompasses organi-sations that have been created through alliancesand partnerships to facilitate teaching and learn-ing. In some cases they commission courses wherenone exist. Although this kind of umbrella or-ganisation existed before the ICT revolution, thereis no doubt that many more initiatives have sprungup in the last few years.

DIRECT PROVIDERS

NKr, centred in Oslo and specialising in com-puter and ICT subjects, has offered onlinedistance education courses since 1987. NKINettskolen is a new initiative designed fordistance students to be able to do all theircommunication online. The philosophy ofNKI Nettskolen has always been to offerprogrammes independent of time and spacethrough a system that facilitates flexible com-munication for administrative, social, andteaching purposes.

Thirty courses have now been transferredto the Web with the course contents, whichused to be in print. Although NKI will gradu-ally move towards a curriculum designedspecifically for the Web, in the meantime thesecourses reflect the "horseless carriage" ap-proach to virtual teaching: materials pro-duced for one medium are poured into an-other with minimal accommodation to theunique features of the new medium.

NKI is convinced that flexibility is thecentral feature of the marketability of theircourses. Students need to be able to registerfor courses when they choose, study whenand where they choose and submit for ex-amination when they choose. This use of theWeb is compatible with such an approach.

Web site: www.nettskolen.com

U.K Open University (UKOU) has always fo-cused on accepting students without regardto previous qualifications, rather than onchoice of registration and examination. Infact, pacing of workload through assess-ment, face-to-face meetings, and tutor sup-port have been longstanding principles ofits approach. As the market changes, someof these "sacred cows" are giving way toonline methods, modularised courses, andreductions in face-to-face tutoring.

European Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education 79

There are two ways in which the UKOUmight be said to have entered the virtualmarket: in the global spread of its coursedelivery, and the movement towards onlinetutoring and administrative support forcourses. It has not, nor does it foresee, puttingthe content of courses on the Web. Print ischeaper, provides better quality, and is moreflexible; putting large amounts of materialon the Web merely transfers costs to students.

The UKOU has various arrangementswith partners and franchised institutions in avast number of countries. In some cases,course materials are merely sold to other in-stitutions, but mostly UKOU retains a tutor-ing, marking, administering, or awarding rolein the delivery of courses in the local coun-try. In several eastern European countries,materials have been translated, and in somecountries, materials have been adapted, short-ened, or "localised" to fit the needs of thepurchasing institution.

The UKOU has over 7,000 students oncontinental western Europe and these, alongwith 32,000 U.K students, access the Internetfor tutoring and other services. These num-bers still represent only about one-fifth of thetotal student population. The main barrier tofurther spread of online tutoring is lack ofcomputer and Internet access by the studentbody. Research points to the fact that disad-vantaged students, females, and those in artsand social sciences are put off from register-ing by the requirement to have access. TheUKOU policy is to increase this requirementin line with evidence of home ownership.

Web site: www.open.ac.uk

British Aempace Virtual University was created

in 1997 and launched in 1998 to provide acoherent strategy, focus, and alignment to thedesign and delivery of learning, develop-ment, and research programmes across the

whole company. While the ultimate aim is tosecure competitiveness and enhance businessperformance, the interim purpose is to movetowards a culture where individuals are en-couraged to manage their own learning.Online delivery of training and professionalupdating will be a significant step towardsthis goal, unlike the current face-to-face,"stand-up" training it replaces. British Aero-space is in the process of making partner-ships with various education and trainingproviders to deliver part of the requiredcurriculum. ICT training, for example, willbe carried out in part by a suite of self-man-aged online learning packages (CD-ROMs)which staff access from special training fa-cilities set aside within British Aerospace.Other partners include various universities,such as the UKOU, which will providecourses, administrative know-how, and train-the-trainer materials.

As one of the most visible "corporateuniversities" on the European horizon, thisone is notable for the way in which it putscurriculum, organisational transformation,and staff training before technology and hypeabout virtual education.

Web site: www.bae.co.uk

VIRTUAL SCHOOLING

Most European countries are working towardsa more technologically driven school system inwhich students are provided with more individu-alised learning, better Internet and computer skills,and increased interactivity both within their coun-tries and around the world. The extent to whichthis is happening across Europe is largely contin-gent on the availability of resources and the levelof commitment of both governments and part-ners from the private sector. Three examples in-clude Denmark, The Netherlands, and the U.K.

80 European Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education

89

Denmark: The Danish government is fundingan ambitious programme of training andskills development in teachers and studentsat all levels. For example, Schools on theInternet is a project inviting students to com-municate both nationally and internationallyand to access a range of appropriate re-sources. The goal is to have all lower sec-ondary and private schools in Denmark con-nected to the network by the year 2000.

The Netherlands: Information technology hasbeen integrated into the main policy themesfor primary and secondary education in TheNetherlands. In primary education, the fo-cus is on the computer as an educational tooland as a medium for teaching and learning.At the secondary level, the emphasis is placedon giving the student greater responsibilitywhile the teacher takes on a supervisory role.For example, the Scharnier-Project OostBrabant project, subsidised by public funds,brings together both schools and higher edu-cation establishments with the aim of facili-tating pupils' transitions from secondary tohigher education. The network consists of27 schools and five institutions of higherlearning. The initiative assists pupils to adaptto autonomous learning and the changingrole of the teacher.

Web site: www.pth.n1/ scharnier/ homepage.htm

The National Grid for Learning is the U.K. gov-

ernment's recent initiative to improve accessto ICT by all schools in the primary and sec-ondary sector. It provides resources for useby teachers as well as materials for direct useby students. It also caters specifically for homeschoolers. It offers communication facilitiesfor teachers to exchange ideas and for stu-dents to communicate within and acrossschools. It is Web-based, but additional fea-tures include some use of ISDN. The Website for the National Grid is www.niZgov.uk.

Connected to this initiative is a BritishLottery-funded project to provide ICT train-ing for all primary and secondary schoolteachers in the U.K. Using the National Gridand the equipment and network it provides,teachers will be offered a certificated pro-gramme of training geared specifically fortheir curriculum areas. In addition, head teach-ers in England and Wales are currently beingoffered a programme of leadership train-ing, which includes a Web-based ICT com-ponent to enable them to understand andmanage the spread of ICT in their schools.

Two examples of early programmes in-clude the following:

1. Students across Europe: Monkseaton Com-

munity High School, Whitley Bay, hasundertaken a project on the develop-ment of modern language skills, withpupils communicating with their French,German, and Spanish counterpartsthrough the use of wideband (ISDN2)and narrowband technology, includingvideo-con ferencing links. The benefitshave been considerable and includeimproved results at A level, improvedmotivation of pupils, improved con-versational skills in languages, and de-velopment of cultural understanding.The Web site is wwwncl.ac.uk/ S chools /

2. Superhighways Teams Across Rural Schools

(STARS): Eighteen small primaryschools, with four teachers or fewer,and two secondary schools took partin this project based at Northern Col-lege of Education in Aberdeen andDundee. The project aimed to enhanceprovision for able pupils and made useof electronic communications technol-ogy, including a conference system.There was a wide range of benefits for

European Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education 81

able pupils, including increased confi-dence and enthusiasm, opportunity toshare ideas with high-ability pupils inother schools, new awareness that peersfrom other schools could out-performthem, greater attentiveness to the needsof others, and taking greater responsi-bility for their own learning.

EDUCATION BROKERS

EuroPACE 2000 is a trans-European networkof universities, enterprises, and organisationswith an interest in distance and continuingeducation and training. EuroPACE 2000 hasapproximately 60 member organisations allover Europe, 45 of which are universities.By using various models, EuroPACE 2000aims to demonstrate and develop the po-tential of telematics for the European uni-versities and for the lifelong learning marketgenerally. In this sense, it promotes itself ascontributing towards a virtual university ofEurope.

Using EU funding, EuroPACE contin-ues to experiment with ISDN-based video-conferencing and satellite-based interactivetelevision. These are the technologies it usesfor its "virtual university campus and class"model. For its networked learning-on-de-mand model, it promotes the Internet andparticularly the Web. Its third initiative cen-tres on a European Ph.D. programme.

This is an initiative that is always in need offunding and seems reliant on EU grants. Inshort, after more than five years, it has still not

moved past the "funded experiments" stage.

Web site: www.europace.be

Clyde Virtual Univerri (CVU) is funded bythe Scottish Higher Education FundingCouncil through its use of the MetropolitanArea Network Initiative. It is dedicated to

the delivery of Internet-based multimedialearning materials to students at institutionsconnected to the ClydeNet MAN. Led byStrathclyde University, CVU is a collabora-tive project involving four additional partici-pating institutions in the Clyde region.

One of the main aims of the CVU is toconvert existing pieces of courseware includ-ing CAL packages originally developed inauthoring software such as Toolbook andAuthorware, lecture notes, and graphics invarious formats, along with its own assess-ment engine, for delivery over the Web. Inshort, the purpose of the collaboration is touse the broadband network put in placethroughout the area to deliver platform-in-dependent multimedia software via the Web.The greater bandwidth of the MAN facili-tates the speedier download of graphics,sound, and video files.

A graphic designer was employed to cre-ate a futuristic front-end to the Web site,adding to the professional image of the CVUand helping to ensure its acceptance amongstudents and staff across the ClydeNet. Thethinking is that a visually appealing site helpstransform a simple structure of textual menusinto a more immersive environment.

Between May 1996 and January 1997,over 1,000 students and staff had registeredto use CVU. Evaluation studies show a veryfavourable response from users.

This initiative falls into the category of"extension of existing campus resources."However, CVU plans to produce severalcomplete courses delivered entirely on theMANs. In this sense, it contributes to thefurther convergence of the old division be-tween traditional campus and distance edu-cation provision.

Web site: www.cvu.strath.ac.uk /index.html

82 European Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education

Virtual University Enterprises (VUE) is a divi-

sion of National Computer Systems andspecialises in ICT testing and training infra-structure services. It has engaged a globalnetwork of electronic testing centres to of-fer exams for individuals seeking certifica-tion from Microsoft, Novell, and Sybase. Italso provides real-time course registration andtraining administration services via the Internet.

VUE is headquartered in Bloomington, Min-nesota in the United States, but has its Euro-pean centre in The Netherlands.

VUE's Web-based training informationsystem provides access to a database of ICTtraining sources around the globe. The com-pany works with large corporations to cus-tomise its services. In essence, VUE enablescorporations that need to train a variety ofemployees in a wide variety of skills, to createtheir own "virtual university" accessible onlyby their own employees, with VUE helpingto manage the corporation's training needs.

This is an example of the subsidiary con-sultancy services, which the advent of vir-tual teaching and training has spawned. An-other example is the "bundling" of Web-in-a-box software and expertise to put a uni-versity online.

Web site: www.vue.com

University for Industry (UfI): The focus of thenewly launched U.K.'s University for Indus-try is education and training for theworkforce, especially for those people whohave not had the job-related education andtraining that would allow them to achievetheir potential in the work place. Enhancingtraining opportunities for those in small-andmedium-sized enterprises is a special con-cern. Degree-level education is not Ufi's maintask and market research has shown that itstitle, apart from being a misnomer, does notresonate with those it plans to target.

Whether as UfI or under another name,the new body will not be a provider ofcourses, an accrediting body, or a fundingcouncil. It aims to provide informationthrough a help-line (called Learning Direct),to commission ICT-based open learningmaterials where necessary and to facilitate thedevelopment of a national network of learn-ing centres.

The UfI design team is convinced thatthere would be a high demand for short openlearning courses, offered with frequent startdates, covering key transferable and workplace skills. It also believes that new deliverytechnologies and a new style of local learningcentre would attract more people to study.

However, the team also knows that turn-ing latent demand into active demand requireslong-term persistent action, not just from thegovernment but from a wide range of part-ners. The role of WI will be to provide lead-ership, to promote lifelong learning and toco-ordinate the infrastructure of information,guidance, and support. In short, it will be thecatalyst to draw key partners together.

Web site: wunv.dfeegov.uk /ufi

University of the Highlands and Islands Project(UHI) is another U.K.-based initiative thatdraws together existing educational provid-ers in the highlands and islands region ofScotland. Like the WI, the new structure willact as broker, information provider, catalystand, in some cases, commissioner of newcourses from local providers.

Pilot courses are now going ahead aftera long consultation process with existinginstitutions in the region. Extensive telecom-munications infrastructure has also been putin place, allowing ISDN video-conferencingeven to the remote islands, as well as Internetaccess and provision of equipment.

European Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education 83

9n

This initiative bears some resemblance tothe Western Governors University (WGU),although on a smaller scale. WGU is anAmerican virtual university initiative designedto provide ICT-based courses and degreesfrom existing universities. The intention ofthe University of the Highlands and IslandsProjects, like WGU, is to increase access toeducation, reduce costs and barriers, exploitnew technologies for delivery, and share re-sources across existing providers.

Web site: www.uhiac.uk

Other InitiativesOther initiatives call themselves virtual, but inmost cases they are smaller or less developed thanthose listed above. The following examples areintended to give a flavour of the quantity andquality of projects currently taking place or inthe planning stages.

Virtual University of Hagen: The FernUniversitat is a distance teaching institutionin Germany. This virtual university initiativeis implemented with the Web as a centralcomponent combined with tools for com-munication and co-operation. It includesspeech and low-cost video. The distanceteaching history of the organisation has ledto an emphasis on users' needs rather thanthe lecture room paradigm. Furthermore, theapproach emphasises users rather than stu-dents, to acknowledge the intertwining ofstudying and working. While much of thethinking for the project has been done, andan extensive Web site describes the project,the team recognises the long-term nature ofthe project. Not only is the technical plat-form ambitious, but it integrates a multitudeof different technologies and software. Thetransformation of the current teaching ma-terial into appropriate digital versions will

require substantial resources. Furthermore,the approach requires fundamental organi-sational change as well as new thinking andtraining of the current university staff.

Web site: www.fernuni-hagen.de

Deutsche Telekom (DT) launched its GlobalLearning range of services in 1997, but littleactivity has transpired since then. DT realisesthat today's telecommunications companiesare no longer simply carriers but intelligentpurveyors of information. One of their aimsis to target "individualised learning." Theynote that internal training and developmentis moving away from the use of training cen-tres towards individual, network-basedmethods that offer the trainee more choice,flexibility, and personal feedback from thetutor. Working through partner providers,they intend to offer computer-based train-ing and multimedia applications for employ-ees accessible through their Global Learningsystem. A tutor will be available for e-mailquestions and correcting homework, andthrough a testing room, the trainee can takeexams at any time. They also plan a GlobalLearning Institute in which professional con-sulting will be available for transferring con-ventional basic training and further trainingto new learning systems and for training tu-tors, course developers, and administrators.The Institute will have a virtual faculty con-sisting of experts from around the world,pooling their expertise to provide individualanswers to queries, small, tailored courses,and introductory seminars.

Web site: www.dtag.de /english

Cafe Mondial is another EU-funded consor-tium of universities, colleges, and private in-stitutions providing professional training viathe Web. The courses consist of Web pages,resource packs, and online tutoring. Currently

84 European Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education

93

they have 20 courses with 900 students study-ing subjects like ICT, Web design, Languages,

Arts, Music, and Health.

Web site: www.cafe-mondial de

UNED is the distance teaching university ofSpain. It has moved to provide virtual re-sources for students online. For example, ithas a virtual library, bookstore for ordering,and optional online tutoring.

Web site: www.unedes

University College Dublin (UCD) has been in-

volved in the EU-funded development ofthe Web front-end now called TopClass.UCD exploits this technology to offer adulteducation courses in ICT and the liberal arts.

Web site: www.ucdie/ delltti

Virtual Biotechnology University: Marine scien-

tists at the University of Maryland Biotech-nology Institute have joined a consortiumwith University of Goteberg in Sweden andthe University of Bergen in Norway.Funded by the Swedish Wallenberg Foun-dation and called VIRTUE, the overarchinggoals for the new university focus on ma-rine biotechnology, both teaching and col-laborative research. Using innovative butappropriate technology, they intend to en-able both developed and developing coun-tries to address environmental issues. Real-time, full-duplex interactive video is usedfor collaboration among the three sites, andVIRTUE plans to develop Web-basedlearning materials.

Web site: www.mdrg.umdedul jambs/ virtue'

about/ oversight. html

CyberversO,Academy of European Law provides

all its courses through a special multi-phaselearning approach, totally Web-based. Self-structured learning materials using Web re-sources are supported by tele-teaching and

other multimedia educational technologies.Extended programme offerings in BusinessAdministration, Management, and SocietyStudies will be initiated in early 1999 in co-operation with affiliated universities.

Web site: www.aer-academyde

Helsinki University: Using "easy" technology,distance learning in Finland has to be acces-sible by modems from homes. Consequentlyan open learning environment is being de-veloped where it is possible for anyone tostudy, get guidance and office-services, andcommunicate with peer students. HelsinkiUniversity is the largest university in Finlandand is acting as the central point for the de-velopment of courses. The number ofcourses is increasing all the time, althoughmost of the courses are on a basic level. AllFinnish open university courses have beencollected onto one database on the Webwhere you can also find all the virtual or dis-tance education courses arranged by Finnishopen universities.

Web site: http:1 / avoin.hefrinkifi

Marriott Virtual University: The InternationalManagement Centre has an arrangement be-tween the Marriott hotel chain and OxfordBrookes University in the UK where OxfordBrookes provides virtual training in hotel man-agement for Marriott staff internationally.

Web site: http //imc.org.uk/mvu

SummaryThe conclusions to be drawn about the growthof virtual teaching in Europe can be identifiedby specific issues: technology infrastructure limi-tations, financial impact, human resources impact,learner and teacher acceptance, the reaction ofconventional institutions, and demographic char-acteristics.

European Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education 85

TECHNOLOGY INFRASTRUCTURE

LIMITATIONS

The southern and eastern European countries ingeneral lack a telecommunications infrastructurethat allows any kind of virtual teaching other thanthrough study centres. That is, home access is outof the question, both because the network is notrobust and the ownership of personal comput-ers is not in place. Where these limitations do notapply and particularly where there is deregula-tion and, therefore, price reductions, there is muchgreater use of virtual teaching and learning fromthe home environment (e.g., in the U.K., TheNetherlands, Sweden, Finland, and to a lesserextent, Denmark).

FINANCIAL IMPACT

It is well known that funding initiatives by govern-ment, whether local or pan-European, may benecessary, but are certainly not sufficient to estab-lish technology-based teaching. The rush for fund-ing and the nature of the funding limitations (e.g.,necessity of collaborative projects, reporting andaccounting procedures, project outcomes statedin the bid outline, etc.) tend to facilitate stitched-together projects and funding dependency. Theyare not the stuff of long-term, sustainable initia-tives that build allegiance from the grass roots.

The funding requirements of virtual projectsspan the gamut from small, course-based initia-tives to complete universities. The EU has frame-works for supporting this whole range. In somesense, money is not the problem: sustainableprojects that meet real needs are in shorter sup-ply. The number of EU-funded projects that arestill in operation three years after the money hasstopped are certainly in the minority.

HUMAN RESOURCES

After some years of technology-led projects, thetraining of teachers is finally catching up. Thereare major training initiatives across all sectors of

education. However, in those countries that arein the forefront of virtual teaching (e.g., the U.K.),there is a severe workload issue that needs atten-tion. Many academics are under great pressureto produce research results at the same time asdeliver courses to vastly increased numbers ofstudents. While virtual teaching may have someanswers to this squeeze, the long-term exploita-tion of teaching staff is not sustainable. Supportstaff are now in greater demand than teachingstaff in some places, and those with ICT skillscan command a high salary.

LEARNER ACCEPTANCE

Most evaluation studies of virtual courses showthat students are enthusiastic about technology-based teaching. Of course, we are in the earlyadopter phase and these students are usually self-selected in some way. One of the interesting factsabout technology-based virtual teaching as op-posed to traditional distance teaching is that it isless flexible. (Traditional distance education inEurope consists of print-based materials plustutorials in local study centres). Reading fromscreen, having to study near a computer withnetwork access, and certainly carrying out col-laborative work onlineall these factors make acourse less flexible than reading specially preparedstudy texts. Nevertheless, students welcome theopportunity to develop ICT skills, and the bright-est and most independent learners (say the topthird) enjoy and benefit considerably from thekind of constructivist approaches that virtualcourses often use.

TEACHER ACCEPTANCE

Just as the early adopter students are technologysupporters, so are the teaching staff who pio-neer virtual methods. Many of them despair ofthe Luddite approaches of their colleagues whocomplain about lack of rewards, overwork, anddisbelief in the value of non-contiguous educa-tion. Organisations that impose technology-based

86 European Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education

95

teaching from the top incur greater wrath andstonewalling. When the context becomes serious(e.g., closures threatened; promotion or rewardsoffered etc.), Luddites seem to work an amaz-ingly quick volte face.

ACCEPTANCE OF CONVENTIONAL

INSTITUTIONS

While distance and virtual education has wonmany converts in Europe, the conventional uni-

versities still take little notice. Perhaps this is ap-propriate. Most of the institutions that are "hun-gry"those that are less well-established, less elit-ist, less well-funded---are actively considering theiroptions and wondering where and how to enterthe market. In the U.K., the Open University usedto have the distance education market to itself.

Within the last five years, with many of the neweruniversities offering some form of distance edu-cation, competition has become intense. Mostother European countries have some version ofan open university, but competition from tradi-tional universities is not yet significant.

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS

While most of the excitement and rhetoric aboutvirtual education is that it will serve the disad-vantaged, the remote, the unemployed, and thelifelong learner, in reality, the early adopters arethe opposite: employed, urban, well educated,and well off. Some initiatives are specifically tar-geting the former category (e.g., the Universityfor Industry). It will be interesting to see howsuccessful they are.

European Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education 87

//irtual Institutions on the

African Continent/ / MR. VIS NAID00 & PROF. CASPER SCHUTTE

IntroductionThe use of modern educational information andcommunication technologies (ICT) in the con-struction of new education paradigms has irrevo-cably changed the way in which teaching andlearning will be done in the future. This is truefor both the developing and developed worldsalthough the rate of deployment of new tech-nologies is lower in developing countries.

There are, however, some fundamental differ-ences in the way in which educational change to-wards technology is approached and implementedbetween the more advanced countries and the de-veloping countries. For developing countries, theprimary emphasis is always upon acquiring infra-structure, such as telecommunication infrastructure,hardware, software, and networks. Only then canattention be given to educational and training needs.Key to these needs is the training of educators andusers (learners), the development of appropriatecontent, and the maintenance of the educationaltechnology infrastructure.

This fundamental change mentioned aboveis not only important for tertiary educational in-stitutions, but for all education and training atlower levels, ranging from adult basic educationand literacy, right up to degree levels. It is espe-cially important to note that it also affects all train-

ing in industry and commerce.

Institutions that make use of modern in-formation and communication technologies intheir teaching and training can be said to en-gage in "virtual teaching activities" and can beclassified as "virtual institutions." Their activi-ties range from the purely "contact" type topurely "distance" type, as well as the variousso-called "mixed mode" types. However, allsuch virtual activities in Africa are limited tothe experimentation level or in the initial stagesof implementation because of infrastructureproblems, which, in turn, are caused by lackof funds and expertise and, in some cases,political instability. The problem is sometimesfurther compounded by a lack of vision,knowledge, and appreciation of ICT in topgovernmental structures.

This report focuses on the following aspectsof the transformations experienced towards vir-tual education institutions:

Infrastructure problems in Africa

Networking and the Internet

Satellites and their footprints

Some examples in a technologically advancedcountry, such as South Africa

Some examples elsewhere in Africa, notablythe African Virtual University, and their suc-cesses and failures

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 89

It does not examine the problems caused bypolitical and other instabilities. While they are veryimportant, they need a separate study.

This survey of African virtual institutions in-cludes the following kinds of contact, distance,and mixed mode institutions:

Tertiary institutions such as universities andtechnikons (technical universities)

Teacher training colleges

Schools

Industrial training institutions

Commercial training institutions

Since the development of the Internet as apossible teaching tool is fairly recent, it seemedunfair to exclude some reference to those insti-tutions that are in a process of internal change,or intend to make such a bold move in the nearfuture. The same applies to those institutions thatare running pilot experiments to give them anopportunity to make a judgement about costsand effectiveness. Some of these institutions are,therefore, also included in this report, but areclearly identified as being in the process of"virtualisation."

The Central Concept ofNetworks within ICTCentral to the change in educational pattern to-wards virtual education and training all aroundthe world is the concept of network. The termnetwork is very broad and refers to, among otherthings, the following kinds of networks:

A Local Area Network (LAN) within a com-puter or PC laboratory in which a centralserver links all the computers for teachingand other purposes.

One or more LANs within an organisationfor the purpose of academic administrationor for education and training purposes. TheseLANs can be linked together; they need not

be localised and can indeed be distributedover a particular geographic area.

One or more Wide Area Networks (WAN).

An electronic network (Internet), spanningthe world, linking millions of PCs and othercomputers together to form a single mas-sive information system. The Internet hasvarious services, such as the World WideWeb; e-mail, file transfer protocol (FIP) ac-tivities; Gopher activities; Internet search en-gines to ferret out required information fromthe millions of sites; "see-you-see-me"Internet video-conferencing; and Internettelephony.

Audio- and video-conferencing sites linkedby ISDN and other data channels, includingsatellite data links.

Interactive or non-interactive teaching siteslinked by TV and/or radio transmissionsusing either land-based transmission or sat-ellite transmission types.

Community telecentres and other electroni-cally linked entities.

The term networking is also sometimes usedto refer to the linking of expertise and knowl-edge acquired at different places to improve thelevel of performance of the whole communityof individuals that networks.

THE CONFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGIES

ON THE INTERNET

It is interesting that all the different modern tel-ecommunication technologies in the above listof networks seem to be at a confluence on theInternet. This is forming a very strong drivingforce, since the bandwidth needed is becomingavailable.

Massive amounts of research and develop-ment funding are at present channeled into theInternet, together with all its services. The devel-opments that occur, or are confidently predicted

90 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

93

to occur very soon, are rather breathtaking andindicate that educational authorities in all coun-tries should take a hard look at their presentmethodologies. In fact, what is needed is a sci-entifically based study of various future com-munications and teaching scenarios and strate-gies. This is especially true for the developingcountries.

THE INTERNET AND EDUCATION

AND TRAINING

The Internet has become such a force in anymodern information-oriented society that it is nota question anymore whether the Internet can beused as a teaching tool. The use of the Internet ineducation and training is taken for granted. Thequestion that needs to be answered is this: Howcan the potential of the Internet be maximisedfor the benefit of teaching, training, and learn-ing, especially in a developing country?

This point is, unfortunately, still missed bymany education authorities and governments thatcontinuously ask for "proof" that the Internetwill benefit education and educators. Mr. BillGates recently said, "The Internet is like a tidalwave, drowning companies that don't learn toswim in its waters." And it must not be forgot-ten that education is also an industrymaybe oneof the biggest in any country, since some devel-oping countries spend up to 20% of their totalannual budget on education!

To summarise, the Internet is becoming cen-tral to the concept of virtual teaching. The re-search for this report concentrated on locatingeducational, teaching, and training services of-fered on or via the Internet. These services maybe either educational or administrative, or both.However, although the main area of investiga-tion of this report is Internet related, it also in-cludes many examples of non-Internet-basednetworking activities, such as educational video-conferencing.

NETWORKS AND OTHER

INFRASTRUCTURE IN AFRICA

Unlike many countries of the world, Africa con-tinuously struggles to procure infrastructure.Once obtained, there is a struggle to hold on toit and to service it and its relevant software. Thenthere is the struggle to provide infrastructure tomore than just a small part of the population.Only when this ideal state has been reached canfull-scale implementation of educational technol-ogy and its use begin.

As noted earlier, this report acknowledgesthis, and gives some attention to the existence ofinfrastructure on the African continent, with spe-cial reference to networks and the Internet onthe one hand, and terrestrial and satellite com-munication technology on the other. Understand-ing these developments is of primary importanceto any study on virtual educational institutions.

ICT in AfricaEach country has its own telecommunicationscompany, responsible for the backbones andnetworks, as well as for linking to other coun-tries. In addition, there is international collabora-tion across the continent for undersea cabling.Many international companies own telecommu-nication satellites, and many of them have foot-prints over Africa.

A sophisticated submarine cable project willprovide a telecommunications superhighway viaAfrica. This is the South Africa-Far East (SAFE)and Southern Africa-Western Africa (SAT3/WASC) submarine cable system originated byTelkom South Africa, Telecom Malaysia, FranceTelecom, and Mauritius Telecom. This cable sys-tem has the intrinsic ability to propel most ofSub-Saharan Africa into the next millenium. Theproject installs a state-of-the art optical fibre ca-ble with very large bandwidth that will be fullyoperational by the year 2000. When finished, it

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 91

will provide an additional route between Europeand Southeast Asia. Extending the cable to in-clude east African nations is a real possibility which

the investors are seriously considering.This cable will eventually link 11 countries on

the African west coast via Portugal and CapeTown with India and Malaysia, and the rest ofthe world. The SAT3/WASC link was initiatedin May 1997 and now links Telkom SA, AngolaTelecom, OPT Benin, Cote d'Ivoire Telecom,Ghana Telecom, Cameroon Intelcam, OPT Ga-bon, Liberia Libtelco, Senegal Sonatel, NigerSonitel, Togo Telecom, Namibia Telecom, andNigeria Nitel. On the east coast, Mauritius andReunion are also connected.

The entire external infrastructure is, or willsoon be, in place to give Africa all the Internetconnectivity it wants. The main problems to con-nect within individual countries, or groups ofcountries, that are landlocked.

Internet Connectivity in Africa

THE CHALLENGE

One of the main communication and informa-tion channels of the present is the Internet, andthis will be even more important in the futurewhen the predicted confluence of the varioustechnologies takes place. It is, therefore, of theutmost importance that Internet connectivitytakes place in Africa, especially in the educationalcommunity.

The 1995 World Bank Report, "IncreasingInternet Connectivity in Sub-Saharan Africa: Is-sues, Options, and World Bank Group Role" hasthis to say about the Internet and Africa(vingworldbank.org/ aftdr/ connect/ incrint.htm):

The development of computer networkingin Africa presents the World Bank with aunique opportunity to make a major contri-

bution to Africa's current and future devel-

opment. At the same time, the World Bank

will be able to advance its strategic objectives

in the areas of donor co-ordination, clientconsultation, capacity building, decentraliza-

tion of activities and decision making, andprivate sector development.

The information revolution is beingdriven by the convergence of telecommuni-

cations, computers, satellites, and fibre-op-

tics technologies. It is fuelled by the rapidand sustained fall in the cost of processing,storing, and transmitting information. Thissharp fall in costsalong with an increase in

the technological and human ability to access,

interpret, and use informationpromises tomake the knowledge base of mankind avail-

able anywhere, anytime, in any language.

In an increasingly knowledge-basedeconomy, information is becoming at least as

important as land and physical capital. In the

future, the distinction between developed and

non-developed countries will be joined bydistinctions between fast countries and slow

countries, networked nations and isolatedones. The information revolution offers Af-

rica a dramatic opportunity to leapfrog into

the future, breaking out of decades of stag-

nation and decline.

Africa needs to seize this opportunity,quickly. If African countries cannot take ad-

vantage of the information revolution andsurf this great wave of technological change,

they may be crushed by it. In that case, they

are likely to be even more marginalised and

economically stagnant in the future than they

are today. Catching this wave will require vi-

sionary leadership in Africa.

The same World Bank document quotes itsVice President, Finance and Private Sector De-velopment, Jean Francois Rischard, saying:

Not only do we have to spread information

technology around, but also we have to com-

pletely change the whole approach to education

92 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

1 0 0

and more generally knowledge. We have to

turn countries into what I call learning nations.

These citations from this World Bank docu-ment highlight all the points about the impor-

tance of ICT for education, training, and theconcomitant social and economic uplifting andempowering in Africa. This will have to be meas-ured against the harsh realities found on the Afri-can continentrealities that are often due to gov-

ernments not understanding the fundamentalchanges that ought to take place to put a countryon the road to the information society. Such gov-

ernments may actually hamper the progress oftheir country by inadvertedly erecting artificialbarriers, especially in the telecommunications field.This is underlined by the words of the SouthAfrican Deputy President, Thabo Mbeki (alsoquoted in the World Bank Report):

It's clear that bringing developing countries

onto the information highway constitutes acolossal challenge if we are to promote eco-

nomic growth ... the reality is that there aremore telephone lines in Manhattan, NewYork, than in Sub-Saharan Africa.

EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION AND THE

INTERNET

As far as education administration is concerned,it is of vital importance to interconnect the ad-ministrative arm of any education departmentand all its ramifications over the length andbreadth of any country by means of an Intranetcombined with an appropriate Internet compo-nent. This will ensure consistency of administra-tion, especially if the system is built around aninformation database that operates on Internetlines. Such a database is open to all staff, but thelevel of openness is determined in each case bythe principles of "need-to-know" and "nice-to-know"

As a next phase, the administration at eachschool can be connected to an Intranet with its

own Internet-like database, which will increasethe efficiency of each school and the keeping ofrecords, as well as the sharing of equipment, suchas printers and fax machines.

Finally, the administrations of all schools canbe interconnected through the Internet. Enhanc-ing the functionality of any school system. Ap-plications are, for instance, the distribution ofnotices, policies, educational material (even bookscan be distributed virtually, eliminating the costlytransport, storage and checking facilities; copy-right can always be negotiated), examination pa-pers (that can be printed on site), marks of pu-pils at examinations, and fingerprint identifica-tion of examination candidates. The usage is lim-ited only by the collective lack of imagination inthe educational sector.

EDUCATION AND THE INTERNET

Internet access can be used for many purposeswithin an educational system, such as the following:

Connecting (teachers and pupils) to a re-source centre database containing educationalmaterials. Resource centres will become oneof the central features of an education sys-tem in any modern country; they set the edu-cational system free from any geographicalrestrictions, and one centre, equipped withfast servers and databases, can serve a re-gion, sub-region, or even the world.

Connecting school classes to one another inwidely different social and economic regionsof the world. This will become one of themajor upliftment forces in the world, sinceit will generate emulative forcesboth ways.

Connecting classes, teachers, or pupils toworld-class experts anywhere in the world togive and receive information and instruction.

Enabling classes, teachers, or pupils to ac-cess information resources situated anywhere.This challenges the position of the teacher as

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 93

the sole dispenser of knowledge and ena-bles the classes to really make use of theopportunities offered by outcomes-basededucation.

Enabling education departments to developonline programmes that can be taken by anypupil from anywhere (even from home, pro-vided Internet connectivity exists). This willrelieve the need of building and outfittingan infinite number of new classrooms andtraining a diverging number of teachers.While it is costly to develop and producesuch programmes, it is much cheaper in thelong run than the classroom model.

Introducing the concept of freedom-of-choice into any education system, sinceequivalent courses can be mixed and matchedaccording to the beliefs and cultures ofmixed local populations.

THE CURRENT SITUATION

An International Map of Internet Connectivity(version 13) of February 15, 1995, can be foundon the site of the Internet Society, at /OW

fo.isoc.orghlroc/chartslconnectiviO/connectivifrmap-v13.11: Its story is clear, namely that at that stageAfrica was virtually unconnected to the Internetwith a few exceptions, such as South Africa.However, there was much improvement sinceas described below.

Detailed lists of all African countries con-nected in 1995 to the Internet are found at thesame site, as well as the status of their connectiv-ity, and their ISO country codes. The World Bankoperates a Forum to Promote Internet Connec-tivity in Africa via its Web site: www.worldbank.org/aftdr/ connect/ connpoor.htm and at the sitewww.worldbank.org/ aftdr/ connect/ conmain.htm.

In his reports, Mike Jensen (an ICT consult-ant with extensive knowledge of telecommuni-cations and networking in Africa) states that 49

of the 54 countries and territories in Africa haveInternet access in their capital cities. (This sec-tion of this report draws heavily on the workof Jensen (with permission). His work can befound at www3.sn.apc.org /africa (Africa Internetconnectivity), www3.sn.apc.org/ aftical partial.html(continent-wide connectivity indicators), andwww3.sn.apc.org/ africa/ projects.htm (international

ICT projects in Africa).)The most recent developments in this field

are summarised by Jensen:Four countries have plans for full Internetaccess in the capital cities: Congo-Brazzaville,Libya, Cap Verde, and Somalia.

One country remains without plans for fullInternet access: Eritrea.

Seven countries have only one full publicaccess ISP after 12 months: Algeria, BurkinaFaso, Central African Republic (CAR), Ethio-pia, Mauritius, Niger, and Seychelles.

Twelve countries have local ISPs or POPs insome secondary towns: Angola, Benin, Bot-swana, Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Morocco,Namibia, Nigeria, Tunisia, South Africa, andTanzania.

Eleven countries have local dial-up Internetaccess nationwide: Burkina Faso, Ethiopia,Gabon, Malawi, Mali, Mauritius, Morocco,Senegal, Tchad, Tunisia, and Zimbabwe.

While noting that most African capital citieshave Internet access with more than one ISP, thenumber of users is still very small. The top 10countries with the most users are South Africa,Egypt, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Morocco, Tunisia,Ghana, Mozambique, Uganda, Zambia, andEthiopia. However, there are only about fivecountries with over 5,000 users, with South Af-rica being approximately 30 times larger than anyother country in Africa. There are a number ofmultinational ISPs operating in Africa (e.g.,AfricaOnline, UUNET, and Swift Global)

94 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

102

Current usage in Africa is estimated to be800,000 to one million, of which most (approxi-mately 700,000) are in South Africa. This implies aratio of one Internet user for every 5,000 people.

As well, while most African countries haveInternet access, there is still the problem ofproviding access to the population that lives inrural Africa. Cost is key to this issue. Some coun-tries like Burkina Faso, Gabon, Malawi, Mauri-tius, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Senegal, Chad,Tunisia, and Zimbabwe all enable Internet accessto be cheaper by charging local call tariffs. Thisallows ISP to roll out a network with nationalcoverage, as it can be certain of greater users,thus making the service cost effective.

FACTORS PROMOTING INTERNET

CONNECTIVITY IN SUPPORT OF

EDUCATION IN AFRICA

A number of factors affect Internet connectivityin Africa. These include connectivity costs, accessto international connections, availability of band-width, and usage by different sectors of society.

The need for increased international band-width for carrying interactive activities over theInternet is still a crucial requirement for its effec-tive use. Most international connections are car-ried via satellite, and will increasingly be done viathe marine optical fibre link from South Africa.These Internet circuits are mostly connected tothe United States, the United Kingdom, or France,implying that the ISP would need to pay the en-tire costs of connections to either Europe or theU.S. This has serious implications, the most seri-ous of which is the cost. Due to the high interna-tional connectivity costs, local access is a majorbarrier. In some cases, local calls cost over US$10an hour.

However, despite the hurdles, there is increas-ing usage of the Internet and other telecommuni-cations for education purposes. The developmentof telecentres (a public site that offers access to

telephony, and increasingly to fax, e-mail, and fullInternet services) is growing. In some Africancountries, the telecentre concept is being expandedto offer access to learning.

Most African universities have e-mail connec-tivity and about 13 countries have universities withfull Internet connectivity. (Often such facilities arerestricted to staff and post graduate students.)

While the quality of telecommunication in-frastructure is poor and lacks national penetra-tion, many African countries have made telecom-munications a priority and are in the process ofinstalling fibre-optic backbones and the newestcellular and mobile technologies. Among the mostsophisticated national networks in the world arethose found in Botswana and Rwanda, where100% of the main lines are digital.

The liberalisation of the ICT sector is occur-ring in some countries, which will enable privatesector companies to build the necessary infra-structure. However, many countries still havesome way to go, as the telecommunication sec-tor is seen as an important revenue base. A keydevelopment is the African satellite consortiumthat is expected to launch its own satellite. Satel-lite-based communications systems are beingplanned and should radically improve access, es-pecially in rural areas.

ONGOING PROBLEMS WITH INTERNET

CONNECTIVITY

A number of very important conclusions aboutproblem areas that apply specifically to the Afri-can situation emerge when the previous sectionsare analysed. These must be fully considered byanyone interested in improving the state of edu-cation on the continent. If the following prob-lems are not solved, Africa will remain in the ICTrut that it is in today. These problems are:

Although Internet connectivity on the Af-rican continent has increased beyond any-one's wildest dreams in the last two years,

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 95

103

the penetration is still too shallow. AlthoughAfrica as a whole is beginning to grasp theimportance of the Internet, especially foreducation and economic empowerment, notenough priority is given to its development.

Internet connectivity is still concentrated in thecapital cities (or major cities) of African coun-tries. Central planning must be started to ex-tend the services into the rural areas. This situa-

tion may be due to governments not fully un-derstanding the benefits of and infrastructuralrequirements for the information age.

Internet connectivity is hampered by the pres-ence of antiquated telecommunication gridsin most countries. Countries should plan cen-trally to increase their digital and optical cablenetworks. A factor that could come to therescue of the situation is the advent of satel-lite telecommunication and Internet services.

Internet connectivity costs are far too highfor the average person in Africa. Innovativeactions are required, and Jensen refers to aZimbabwean example where any call to anISP (that mostly operates from one of thelarger cities or towns) is charged by the Zim-babwean Telecommunications authority asthough it were a local call, plus a small sur-charge. This prevents the installation of ex-pensive POPs by ISPs in areas that are al-most certainly "financially non-viable," andit extends the benefits of the Internet to manymore of its citizens. In fact, it is almost amodel solutionone that can be emulatedby other countries. There are actually 10 morestates on the continent that have the samesystem as that of Zimbabwe.

In many countries there is no effective tel-ecommunication competition, which maycontribute to the "backwardness" of tel-ecommunication networks on the continent.For instance, telecommunication revenue

often flows into state coffers and is used forother projects and experiments, allowing thetelecommunication infrastructure to age anddeteriorate. This monopoly may hinder thedeployment of satellite-based telecommu-nication. It will also influence Internet con-nectivity negatively.

Satellite Footprints over Africafor TVThe presence of adequate radio and TV satellitetransmission capacity over Africa is of the ut-most importance for any technology-enhancedteaching and learning programme that intends toreach all levels of the population. The nature ofthe African terrain does not allow land-based TVand radio systems to reach everywhere. The sameis true for normal terrestrial telecommunications.However, satellite-based telephony may make amajor contribution in the future, especially withdata transmission for Internet-related educationand training.

Intelsat operates several satellites that havefootprints covering parts of Africa and that areimportant for teaching and learning. A descrip-tion of the Intelsat satellites, as well as an indica-tion of their services and their footprints can befound at the Web site www.itelsat.com. Intelsat sat-ellites connect different parts of the worldthrough voice/telephone services, data transmis-sion, facsimile delivery, Internet communication,news, sports, and entertainment television.

The Intelsat 704 (IS-704 at 66°E) is representa-tive of satellite operation over Africa, and it is usedby several South African virtual teaching institu-tions including the University of Stellenbosch's dis-tance education programme and the African Vir-tual University. The footprint covers most of theSouthern African Region, as well as most of theAfrican region north of the equator.

96 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

104

Satellite Footprint over Africafor RadioMost of the satellite radio coverage can be foundin the kind of satellites described above, in thesection on TV. However, there is a special radioproject, the World Space radio satellite system,which may be advantageous for education andtraining, since it will reach billions of people inall regions of the earth. Their Web site is atwww.worldrpace.com and contains much relevant in-

formation.The WorldSpace radio satellite system also

forms part of a research project in Africa sup-ported by the WorldSpace Foundation of Wash-ington and the Commonwealth of Learning. TheWeb site of the WorldSpace Foundation iswww.worldspace.org /aboutws.htmi while that of their

three major African projects is part of their In-ternational Program Site at www.worldrpace.org/

programs.htmlWorldSpace is poised to bring information and

entertainment to about four billion people aroundthe earth by beaming down "an extraordinarilyvariety of digital sound broadcasting" by meansof three specially designed tailor-made and dedi-cated geosynchronous satellites circling the earth.

It is estimated that these satellite signals willreach more than 80% of the population of theearth, offering an unprecedented opportunity toprovide information and to teach. To put itbluntly, people in all corners of the world willnow have the opportunity to be exposed to in-formation. They will be able to learn things theywould never have the opportunity to learn in anyother way.

These digital radio satellites are called AfriStar(at 21°E), AmeriStar (at (95°W) and AsiaStar (at105°E), respectively. The WorldSpace SatelliteSystem has all the necessary ground, satellite, andcontrol technology in place to make this an eco-nomically and technically successful venture.

The technology of broadcasting with the sat-ellite system is very simple. A ground radio sta-tion relays its signal through a small satellite dishto the geosynchronous WorldSpace satellite thatthen, in turn, broadcasts it digitally. This satellitesignal can then be picked up all around the world.The company offers to both radio stations andto users a "one-stop deal." In other words, eve-rything is provided.

The company will also provide small radioreceivers for ground use by listeners. The draw-back seems to be the cost of these receivers.According to an article in the South African Sun-day Times Business Times (October 25 1998, p.13),

they cost around R1,500 (about US$260). Thismight place it out of the buying range of many(if not most) people in rural Africa, and that isprecisely the group WorldSpace is trying to reach.

There are at present 37 committed broadcast-ers, including 11 from Africa, taking up 58% ofthe satellite capacity. The Sunday Times article states

that it will cost a radio station up to R30 million(about US$5 million) to sign up with the system.

There are several very important points toconsider:

WorldSpace mentions entertainment and in-formation (or teaching) in the same breath.A system such as this is far too expensive toprovide only teaching and training. The en-tertainment channels will most probably carrymost of the vast financial burden of the re-search, designing, testing, launching, and ini-tiation costs of the project, as well as that ofits daily operation. This allows educationprogrammes to piggyback on the entertain-ment channels.

Sound quality is of the utmost importance.Bad reception will ruin any music pro-grammes, as well as any educational pro-grammes. The design of the satellite signalsallows the quality of the digital sound to bethe same as digital stereo CD.

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 97

105

Any local radio station can become an in-ternational station by merely relaying its sig-nal via a simple antenna dish to any one ofthe three geosynchronous satellites ofWorld Space. In addition, the signal qualityfar surpasses that of any land-based anten-nae system. It also reaches most, if not all,of the people in the footprint areas of thesatellites (no more blackout areas).

The World Space system gives any local ra-dio station the opportunity to continue totransmit in any of the local languages and ordialects, while becoming "international," aswell as reaching more of its own local popu-lation by a better signal distribution. The sys-tem thus does not "kill" local languages infavour of the more international languageslike English, Spanish, and Portuguese. It isactually the other way around, as it encour-ages the transmission in these local languages.In this fashion, it provides an excellent me-dium for education and training using thelocal vernaculars.

The transmission system of WorldSpacemakes use of a terrestrial antenna beamingthe radio signal to the satellite, which thenre-broadcasts it. This could lead to legal tel-ecommunication problems in the countriesthat have restricting regulations. This maypossibly, for instance, hamper its implemen-tation in South Africa.

The cost of ground receivers will have tobe reduced to pull in the masses, especiallyif the system wants to attract the attentionof education authorities in the developingcountries where the lack of adequate fundsfor education and training is a perennialproblem.

The project itself, its impact on listeners, andits use in education cannot yet be evaluated since itis in its initial stages. The first satellite was launched

only at the end of October 1998. However, theproject is of sufficient importance to followclosely and to start educational pilot projects un-der carefully controlled conditions. The projectwill have to grapple with financing the massiveamount of training of the educational staff whoare going to provide the classes over the air. Thesame is true for the educational design, produc-tion, and distribution of the (printed) materialthat accompanies such a series of classes.

South Africa:A Representative ExampleSouth Africa has the benefit of an extensive com-munication infrastructure, consisting of all theelements that a modern state might need to pro-pel itself into the information agefor a partof its population. This infrastructure, however isof such a nature and size that it would be rela-tively easy (given the funds) to upgrade it to serveits whole population. South Africa is, therefore,taken as a representative example of such a coun-try on the African continent. Some of its effortsto acquire the benefits of virtual teaching aredescribed below.

CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS

The Jensen site at www3.sn.cpc.org/ afiica/ south*.htm

outlines current developments in the ICT sectorin South Africa. The following is a summary ofdevelopments relevant to virtual education.

In March 1998, the South African cabinetapproved a proposal to develop a nationalinformation and communication technol-ogy strategy. Key to this strategy is the con-solidation of all existing government net-works into an Intranet, based on a high-speed fibre-optic backbone. The Depart-ment of Communications has been giventhe responsibility for driving such infrastruc-ture developments.

98 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

106

One of the key interventions being made isthe establishment of the Universal ServiceAgency (USA). This agency was establishedby an Act of the South African Parliamentand has the responsibility for ensuring uni-versal access to all telecommunication serv-ices. There are various initiatives focusing onthe use of such telecentres to support learn-ing and teaching.

The Foundation for Research and Develop-ment (FRD) is responsible for supporting aca-demic research projects and operating the Uni-versities Network (UniNet) www.frd.ac.ta.UniNet provides an Internet backbone thatconnects an estimated 500,000 students andstaff at 21 universities and 15 technikons, aswell as to universities in Lesotho, Mozambique,Swaziland, and Tanzania. (Note that UniNet ispresently undergoing a restructuring process.)

Recently, the Department of Educationplayed a leading role in the establishment ofSchool Net SA, the national body, which willco-ordinate the linking of South Africanschools to the Internet. The School Net SAstructure consists of an executive council withparticipants from the Department of Edu-cation; Department of Arts, Culture, Scienceand Technology; Department of Commu-nication; the Department of Trade and In-dustry; and regional school networking or-ganisations. Provincial SchoolNets will beencouraged and supported while three ad-visory groups focusing on issues of connec-tivity and technology, human resource de-velopment and training, and content genera-tion and curriculum will provide directionfor SchoolNet policy (www.schooLza).

University of South Africa (UNISA) pro-vides distance education to 130,000 regis-tered students, many of whom are outsideof South Africa, and it has an extensive ICT

programme (www.unira.ac.ta). Through agree-

ments with host institutions, UNISA main-tains examination centres in Angola, Bot-swana, Cote d'Ivoire, DRC, Egypt, Gabon,Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Morocco, Mozam-bique, Namibia, Swaziland, Senegal, Tanza-nia, Tunisia, and Zambia.

ICTs are also an important componentof UNISA's recent partnership with the twoother major South African distance and con-tinuing education institutions, Vista Univer-sity (www.vista.ac.ta) and Technikon SA(www.trsa.ac.ta). Called the Confederation ofOpen Learning Institutions in South Africa(COLISA), it will jointly implement anumber of ICT applications, many of whichhave already been developed at UNISA, in-cluding the following:

1. The development of Internet-basedcourseware (a course in Arabic has al-ready been developed and one in Chi-nese is planned).

2. A Web-based student-teacher interac-tion system providing for the submis-sion and tracking of assignments andmarks by the students and teachers,communicating with their lecturers andfellow students via electronic mail, andthe cataloguing of the library (StudentsOnline: htos:// soLunisa.ac.ta).

3. A series of local Internet access pointsfor students, including a print-on-de-mand facility for course notes. The firststage of the project has been to set upa pilot programme using 1,500 Sun JavaStations (with SUN providing soft fi-nance for the equipment).

With a combined studentship of over250,000, and a rapidly maturing virtual learn-ing environment, COLISA expects to achieve

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 99

-A-

the economies of scale and to attract theexpertise necessary to be a world force indistance education. This is partly the reasonfor the development of the Arabic and Chi-nese courseware.

UNISA has developed the first post-graduate course in Southern Africa on tel-ecommunications policy. Officially sup-ported by the African National Congress(ANC), the course has been developedwith assistance from the Flemish (Belgian)Ministry of Education.

Gold Fields Library and Information Serv-ices at Technikon SA has started a SouthAfrican Copyright Forum (SACFO) (htqx // pgw.org/ saO) and the Council for Scientificand Industrial Research (CSIR) has a widerange of ICT related activities (www.csinco.za).

CSIR's MikomTek department is the unitmost involved in ICTs and is in the processof developing a national and sub-regionalstrategy for supporting the development ofICT applications. MikomTek has developeda public access information kiosk and a wire-less metropolitan data networking systembased on the spread spectrum WaveLan sys-tem (www.cids.og.za). MikomTek also hoststhe Satellite Applications Centre (www.sac.caza)

that supports remote sensing and GIS ap-plications development.

SANGONet (SN) was the first non-aca-demic full Internet provider in South Af-rica and is a member of the Associationfor Progressive Communications (APC),focusing on supporting the NGO sectorboth inside the country and in the region(www.sn.apc.org). SN currently provides e-mail gateway services for small store-and-forward service providers in Malawi andZimbabwe and regularly runs trainingcourses and supplies technicians, trainers,

and workshop organisers for projects in theregion. SangoNet is collaborating withUSAID in the establishment of a SouthernAfrican technical help desk for NGOs, andresearchers in universities and governmentinstitutions in the sub-region. It has also re-cently launched the women's networkingproject with support from the Commissionon Gender Equality (hip: / hvomensnetors.za).

The Internet Society South Africa Chapterwas recently formed and is developing aregular events programme (wwwisoc.org.za).

University of the Witwatersrand runs theProgramme for ICTs in Development, whichhas recently begun a project called Buildinga Telecentre Network for Africa in collabo-ration with CISDA (www.wits.ac.Za).

University of Port Elizabeth Institute forDevelopment Planning and Research is as-sisting with community information access(www.upe.ac.a).

Kara Interactive Solutions has developed apublic access information kiosk and associ-ated multimedia applications. It is workingwith the Department of Sports to roll outtelecentres in youth centres.

The National Inquiry Services Centre (NISC)maintains bibliographic data and informa-tion on museum collections online and onCD-ROM (www.nisc.com).

Other institutions with an involvement in ICTsin the country include the following

University of Natal (www.undac.za)

Business Management Training College ofSouth Africa (www.globaLco.za / business / bmtc)

Cape Technikon (http://www.ctech.ac.v)

Technikon Natal (www.ntech.ac.za)

University of Stellenbosch (www.sun.ac.a)

Technikon Orange Free State (www.totr.ac.za)

100 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

108

University of Pretoria (www.up.ac.v)

University of the North (www.unorth.ac.za)

University of the Orange Free State(www.uovs.ac.za)

Potchefstroom University (www.puk.ac.za)

University of Cape Town (www.uct.ac.za)

Technikon Witwatersrand (www.hvr.ac.za)

Port Elizabeth Technikon (www.petech.ac.za)

Eastern Cape Technikon (www.tktech.ac.za)

Technikon Pretoria (www.techpta.ac.za)

GOVERNMENT POLICY AND

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

South Africa has the benefit of a governmentthat realises the advantages of the informationand telecommunication age. The governmentactively plans, encourages, and supports the de-velopment of the necessary infrastructure, in-cluding upgrading city and rural networks tofibre optical systems and all exchanges to dig-ital exchanges, and installing microwave com-munication and satellite technology. Millions ofnew telephones are installed, or are in the proc-ess of being installed into homes, especiallythose of the previously disadvantaged part ofthe society.

South Africa is well covered with POPs forInternet connectivity, as can be seen from theJensen site at www3..rn.apc.org/ africa/ southafr.htm.

There are 22 POPs for SAIX, while the largestcommercial ISP has 23 POPs. However, the is-sue of local connectivity is still problematic. Thereare eight "top level" ISPs with their own interna-tional leased line links. Dial-in customers, as wellas subsidiary ISPs leasing line capacity from them,use these links. Currently, there are more than amillion Internet users in the country, including farmore that 200,000 dial-up subscribers.

The major telecommunication supplier in thecountry is Telkom, which is 70% owned by the

state, 20% by SBC, and 10% by Malaysia Telecom.Telkom will retain its monopoly until 2002 (seeIPIVIAtelkom.co.ta).

There are two big cellphone companies:Vodacom (50% owned by Telkom) and MTNthat cover the main areas of the country with amicrowave grid, reaching into areas that werepreviously underserved by digital communica-tion technology. These developments makecomputing (e.g., data exchange such as e-mail)possible while being "on the road." They alsoopen up new educational markets. (Seewww.vodacom.co.za and www.mtn.co.za). One other

company will be awarded a licence during 1999.Furthermore, the Electricity Company,

ESKOM, plans to electrify just about every homein South Africa. In addition, it is rolling out solarelectrification for those communities for whichgrid supplied electricity will be too expensive. Thisapplies especially to those schools that will neverbe connected to the grid.

The SABC is the public broadcaster, and thecountry is covered by a grid of antennae beam-ing out the signals of three very good TV sta-tions, as well as some FM, AM, and shortwaveradio stations. There is also a satellite broadcast-ing analogue TV signals, although this will bephased out in the future.

In addition, there are two private broadcast-ers: MNET and ETV. MNET uses terrestrial anddigital satellite broadcasts. Since October 1998, ithas also broadcast the TV signals of the threeSABC stations. This operator's satellite footprintscover large areas of Africa. ETV is a commer-cial free-to-air broadcaster that has been awardedthe licence to broadcast in South Africa.

There are many small local radio stations dot-ted all over the country, rendering an excellentlocal service in many of the indigenous languagesof South Africa.

South Africa's educational system is well or-ganised, but suffers from overcrowding of

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 1 01

103

schools and the lack of funds to fully implement

a new curriculum. The intention is to transformeducation into a lifelong learning education andtraining system for all citizens.

In short, although the infrastructure does notbenefit all its citizens at present, South Africa hasthe necessary nucleus to build on. In addition, ithas or is developing the plans to build the neededinfrastructure fairly soon for the benefit of all its

citizens.

EDUCATION POLICY AND INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY

The Department of Education of South Africarealised that it could make a major difference toeducation in the country by enhancing the presenteducation system by means of telematics. It there-fore commissioned the so-called TELI Report(Technology-Enhanced Learning in South Africa: A

Discussion Document, Report for the Minister ofEducation, 1996, Pretoria). This was followedby various policy documents. The departmenthas a very active National Centre for EducationalTechnology and Distance Education in Pretoria(www.ncetde.co.a).

Some of the provinces also have active plansfor telematic learning projects, and all are inter-ested in Internet-related education. But there isas yet no coercive groundswell to generate re-sults. However, there are signs that many of theindividual groups asking for such education arecoming together to form one large pressuregroup that may be constituted in such a waythat individual needs are not subjected to thoseof others.

UNIVERSITIES AND TECHNIKONS

There is a general trend for all tertiary institu-tions to move towards distance education in sup-port of the policy of the government as ex-pressed in various white papers, policy docu-ments, and acts. Many, if not most, traditional

1 02 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

contact tertiary institutions are moving towardsthe ideal of the mixed mode, where campus stu-dents are treated as though they were distant forpart of their courses by the addition of telematicsand World Wide Web features.

The inverse is happening at the traditional dis-tance teaching tertiary institutions. They are add-ing contact parts to their operations, such as studycentres in different parts of the country, popu-lated with appropriate tutors and officials spe-cially trained in counselling. They are also mov-ing towards telematics and Web technology.

A convergence in the roles of the traditionalcontact and distance teaching universities is thusdeveloping. This trend becomes very clear in theexamples below. The impact on the traditionaldistance teaching universities caught them una-wares and may lead to enormous stresses andstrains in their infrastructures. In fact, trying todetermine whether or not they should move to-wards the modernisation of their methods ofcommunication with their students wastes muchtime and leads to unnecessary polarisation withinthe institution. Some of them still do not have afull transformation policy, and the movementtowards modern methodologies is often spear-headed by a small group of individuals with a"vision."

Each of the examples below exemplifies cer-tain important aspects of the transformation. Asa group, they display many of the problems andsuccesses of the transformation process. Valu-able conclusions can be drawn from these ex-amplesconclusions that will be valid for thewhole continent of Africa.

THE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

(UNISA)The University of South Africa (UNISA), withits administrative seat in Pretoria, is the oldestdistance teaching university in the world. It wasestablished in 1875 as one of the examination

arms of the University of London. In 1946, itwas transformed into a teaching distance univer-

sity and grew to one of the mega-universities ofthe world, using advanced printing technology.

UNISA has about 125,000 students, mainlyfrom within the borders of South Africa. Theyrange from the poor, rural, and non-electrifiedareas, to the cities with their first-world infra-structures and telecommunications. There is a siz-

able component of students from internationallocations; this number is growing and they cla-mour for telematic enhancements.

UNISA has a main campus in Pretoria, aswell as subsidiary campuses in Cape Town, Dur-ban, Pietersburg, and Mpumalanga, which areconnected to the main campus by fast data lines.The university has about 4,000 administrative,academic, and research staff.

UNISA is following the recent trend of pro-viding study centres all over the country, each"stocked" with appropriate tutors and other sup-port staff. Telematic enhancement will play anincreasingly important role, since it is very ex-pensive to provide buildings and tutors.

UNISA has an extensive modern computingsystem, networks, and other electronic equipmentto handle all parts of its operations that are ame-nable to digitisation. The university developed themassive student system of programmes over aperiod of more than 30 years, allowing foreconomies of scale. All staff members who needa PC have one; all are connected to the localLANs and WANs and to the Internet. The uni-versity currently has about 4,000 PCs connectedto the network, as well as hundreds of printersand scanners. The printing works of UNISA isthe biggest on the African continent, with theexception of a few newspaper printing presses.It handles millions of postal items yearly throughan automated postal system.

The budget of the university is just less thanone billion Rand (about US$180,000,000) per year.

However, the state subsidy per full-time equiva-lent student is much less than that of other uni-versities, and its student fees are also appreciablelower.

The diverse nature of the student bodypresents a dilemma for the university: it wouldlike to teach through the modern technologies,but many of its students do not even share in theadvantages of electricity and telecommunicationinfrastructures. It cannot proceed out of a feel-ing of fairness to all its students, and it cannotstagnate or it will experience erosion of its stu-dent body to other more nimble institutions withthe required vision to use modern telecommuni-cation advantages.

The university itself has the most moderncomputing, telecommunication, and other infra-structure at its campus in Pretoria needed to makethis transition to technology-enhanced distanceeducation. However, it is almost hobbled by in-decision about its role in the world of moderntelecommunication and computing, since it feelsthat some of its students are not ready for thetransition. However, it is paving the way with itsvirtual arm, which still does not form a part ofits main operations but does make it ready forits task. At the same time, this virtual arm ben-efits those students with the required technolo-gies, such as Internet connectivity.

The university has opted to move towardsthe building of a virtual university by a series ofsteps that are designed to test the use of technol-ogy and to encourage the staff to participate.There are five areas in which the university ismaking very rapid progress:

A Web-based virtual university, called Stu-dents on Line (SOL)

Audio-visual aids

Tele-and video-conferencing

Web-based information services in the library

Other relevant areas.

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 1 03

Students on Line (SOL)The first area, Students on Line (SOL), allowsthe university the advantages of modern com-munication and education technologies to im-prove its own administrative, educational, andtraining services for the convenience and advan-tage of its staff and distant students. SOL allowsstudents to access parts of the massive universitydatabases on their own at any time, from any-where without requiring the services of a staffmember. They can register for courses, pay theirfees, download course materials, post assign-ments, and browse the library catalogue systemall through SOL. This service saves staff costsand allows staff to be used more cost effectivelyin areas where they are more needed.

More information about SOL can be foundon the Web sites www.unisa.ac.v and https:/ /soLunisa.ac.a. On the latter site there is a virtualtour of the SOL site and its activities available.

The SOL system of the University of SouthAfrica is fast becoming a model virtual univer-sity and is worth taking note of, since the univer-sity is ideally placed to be reached by anybodyon the African continent having an Internet con-nection. The university already has several thou-sand students on the African continent and is set-ting its sights on expanding to institutions northof South Africa. There is, in fact, already col-laboration with institutions in Zimbabwe, Zam-bia, Israel, and Korea.

The main problem that students experienceis lack of access to the Internet. However, thepresence of very many Internet cafes in the coun-try is alleviating that. The Department of Com-munication is experimenting with telecentres thatwill very soon be placed in all post offices andother centres in South Africa, which will alleviatethe problem even further. More and more schoolsare also being connected to the Internet (thereare already more than 500 of them!), and theyare realising that this could generate income for

the school if their connectivity is used commer-cially after hours. At present there are over a mil-lion users of the Internet and the Web in SouthAfrica, and their numbers are growing quickly.

In addition, the university is involved in animaginative scheme, collaborating with two otherdistance teaching tertiary institutions and a com-mercial firm, that could provide free Internetaccess to its students. This shows that Internetconnectivity may no longer be problematic in thenear future. The university can then channel moreof its resources into the development of fullyinteractive courses for the Web. It may be ad-vantageous for the university to lower the feesfor Internet courses slightly to offset the cost ofconnecting for the students. This should be a re-alistic option for the university because it will saveconsiderably on the cost of printing, handling,and postage.

Both staff and students who have used theSOL system seem to be impressed. Membersof staff are also increasingly using the "twin" ofSOL, Lecturers on Line (LOL), that supportsthem and their activities. Very soon LOL will bea powerful force among the academic and ad-ministrative staff of UNISA.

Audio-visual aidsUNISA makes an effort to help blind studentsby providing audio versions of study material,including all study guides. The university annuallyproduces over 500,000 audio cassettes for vari-ous courses to enhance the printed study material.In addition, a small but growing number ofcourses are augmented by video cassettes. Theseare produced in fully operational modern studios.

Tele- and video-conferencingUNISA is one of the world leaders in fully inter-active video-conferencing and operates four sites(one at each of its campuses). This feature wasadded to its distance teaching operation and isproving to be very popular among both staff

1 04 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

A. 12

and students. In fact, the use of the equipment isfully booked and the university is looking forfunds to increase the number of sites, as well asthe number of primary studios.

As the advantages of the medium permeatesthrough the university, more and more staff anddepartments are realising that they can contrib-ute much to the learning experience of studentsby switching to the new medium. And as thequality and size of the networks in the countryincrease, the university will switch more and more

to Internet video-conferencing. Preliminary stepshave already been taken in this direction.

Problems experiencedThe main problem in implementing distance edu-cation is, as has been discussed, the lack of sup-port from the top management. Fortunately, inthe case of UNISA, there was a group of veryenthusiastic and knowledgeable academics andadministrative staff that created SOL, LOL, andall the other Web requirements. These services wereintroduced into the system as an experiment, us-ing old, written-off servers. The necessary mod-em hardware and software (around R500,000 orUS$90,000) were bought from a grant of theUniversity Council. This experiment was so suc-cessful that it now forms part of the educationalmodel of UNISA. It is still not a required part,but that may soon be an essential part of it.

The second problem is in the area of socio-economic development. South Africa has justcome through a period of repression and sepa-ration into the "haves" and the "have nots." Tech-nology, however, has the ability to introduce anew kind of diverging separation into society:those who can afford it and become ICT liter-ate, and those who cannot.

Academic institutions are caught in a di-lemma. If they introduce courses that are reli-ant on ICT for the mode of delivery, many stu-dents with no access to such technology are at adistinct disadvantage.

Another problem experienced was that theacademic staff was fully committed to the printedmode of distance education. There was also notime and/or funds available for the intensive andexpensive retraining that goes hand in hand witha transformation to a model that rests uponmodern communication and computer technol-ogy. The whole educational model will have tochange and staff will have to be "rebooted" in anew methodology. All this is not so easy, and itusually is best to proceed with a small numberof ICT champions if the university managementdoes not enforce the change by committing ad-equate funds, time, and, above all, a driving vi-sion to the transformation.

The communication backbone of South Af-rica is able to support the present level of Internettechnology and it is being upgraded at a breath-less pace. Telephones are being installed in thehomes of the previously disadvantaged at a ratethat caught the distance teaching universities un-prepared. UNISA now gets up to about 70,000incoming calls daily, many from people who havenever had a telephone before.

All this means that about 300 people areneeded full time to answer the incoming calls.Once this was realised, it was easy for the univer-sity to make the step to using Internet technol-ogy to change the nature of the calls from ver-bal requests to Internet inquiries. This diverts asmany as possible incoming inquiries to anInternet-based system, such as SOL having allthe administrative capabilities. Creating a virtualuniversity can, therefore, in principle solve theproblem of telephone access.

TECHNIKON SA

The Technikon SA (TSA) situated in the EastRand part of Johannesburg, is a technical dis-tance education university that has recently madethe formal decision to "go virtual." It has a verywell-defined policy to execute this fundamental

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 105

113

transformation from paper-based distance edu-cation in the technical field to virtual, includingstaff training.

The management of the university made threevery profound strategic decisions in 1996-1997that increased the use of information technol-ogy at TSA:

To pursue a course of flexible and openlearning.

To use technology-enhanced teaching andlearning as a strategic thrust to ensure its glo-bal competitiveness in the 21" century.

To emphasise inter- and infra- institutional co-operation.

The Integrated Technology CentreAn Integrated Technology Strategy (INTES) wasset up to ensure optimal and cost-effective useof technology. It was soon clear that INTESalone was not enough and that there should be aphysical structure (separate from that of the com-puter centre) to take care of the administrationof the operation. Consequently, the IntegratedTechnology Centre (ITC) was established inOctober 1998 after 14 months of careful plan-ning. The vision of the ITC, a multifunctionaland multidisciplinary unit, is to encourage educa-tional innovation through the use of technology.Its "customers" are the students and the staff(academic as well as administrative), as well asoutside clients.

The ITC is structured into three areas: multi-media and online services, audio- and video-conferencing services, and technology supportand promotion. Under this structure the quali-fied staff is responsible for everything from da-tabase interface programming and Web designto audio and video streaming through the Internet.

The TSA has the necessary infrastructure toimplement the ITC programme. Its success isevident in its ability to create a fully functionalvirtual campus on the Internet, fully integrated

with its administrative systems and academic func-tions in a very short space of time. The virtualcampus is called TSA Online and has some areasin the public domain.

The Web site is at www.trsa.ac.Za. The site hasmuch study material for students, such as tutorialletters, study guides, and more. Very soon thefirst fully interactive study material will appearon the Web, which will eliminate weeks in postaldelays.

Reactions of staff and studentsThe reactions of students who have Web accessare very positive. However, not all staff have"bought in" and the TSA is addressing the prob-lem aggressively by means of awareness sessions.

Despite the reservation of some staff mem-bers, the example of TSA shows that it is possi-ble to convert an institution from one technol-ogy to a dual-mode technology with careful plan-ning, adequate funding, and, above all, by a man-agement that actively pushes for it because it be-lieves in the change of direction. In this regard,TSA is a model worth emulating.

UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA

The University of Pretoria is a residential cityuniversity that draws its students from all overthe country. It teaches in the traditional face-to-face mode in two languages. It has a huge cam-pus in the centre of Pretoria with many beautifulbuildings.

The University of Pretoria presents an exam-ple of a transformation towards a virtual univer-sity and distance education driven by the manage-ment of the institution. The project, which startedin 1998, is a model of a transformation that mustunfold according to a carefully researched plan. Italso illustrates the inordinate amount of effort thatgoes into the training of the academic, adminis-trative, and management staff. And finally, it illus-trates a plan to manage a mindshift on the cam-pus towards a virtual university.

106 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

114

The university has consciously taken a strate-gic decision to aggressively move towards dis-tance education through modern telecommuni-cation and computing technology. This decisionwill also change the face-to-face model, sincedistance education technology will be used toenhance the performance of the university in thecontact mode. In fact, it seems that the Univer-sity of Pretoria is moving inexorably towardsthe dual-mode model.

The university has brought in much technol-ogy to enhance its mode of instruction. There arewell-equipped computer laboratories, connectiv-ity to the Internet through UNINET, and a goodtele-conferencing studio connected to variousschools in the vicinity for training programmes aswell as to some outlying subsidiary campuses.

This transformation towards modern com-munication and computing technology is verymuch (but not wholly) driven by the manage-ment of the university. The management realisesthat the technology is the way of the future, andit has developed a coherent plan to allow it touse its own resources to drive the planned trans-formation. (This will generate new revenues tospeed up the transformation.)

Management also realises that it could not workin isolation, and so it is integrating its administra-tive systems with two sister universities, namelythe University of Stellenbosch in the Western Capeand Potchefstroom (see below) in the North-WestProvince. This collaboration allows the sharing ofexpensive resources, such as satellite.

The aim of the university is to create a virtualcampus that is fully integrated into the presentcampus, making use of the contact model. Thisintegrated learning system will incorporate anadministrative interface, communication with tu-tors and lecturers, and courseware. It will alsofunction as an Intranet within the university.

Another main goal is to manage the re-quired mindshift of its administrative, man-agement and academic staff to facilitate the

successful implementation of a virtual campus.The aim is to shift from a classroom-control-led model to a self-paced learning system op-erating free of the constraints of time, space,and opportunity.

To realise this project, the university created aDepartment of Telematic Education. This de-partment now spearheads the development ofthis very carefully managed project. The projectplan unfolded in three main phases:

1. March to April 1998: Workshops and actionresearch.

2. April to June 1998: Definition phase; deter-mination of specifications and standards, ICTarchitecture, protocols, etc.; financial projec-tions over the next two years; definition ofan integrated courseware and administrationsystem.

3. June to August 1998: Execution phase; de-velopment of the platform; comprehensivetraining programme for academic and ad-ministrative staff; development of a qualityassurance tool.

The mainstream effort will go into the crea-tion of a virtual university on the Internet. In thisvirtual environment students will be able to ac-cess and make use of all the facilities usually of-fered by a university, such as online inquiries, reg-istration, library facilities, counselling, tuition, as-signments, tests, etc. The university is creating thissystem from a zero base; it is intended to imple-ment this phase very soon.

The other mainstream effort will go intovideo-conferencing and other interactive mecha-nisms. The university is already well known forits work with TELETUKS, the interactive video-conferencing system linking the main campuswith the distant campuses, as well as to selectedschools in the Pretoria area. The university makesuse of terrestrial antennae, satellite transmission,and optical cable links of Multichoice's Satellite

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 1 07

115

Decoding Systems together with smart cards totransmit its signals to download sites.

The list of departments and faculties prepar-ing to deliver coursework through the system be-fore the end of the year 2000 is formidable andexemplifies the careful planning, as well as the suc-cessful management, of the change on the cam-pus. Just some examples are the School for Infor-mation Technology, Faculty of Dentistry, Facultyof Engineering, School of Management, Facultyof Education, and Faculty of Science. The changein mindset allows the university to offer completecourses for entire fields of study and degrees in-stead of the spattering of non-integrated coursesoffered by other transforming institutions callingthemselves virtual universities.

UNIVERSITY OF POTCHEFSTROOM FOR

CHRISTIAN HIGHER EDUCATION

The University of Potchefstroom for ChristianHigher Education, one of the smaller universi-ties in South Africa and situated about 100 kilo-metres to the southwest of Johannesburg, is pur-suing an aggressive telematics policy. Its teach-ing language is mostly Afrikaans, but this doesnot stand in the way of offering curricula inEnglish, as is the case for the programme dis-cussed below.

In 1996, the university started a well-planned,affordable distance teaching programme, calledTelematics Learning Systems (TLS) in a few verycarefully chosen fields for which there were per-ceived demands. This demand is one of the pa-rameters that guarantee large enough numbersof students per course to make the entire pro-gramme economically viable. The first graduatesreceived their degrees at the end of 1998. TheWeb site of the TLS is www.puk.ac.Za /tls/tirprvg.html.

The vision of the university is to offer "high-quality learning programmes of international stand-ard for the development needs of the country and

its people with a new learning model based onoutcomes and student participation." The fieldsof study were chosen after careful consultationwith a broad range of stakeholders in society,with special emphasis upon eventual economicempowerment of previously disadvantagedpeople. About 75% of the 2,500 diploma stu-dents and 1,000 degree students of the pro-gramme come from the previously disadvan-taged part of society. That percentage is an earlyindication of huge success, and the project isvery near to a breakeven point after just threeyears.

Students from all walks of life have enthusi-astically supported the programme, which cur-rently offers the following diplomas, degrees, anduniversity certificates:

Bachelor's of Business Administration

Master's in Business Administration

Nursing Diplomas

Bachelor's in Nursing, as well as diplomasand certificates

Diploma in Legal Interpreting

The following degrees and diplomas will beadded to the programme within the next twoyears:

University Diploma in English for Speakersof Other Languages

Honours and Master's Degree in PublicManagement

A Web-based Honours degree in Pharma-cology

The first year of the Bachelor's Degree inEngineering (together with the University ofSouth Africa);

A University Diploma in Recreation andTourism

The Faculty of Engineering has also decidedto join the project and will offer an exciting pal-ette of courses.

1 08 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

118

The teaching programme of each course isbuilt around the concepts of distance education,supported in various ways. First, the well-designedprinted study package is sent by post to students.This package has been developed by about 60academic staff members, together with about600 people from all walks of life from all overthe country.

Students can make use of more than 20 studycentres in major areas of the country. At eachstudy centre, a trained tutor or demonstrator isavailable for each subject, and regular group meet-ings are held at the study centres.

Telematic learning systems (TLS) in the formof interactive videos and satellite transmissions,as well as CD-ROMs, are available for certaincourses. Soon, Web-based courses will be added.

Finally, the programme is supported by col-laboration with other institutions of higher learn-ing in South Africa and abroad, as well as withlocal institutions.

The development of the programme from azero-base was very expensive, especially as therewas virtually no culture of TLS or any of the re-quired equipment on campus at the initiation of theproject. The development was done at an averagecost of about R200,000 (US$34,000) per semestercourse for the about 100 courses developed so far.

When analysing the programme, the follow-ing important points emerge:

It is possible to start such a project from azero base in a country such as South Africaprovided it is well planned with realistic cost-ing of the various phases (including planningfor an early break-even point). Economicallyviable and socially needed courses must beidentified and chosen in conjunction withrelevant stakeholders in all walks of life. Theremust also be enough funding initially to pro-vide the best training in TLS principles andpractise for the staff involved, to buy thecorrect equipment and studios, to initiate the

study centres and their equipment, and to findand train the tutors. Enough staff needs tobe allocated to the TLS, and in such a fash-ion that each student feels individually treated.

The technologies to be used must becarefully chosen to fall within the budget andmust not intimidate prospective students, lec-turers, and educational designers. As the userbase increases and as the technological infra-structure in the country increases, other tech-nologies may be added.

Finally, collaboration with other institu-tions is of vital importance, since costs, fa-cilities, and know-how are shared, which canadvance the break-even point.

The demands of the learners for distance edu-cation have changed: they like receiving tutorial

support and group discussion classes, togetherwith well-designed interactive study material.

Study centres are well placed for the expectedclientele and easily reachable by transport; allthe necessary equipment must be availableand must function optimally. There is noth-ing as frustrating as non-operating educationaltechnology.

Students like the modern approach of inter-active technology much more than the usualdistance education package; it gives them afeeling of being prepared for the technolo-gies they will have to use in the future. (thisapplies especially to computer skills.)

The use of multimedia CD-ROMs is oneof the best ways of attracting students, evenunwilling ones, to modern communicationand educational technologies.

The success of the initial courses ensures thestart of a process of co-operative change.Interested staff members, and eventually, thewhole institution, will accept the principlesof TLS as being the best.

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 1 09

UNIVERSITY OF STELLENBOSCH

The University of Stellenbosch is one of the old-est universities in the country and traditionallyteaches in Afrikaans. It has all the faculties usuallyassociated with a university and teaches throughcontact mechanisms. During 1997, however, itdecided to pursue a distance education modelthrough modern telecommunication technology.What makes it different from other universitiesis that it has teamed up with a commercial com-pany to provide some of the telematic servicesneeded. This collaboration will, no doubt pro-vide valuable experience in the future.

The university has accepted that it needs todevelop a distance education model that ensuresaccessibility. With this in mind, the university hasopted for three modes of delivery in the con-struction of the virtual university: the Internet,interactive television broadcasts, and paper-drivendistance education.

As the system has just started up, an evalua-tion is not yet possible. However, there are al-ready some important points to take note of:

The university made the decision to incor-porate distance education into its main mis-sion; it will never be just an add-on.

Distant and on-campus students will betreated in the same way through use of thetechnology.

The emphasis is on affordable technologiesfor the student. This is achieved by closelycollaborating with a commercial organisa-tion already in possession of all the relevanttechnology, such as studios, downloadingsites, as well as the required staff. There areno initial set-up costs.

The outcomes of this programme will be in-teresting to watch because the university has cho-sen a model of distance education that runs veryclose to their contact education model. Some as-pects of it are actually classroom drivensimilar

to those of the African Virtual University. Motherinteresting aspect is that the university is concen-trating on the urban areas of the country, thus di-rectly competing with other institutions such as thetraditional distance teaching universities like theUniversity of South Africa and the TechnikonSouth Africa.

Primary and SecondaryEducation Institutions andTeachers' Training CollegesThe educators of the country have a vision toleapfrog the paper age into the age of modemtelecommunication and information. This meansthat all schools and all education departments willhave to be supplied with computers, LANs, andthe Internet, in addition to nationwide satellitecommunication and teaching facilities. This is notsuch a far-fetched dream: many schools alreadyhave computing facilities. Unfortunately this is nottrue for the rural schools and the more disad-vantaged communities.

INTERNET CONNECTIVITY:

SCHOOLNET SA

Internet connectivity of schools is at presentencouraged by the various Education Depart-ments of the provinces, but not really fundedin any serious way. It is mostly left to the man-agement of schools and the support of theparents' community.

There are at present over 1,000 (out of about28,000) schools connected to the Internet in SouthAfrica. While the percentage is still low, the rate ofincrease is phenomenal, at about 100% per year.This huge growth indicates the need for formalplanning by central and provincial education au-thorities. One of the areas being investigated is thecreation of a huge central educational telecom-munication backbone in the country.

1 1 0 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

118

About half of the schools connected to theInternet are linked to the massive University andResearch Institutions Network, called UNINET.The rest make use of dial-up facilities throughthe nearest ISPs. Schools are required to defrayall the costs incurred in the process, such as theTelkom line cost (dial-up, or leased, as the casemay be), server, network, modem, and ISP costs.This is done through levies, parent-teacher or-ganisations, local sponsorships, or donor fund-ing. More about this can be found on the Website www.school.Za /research.

Also, there is now an organisation, calledSchoolNet South Africa (similar to the SchoolNetCanada), initially funded by the IDRC and sup-ported by the Department of Education. Thisorganisation has a small staff dedicated to thedevelopment of Internet connectivity of schools.More particulars are found at www.schooZza.

The following issues are facing schools:The present UNINET fees are difficult tomanage, since they depend on the amountof data transported, which can be very highif too much international traffic is used. Thisis especially serious when the school comesfrom a traditionally disadvantaged sector.

There are generally no ICT budgets inschools. Eighty-six percent of the schoolsconnected to the Internet are formerly"white" schools. Their Internet costs are de-frayed from school levies that parents mustpay, from donor funds (often local donors,like businesses) and not from state subsidy.It currently costs from R30,000 to R60,000(US$5,000 to $10,000) per year for Diginetaccess per school, to R1,500 (US$270) peryear for telephone costs for ISP dial-up ac-cess. This cost will inhibit connectivityprogress.

Many schools lack the necessary electricity.The giant electric company, ESKOM, is cur-rently implementing its electrification plan.

Such a plan also calls for the use of solarenergy to "wire up schools;" the idea is todo it as soon as possible. A further problemthat faces schools is the payment of their elec-tricity bills.

There is a lack of management expertise ofICT facilities among school staff, includingtechnical and software expertise, technicalmanagement of the network, as well as lackof appreciation from the top managementat schools. If these issues are not addressedit will constrain school Internet connectivityfor the foreseeable future.

There are massive security problems for ICTequipment in schools. This is very serious ina country that is plagued by high criminaland unemployment rates. The security ofcopper telephone cables (the disappearanceof which has "disconnected" many schoolsfrom the telecommunication system) is alsoat issue.

In 1996, 62% of the schools were withouttelephone access. However Telkom's licencerequires them to supply links to most schools(if not all) before 2002.

Teaching staff do not know how to use andintegrate the Internet and multimedia PCsinto their class work. This is a very seriousproblem and will have to be centrally ad-dressed, especially at the level of teacher train-ing and retraining.

There is a lack of understanding of the useof the Internet as an essential part of anyschool education administrative system,whether on the national, provincial, or indi-vidual school level. Again, this issue must beaddressed by studying all the possibilities andimplementing them systematically.

There is a very active group of schools inthe Western Cape Province that sets the exam-ple of Internet connectivity in schools as well as

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 111

119

establishing formal relations among themselvesto support each other. They also assist otherschools that want to connect by offering hard-ware and software training and advice, as well asmoral support along this very difficult route.

ST ALBAN'S COLLEGE

St Alban's College is a large private school in theeastern suburbs of Pretoria. It has a proud aca-demic tradition, now augmented by a proud tra-dition in telematics, multimedia, and web tech-nology. The school has successfully integratedmodern educational and telecommunication tech-nology into the school system as a result of theforesight of the management structures of theschool, driven by the vision of a few individuals.

The school has a Director of Technology andis excellently furnished with all kinds of electronicand telematic equipment. There are well-designedcomputer laboratories that form an integral partof the school education system. St. Alban's alsoreaches out to the community around it, espe-cially to the underprivileged parts. Details of theschool can be found on their excellent Web siteat www.stalban.pta.school.v.

Project TECSASSome years ago St Alban's realised that theInternet was going to be one of the major ena-bling factors in South African education. Whenthe problem was analysed, the school realisedthat even when any other school managed tobecome connected to the Internet (by whatevermeans) there were no typical South African edu-cational materials to support any kind of schoolactivity.

The school knew also that there are manypoorly qualified teachers in the educational sys-tem. The logical step was, therefore, to make acontribution that would serve the entire countryand create a database that could be accessed byeverybody with access to the Internetboth inSouth Africa, as well as abroad.

Project TECSAS, Technology EducationCurriculum for South African Schools, was born.A database was started with educational content,customised for the South African situation, forassisting teachers to prepare lessons, students towork in collaboration with the teacher, and stu-dents to work in the absence of any teacher.

Originally, it was the ideal to set up a massivedatabase containing all the material needed toteach and learn Accounting, Economics, Geog-raphy, Design Technology, Life Skills, Entrepre-neurial Skills, Biology, Science, and Mathematicsfor the school years Standards 7 to 10 (grades 9to 12). For this purpose, a pilot project was setup with funds from the InfoDev programmeof the World Bank. Since the funds were notadequate to cover all the subjects, it was decidedto implement only the Standard 7 (grade 9) da-tabase for Biology. It was felt that Biology is avery visual subject that lends itself very well toWeb design. Moreover, there is a great interest inthe subject from the side of the previously dis-advantaged part of society.

The school Web site provides more detailsof the project and displays the database very well,proving that this kind of interactive data ware-house can work and can deliver a real service toteachers, pupils, and parents.

Student responseThe pupils like the approach of an interactivedata warehouse very much, since it gives themcontrol over their own progress. Above all, theylike to study at a school where the general at-mosphere is of modern information and edu-cation technology and where they know they arelearning the skills that will ensure them jobs in thenew information and telecommunication age.

Problem areas and conclusionsOne of the problems experienced by thesite developers is the perennial question ofcopyright. It is easier to make copies of

11 2 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

120

drawings from textbooks, and also much lessexpensive than designing the drawings overagain. This was solved by a formal agree-ment between school and publishers.

It is very expensive to develop a data ware-house and it is virtually out of the range ofaffordability of a single school. What isneeded is a collaborative effort of many in-stitutions, including the education authoritiesand industry. What the site proved is that it ispossible to build such a data warehouse forthe benefit of the country, that it works verywell, and that an effort must be made toexpand it. What's more, a collaborative ef-fort strengthens the indigenous nature of thematerial, reaching out to local pupils andteachers.

Many teachers are afraid of the formalHTML requirements to develop Webpages. The Council for Scientific and In-dustrial Research (CSIR), through itsMICOMTEK Division, has created a soft-ware curriculum management tool thatenables teachers to prepare their own ma-terial and to deposit it on a Web site forthe use and benefit of all (sponsored byinfoDEV and the IDRC).

The interaction with peers is very importantin this field. Isolation is deadly! St Alban's isat present starting a Connected LearningCommunity, where people meet. Local andinternational schools and organisations meeton common virtual ground. More informa-tion about this new school activity can befound at the Web site www.stalban.pta.schoolza/

bgers/ microsoft/ cic98.htm.

A new type of school emergingSt. Alban's typifies the kind of school (independ-ent or public) that is emerging in South Africa.The acquisition of and expertise in educationaland communication technology is not left until

the education authorities take the lead; theschools are making their own decisions. Theyhave a vision to use the equipment to give theirpupils a better education, one that is relevantin the modern age. Such schools find the fundsnot only within their parent associations, butlaunch projects to generate the funds, and evenwork out laudable projects and apply forgrants from NGOs and local and internationaldonors.

St Alban's is an independent school and notin the "rich parent" bracket. The ways in which itobtained the funds are open for any school tofollow. All that is needed are a handful of knowl-edgeable and visionary enthusiasts and a sympa-thetic school management.

GAUTENG TEACHER TRAINING

The Gauteng Provincial Education Departmenthas about 10 teacher upgrading and resourcecentres. These will be connected to the Internetand teachers trained by using the connection. Thisis an experiment that can lead to better commu-nication between teachers in various parts of theprovince. Teachers will be able to exchange in-formation and methodology. This exchange ofinformation is especially valuable in the case ofthe upkeep and servicing of hardware and soft-ware, where peer-to-peer teaching is extremelyfast and reliable.

Commercial OrganisationsSeveral commercial telematic firms were startedduring the last decade with the express purposeof providing affordable telematically based tui-tion to the nation. None of them actually gotgoing well enough to become commercially vi-able. Some of them are now renting their serv-ices, studios, and sites to other educational insti-tutions, or even to loosely bound conglomeratesof institutions. Some of them provide servicesto big companies for staff training.

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 11 3

121

All of them used satellite TV programmesfrom a central studio in the Johannesburg areaand downloaded sites dotted all over the coun-try. Each site had a satellite reception antenna, asignal converter to unscramble the signal for pay-ing customers, a touch pad or a telephone padto communicate to the main studio where theteacher could see the responses of the individualstudents, as well as the course statistics. There wasalso a telephone for audio communication withthe teacher. The system claimed to be fully inter-active, although in reality the interactivity was verylow and at best, disjointed.

The lesson that can be learned is that accuratemarket research must be done before such com-mercial ventures are undertaken. The technologyused is adequate, but society and the educationalcommunity were not ready for such a "revolu-tionary" approach. It was a far too expensiveventure to draw in the masses, and it is clear thatsmall-scale ventures with risk capital will not gainenough support to be viable. What is needed, isthe following:

To fully fund and launch a massive telematicproject

To train the teachers and the users thoroughlybefore the launch

To install equipment that is very easy todownload

To design the lessons and the accompanyingcourse material (including printed material)well and to set up well-functioning distribu-tion modes for it

To use a language that is easy for classes atthe distant download sites to comprehend(including vocabulary, pronunciation, and lan-

guage complexity)

To fully liaise with the formal education com-munity

To mount a massive advertising campaignto increase the awareness in the country

Industrial OrganisationsThere are not many industrial organisations withinSouth Africa that have very big telematic and vir-tual training programmes. Two main examplesare the South African Transportation Services andTelkom, the South African TelecommunicationsCompany. Only Telkom is presented here.

TELKOM SKYTRAIN

Telkom, the only allowed South African tel-ecommunications supplier, is a massive organi-sation with 58,000 employees, many of whomwho need training or re-training. To meet thisneed, over the last two and a half years a mas-sive telematics effort was made, under thename of Skytrain. This programme aug-mented the face-to-face training methodologyof Telkom.

Skytrain is managed from the very wellequipped central studio at Midrand near Johan-nesburg. It involves an uplink in the BetacamSP format to the Intelsat 704 satellite positionedat 66°E (see discussion earlier) on the Ku band(S3 footprint), using only about 8 megahertz ofthe 27 megahertz bandwidth. The satellitedownlinks to about 100 interactive classroomsdotted all over the country. Telkom tries to lo-cate a downsite not more than 100 kilometresfrom a conglomerate of work locations. Thetotal cost of the system is probably in excessof R50 million Rand (US$9 million).

Each downsite classroom is able to acceptdata, video, and audio via the satellite while it isin contact with the management console in themain studio. There are on average about 10 workplaces at each site, equipped with a One-TouchPad for educational communication with the lec-turer. The type of communication is very learner-centred and provides real-time feedback to thelecturer through computer software. Eachdownsite has facilities for recording videos forreviewing purposes. Tests can be written, using

114 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

122

multiple choice questions. There is a fax machineat each site as well as a number of PCs for com-puter literacy training; some of them linked toTelkom file servers.

Telkom's trainers at their other training sitesproduce the learning materials for Skytrain. Eachpresentation is videotaped for training the trainersand is analysed for effectivieness and standard.

Skytrain is very conscious that presentationsmust be very well focused and prepared. Thismeans that training of all involved is essential toprevent the "technology or bust" phenomenon.

Skytrain feels that short courses with veryclearly defined goals, agreed upon by managers,supervisors, and presenters, are ideally suited forthe technology. If done well, Telkom saves ontravelling, subsistence, and dislocation costs. Thesystem is ideal for training people who work atthe typical one-person stations in the remote ar-eas of the country. These key people can nor-mally not be released to attend long trainingcourses far away from their stations.

Supervisors and managers can easily attendany presentation at any site to anonymously verifythat the training is up to standard and that thelearning objectives are satisfied. In fact, Telkomis assured in this way that trainees will have therequired level of competency to fulfil their chang-ing job needs. This is hardly possible at ordinarytraining sites.

The Skytrain system is ideal for training andre-training in areas of technology where the de-velopment rate outstrips the company's ability tooperate "normal" training courses. Students havethe advantage of being lectured by internationalexperts in the fields. Training time is also foundto be considerably reduced, due to more focusedactivity during transmission. This system seemsto provide solid motivation for the students, whofeel that they are receiving state-of-the-art train-ing in their jobs. In addition, training can be doneusing the "just-in-time" principle.

Broadcasting OrganisationsThe three main TV broadcasting companies inSouth Africa are the public broadcaster (SABC)and a new commercial free-to-air channel (ETV),and the privately owned subscription based com-pany (MNET). The SABC has an active educa-tional TV and radio programme schedule, whichis briefly reviewed here. The very many satellitechannels of MNET carry a great variety of ma-terials that are educationally important. This isespecially true for its children's programmes.

The SABC has the obligation to concern it-self with formal education in particular and edu-cational programmes in general. It is actively col-laborating with the national Department of Edu-cation (Centre for Educational Technology andDistance Education).

There are very many interesting programmesthat are broadcast to support the senior schoolsyllabus. These lessons have huge audiences andare subsidised by Liberty Life Trust. Talented andknowledgeable teachers are used, and childrenare allowed to phone in with problems that aredealt with in live sessions.

Some newspapers, like the Sowetan, independ-ently carry printed class notes that enhance theTV programmes. Together the TV and theprinted notes make an enormous contributionto the training of pupils in science and English.

The main problem with this kind of one-channel TV lesson is that of getting the schooltimetables of all the provinces and all the schoolssynchronised. It is an almost impossible prob-lem, and the result is that programmes are re-corded, thus nullifying the effect of the minimalinteractivity.

The South African Institute of Distance Edu-cation (SAIDE) has just released a report to theSABC on its educational role and how it mayenhance its effectivity in this regard. The massivereport can be viewed at the SAIDE sitewww.saide.ors.v.

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 11 5

X433

Based on SAIDE's research, the SABC Edu-cation Department, together with the nationalDepartment of Education, has developed theSchool TV service, which is designed to offerprogrammes to the Reception and FoundationPhase (grades R to 3) in support of learning andteaching. However, this service is going beyondbroadcasting the programmes. It is also focusingon delivering print support materials to schoolsto complement the programmes, together withefforts to train teachers on using the media, andassisting with the delivery of receiving equipment(TVs and VCRs) to schools.

The SABC Education Radio and TV De-partments offer programmes that support allsectors of the education and training system.These include Early Childhood Development,Primary and Secondary School, Teacher Devel-opment, Science and Mathematics, Agriculture,Youth Development, Culture of Learning,Teaching and Services, and Adult Basic Educa-tion and Training.

The African Virtual University(AVU): A RepresentativeExampleAfrica is a vast continent with a fast-growingpopulation, having an abundance of natural re-sources on the one hand and an almost universalset of struggling economies on the other. Thisvicious interplay between population andeconomy tends to push the population growthupward and the economy down in most coun-tries. One of the results of this interplay is theeducation system syndrome of most countries:too little funding to address the basic problemthat most of its citizens are illiterate in all mod-ern meaning of the word. Too few resourceshave to stretch too far.

If a system of education could be developedthat allowed widespread tertiary education per

subject in several countries at the same time, itwould mean that expensive resources could beshared and the economy of scale of a group ofcountries participating would offset the inevita-ble increased costs of presentation. To put itbluntly, if a group of countries could be inducedto share the delivery of lectures via satellite byknowledgeable world-class lecturers, supportedby good ground staff, all of them would ben-efit. The African Virtual University (AVU) triesto do just that.

OBJECTIVES OF THE AVU

The objectives of the AVU are simply this:To use modern telecommunication technol-ogy (especially satellite TV technology) indiverse countries in Africa to demonstratethat it can be used effectively as a teachingmedium.

To prove that such a project can be success-fully implemented in various African coun-tries, each with its own government, educa-tional system, independent universities (jeal-ously guarding their academic freedom), tel-ecommunication authorities (jealously guard-ing their airspace), language, and culture.

To prove that such a project can generatethe economy of scale to sustain itself afterthe inevitable discontinuation of donorfunding.

To upgrade the capacity of African coun-tries in teaching mathematics and science,subjects that are very much needed to kick-start their economies.

To prove that diverse communities can eas-ily adapt to the modern technology, that is,that such communities can leapfrog the pa-per age.

To prove that diverse university curricula andtimetables can be subjected to the dictatesof common sense and usefulness.

11 6 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

124

THE PILOT PROJECT

The pilot phase implementation, beginning in July1997 and lasting one year, involved six English-based undergraduate courses of televised instruc-tion taking place from sites in the United States,Ireland, and Canada to appropriate sites at Afri-can universities. Simultaneously, French-basedcourses were developed in Belgium, France, andSwitzerland. (The next phase will activate Portu-guese-based courses; the Portuguese Web site isunder construction at present.) Formal contractswith U.S. and European universities to providethe teaching for the courses as well as the back-ground material (called "literature") were nego-tiated and signed. (All data and informationquoted below come from the Web site of theAVU at www.avu.org.)

The pilot project was intended to involve smallteams in Africa, supported by a small core teamat the World Bank supported by consultants.Twelve higher education institutions from sixAnglophone countries (Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya,Tanzania, Uganda, and Zimbabwe) participatedin the Anglophone part of the project. These in-stitutions are:

Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa,Ethiopia (AAU)

Kenyatta University, Nairobi Kenya (KU)

Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda(MUK)

Uganda Polytechnic, Kyambogo, Kampala,Uganda (UPK)

Uganda Martyrs University, Nkosi, Uganda(UMU)

University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimba-bwe (UZ)

National University of Science & Technol-ogy Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

Open University of Tanzania, Dar-Es-Salaam,Tanzania

University of Dar-Es-Salaam, Dar-Es-Sa-laam, Tanzania

University of Science & Technology, Kumasi,Ghana (UST)

University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast,Ghana

University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana

Eleven institutions from six Francophonecountries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire,Niger, Senegal, and Togo), as well as two insti-tutions from two Lusophone (Portuguesespeaking) countries, participated during theequipment installation phase. The institutions fromFrancophone countries are:

Universite de Dakar, Senegal (receive site in-stalled)

Universite d'Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire

Ecole superieure polytechnique deYamoussokro, Cote d'Ivoire

Etablissements Loko, Cote d'Ivoire (biggestprivate educational institution in the country)

Universite de Lome, Togo

Universite de Cotonou, Benin

Universite d' Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

Centre universitaire de Bobo Diou Lasso,Burkina Faso

Universite de Niamey, Niger

Universite de Nouakchott, Mauritania

And the institutions from Lusophone coun-tries are:

Universite Eduardo Mondlane, Mozambique

Cape Verde Higher Education institute: re-quest received from the Ministry

The courses offered during the pilot phasewere very limited. They are, however, essentialscience courses that are really needed on the Af-rican continent. In the second semester, there werethree additional courses, with a further seven

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 11 7

African universities participating. The registrationfigures for the first two semesters (available onthe Web site) show the courses fulfil a need anddraw reasonable numbers of students. The re-markable fact is that so many institutions in vari-ous parts of the world managed to collaboratein real time to fulfil a real need.

FUNDING OF THE PROJECT

The World Bank was one of the sponsors ofthe pilot project. World Bank Africa Region andits infoDev activity contributed US$750,000, otherbilateral donors contributed US$925,000, and theU.S. Trade Development Agency contributedUS$365,000. The full pilot project financing wasabout US$3 million for the period July 1997 toJuly 1998. The satellite transmission time seemsto have been donated free of charge for theduration of the pilot project.

It is not easy to estimate the costs of the pilotproject. The AVU planning document states thefollowing (see www.avu.org):

A conservative estimate of the cost of inter-

national satellite transponders is in excess of

$2 million per year for four digital channels

(half transponder capacity on a long-termlease).

All other costs of operating the AVU on

an annual basis are estimated at a multiplier

of three times the cost of transponder access

(based on the operating budgets of othersatellite-based distance learning networks, but

adjusted by a significant increase for course

development and production, student sup-port services, and international operations).

It is currently planned that the AVU will

broadcast on four digital channels the 1999

and 2000 academic year. With 286 creditcourses planned for the year 2000 at an esti-

mated transponder cost of $1.92 million per

year, it will take only 269 students paying $25

tuition per course in the 286 courses to cover

the most significant cost to be incurred by

the AVU, or an average of only one student

per site among the projected 260 sites. In the

year 2001, the full transponder cost will be an

estimated $3,000,000 per year, and with an

estimated 442 credit courses planned, it will

take 272 students per site paying $25 each to

cover the transponder cost. Retaining a site

count of only 260 sites, the average number

of students required to cover the transponder

cost is still only approximately one student

per site per course.

SOME CONCLUSIONS

Probably the most important findings are that itis possible to:

Set up a virtual university in Africa, using veryadvanced communication technology.

Obtain collaboration on state level and onuniversity level between different Africancountries (and also overseas countries).

Synchronise the same courses in the timeta-bles of the different universities in the dif-ferent countries.

Use well-qualified lecturers in more advancedcountries to deliver the courses.

Train local staff in assisting these lecturers atlocal sites.

Use the most advanced technology withoutlosing the students who are not used to thetechnology.

Use a common language (English) to deliverthe lectures without any real communicationproblems.

Prove that the operation can be financiallyviable, even in such esoteric subjects asmathematics because of the economy-of-scale effect, summed over the variousdownload sites.

Prove that the technology is stable and thatits equipment can be used over long periodsin non-industrialised areas of Africa.

11 8 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

Prove that it is one of the ways in which toaccelerate the production of graduates insubjects that are difficult to teach at the levelof single states because of the lack of suit-ably qualified staff.

Prove that this technology and methodol-ogy can be extended to other subjects andfields of study, for instance, the medical di-rection, since Africa urgently needs morequalified doctors, nurses, and health officials.

Prove that Africa can leapfrog the paper ageinto the information technology age with-out showing any signs of stress and strain.

These are remarkable findings indeed.

Some Other RepresentativeAfrican Examples

EGYPT

Egypt is situated on the northern part of Africaand has a progressive government that is anx-ious to improve the telecommunication capacityof the country. The overall connectivity in thecountry is not high, but the government haslaunched a few telematics and PC projects. Al-though there are as yet no real virtual institutionsidentifiable on the Internet, Egypt has an emerg-ing interest and will most certainly improve dur-ing the next few years. Egypt is judged to be atthe stage where virtual activities can be confidentlyplanned and developed from existing multime-dia projects described below.

Telecommunication infrastructureMuch state and donor funding has gone into tel-ecommunication upgrading projects, but the tel-ephone connectivity density is still low, running atan average of about 5%, while Cairo and Alex-andria have a connectivity of around 12% (ac-cording to Jensen). The ideal is to develop fullconnectivity around the year 2010.

Furthermore, there are a quite a few Internetservice providers operating in Egypt, giving ex-cellent usage and enhanced services to their cus-tomers. According to Jensen:

Internet service provision is divided into three

groups: IDSC is responsible for government

users, EUN is responsible for the academicand research network, and RITSEC is respon-

sible for the private sector. RITSEC is estab-

lishing a VSAT network in the country in co-

operation with the PTT and VSAT equip-ment suppliers Hughes and NEC.

The Egyptian Universities NetworkThe Egyptian Universities Network (EUN) hasestablished the FRCU Computer Centre. TheEUN connects academic and research centres,together with governmental and non-governmen-tal organisations to the Internet. Jensen (in his Website) notes the types of services made availablethrough the EUN. They are:

Internet and EARN (I ERENA) administra-tion for Egypt.

Networking connectivity to different sectors.

Full Internet services (e-mail, remote log-in,file transfer, Gopher, WWW, Lynx, Mosaic).

General and specialised training courses anddocumentation on different networking areas.

Consultation and assistance for building andenhancing networks.

Assistance with installing and programmingscientific or statistical packages.

Virtual institutionsAlthough no virtual institutions could be foundby searching the Internet, and no Web mastersin Egypt replied to e-mailed questions aboutsuch activities, the Egyptian Ministry of Edu-cation has started several projects that have theability to develop eventually into virtual teach-ing activities. These are described on the Web

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 11 9

site of the Ministry of Education under theproject title: positive education. (See www.

frcu.eun.eg/ www/ homcpagehnoe/ newsitel.htm.)

The vision of the ministry is to bridge stu-dents to the 21" century through "positive edu-

cation." The Web site gives some examples to

illustrate what this positive education is. The fol-

lowing set of conclusions was drawn from a close

study of the Web site and the examples given.

The ministry did not respond to e-mail inquiries.The trends are, however, clear.

Positive education seems to be multimediaeducation, and it is clear that it will first be in-troduced at some schools, while others will fol-

low as they become technologically equipped.It is not clear whether the scheme is network-

server based, runs on isolated multimedia PCsusing CD-ROMs, or is Web based. Whateverthe status, it is clear that it is only a small step tovirtual education via the Internet. A series ofWeb pages about a history course for the firstyear primary and the first year secondary stu-dents are provided on the site. They providesome good examples for a geography course

and a social studies course.The institute called GAEM is starting a mas-

sive project of producing multimedia pro-grammes in social science, physics, chemistry,and biology. The project aims to cover all sub-jects in the school curriculum in Egypt. A veryclear timetable is available for this project and itis starting to unfold. Some Web pages fromsome courses are available on the Web site, and

judging by their quality (design, graphics, andtext) the courses are of a very high standardand excellent quality. One of the first things thatjumps to the eye is that the Arabic script makesit very easy to design compact and beautifulWeb pages. The computer-generated calligra-phy is breathtaking, and the design of the pagesreminds one of the Old Egyptian design say-ing: text, graphics and colours are integratedaspects of one and the same thing.

Up to the present about 150 schools from allthe governorates (provinces) of the Arab Republic

of Egypt have joined the project.It is clear that Egypt is moving ahead in try-

ing to reap the benefits of the information andcomputer age. It is but a short step from the

multimedia set of school syllabus contents to fullInternet-delivery of study material to schools orto individual learners. In any case, the pages ex-hibited on the site are obviously designed to besuitable for Web downloading. It will be of in-terest to follow the further development of this

project and its conversion into a virtual teachingand learning situation.

MOROCCO

The telephone penetration of Morocco is around4%, but it has a relatively good telephone net-work, X.25 service and ISP sector. Morocco isplanning to increase spending on the improve-ment of this sector in the next five years, and it isa member of both INTELSAT and ARABSAT.It may thus be ideally placed to launch extensiveventures into virtual education, using modern tel-ecommunication and information technologies.

Morocco also plans to upgrade the digital linesfrom 90% to 99.5% and install fibre-optical net-works in the inter-urban areas connecting mostcities. (See the Jensen site at www3.sn.apc.org/africa/

morocco.htm for more details.)Morocco has an analog cellular network (with

about 9,000 subscribers) and a digital CSM cel-lular network that planned to double its 1994subscribers to 24,000 in 1995; it is probably much

more at present.According to the latest count, there are 150

commercial ISPs operating in Morocco using thetelecommunication backbone of the country (seewww.pnucLorg.ma/ fnuap/ morocco.htm). There is a fair

number of Moroccan sites on the Web, spanninggovernment, education, universities and traininginstitutions, and learned societies. However, thelevel of detailed information they dispense is

1 20 Virtual institutions on the African Continent

rather low. Such a list is found on the above-mentioned site.

In spite of an intensive Web search, therewas no evidence of any teaching activity that may

lead to the establishment of a virtual teachinginstitutionnot even on the Web site of the Min-istry of Education at www.dfc.gov.ma (in French).However, there is evidence of the use of PCsand computers at contact teaching campuses, forinstance, at the site of the High Tech School atwww.hightech.edu (in French). This institution allows

its students to put some of their projects on theirWeb site, indicating a reasonable level of interestand expertise in Web-related matters.

It seems that the infrastructure for virtual teach-ing activities are beginning to become available inMorocco, but that the connectivity is still too lowto make any activity economically viable.

ZIMBABWE

Zimbabwe is a vast country with a relatively un-der-developed telecommunication infrastructure,except between the major centres. There are ar-eas of severe problems, such as long waiting timefor connections and low reliability, especially fortrunk calls. There is an X25 network available infour major centres.

There is no formal government policy fordeveloping a national information infrastructure.The Research Council of Zimbabwe has recentlystarted supporting an academic and research net-work in the country with funds from UNDP'sSNDP programme.

The Jensen site www3.sn.apc.org /africa/frnbabwe.htm states:

Iafrica/Data Control was the first full Internet

provider in Zimbabwe, setting up its own

leased line to its South African parent com-

pany UUNET Internet Africa (www.harare.

iafrica.com). Two other ISPs, Samara andInterdata, started services shortly afterwards,

also establishing leased lines to South African

ISPs (wwutsamaraca tw and wunuidcativ).

Last year the PTO, ZPTC, contracted Glo-

bal-One to establish a large-scale nationalInternet backbone with a 256kbps link to the

United States and a POP in the four majorcities for resale to the private ISPs. Accounts

on the system are sold in blocks of 20 to each

ISP, which then resells them to the end user.

Since the start of the service, the link wasupgraded to 1Mbps and a further upgrade to

2Mbps took place in mid '98 with the addi-

tion of a 1MB link to Teleglobe in Canada.

The PTC has established a special tarifffor calls to the Internet backbone, which are

charged at the cost of a local call plus 20% for

calls from anywhere in the country.

There are some e-mail services available inZimbabwe, sometimes through South Africanorganisations via the University of Zimbabwe(that has a campus network).

Distance educationZimbabwe is very much interested in distanceeducation and has a small initiative. The Universityof South Africa is also very active in Zimbabwe,especially the Business School and the Faculty ofEconomics and Management Sciences. However,there are no discernible activities that can be classi-fied as being dependent on the local telecommu-nication infrastructure. The University of Zimba-bwe, however, is participating in the African Vir-tual University project. The National University ofScience and Technology (NUST) in Bulawayo is afocal point for the Regional Information Networksfor Africa (RINAF) project.

Some conclusionsThe following conclusions may be drawn:The telecommunication infrastructure inthe country will have to be greatly up-graded before any enhanced educationcan be successfully undertaken, unless itis of the kind represented by the AfricanVirtual University;

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 1 21

' 2 9

A central programme of developing a na-tional information technology infrastructureis a pre-requisite for any enhanced educa-tional activity, even within the boundaries oflocal university campuses.

General ConclusionsThe everyday and "customary" operations of thedepartments of education and governments ofmost countries on the African continent mostly cre-ate a budgetary vortex that dominate their spend-ing pattern. There is, inevitably, very little money left

over in most national or educational budgets for

expanding and upgrading telecommunication net-works, computers, etc. This means that telecom-munication and information benefits will never reach

most of the population of Africa if this traditionalpattern is not changed. If the day-to-day problemsand operations are not addressed through the sys-tematic and planned use of ICT to empower thepopulation into a new economic reality, the situa-tion will inevitably become worse.

One of the main problems is that people whoformulate policy are not adequately informedabout general aspects of the information, com-puting, and telecommunication ages. This meansthat they can never develop a new vision. To putit bluntly, what is needed is reschooling of mostof the governments in Africa to make them re-ally appreciative of the technological future.

TELECOMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE

LIMITATIONS

In spite of adequate international telecommuni-cation links, especially in those countries linkedto undersea cabling, the national infrastructuresof African countries do not seem to match upwith that demanded by the information and tel-ecommunications age. The telephone coverageis far to low in most countries to make anytelematically enhanced education economically

viable. However, there are signs that Africa as awhole has awakened to the demands of tech-nology, as the examples of Egypt and Moroccoshow. There are other countries, such as Kenyaand Zambia, which are developing very fast inthis regard.

There are several important factors that needto be addressed before any virtual universitiesand other education institutions with a significantrange of activities can be set up:

Old networks and backbones still in placeall over the continent are inadequate since theywere not designed for the modern telecom-munication age and its requirements of band-width, stability, and continuous service.

Policies and tariffs of some governments andtheir monopolistic telecommunication au-thorities may cause telematically enhancededucational projects to flounder because ofhigh transmission costs.

Linking telecommunication and data linesacross national borders is problematic for vir-tual institutions since it has to contend withtoo many imponderables, such as a

concatenation of different national policies andtariffs.

Telecommunication networks often reachonly the cities and larger towns in many coun-tries. The depth of telephone penetration isfar below that expected of a country thatwants to join the information age.

Governments in general do not have a fullydeveloped and fully funded telecommuni-cation plan to bring the benefits of the in-formation and telecommunication age totheir populations.

COMPUTING INFRASTRUCTURE

LIMITATIONS

A good virtual education institution presupposesthe presence of a very good computing centre,

1 22 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

130

stocked with adequate computers, servers, net-works, and personnel. In addition it should haveadequate bandwidth available to communicatewith the outside world.

However, computers, PCs, and other com-putational and networking infrastructure are stillregarded as a luxury in most countries on thecontinent, and most do not have a policy to sys-tematically expand the computing and network-ing capacities of their universities and other edu-cation institutions to ensure that they becomecompetitive in the modern age.

DATABASE LIMITATIONS

While the database system of the University ofSouth Africa made it possible to create a mega-university that can use the economies of scale,very few other African universities have devel-oped such databases.

The size of the database is not important.What is important is its design, its servers, theconsistency of the data captured, and the waysin which it lightens the administrative load of staffand students. This means that a systematic train-ing programme of African institutions in the useof, design, and implementation of databases isof the utmost importance.

ADMINISTRATIVE LIMITATIONS

It seems that most educational institutions on thecontinent do not really mine the benefits of thetelecommunication and information age to im-prove their administration. For instance, e-mailon campuses mostly does not form part of the"way of doing things." The reasons for this aresimple: lack of infrastructure combined with alack of operational know-how and technologi-cal expertise. Education authorities usually havenot yet had a chance to develop the new visionof the future discussed above.

INTERNAL NETWORK LIMITATIONS

Very good internal networks (LANs and WANs)are essential for any institution that wants to "govirtual." It seems that many African institutionsdo not have adequate internal networks with100% staff connectivity.

Satellite transmission technology will partlyoffset the lack of such a structure, but eventuallyit will become a necessity. Every university willprobably need to be managed via an Intranetusing modern office technology.

SERVICING LIMITATIONS

Good hardware and software service centres areusually found only in the main cities in Africa.This is a very serious constraint for the develop-ment of virtual institutions and needs careful at-tention. Any system that serves any part of theeducation stream of a virtual institution that is"offline" for whatever reason, or whatever pe-riod of time, is a serious hurdle for any studentor lecturer to overcome. The more often a sys-tem is offline, the more serious, debilitating, andpermanent are the results.

INTERNET LIMITATIONS

Most of the bigger and better universities in Africaare now connected to the Internet, or are in theprocess of being connected. But the lack of good"pipes," ISPs, computing and network equipment,national telecommunication funding, cause manyother education institutions not to be connected.

As well, although the use of the Internet isincreasing by leaps and bounds, there are stillmany difficulties to overcome, especially for off-campus students who need to access their uni-versities through the Internet. ISPs are often notavailable and telecommunications are not de-pendable and are mostly very slow.

Virtual Institutions on the African Continent 1 23

131

FINANCIAL IMPACTS

Setting up the required local educational institu-tion infrastructure is mostly impossible within thebounds of normal budgets. The usual pattern isto experiment, but often this is where the mod-ernisation stays because there is no funding to ex-tend the experiment to all education institutionsWhat is required is a systematic rethinking of thefunding process of such institutions. Minor cos-metic surgery is not going to be of much benefit.

This difficulty is made clear in the descrip-tions of the University of South Africa, the Uni-versity of Pretoria, and the Technikon SA givenabove. These institutions are all in the process ofrediscovering new ways of budgeting to accom-modate their vision of the information and tel-ecommunication future.

HUMAN RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS AND

TRAINING

Human resource training forms one of the piv-otal problems that must be addressed. As wasemphasised above, a special effort must be madeto train the rulers in government, civil service,and education.

LEARNER AND TEACHER ACCEPTANCE

Where such schemes exist for a long enough pe-riod in Africa, there was no evidence at all thatlearners were not able to master the demands oftechnology. In fact, the reverse is true: learnershave no problems working with the most ad-vanced technology and accepting it as a teachingand administrative medium.

Teacher acceptance is generally limited bytraining available. For example, in the Universityof South Africa, the rate of teacher acceptanceis low because of the lack of training in the newmedia, as well as the lack of funds to acquire thenecessary PC configurations. The African VirtualUniversity, on the other hand, has managed toovercome the problem.

REACTIONS OF CONVENTIONAL

INSTITUTIONS

Most conventional institutions in South Africa andelsewhere are snaking huge efforts to implementthese technologies into their own teaching. In mostcases, this also includes the enrichment of theircontact classes with Web-based technology andother telematic technologies. This is one of themost exciting aspects, namely, that contact teach-ing universities are moving into distance teach-ing, where the "distance" also includes their owncampus-based students.

GENERAL DEMOGRAPHIC

CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS

Most of the learners being served by the newtechnologies are either urban (where the telecom-munication infrastructure is good) or are cam-pus-based (where the technology is under thecontrol of the institution itself). There are veryfew signs that any country has mastered the tran-sition to the mass model that is so seriously neededon the African continent.

INVOLVEMENT OF INDUSTRY AND

COMMERCE

There are few signs of the involvement of com-merce and industry in the development of virtualtraining. It must not be forgotten, however, thatindustry and commerce are not as well developedon the African continent compared to other re-gions of the world. There are also virtually noindigenous ICT firms on the continent, except inthe case of South Africa where they make amodest contribution.

There is also no common educational supportplan (as far as known) between the major interna-tional software and hardware companies so thattheir efforts can mutually enhance one another.

124 Virtual Institutions on the African Continent

tual Institutions in the

dian Subcontinent(Inc uding B gl desh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka)

DR. SUGATA MITRA

IntroductionThe Indian subcontinent consists of several coun-tries with a total population of over one billion,making up 20% of the population of the world.Most of the area has been repeatedly invaded inthe past 3,000 years. These invasions have origi-nated mostly from western and eastern Europe,eastern Asia and, occasionally, from China. Thishas resulted in a uniquely heterogeneous culturethat combines races, religions, languages, beliefs,and values. The education system has continu-ously grappled with this problem of heteroge-neity and has undergone many transformations,from the early Hindu systems of private educa-tion to the centralised universities of the Bud-dhist and Mogul periods, to the most recentmodel, the British systems of the early 20th cen-tury. It is in this larger historical context that theuse of educational technology in the subconti-nent should be viewed.

This report is concerned with virtual institu-tions, which is generally understood to mean in-stitutions using the Internet to deliver pro-grammes. However, this report also includes factson the use of media in general for the purposeof education delivery. In this report I discuss thecurrent status of the computing and electronicinfrastructure in the region, Internet accessibility,and the available media. I also cover the nature

of virtual institutions in the region and their ex-periences with media-based education. Onlineactivity in the region is an indicator of the poten-tial of virtual institutional methods, and that topicis also explored. Finally, I have tried to predictsome future needs and trends in this region.

Computing InfrastructureThe earliest use of computers in the region datesback to the early 1950s when the first computerwas installed in the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI)in Calcutta. The ISI continues to remain one ofthe pioneering institutions of this region in thearea of computer science research. Computerusage remained restricted to universities until theearly sixties when IBM introduced commercialcomputing in the region.

In the late seventies, IBM was forced to ceaseoperations in India due to government regula-tions regarding the dilution of foreign equity. Thisresulted in creation of a local computer industrythat continues to thrive today. The largest of thesecorporations is the HCL Corporation (the erst-while Hindustan Computers Limited) that hasgrown to a billion-dollar multinational in the last15 years. It is interesting to note that this phe-nomenon did not occur in the other countriesof the region where IBM continued to providemost of the hardware.

Virtual Institutions in the Indian Subcontinent 1 25

HARDWARE

At present all international brands are allowed tooperate all over the region. Bangladesh has re-cently exempted all hardware from customs duty,while duties ranging from 10% to 50% exist inthe other countries. IBM PC compatibles are themost commonly used computers in governmentand private industries as well as in homes.

There is a flourishing "grey" market for PCsassembled by small local companies, or even in-dividuals, and this benefited the consumer, driv-ing the prices down and improving the qualityof PCs. As a result, a resident of the region hasaccess to computers that are equal in power andprice to those in any other country.

The use of computers in the home is risingsharply, driven by the popularity of the Internet.In India, the total number of PCs, which hadgrown from zero to about one million in theperiod from 1980 to 1995, has increased to overthree million in the period from 1996 to 1998.

The most prevalent configuration at the timeof writing (April 1999) is the Pentium III proc-essor with about 32 megabytes of RAM and 6gigabytes of hard disk space. Most popular pe-ripheral devices are freely available and includemodems, inkjet and laser printers, CD-ROMdrives, DVD, and digital cameras. Service qualityis poor or absent in the region. However, this iscompensated for by the relatively low cost andlow failure rate of the hardware.

SOFTWARE

India is the dominant software producer in theregion and is currently considered the world'slargest exporter of software. This phenomenonis not very clearly understood, but is probablyrelated to the English language, mathematics, andcomputer skills provided in the country at theschool level. These factors, coupled with the largenumbers that are common to India, result in alarge talent pool that has become crucial to theworld software community today.

The large companies and the "grey" marketconfirm that the Microsoft's Windows environmentis the most popular operating system, C++ andVisual Basic are the most commonly used program-ming languages, and Microsoft's Internet Exploreris the most popular browser in the region. Orade isthe most commonly used Relational DatabaseManagement System (RDBMS) for new applica-tions development, while FoxPro continues to bethe most common for existing applications.

NETWORKING

The use of networked computing environmentsstarted from newspaper applications in the earlyeighties. I was fortunate in being associated with the

first of these applications (1983) at the Patriotnews-paper, New Delhi. Since then, networking has be-come both very common and, at the same time, amost sought after skill.

Windows NT and UNIX remain the most com-mon operating systems for networking in the re-gion. There is a great shortage of people who canconfigure and administer such networks, which hasresulted in most government departments remain-ing without any significant computer applications.

The media, on the other hand are great users ofnetworked environments and digital composing ispopular from Sri Lanka to Bhutan, in all the coun-tries of the region.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

There is a severe shortage of trained persons inthe region. Table 8.1 describes the current meth-ods of training and the resultant outcomes.

The total numbers of graduates producedfrom all sources in the region are estimated at25,000 from the formal (government) sector andaround 300,000 from the private sector.

The Indian Institutes of Technology (III), agroup of six autonomous universities in India,account for the best products in the region. Ofthe 300 or so students produced each year, over90% migrate to other countries.

126 Virtual Institutions in the Indian Subcontinent

134

Table 8.1

Problems withInstitutions

Information Technology Education in the Indian SubcontinentTypes of courses Curriculum Outcome

Major universities Academic andresearch oriented

Computer Science and Almost all good students migrate to

Engineering other countries, particularly, the U.S.A.

State colleges Technology oriented Tools and applications,outdated hardware andsoftware

Students need retraining by the industry.Good students proceed to othercountries for further studies.

Private schools Application anddevelopment oriented

Tools and applications,no standardisation, and manyinstitutions with little or nocredentials

Students need retraining or they areunable to find employment.

The Indira Gandhi National Open University(IGNOU) is the largest distance education providerin the region. IGNOU has offered courses in in-formation technology since 1997; however, the re-sults are yet to be tested in the employment market.

NIIT Limited, an Indian multinational educationcompany, is the largest private education provider inthe region, accounting for over 150,000 graduateseach year through about 1,000 "outlets," which arefranchise centres all over the region. Most of thegraduates are employed by the local industry.

In spite of these large numbers, there continuesto be a shortage of trained people in the regiondue to rapid growth in the use of computers, bothin the government and the private sectors.

USE OF COMPUTERS

Use of computers by the private sector is wide-spread in the region, with the possible exceptionof Pakistan, where the data is not reliable.

Computer use in the government sector is verylow at this time, but likely to increase rapidly allover the region for two reasons. First, there is in-creasing demand for information from all sectorsand, possibly, an increased awareness of the ben-efits of having automated information systems.

Home use of computers is relatively low, butis already on and exponential growth path all overthe region. The single most important reason forthis is the Internet. In India, the number of per-sonal computers has gone up from 90,000 in

1996 to 300,000 in 1997 and is currently on a44% annual growth rate. There is also a tremen-dous expectation in the region for the use ofpersonal computers and the Internet in children'seducation. This has already resulted in a largemarket for CD-ROMbased products.

Use of computers in schools is relatively lessdeveloped. While most schools in the region havecomputers, few are using them effectively forgeneral education. Most are used for computereducation alone, mainly because teachers are notaware of the potential uses. Teacher training inthis area is an imperative for this region.

Internet AccessibilityThe ability to access the Internet is one of the mostimportant factors in the development of virtualinstitutions. In many forums held on the subject inthe Indian subcontinent, I have found people ques-tioning the utility of virtual institutional schemesthat rely on the Internet. The argument posedis that there are too few people in the regionwho have access. In my opinion, this argumentis not a good one for deciding on whether ornot to start activities in this area. Resources haveseldom affected the spread of a medium inthis region. For example, India produces thelargest number of films in the world. While itmay be argued that in a country that is knownfor extreme poverty, people would rather

Virtual Institutions in the Indian Subcontinent 1 27

spend money on food than on films, in realitythis is not the case. Films are watched in everycorner of India by millions of people irrespec-tive of their social or economic status. In fact,one might argue that the virtual world offeredby films is sometimes the only relief that the poorhave from a harsh and often unbearable reality.

While telephone connections in India grewfrom zero to 4 million in 40 years (1950 to 1990),cable TV connections grew from zero to 16million in just 6 years (1990 to1996). (See Table8.2. and Figures 8.1 and 8.2.) I believe the growthis due to the value perceived in entertainment overother "essential" items. In a study conducted bythe Department of Electronics, Government ofIndia, some years ago, it was found that manyrural areas ranked a colour TV set as more es-sential than clean drinking water.

Most lay users perceive the Internet as a source

of information and entertainment. The cost ofacquiring a PC and an Internet connection at homeis about Rs. 70,000 (US$1,600). In addition thereis a recurring cost of the phone bill of about Rs.10,000 (US$135) every year. In a country wherethe average annual income is about Rs. 6,000, theseamounts are not small. The fact that the homePC market is growing at 44% seems to indicateagain that the economics of entertainment in theregion are not clearly related to incomes.

Table 8.2

Media Estimated in India (1998)(All figures in millions)

Year Telephones Cable TV PCs Internet

1950 0.01 0 0 0

1960 0.25 0 0 0

1970 1 0 0 0

1980 2 0 0.01 0

1990 4 0.01 0.25 0.001

1995 6 16 1 0.01

2000 10 30 10 10

1 28 Virtual Institutions in the Indian Subcontinent

Figure 8.1

Top 10 Cable Subscribers by Country(1995)

60.0

5 0.0

40.0

c" 30.00c`"

20.0

10.0

0.0I I I II / M m

.,. C ,.0.<0L' E 5C 0.'

8 ,3

'E)C73 73

,,3 CC ms f3T:

C coN

2ci5

a co 130 cu CO CO0 -c -:.--13 ...Z

Figure 8.2

Top 10 TV Owners by Country (1995)

300

250

V, 200

150C.0

g 100

50 I I I0.0 m

6izc

-f1 2

>,

iv LL(.9

SERVICE PROVIDERS

Internet access is provided in the region by vari-ous government and private agencies. Sri Lankahas the largest number of agencies with ten, whileIndia had only one until very recently.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

6A.

Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited (VSNL), agovernment organisation in India, is the largestInternet service provider (ISP) at this time. Untilrecently, providing Internet access was a govern-ment monopoly in India. However, private ISPsare now allowed and a large number of organi-sations have expressed their intention to provideInternet access. Among these are several cellulartelephone companies, cellular telephony havingbeen privatised by the Indian government. At themoment, two private agencies (Satyam andBharati Telecom) have started ISP operations aswell as MTNL ( Mahanagar Telephone NigamLimited), the largest government telecom com-pany in the country.

Bangladesh has good quality Internet access inDhaka, both from government and private sources.The largest is a service launched recently by Beximco,

the largest business group in Bangladesh.Pakistan and Nepal have both government

and private ISPs while in Bhutan the governmentis the only provider at this time.

BANDWIDTH AND TELEPHONY ISSUES

Public Internet usage began to grow in the re-gion around 1994; before then its use was re-stricted to research organisations. Most lay usersin the region are not satisfied with the servicethey receive (based on a short e-mail survey Iconducted). The most frequent complaint is thatof sudden disconnection of the telephone con-nection to the ISP (due to the poor quality oflines in most cities). In most cases the problemcould be called the "last 100 metre problem."Connections from the telephone pole to thehome are usually ad hoc in most cities, resultingin high noise in the connection, often mistakenby modems as a line drop and followed by dis-connection.

Increased data traffic due to the Internet hasraised the awareness of this issue in the last fewyears and the situation has improved in most large

cities. However, medium and small city userscontinue to face the problem of disconnectionevery few minutes. This could become one ofthe biggest reasons for the Internet not beingwidely used in the region.

The second most common complaint is thatof low bandwidth availability. Most ISPs attemptto distribute too little bandwidth to too many us-ers. However, with the ISP business opening tocompetition, this problem is likely to solve itself.

INTERNET IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Most universities and colleges in India and Paki-stan have access to the Internet. However suchaccess is not regulated well and I have not comeacross any organisation with a clearly stated policyregarding the use of the Internet. In the other coun-tries of the region, not all higher education bodieshave access to the Internet although all of them,invariably, express a desire to use it effectively.

Most affluent schools in the region have ac-cess to the Internet and children use these con-nections often. Once again, however, there is nocommon policy and a great deal of concern isoften expressed by teachers and parents regard-ing the possible adverse effects of the Interneton children.

Children in large cities with access to theInternet and with some encouragement from theschool routinely outperform their teachers andother adults in their knowledge and skills in in-formation technology. In a recent contest organ-ised by Intel Corp. in New Delhi, over 300 chil-dren participated in building Internet-based ap-plications. Their choice of and familiarity withcutting edge technology (e.g., Java, Visual Basic,ActiveX, ASP, DHTML, 3D studio, digital au-dio, video, etc.) showed clearly that "high tech"is no longer the domain of professionals alone.

Such children are also expert hackers. Somegovernments in the region have noted this andare in the process of setting up their "X-Force,"

Virtual Institutions in the Indian Subcontinent 1 29

4 t°7_L.

r

a loose collection of children on the Internet forpurposes of "information warfare."

Several network security violations have alsobeen reported from the region, which was thebirthplace of the computer virus (Pakistan, late1970s).

MediaThe use of media in the region has always beenpowerful, popular, and effective. At the sametime, literacy levels continue to be among the low-est in the world at around 50%. As a result, mul-timedia holds great promise for educational andinformation applications in the region.

NEWSPAPERS

Every country in the region has powerful news-papers that have affected politics and society insignificant ways. Newspapers in English and 17other languages are read by about 400 millionpeople in the region, according to circulation es-timates from the major dailies. All major Englishnewspapers are now published on the Internetin addition to their paper editions. These news-papers are also great users of technology, fromnetworking and digital graphics, to direct-to-plate, high-speed offset presses.

TELEVISION

There were about 50 million TV sets in use inIndia in 1995. The number is now estimated atabout 70 million. Broadcasting rights are strictlycontrolled and the local governments control allthe major broadcasters in the region.

The largest viewing audience is in India, esti-mated at around 300 million people.

CABLE TELEVISION

The Star TV network included this region in itsfootprint in the late 1980s, giving rise to the ca-ble TV industry in the subcontinent. There wasan immediate uproar from the government and

the local media, describing the event as anythingfrom cultural invasion to subversion. However,there was tremendous public response to the"foreign" media and a large, unorganised sectordeveloped to provide the technology (i.e., dishantennae, receivers, and amplifiers). The govern-ment TV channels rapidly started to loseviewership. This sudden competition forced thegovernment channels to modernise and improvetheir content.

It is interesting to note that cable TV in theregion is no longer considered a social evil, par-ticularly in India. Instead of a "foreign" cultureinvading India, the large viewership and substan-tial advertisement revenues from India changedthe content of the cable channels. All satellitebroadcasts have Hindi content and Star TV, MTV,and VTV have converted themselves into almostexclusively Indian channels. Western channels such

as BBC and CNN have also increased their In-dian content substantially.

Cable TV is one of the most popular formsof entertainment in the region today. In additionto the entertainment content, they broadcast high-quality educational programmes on BBC Hori-zon, CNN's Computer Connection, and the Dis-covery Channel.

While cable TV is freely available in all othercountries of the region, it is banned in Bhutan. Itis interesting to note that, at the same time, theInternet is available from Bhutan and there isconsiderable interest in its education potential.

RADIO

Radio has been the strongest rural medium inthe region since the 1970s. The technology is en-tirely internalised, and inexpensive hardware andmaintenance is available in the most remote andunderprivileged areas.

All governments in the region ban privatebroadcast; the medium is used mostly for enter-tainment and propaganda. However, some educa-tional content is available for agriculture and health.

1 30 Virtual Institutions in the Indian Subcontinent

There is great scope for improvement of ra-dio programming in the region. The introduc-tion of FM and digital radio would also help infuture educational endeavour.

THE INTERNET

As with other new media, there is governmentalignorance about the Internet. This has led to aview that the Internet, too, represents cultural in-vasion, particularly from the United States. How-ever, public demand is growing rapidly and, given

the population size of the region, it is certain thatelectronic commerce will thrive. This will, in turn,

affect the medium.In India, as in the case of cable TV, it will once

again be a question not of what the Internet will doto India, but of what India will do to the Internet.

Virtual InstitutionsVirtual institutions in the region can be viewed indifferent ways, and for the purposes of this re-port I have classified them into four categoriesor environments: complete, complementary, sup-plementary, and governmental.

Complete environments are those that include acomplete cycle of instruction from registra-tion of students and education delivery,through to evaluation and certification. Ineffect, the student or user (in the case of aservice other than education) never needs tointeract with any entity, human or otherwise,through any medium other than that of thevirtual institution.

Complementary environments are those that in-

clude one or more virtual components in aphysical institutional model. The virtual com-ponents complement the operation of theinstitution and are necessary for a student tocomplete an instructional cycle.

Supplementary environments are those that in-

clude one or more virtual components in aphysical institution. The virtual components

supplement the instructional process but arenot compulsory for completion of any cycle.

Governmental environments are those wherephysical services related to government ac-tivity are either enhanced or replaced by vir-tual models.

It is difficult to obtain complete informationon these environments in the region. What fol-lows are examples of each kind of activity andany other information I was able to gather.

COMPLETE ENVIRONMENTS

The only complete environment I could find inthe region is a virtual institution from NIIT, calledthe NetVarsity (m.niitnetvars0,.com). I originallyconceived and built NetVarsity in 1996 and it wentonline on July 15 of that year. The NetVarsityconsists of a server in the NIIT office in Atlanta,U.S.A. connected to a service provider througha T1 link. It was decided to locate the server inthe U.S. because it is less expensive than in India.Moreover, the reliability of the Internet link ismuch higher. The server has operated with al-most no down time during this period. It is basedon Windows NT and Microsoft Back Officetechnology. The server and its contents are con-trolled from New Delhi, India by a team ofseven people who constitute the staff of the vir-tual organisation.

The NetVarsity offers a complete environ-ment in the sense in which this is defined above.After its creation, we had decided to use an "at-omised" instructional design consisting of"skillettes" ("Multimedia Design for the Internet,"Sugata Mitra, presented at the Parallel Conven-tion, 13' Commonwealth Conference of Edu-cation Ministers, Gaborone, Botswana, 1997).

The NetVarsity offers short courses or juststand alone "skillettes" for a price ranging fromUS$5 to US$25. This resulted in about 10,000hits per month during its first year. Total revenueto date is about US$7,000 every year. Since this is

Virtual Institutions in the Indian Subcontinent 1 31

not sufficient to maintain the environment, sev-eral modifications were made.

The first modification consisted of a link tothe NIIT Intranet, enabling faculty from NIITto interact with each other through a technologyforum. This connectivity between 800 teachersspread throughout India has resulted in tremen-dous synergy and improvement in quality.

The second modification consisted of a pro-viding access to NIIT students for supplement-ing their classroom education through a site calledTech Edge. This site provides information, state-of-the-art courses, and a query handling service.Currently, 40,000 students use the site.

The third modification to the Net Varsity wasthe introduction of Microsoft certification courses.These courses are in high demand all over theworld as they have a de facto recognition, beingauthenticated by Microsoft. In the last eightmonths since this was announced (April 1998),the Net Varsity has earned over US$100,000 fromthis activity and over 100 people have qualifiedfrom the virtual environment.

In summary, Net Varsity is a virtual institutionof seven people operating from New Delhi, witha Web server in the US. and networking around50,000 learners and teachers together in a com-mercially viable manner. It is definitely a modelworth watching further.

COMPLEMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

The only good example of a complementaryenvironment in the region is the India GandhiNational Open University (IGNOU). The Schoolof Computer and Information Sciences (SOCIS)of IGNOU was the first government organisa-tion in the region to set up a virtual school(www.ignou.edu). It is possible to register for sev-eral courses ranging from short-term diplomacourses to bachelor's degree courses through theWeb site. Lessons can be downloaded and inter-action is mainly through e-mail.

Instructional material is mainly the same asthat used for IGNOU's traditional correspond-ence courses. However, Professor M. M. Pant,who is spearheading the virtual institution move-ment at the university, has begun to experimentwith courses designed for the Web. Some ex-periments with online examination have also beenconducted. The courses were started in mid-1997and at present there are 2,200 students registered.IGNOU is likely to start a large project on vir-tual institution building in the near future, whichwill be funded by the Department of Electron-ics, Government of India.

Another interesting feature of the SOCISexperiment is that the entire study materials aregiven to students on CD-ROM at the time ofregistration. In effect, the courses are, therefore,free of cost.

Other schools at the IGNOU have also setup home pages. However, these provide merelya convenient way to look at their course offer-ings. Registrations are not permitted online,mainly due to government restrictions on elec-tronic commerce in Indian currency. However,it is expected that the use of Indian currencycredit cards on the Internet will be permittedsometime in 1999, which is likely to have a greatimpact on virtual education in the region.

SUPPLEMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

A large amount of educational material is madeavailable on the Internet by educational institu-tions from India. For the other countries of theregion, as well as for most organisations in India,all that is available are addresses and details ofcourses. This has little practical utility and is likelydone mainly because of the impression that it is"modern" to have a Web site.

It is important to note that while some repre-sentation from universities of the region can befound on the Web, there is almost no representa-tion from schools. Some of the affluent private

1 32 Virtual Institutions in the Indian Subcontinent

schools of the region have Web sites, generallycreated by children. Interest from school princi-pals and teachers is not lacking, but there is agreat lack of awareness of where and how things

should be done.

GOVERNMENTAL ENVIRONMENTS

The use of the Internet for government work isa topic receiving attention at the highest levels in

all countries of the region, but details were onlyavailable for India.

The government machinery in India seems tobe close to a breaking point due to bureaucraticprocedures and corruption. The need for a fast,transparent, and efficient system is now close tobeing a survival criterion for the ruling govern-ment. As a result, the past few months have seenthe formation of several high-level groups, fre-quently headed by the prime minister. Thesegroups have come up with recommendations thatinvolve major changes in most systems from ad-ministration to the judiciary and the informationinfrastructure. Most of the recommendations areavailable at wimp. nic.in and are not directly relevant

to this report. However, the recommendationsconcerning the information industry and educa-tion are likely to have an impact on the forma-tion of virtual institutions in the region. Some ofthe policies recommended are as follows:

All government departments to have activeWeb sites for information and form fillingapplications.

Internet commerce to be allowed.

A "citizen interface" (multimedia Internetkiosks for public access) to be deployed.

Education in English to be emphasised.

Hardware imports to be duty free from2004.

Private universities to be allowed.

Software exports to continue to be tax free.

Export revenues from the export intellec-tual property to be tax free.

It is obvious from this list that even a partialimplementation of the above will cause majoreducational and social change in the region.

Online ActivityIn spite of the difficulties in accessing the Internetfrom most countries of the region, there is in-tense online activity. There are about 200,000 reg-istered Internet users in the region, most of themfrom India. It is estimated that each registeredaccount is used by an average of three people.In addition, many people access the Internet fromoffices and public access services.

It is safe to estimate that about one millionpeople access the Internet from this region. Moreo-ver a large number of people work in Europeand the United States, and it is estimated that overa million people of Indian subcontinental originaccess the Internet from outside the region.

The activity generated by these two millionusers can be divided into the following catego-ries: Web pages, e-mail, newsgroups and com-munities, and IRC channels.

WEB PAGES

Most users, as well as organisations, have Webpages that they create on free servers. Almost alleducational institutions in India have Web pages,although this is not true of the other countriesof the region, where only the major universitiesseem to have Web pages.

Most of these Web pages are purely factualand are reproductions of the standard informa-tion booklet of the organisation. They are sel-dom updated.

E-MAIL

Messaging is the most popular application on theWeb. Most users are subscribers of free servicessuch as www.botmaiLcom and others.

Virtual Institutions in the Indian Subcontinent 1 33

NEWSGROUPS AND COMMUNITIES

There are many newsgroups catering to the peo-ple of this region and their interests. Of late, anumber of communities have started to exchangemail and multimedia. A good example can befound at www.bengali.org, a community for thepeople of eastern India and Bangladesh.

IRC CHANNELS

I have not been able to locate an IRC channeldevoted to this region alone. This is perhaps be-cause most users are relatively unaware of chan-nels and how to use them. Moreover, low band-width connections are not of much use in IRCs.

Future RequirementsWhile it is clear that there will be a great deal ofactivity in the region in the area of virtual institu-tions, a number of developments have to take

Table 8.3

place for this to happen. In Table 8.3, I have triedto map these requirements in a matrix. The ma-trix distributes each activity into different catego-ries depending on the need and feasibility of thatactivity or development.

ConclusionThe Internet will make significant impact on theregion over the next few years, and virtual insti-tutions will play a major role. From schools anduniversities to government organisations and thecorporate sector, all entities will have to changetheir way of thinking about transactions. Organi-sations with a large physical presence and smallWeb presence will have to change to large virtualorganisations with a small physical presence.

That will be the essence of the informationsociety to come.

Present and Future Requirements in Virtual Institutions

Articulated need(Existing market)

Unarticulated need(New market)

Unfelt need(Unknown market)

Product exists Correspondence education Net meetings Net commerceGovernment information Chat

E-mail IRC

Video on demand Telephony

Product can be developed Non-English applications Virtual universities Rural applications

Kiosks and public interfaces School networks Video-conferencing

Product could be invented Wireless, self-powered kiosks Web-based monitoring,robotics and diagnosis

Information warfareand security systems

134 Virtual Institutions in the Indian Subcontinent

142

Vir u I Institutions in East and

Southeast AsiaDR. MICHAEL ROBERTSHAW

IntroductionInformation for this report has been obtainedprincipally from institutional Web sites following

a Web search and from information provided byindividuals who have responded to e-mail requestsfor information. The results presented here can-not be considered as exhaustive or totally repre-sentative, as there were major obstacles in tryingto communicate with potential sources of infor-

mation in a number of countries.

Cyber-populationsOf the 150 million people currently connectedto the Internet worldwide, even the most opti-mistic estimates show that only a small propor-tion (16%) reside in the countries covered in thisreport. Of these almost 60% of all "cybernauts"live in Japan! Table 9.1 shows the estimatednumber of Internet users as of February 1999.(Some countries did not even merit an entry.)

Given the relatively low numbers, it is notsurprising that the level of activity in the use ofthe Internet in education is very low in most coun-

tries in the region. As would be expected, thelevel of activity reflects very closely the propor-tion of users in a country. For example, Singa-pore and Hong Kong are much more active thanChina. Institutions clearly need to take account

of the ability of their students to participate inthe use of a new technology before investingresources into introducing it into its delivery andsupport systems.

Although the proportion within the regionparticipating in the Internet revolution is com-paratively small, the rate of growth is rapid. Thenumber of Internet users is expected to doubleby 2002, a faster rate than in the West (althoughthe recent downturn in regional economies maynot have been factored into these predictions).

If a critical mass of users is required for insti-tutions to decide to begin using the Internet forteaching, then we are likely to see projects starting

Table 9.1

Internet Users in AsiaHong Kong 850,000

Indonesia 80,000

China 1,500,000

Japan 14,000,000

Malaysia 600,000

Philippines 320,000

Singapore 500,000

South Korea 3,100,000

Taiwan 2,800,000

Thailand 131,000

Vietnam 6,000

Source: www.nua.ie/ surveys' how_many_onlinel index.html

Virtual Institutions in East and Southeast Asia 135

X43

up to test its use in education in the next coupleof years. Certainly most of the virtual institutionscovered in this report are in their early stages ofdevelopment or are part of large projects to in-vestigate the use of this medium. There are nowell-established virtual universities.

Cyber-languagesA second limitation in the use of the Internet ineducation is the availability of the software tohandle the use of local languages in what is prin-cipally an English-language medium. This prob-lem appears to have been solved in a few coun-tries only (e.g., Japan and Korea), and it will beinteresting to see how other countries address it.The Chinese-speaking communities, for exam-ple, are faced with the difficulty of standardisingthe character set for Internet activity, and the Peo-ple's Republic of China is standardising on a dif-ferent system than Hong Kong and Taiwan.

It is possible that the extension of Unicodeto the Internet through HTML 4 may reduce theproblems faced by countries without the re-sources to develop Internet interfaces themselves.Unicode's use of 16 bits for character representa-tion provides plenty of specialised fonts for us-ers to develop language-specific applicationswithout the need for specialised software.

CompetitionIn those countries where the Internet infrastruc-ture is reasonably well developed, pressure is in-creasing on local institutions to participate in theuse of the Internet in education through thegrowing number of foreign institutions offering"virtual" courses. The absence of nationalboundaries in cyberspace removes many of thebarriers to international education and providesmeans by which local education ordinances canbe bypassed. The Internet opens up potentiallylucrative markets to institutions from developedcountries where education funding has undergone

radical changes and fees from international stu-dents represent a very attractive funding source.

For any institution developing an Internet-based education system for its own students, thereare relatively few obstacles to extending the as-sociated services internationally. The numbersparticipating do not necessarily have to be large,but the cumulative competition from the manyinstitutions entering the field is likely to create amajor challenge to the region's institutions deliv-ering off-campus education.

The region has a long history of sending largenumbers of students away for education at alllevels, and in spite of the growth in national pridein local institutions, many people still consider aforeign education in the West better than a localone. The entrance of prestigious institutions intothe distance education market through theInternet is likely to prove serious for the regionaldevelopment of Internet-based education. Partof the incentive for some institutions to start us-ing the Internet must be to ensure that they cancompete against such intruders. Indeed the easeby which any individual with Internet access cansubscribe to a foreign, Internet-based course mayremove the potential market in some countriesbefore local institutions even start, which maydampen or even remove motivation to developvirtual education.

There is pressure on all organisations to par-ticipate in the use of the latest technology. Cer-tainly the region is not immune from the unseemlyrace to use new technology simply because it isseen as "sexy."

Regional EffortsThe Southeast Asian Ministers of EducationOrganization (SEAMEO) is composed of ninemember countries (Brunei Darussalam, Cambo-dia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Philippines,Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam). While theorganisation has a large number of specialist

1 36 Virtual Institutions in East and Southeast Asia

144

groups, none is currently working towards anintegrated approach to the use of the Internet atany level.

The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation(APEC) started planning a virtual university in1997, although no concrete action appears to have

taken place yet.

Progress by Country

CHINA

China and Taiwan have been particularly frus-trating to research for the purposes of this re-port. Even where an institution was identified asa potential user of the Internet, it proved diffi-cult to get details or to read information pro-vided on the Web due to the different fonts usedfor Chinese characters and the language barrier.In spite of the presence of Hong Kong onCERNETthe main Internet backbone foruniversities in Chinatransfer of data was ex-ceedingly slow, often resulting in the system tim-ing out. The only positive information availableis news of a joint European/Tianjin Universityof Technology project to offer nine courses overthe Web; however, work is not expected to startin earnest until the summer of 1999.

The Shanghai TV University appears to bepresenting four courses over the Web, includingthe use of sound files to assist students under-stand English. (Chinese language Web site:www.shtvu.edu.cn)

HONG KONG

A Web search for "virtual university" in HongKong generates a lot of hits at Chinese Univer-sity; however, these relate to individual lecturerssupporting their face-to-face courses through theInternet (e.g., www.cs.cuhk.edu.hk / kkchung/virtualht4

The Open University is currently preparing apilot to test the use of WebCT in an eventual

project to offer over 100 of its courses over theInternet (www.ouhk.edu.hk/ oliwunv/ whatnew/webe.html).

JAPAN

Japan's work on the use of the Internet in educa-tion seems surprisingly minimal given the reportednumber of Internet users. The language makes itdifficult to investigate through Web searches whatis actually happening. Individual responses sug-gest that while the community is enthusiastic inaccepting the technology, the Internet is not yetseen as an important teaching tool.

For example, in the Ministry of Educationthere are passing references to increasing the ac-cess to the Internet in schools, colleges, and uni-versities, but there is no direct reference to its useas a delivery channel. The emphasis at the tertiarylevel appears to be expanding the satellite rangefor the University of the Air, although there islittle information available on this in English.

KOREA

Please refer to Appendix 9.1, prepared by InsungJung of the Korea National Open University, forinformation on Korea. Of all of the larger coun-tries in this region, south Korea appears to havethe most developed national strategy for all lev-els of education.

MALAYSIA

Universiti Tun Abdul Ratak (Unitar): Unitarwas established in 1999 with the intentionof providing a mix of Internet-based sup-port for home study and face-to-face sup-port for student learning through the estab-lishment of nationwide, tech-rich study cen-tres. It also intends to include overseas stu-dents in its future plans. It is located inCyberjaya, within Malaysia's Multimedia Su-per Corridor. It offers both sub-degree anddegree programmes in business and ITC-related programmes.

Virtual Institutions in East and Southeast Asia 1 37

X45

Students spend the first two semesters attheir study centre in part to be familiarisedwith the Intranet system. After this period,physical attendance is not a requirement as they

can access the Intranet from home. A virtual

library is to be established to provide supportat either the centres or at home. Students areexpected to participate in both academic andnon-academic virtual communities.

Three hundred students started theirfoundation year in September 1998 withcurrent plans for 41,000 students to be reg-istered through 12 study centres. Eligibilityto study is currently determined by strict aca-demic requirements. Courseware is to bedistributed on CD-ROM and then updatedthrough the Internet. Online classes will beheld with shared whiteboards and streamedaudio through the institution's Intranet. Stu-dent study teams will facilitate learningthrough a variety of virtual environments.Web site: wungunitar.edu.nry.

SINGAPORE

Singapore ONE is a central resource for Sin-gapore's co-ordinated approach to incorpo-rating new communication technologies intoeducation. ONE is a nationwide broadbandnetwork that will deliver a new level of in-teractive, multimedia applications and serv-ices to everyone in Singapore. Resources forall ages involved in education are providedthrough its service. Sites involved are fromgovernment educational institutions and pri-vate companies offering education courses.It appears that Singapore is keen to allowmarket forces to determine the extent ofInternet-based teaching.

A number of institutions offer their onlineofferings through ONE. Potential practition-ers of Internet education will find it usefulto view these sites, as generally they make

use of the high end of the technology dueto the availability of large bandwidth throughthe ONE system. Examples of these insti-tutions are given below.

Web site: www.s- one.gov.sg

Virtual College was launched in 1997 and isrun by Singapore Polytechnic to offer onlinecourses. Thirty-seven modules are currentlyoffered in Engineering, Information Tech-nology, and Business with a further 24planned for the end of 1998. Students areable to study the courses at their own pacewith the assistance of a tutor, although thevast majority of students are full-time andaccess the courses on campus.

Recently Singapore Polytechnic has en-tered an agreement with Sing Tel for the useof its Magix service to deliver its courses tothe homes of students through the Singa-pore ONE high-capacity network platform.This enables access through a networkedhome computer at 5.5 megabytes per sec-ond through a phone line!

Web sites: www.sp.ac.sg/ department/ vc/modules. htm and http:/ /164.78.252.19 /sistart.html

Informaticsl provides students from Singaporeand Hong Kong with access to programmesfrom a number of educational institutionsin the United Kingdom. Study is self-pacedthrough virtual classrooms. It provides agood example of the type of educationalinvasion occurring through the Internet.

Web site: www.informaticsl.edu.sg

Intra-tech Education specialises in providingeducation to children. Primarily the site con-tains Javascripts teaching users how to cor-rectly form Chinese characters as well asspeak Mandarin.

Web site: ht0://203.116.95.67

1 38 Virtual Institutions in East and Southeast Asia

6

SkyMeclia offers "Skytutor," revision sites for

0-level Physics and Chemistry using soundand synchronised images

ht0://203.116.81. 7

THAILAND

Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University(STOU) is the biggest distance educationprovider in Thailand, but it does not appearto have any current courses offered throughthe Internet or any plans to do so.

The Asian Institute of Technologyis offering four

courses using streaming video.

Web site: www.ait.ac.th

School Net is a dedicated network for schoolsto use the Internet. It was piloted in 1995and was expected to have 1,500 schoolsonline by 1998. The main purpose is to en-courage interaction between schools as wellas enhancing Internet experience among chil-dren. Accompanying this project is Class-room 2000 (hq:/ / ntl.nectec.or.th/ classroom)which provides a number of teaching re-sources over the Internet.

Web site: http:/ / www.school.net.th

Virtual LibrariesWhile institutions may be slow in developingteaching through the Internet, it appears that li-brarians in the region have accepted the challengeof using the Internet as a means of allowing

students to access library resources. Two exam-ples are described below, but it is not clear fromeither how the virtual library will form part ofthe integrated virtual institution. Given the prob-lem of copyright for electronic versions of text-books, it seems unlikely that the virtual librarywill provide students with the type and extent ofaccess offered in face-to-face institutions. Thischallenge suggests that virtual libraries need todevelop their identities as completely differenttypes of resource centres.

OPEN UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG

Open University of Hong Kong is expected tobe a prime example for the region of virtual ac-cess in libraries. The first phase of the project hasbeen completed and students already have ac-cess to a wide collection of electronic databases,resources, and collections as well as different typesof supplementary course material. To date therehas been little integration of the use of this facil-ity in course design or development except forresearch-based courses, which can direct studentsto access the associated resources.

The second phase plans to include electronic ver-

sions of course textbooks for students to access.Web site: www.lib.ouhk.edu.hk

TSINGHUA UNIVERSITY, CHINA

Tsinghua University is in its early stages and it issimply an attempt to provide students with a di-rectory of resources available on the Internettogether with access to CD-ROM databases.

Web site: www.lib.tsinghua.edu.cn /english

Virtual Institutions in East and Southeast Asia 1 39

14 7

Appendix 9.1

The Development of Virtual Institutions in Korea

INSUNG JUNG (KOREA NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY)

The ContextThe Ministry of Education in Korea has set upa six-year (1997-2002) strategic plan for estab-lishing infrastructure and encouraging the useof information and communication technol-ogy (ICT) in education. Under this plan, sev-eral projects have been initiated with govern-ment funds. These include equipping all class-rooms in schools with a multimedia networksystem, providing two computer labs for eachschool and a computer for each teacher, com-puterising students' profiles and records, de-veloping educational software and a database,and implementing virtual education. To meetthe goal of the last item, implementing virtualeducation in primary and secondary schools, theKorea Multimedia Education Center was es-tablished in April 1997.

To explore ways of integrating a network-based virtual education system into the existinghigher education system and identifying appro-priate legislative policies, the Ministry of Educa-tion initiated the virtual university trial project earlyin 1998. This trial project led to more than 40%of higher education institutions in Korea offer-ing distance education courses using the Internet,CD-ROM, CATV, or video-conferencing sys-tems by the fall of 1998. The courses offeredfrom about half of the institutions were designedprimarily for undergraduate students. Adults andprofessionals were targeted by less than a quar-ter of the institutions.

It has been noted that for K-12 schools, inte-grating multimedia materials into the conventionalclasses and increasing two-way interactions areimportant goals for virtual education pro-grammes, whereas for the higher education in-stitutions, increasing student access and makingcourses available at convenient locations and timeare rated as very important.

The dramatic progress in the field of ICThas influenced the method of training in the busi-ness sector. The development of advanced tel-ecommunications has led to a paradigm shift ineducation and training in enterprises. Many vir-tual training courses have been created to allowemployees to overcome the difficulties of geo-graphical distance and limited training time andto receive "just-in-time" and "on-demand"courses in more flexible modes.

It is believed that, in the coming years, Koreawill see tremendous growth in the number ofschools, colleges, universities, and training insti-tutions that offer virtual education and use infor-mation and communication technologies for theireducation and training.

Virtual Education in Primaryand Secondary SchoolsDistance learning in K-12 education received leg-islative backing in 1997 when the Ministry of Edu-

cation enforced the law permitting distance edu-cation as a formal method of teaching and learn-ing in schools.

140 Virtual Institutions in East and Southeast Asia

148

EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING SYSTEM

The Educational Broadcasting System (EBS) wasset up in 1990 as the affiliated organisation ofthe Korean Education Development Institute(KEDI) to support school education by provid-ing educational TV and FM radio programmesprimarily to students in K-12. The governmentsubsidises 50% of the budget for EBS.

The EBS programmes are on the air by TVfor eight and a half hours every day and by FMradio for twenty hours a day. More than 50% ofthe programmes concern school curriculum, andK-12 schools are using them to supplement theirclasses and provide virtual learning experiencesto the students. Foreign language conversation,vocational education, environmental education,culture, music, and art programmes are all usedin the schools, and other general distance educa-tion programmes for children, youth, teachers,parents, and the public are also offered.

In 1997, EBS began to provide distance edu-cation programmes in a more systematic formvia satellite for high school students. These pro-grammes are used during class hours and also bythe individual students at home. Recently, EBSbegan to operate the Internet TV station andprovide these distance education programmes ina digitised format.

Web site (Korean language): www.kedi .re.kr

KOREA AIR AND CORRESPONDENCE

HIGH SCHOOL

The Korea Air and Correspondence High School(KACHS) was founded in 1974 as the affiliatedorganisation of the Korean Education Devel-opment Institute (KEDI). It aims to provideopportunities for high school education throughdistance teaching methods to those who, for vari-ous reasons, could not receive or continue theirhigh school education. KACHS mainly operatesa method of distance education using EBS TVand radio, printed materials, and face-to-face

schooling by teachers in conventional highschools.

As the computer network became availableto its students, KACHS adopted the PC networkand Internet as supplementary media to deliversome of its courses such as English, Mathemat-ics, and Sciences.

Web site (Korean language): www.kedire.kr

DISTANCE EDUCATION PROJECT AT

PRIMARY SCHOOLS

In 1995, the Ministry of Education and the Minis-try of Information and Communication fundeda distance education project that used a two-wayvideo-conferencing system with a T1 communi-cation line. The video-conferencing system con-nected one large primary school and four smallschools in a mountainous province. Using thevideo-conferendng system, the students in the foursmall schools where qualified teachers in specificsubjects were not available could receive the les-sons provided by the teachers in the large school.

KOREA MULTIMEDIA EDUCATION

CENTER AND INTERNET MODEL

SCHOOL PROJECT

The Korea Multimedia Education Center wasestablished in 1997 to provide a full service Website called EduNet. The EduNet is an integratedWeb service that distributes educational Webmaterials and services to students, teachers, edu-cational administrators, and parents. It is alsodesigned to provide virtual learning programmesthrough a computer network. For students, theEduNet provides learning materials, self-studypackages, self-evaluation tools, and other coun-selling services. For teachers, the EduNet pro-vides teaching materials, articles, legislative infor-mation, and virtual in-service teacher trainingprogrammes. For parents, the EduNet providesinformation about their children, counselling serv-ices, and parents' education programmes.

Virtual Institutions in East and Southeast Asia 141

149

The Korea Multimedia Education Center ini-tiated the Internet Model School project, whichemphasised use of the EduNet services for teach-ing and learning in K-12 schools. The InternetModel Schools are encouraged to use Web mate-rials for their teaching and learning and promot-ing two-way interactions between teachers andlearners or among learners. In 1998, more than 80schools were involved in distance learning projects

using the Internet and the EduNet services.Web site (Korean language): hfip:/ / edunetkrnec.net

Virtual Education in Collegesand Universities

KOREA NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

The Korea National Open University (KNOU)was founded in 1972 as the only distance teaching

university in Korea. KNOU has maintained themission of serving the advanced educational needsof adults and awarding degrees at the bachelor'slevel. The official purpose of KNOU is to raisethe people's overall educational level by providingopportunities for higher education to those highschool graduates who, for various reasons, couldnot receive or continue their university education;to improve the academic and professional profi-ciency of people who are already engaged in pro-fessions; and to make major contributions to thewelfare of the nation and to society as a whole.

KNOU offers 18 major areas of study.Teaching and learning is conducted through thevarious media of cable TV, radio, audio and videocassettes, video-conferencing, Internet and othercomputer network, and face-to-face schoolingand tutoring.

Since 1992, KNOU has provided databaseservices to its students through a nationwide com-puter network system. Using the database serv-ices, the students can obtain supplementary learn-ing materials for each course, updated news oftheir department, and information in KNOU

Weekly News. KNOU has also developed CD-ROM titles and Internet courseware for somedegree subjects.

In 1995, with funds from the Ministry of In-formation and Communication, KNOU launcheda project to research the use of the Internet. As aresult, an interactive video-conferencing networkwas introduced for educational programmes inthe geographically scattered regional and local study

centres. Using this network, the project connected14 centres; introduced interactive tutorial sessions;held various meetings among university membersin different places; encouraged open discussionsamong students, faculty members, and general citi-zens; and created non-degree programmes suchas teacher training. This video-conferencing sys-tem uses a commercial T1 line for transmission.

In February 1998, KNOU decided to par-ticipate in the Virtual University Trial Project ini-tiated by the Ministry of Education and joined aconsortium, the Korea Virtual University Con-sortium (KVU), consisting of eight conventionaluniversities and KNOU. The members collabo-rate in designing Web-based virtual courses andin delivering those courses to their students whowish to study at a distance.

The KVU consortium provided 41 Web-based virtual courses in the spring of 1998 and39 more in the fall. To ensure the courses wereof the highest quality, a virtual administrationoffice and quality assurance system was estab-lished. In 1999, the KVU consortium will de-velop several lifelong, non-degree virtual educa-tion programmes for adults who are not the stu-dents of the member universities.

Web site: www.knou.ac.kr

KOREA POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

Korea Polytechnic University was founded inDecember 1997 with funds from the Ministryof Industry and Energy. Its purpose is to traintechnologists working in the practical fields andto provide continuing education for craftsmen

1 42 Virtual Institutions in East and Southeast Asia

4 7 0-A- `LI

and technicians through distance education alongwith field-experience and face-to-face education.

The university has established the Center forDistance Technology Education and Training todevelop various models for distance technologyeducation and to develop virtual courses in thefields of technology education.

In 1999, the Korea Polytechnic University willestablish several regional study centres and a net-work system linking the headquarters to the centres.

VIRTUAL UNIVERSITY TRIAL PROJECT

In February 1998, eight conventional universitiesand seven consortia of universities and privatecompanies joined together to take part in theVirtual University Trial Project initiated by theKorean government. This project aims to exploreways of setting up a high-quality, cost-effectivevirtual education system, develop and implementdistance education courses, identify appropriatepolicies and standards for running a virtual uni-versity, and share experiences during the trial pe-riod. The project will last until February 2000,and during this period, the Ministry of Educa-tion will enforce the revised higher education law,accepting a private virtual university as a formalhigher education system. It is expected that after2000, Korea will have several private distanceteaching or virtual universities that will adopt ICTin delivering their courses.

The universities and the consortia participat-ing in the virtual university trial project, and theirURLs, are as follows:

1. Conventional universitiesYeungjin Community College: Provides prac-

tical courses to the community (nnungeungin-c.ac.kt).

Dongguk University: Has established an inter-disciplinary virtual programme under thename School of Cyber Creation (hto: / Igther.donsguk.ac.kt).

Sogang University: http../ I multinet.sogang.ac.kr.

Gyungsang University: ht0: / / vu.gsnu.ac.kr(Korean language).

Chnungnam National University: ht0:1 Ibusiness.chungnamac. kr.

Hankuk University of Foreign Studies: Pro-vides foreign language courses using theInternet and synchronous technologies(ninnu hufiac. kr/ gbe,).

Sookmyung Women's University: Providesretraining courses for professionals such aspharmacists and TESOL experts (hto:/ /snow.sooktnyung.ac.kt).

Seoul National University: ProvidesInternet courses for students and lifelonglearning programmes for the public (htqx // snuoc.snu.ac. kr Korean language).

2. ConsortiaKorea Peninsular Virtual Campus: Fiveconventional universities providing virtualICT programmes for adults (www.inje.ac.krKorean language).

Korea Virtual University Consortium: Pro-vides virtual courses for students of its ninemember universities and for other adults(www.knou.ac.k7).

Korea Online Virtual University: Providespractical courses for adults registered in thelifelong education centres of four memberuniversities.

Korea Universities Virtual Education Con-sortium: 22 universities and a newspapercompany's consortium provide virtualcourses using satellite and the Internet(www.chosun.com /class KoreanclassKorean language).

Bool Virtual University: Four member uni-versities providing graduate degree pro-grammes for teachers and public officers(blip/ / booLtitac. krKorean language).

Virtual Institutions in East and Southeast Asia 1 43

Open Cyber University: 12 universities, anewspaper company, and an SI company,Samsung Data System; provide Internetcourses for students of member universitiesand lifelong programmes for the public(www.ocu.ac.krKorean language).

Seoul Cyber Design University: Two uni-versities specialising in Art Design provid-ing virtual courses (http:1 I gberhongik.ac. krKorean language).

OPEN CYBER UNIVERSITY (OCU)

Open Cyber University (OCU) university is con-sidered an excellent example of the future vir-tual institution, with an efficient organising body.It was officially founded in October 1997 andstarted its educational services in September 1998.Twelve conventional universities, a newspapercompany, and Samsung Data System collabo-rate in managing and funding this university. Themember conventional universities provide con-tent and design virtual courses, while the compa-nies provide advanced technologies and techni-cal skills needed to deliver the virtual courses andadvertise the university.

OCU offers degree programmes for the stu-dents from the member universities and non-degree and certificate programmes for otherpeople. Based on a well-established course man-agement system, OCU develops virtual coursesthat reflect learners' needs. Web-based instruc-tion, real-time interactive education, non-sym-metrical satellite-based education, and off-lineCD-ROM-based instruction are common usesof educational technologies. In the first quarter,OCU had 914 students from the member uni-versities and 122 adults from outside enrolled inits virtual courses.

SOOKMYUNG CYBER EDUCATION CENTER

The Cyber Education Center of Sookmyung Wom-en's University, established in May 1998, is nowoffering virtual programmes for professionals.

The primary functions of the Center include dis-seminating electronic information, establishingdatabases for professionals, providing a digitalcyber library, and designing and developing vir-tual courses.

In 1998, the Center offered virtual pro-grammes for pharmacists, general Engligh ex-perts, TESOL experts, and music therapists. In1999, the Center will offer virtual programmesfor child education experts, nutrition counsellors,and virtual education specialists. After the trialproject ends, the Sookmyung Cyber Campus willbe founded based on the work of this Center.

SEOUL NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

VIRTUAL CAMPUS

The Seoul National University (SNU) is Korea'smost respected traditional university. It providesdistance education non-degree programmes toengineers who are working in companies usinginteractive video-con ferencing.

In addition, SNU has created a virtual cam-pus that provides several Web-based creditcourses for its own students and those from otheruniversities. Non-credit courses are also availableat the SNU virtual campus. Its virtual courses usethe Web as a primary medium and face-to-facetutoring by a course facilitator as a supplemen-tary method of teaching.

Virtual Teacher TrainingAs computer networks became popular in theearly 1990s, teacher training institutions beganusing them, and eventually the Internet, as a teach-ing and communication tool along with conven-tional training courses. However, distance or vir-tual training courses for teachers were not cred-ited by the Provincial Office of Education untilthe Korea National Open University (KNOU)provided a distance teacher training programmein 1997. KNOU, with the support from the Min-istry of Education, created a distance training

1 44 Virtual Institutions in East and Southeast Asia

programme for primary school teachers usingCATV and a two-way video-conferencing systemin 1997. By the winter of 1998, the programmehad been delivered four times and each time, 1,600teachers took this virtual training course at home.

In the summer of 1997, the Ministry of Edu-cation and the Ministry of Information and Com-munication funded a project to create a CyberTeacher Training Center within the Korea Multi-media Education Center. A software platform formanaging the virtual teacher training and 11 train-ing courses were developed as a result of theproject. With the additional six courses developedin 1998, these virtual teacher-training courses arenow available through the EduNet, which is anintegrated educational service on the Web.

Virtual Training in EnterprisesICT- based virtual training in Korean enterprisesbegan in 1996. The Human Resources Develop-ment Center (HRDC) in Samsung Groupformed a distance education team and began toprovide virtual courses to their members. Afterestablishing the HRDC Web server in 1994, theCenter started developing virtual courses. In 1996,Business, English, and Marketing courses wereoffered, and in 1997, 10 more courses and sev-eral Web video lectures were added. In 1998,Samsung Cyber Campus (ht0:/ / gbersamsung.newas launched to provide virtual training coursesin a more integrated form, and a total of 28courses were offered. There will be 10 morecourses offered in 1999.

Among the 28 courses, 13 are in the area ofbasic job-related skill acquisition, 8 in advanced job-

related skill acquisition, 6 in management, and thereis 1 Samsung induction programme for foreigners.

These Web-based virtual training courses areplanned, designed, managed, and evaluated bythe distance education team within the HRDC.Actual production of the courses is done byoutside companies. In the process of planning and

designing, the Samsung Network-ISD model isused. To manage the Samsung Cybercampus, theDistance Learning Support System has been used.

Other enterprises have also made efforts invirtual training. The Korea Banking Association has

set up a Cyber Banking School to provide virtualtraining courses for its member institutions. TheLG group has also established a Cyber Academyto provide Web-based virtual courses to its em-ployees. The Korea Telecom and the Posco Com-pany have used the Web and desktop video-conferencing system to deliver training courses.

As the economic crisis continues to affectenterprises in Korea, it is expected that morecompanies will adopt the method of distanceeducation for their training to reduce the trainingcosts in the long run.

ConclusionDue to the exponential growth in ICT, many newforms of educational media have been madeavailable over the years, with the support of theKorean government. One of the most attractivetraits of these new virtual education media is thatthey eliminate the spatial limitations and time con-straints of education. In other words, a person'sneed to be actually present at the instructionalsite at a designated time is eliminated. This hasmade education and training more affordable,flexible, and effective.

The evaluation report written by the KoreaMultimedia Education Center in 1998 indicatedthat the educational use of ICT projects in K-12 schools showed positive results in spite of ashort implementation period. These results wereattributed to the government's strong will andfinancial support, school principals' leadership,and teachers' dedication. The problems identi-fied in the evaluation report included teachers'lack of relevant skills to use ICT effectively, in-sufficient information infrastructure in schools,and difficulties in technology maintenance.

Virtual Institutions in East and Southeast Asia 1 45

153

Virtual education projects in colleges and uni-

versities have not yet been systematically evalu-ated. However, several reports presented by in-dividual researchers showed that virtual coursesproved to be a more flexible form of educa-tion, thus gaining more satisfactory responsesfrom the learners. Increasingly, higher educationinstitutions are announcing the introduction ofvirtual degree courses for their students, non-degree lifelong education courses for adults, andspecific skill training courses for professionals.

Virtual training programmes for profession-als are expected to grow drastically. The KoreaMultimedia Education Center and other teachertraining institutions have already announced theirplan to develop Web-based virtual courses forteachers in the next year. Many human resourcedivisions in private enterprises, suffering hugecutbacks in their budgets and numbers of work-ers, have decided to incorporate distance educa-tion using the advanced technologies into theirtraining system.

Despite the positive feedback for the virtuallearning experiences, there are several pointsworth mentioning when considering the futureof virtual education. First, it would help to es-tablish a nationwide educational computer net-work system backed up by the Internet so thatmultimedia materials could be properly used inclassrooms and at homes and so students andschools in remote areas would not be excludedby technical limitations. Second, various educa-tional entities, both public and private, should beallowed to develop instructional materials, vir-tual education and training courses, and electroniclibraries so that learners have more opportuni-ties to choose appropriate courses for their edu-cational needs. Third, continuous training oppor-tunities must be offered to teachers, instructors,administrators, trainers, and professors. And fi-nally, it's crucial to establish quality managementand accreditation system for virtual education.

1 46 Virtual Institutions in East and Southeast Asia

ucati n Institutions in Australia:

en t Idea and the Reality

UEL N TAPSALL & DR. YONI RYAN

IntroductionAustralia's pre-eminence in the area of distanceeducation has been widely acknowledged. Givenour geographically dispersed population, largedistances, relatively sophisticated technologicalinfrastructure, and long experience in off-cam-pus delivery, it might seem axiomatic that Aus-tralia would be a pioneer in using informationand communication technologies (ICT) for teach-ing and learning across the range of sectors.

Further, Australia is the third largest nationalprovider of training and education in English tointernational students after the U.S. and the U.K.,with nearly 20,000 students in "twinned' cam-puses" offshore, and a further 6,000 enrolled bydistance (Campus Review, "International Review,"November 1998, p.7). This might also suggest arelatively high use of distance methods and tech-nologies. That ICT has not been heavily utilisedfor overseas delivery has as much to do with adecision to spread the industry dollar into theAustralian community through "import educa-tion" as it has with the recognition of the lowopinion of distance education in Asia, Australia'smajor market.

Indeed, Australian educators have been earlyadopters of ICT, from the establishment ofSchools of the Air, based on radio, for isolatedprimary school students in the 1930s. Multimedia

technologies have been incorporated into manyindividual courses and have been used for ad-ministrative purposes in many dual-mode ormulti-campus tertiary institutions offering bothon- and off-campus programmes. But on theother hand, Australia has not yet established avirtual university; it has still to realise recent plansfor a virtual TAFE College (Technical and Fur-ther Education College) in one state, Victoria; andthere is no evidence of any virtual primary orsecondary school activity. There is talk of muchactivity in the corporate sector (e.g., Qantas Col-lege Online), but such terms at present connotemore about management efforts to promote thenotion of a learning organisation than any realstructure. In all cases, the major use of ITC hasbeen in simplifying and automating administra-tive processes such as enrolment, student-statusinquiries, and communication and managementdecision-making across campuses.

There is an acute understanding throughoutall sectors of the pressures regarding new learn-ing technologies, and a recognition that wideuptake of ICT for teaching and learning pur-poses is a function of economic and ideologicalimperatives at the external level and pedagogicimperatives at the internal level. On the one hand,advances in technology use are occurring in a timeof decreasing public outlays on education at all

Virtual Education Institutions in Australia 1 47

levels, from 6% of GDP in 1977-78 to less than5% in 1998 (Campus Review, November 11-17,1998, p. 8). On the other hand, the agenda of thefederal government department responsible forfunding higher education is clearly to promotethe new technologies.

Defining the BeastOne of the difficulties associated with such aninvestigation is the confusion of terminology thathas developed at almost the same pace as thetechnology. It is not uncommon for terms suchas virtual and online to be used interchangeablyby individuals to describe different approachesto technology integration. In our book New Me-dia and Borderless Education (see References), wedescribed the virtual university as primarily hav-ing two forms: one existing independent of aphysical location (although, like Open Universityin the U.K., it might otherwise resemble a tradi-tional university), the second denoting an onlineinstitution with some or all parts of the virtualcampus replicated using information technology.We later expanded that definition of virtual insti-tutions to include organisations that broker edu-cational services; these may take the "shoppingtrolley approach" to education and training, pro-viding a basket of goods and services drawnfrom partner institutions.

The brokering agency has a very recent his-tory in Australian education. Thus far, only theOpen Learning Agency of Australia (OLA) hasestablished itself with any credibility. We define abroker as an entity that does not of itself de-velop curriculum or employ teaching or supportstaff, but rather assembles programmes withmaterials developed by educational providers,offers these to students in combination with othersubjects to develop a full programme of study,and contracts with one or more of the provid-ers to actually confer the qualification on successfulcompletion of the individual units.

When OLA Australia was originally establishedin 1993, its function was purely brokerage. It wasintended as the only open institution in the countrywithout entry qualifications and was a response tounmet demand resulting from quotas for univer-sity education. Since then there has been a large ex-pansion in the university intake, and OLA's costsand unwieldy arrangements with its provider uni-versities have caused enrolments to plummet Henceit has planned to begin commissioning its own sub-jects and courses, and holds high hopes for an online

M.B.A. for the overseas market However, its fu-ture is uncertain. There is apparently limited interest

in this sort of operation, and would-be students atpresent seem to prefer the "brand names" of es-tablished educational institutions. OLA has also been

troubled in 1998 by resignations and retrenchmentsof key staff and revelations of deep divisions bothwithin the agency and a relationship akin to "en-mity" with partner universities (TheAustralian HES,

July 1,1998, p. 36).In Australia, "flexible delivery" has increas-

ingly been used to describe content delivered innon-traditional face-to-face mode. Flexibly de-livered units may be offered using multiple me-dia, including CD-ROM, Internet, video-conferencing, tele-conferencing, and audio-conferencing. Students may take these units on-campus or from a distance. Australian universi-ties, pushed to incorporate technology on a yet-to-be-confirmed basis that it is a solution to somesectoral problems (e.g., costs, increasing demandfor access to education, shrinking public budg-ets), fit along a continuum with some movingfaster and closer to a totally online presence.Many could be considered dual providersthosetraditional institutions that are offering both tra-ditional face-to-face programmes with a "bricksand mortar" base and also as providing virtualeducational experiences.

Various institutions, including University ofQueensland and Griffith University, have an-nounced the opening of online campuses. Rather

1 48 Virtual Education Institutions in Australia

than being totally online alternatives to face-to-face teaching, these tend to be physical campusesthat take the institution into new geographic mar-kets. Griffith University's Logan campus, for ex-ample, is heralded as an innovation in flexibledelivery. It has just one large formal lecture thea-tre, although the use of this for large classes hasbeen discouraged. The majority of communalspaces are technology-enhanced learning centresand small group spaces. Some lectures are pro-vided from other campuses via video-confer-ence and tele-conference facilities, however in anumber of disciplines these tend to be interac-tive question-and-answer forums between con-tent experts and students. The development ofthis campus has seen an increase in some disci-plines in problem-based learning and small grouptutorial approaches to curriculum.

Finally, no serious examination of new tech-nology use in education in the late 1990s couldbe complete without some mention of the ad-vent of, and growth in, the "corporate univer-sity." These institutions are largely possible be-cause of the combination of technological con-vergence and globalisation in the commercial sec-tor, which has necessitated the use of technolo-gies in training worldwide employees.

The Emergence of the BeastJ. Taylor, in Perspectives on the Educational Uses of

Technology, analyses the historical progression ofdistance education models by building on SorenNipper's three generations model, in a four partschema:

1. The correspondence model (printbased)

2. The multi-modal model (highly devel-oped structured resources includingvideotapes, audiotapes, and computer -assisted learning)

3. The tele-learning model (interactive tel-ecommunications, instructional use of

audiographics, and two-way tele- andvideo-con ferencing)

4. The flexible learning model (CD-ROM, Internet)

These appear to align with a broader socio-historical emergence of concerns in distance edu-cation. That is, distance education emerged inresponse to the issues of distance (geographicaldistance from a major learning centre when edu-cation was conceived primarily as a face-to-facemodel) and disadvantage (lack of preparationfor tertiary studies or domestic responsibilities,preventing admission by the usual means). Openlearning models, while also providing answersto problems of distance, primarily focused onissues relating to lack of entry qualifications and"second-chance" entry, moving to meet theneeds of the disadvantaged cohort, through arange of alternate learning styles and subjects.

The preoccupation with flexible delivery inthe late 1990s in countries like Australia is lessabout distance or disadvantage, and more aboutmeeting the needs of the worker-student, pro-viding "more" educational opportunities to"more" students at "less" cost. Australian insti-tutions see technologies such as the Internet andCD-ROM as providing delivery of learning en-vironments to any student, anywhere, at anytimewhether an internal or external student.Flexible delivery modes are being used as muchas a solution to on-campus problems as to off-campus access. Consequently, face-to-face, dis-tance, and open learning modes of delivery areconverging and the boundaries between thesemodes are blurring.

It may be that there is a correlation betweenthese three educational models and Taylor's fourstages of distance education that could provideinsights into appropriate technological solutionsfor socio-educational problems. If dealing withissues primarily of distance, it may be that tradi-tional "correspondence" methods are a viable

Virtual Education Institutions in Australia 1 49

J 7

solution. If open access and disadvantage are anissue, the multi-modal and tele-learning modelspresent solutions. Where the distinctions between

these models are disappearing, converged deliv-ery styles (the flexible learning model) become a

more viable alternative. Table 10.1 outlines these

relationships graphically.

Towards "Virtuality"It is difficult if not impossible to disaggregatethe uses to which ICT has been applied in Aus-tralia. Many systems have been deliberately de-veloped or are in the process of development astotal systems, incorporating an online informa-tion face with enrolment and administrative sys-tems, course details, some learning resources, as-sessment systems, and online communications

Table 10.1

with both academic and administrative staff.However, we attempt here to give examples ofthe more interesting uses in each area specified.

ADMINISTRATION

University sectorAll universities in Australia now utilise sophisti-cated electronic networking systems for admin-istrative purposes such as enrolment, studentrecords, student administration, staff records, andfee payments. The costs and delays in introduc-ing robust networking systems have cost someuniversities dearly. For example, the collapse ofthe contract between a consortium of universi-ties and a systems supplier, Casmac, in 1997 lostthe institutions concerned some $100 million, andhas resulted in costly continuing litigation (Cam-

pus Review, March 12-18,1997, p. 7).

The relationship between educational models and the stages of distanceeducation

Problems Distance

"Second-chance"

Disadvantage learning

Solutions Distance Education

Stage 1 solutions

Ei

Stage 1 solutions:Print based

Desire to

Lack of Desire to teach "more"Lack of entry capital Worker- broaden students withqualifications infrastructure students student base "less"

1 1

Open Learning

Stage 2/3 solutions

Stage 2/3 solutions:Multiple media/ telelearningRecognition of priorlearning/non-formal learningCompetency testingCross-credit

I1Stage 4 solutions

Stage 4 solutions:Internet/multimediaArticulation of programsBlurring of delivery modesand education sectors

1 50 Virtual Education Institutions in Australia

1 5 8

Over the last five years, all tertiary institutionshave developed a Web presence for marketingand prospective student purposes. Video-conferencing and tele-conferencing is common,particularly in those institutions designated in the1980s as distance education centres. Inter-cam-pus communication has been facilitated by suchtelecommunications and was initially fundedthrough special grants to the centres to encour-age the use of new technologies for teaching andlearning. However, the technologies were mainlyapplied to administration, notwithstanding manypilot programmes using them for core educa-tional activities. Leaders in these pilots wereMonash University, UNE, Charles Sturt Univer-sity, and Curtin University.

The primary use of ICT in Australian edu-cation at all levels is administrative. Whether be-cause of ideological demands for accountabil-ity or because the technology exists to collectmore comprehensive data, most institutions inthe education sector have highly sophisticatedadministrative software systems and networks.In 1998, many of these were not completelyintegrated (e.g., admissions may not be net-worked with payroll), but increasingly softwaresystems are moving to one platform, as in theplanned Monash-SAP R/3 system, which willreplace almost 80 different computer systems,the heritage of numerous amalgamations withother institutions.

In Australia, each state currently has a tertiaryadmissions centre that determines university and(generally) Technical and Further Education Col-lege selection following the state's final school yearassessment. Almost all states currently operateinteractive voice response telephone system in-quiries for school leavers seeking admissions in-formation, and by the end of 1999, all plan tohave an active Web-based site for informationand applications. In Victoria, one of the most-advanced states in terms of government-driveninformation technology policies and procedures,

about 10% of 1998 tertiary applications weremade via the Web (The Australian HES, October28, 1998, p.37).

VET sectorState providers of vocational education and train-ing (VET) have progressively networked theiradministrative functions to respond quickly tocentral directives and co-ordination, but the de-volved management of colleges has preventedfull utilisation of these networks. All states aremoving towards a more co-ordinated and cen-tralised networked online system for informa-tion and student administration (see the section,In the Making, below). In several states, learningcentres have been established to encourage theuse of multimedia, especially video-conferencingand the Internet. The Queensland Open Learn-ing Network, for example, has an extensive net-work of centres that, in effect rent their equip-ment, via an annual levy, to participating institu-tions such as TAFEs and universities.

Schools sectorAs one of the smallest states, and the most cen-trally governed, Victoria has emerged as the leaderin the establishment of infrastructure for its schoolssector. A $50 million project, VicOne, connects allpublic schools, the Education Department, theBoard of Studies, and a range of governmentsites via a WAN. The project, among many othersin the public and private sector, is overseen by adedicated Minister for Multimedia.

MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT PRODUCTION

AND DISTRIBUTION

To date, the most interesting aspect of learningmaterial development in Australia is in thenumber of small private consultant firms thathave been established to capitalise on the newtechnologies and their application to the educa-tion sectors. Some of these have been deliber-ately set up as part of a national government

Virtual Education Institutions in Australia 1 51

159

scheme, the Cooperative Multimedia Centres

(CMCs) to forge private-public partnerships in

the area of emerging technologies. A local

Queensland example is QANTM. QANTMGeneral Manager Shawn Ket suggests this CMCis the most focused in Australia in the area ofeducation and training, saying it has a "cradle-to-

grave" training philosophy.The centre is delivering K-12, vocational,

and diploma training in multimedia and newtechnologies, in partnership with a range of uni-versities, schools, VET organisations, and pri-vate providers. Supporting notes and studentresource material are all electronic-based, bothdownloadable and accessible via the Web. Thecentre provides teaching into schools, as well ascyber camps and summer and winter schools forprimary and secondary students.

The centre plans to officially launch its onlineDiploma in Multimedia, developed in consulta-tion with Queensland TAFE, in February 1999,but it already has 70 students studying the self-paced, project-based modules. It is involved in arange of government-based training schemes and

will launch a Diploma of Gaming, supportedby corporate partners Auran (one of the coun-try's leading computer games companies) andBoeing, in 1999.

The university sectorAlthough a number of attempts have been madeat the national level to co-ordinate the produc-tion and dissemination of learning materials basedon the new technologies, particularly those thatare more expensive to produce such as CD-ROMs and Internet-based materials, the variousrelevant projects have been singularly unsuccess-ful at preventing the "reinvention of the wheel."

EdNA (Education Network Australia), forexample, was established initially in 1994 to col-lect and distribute electronic resources devel-oped by public funding in all education sectors.Unfortunately, the voluntary nature of the

clearinghouse meant that it attracted few depos-its, except from the primary sector, since univer-sities almost invariably contributed their ownfunding to resource projects, and in a competi-tive regime, were loathe to lose any commercialsales through free distribution of materials. EdNAalso suffered from a lack of exposure and lim-ited funding.

In 1997, EdNA was reconstituted with a briefto co-ordinate and disseminate a database of alllearning materials produced in the three educa-tion sectors as described on its Web site(wing edna.edu.au/EalNA):

The site is organised around Australian cur-

riculum, its tools are free to Australian educa-

tors, and it is funded by the bodies responsi-

ble for education provision in AustraliaallAustralian governments.

It is a network in several senses. EdNA is

a Web site pointing to thousands of resources

identified and contributed by Australian edu-

cators. It networks the bodies responsible for

Australian education. Discussions andnoticeboards are offered on the site, making

it a meta-network of Australian educationpractitioners. Its services create communities

of educators onlinefurther networks.EdNA covers the schools, vocational educa-

tion and training, adult community educa-tion, and higher education sectors. Through

the EdNA forums, the Australian education

systems and sectors collaborate on a range of

online education, communications and in-formation technology issuesa powerfulnetwork.

EdNA continues however, to suffer from lim-ited recognition in the sectors.

Each university has a for-profit, or morecommonly a cost-recovery, centre charged withthe development and production of learningmaterials utilising the new technologies. Oneexample of the for-profit centres is METALE,

1 52 Virtual Education Institutions in Australia

S 0

the Metaphoric Experiential Training and Learn-ing Environment Unit of the Canberra Insti-tute of Technology (www.cit.act.edu.au /metale)where "metaphoric" is "the replication ofworkplace experiences for learning purposes."METALE has worked closely with Qantas Col-lege Online, its largest client to date, to developfour workplace-related modules of learningmaterials.

University centres commonly undertake thedevelopment of a template for internal users. TheUniversity of Melbourne commercial arm hasused a Department of Industry, Science andTechnology grant for $174, 000 to develop Crea-tor, a template for those unfamiliar with HTMLprotocols to enable them to produce materialsfor online access. Many commercial operatorscompete in this area.

A bewildering number of consortia exist aspartnerships between university and VET pro-viders, both public and private, and often includesoftware companies for particular projects inparticular discipline areas. For example, OnFX isan Internet cum CD-ROM learning package forthe production of course materials in GraphicArts, which spans the university-VET sector, andhas Apple and IBM as partners. The use of CD-ROM in this project was dictated by the largebandwidth required in graphics-based subjects,which limited the utilisation of the Internet inmuch of Australia.

DELIVERY AND TUITION

The university sectorCopyright restrictions have meant that althoughAustralian university libraries make extensive useof the Internet for administrative purposes re-lated to inter-library loans, electronic storage andtransmission of resources is limited to those pro-duced by lecturers for specific subjects, restrictedin most cases to bona fide students of particularinstitutions.

Some outstanding standalone materials,mostly in CD-ROM form, have been producedwithin university multimedia centres, with a largenumber of award-winning items designed forthe secondary and early tertiary market. The Uni-versity of Wollongong's Interactive MultimediaLearning Laboratory has been outstanding in thisregard. The materials are generally modules de-signed to be used within a larger subject or unitor as reference material. The Open LearningAgency of Australia initially depended heavily onbroadcast TV to deliver its learning materials.However, most students reported videotapingthe programmes for more convenient viewing.This, plus the costs involved, has led to a reduc-tion in the television component of most pro-grammes of study.

Few universities use the Internet alone for thedelivery of learning materials and student sup-port. Where it is used extensively, it is in a selectgroup of subjects such as e-commerce or in openand distance learning courses. Curtin Universityof Technology in Western Australia, for exam-ple, has a Masters in e-commerce, using multiplemedia: the Internet, CD-ROM, tele-conferencing,and video (www.cbs.curtin.edu.au / ecn). It also offers

a graduate certificate and a graduate diploma inInternet Studies, with all materials and classesconducted via the Internet, print-based materialsprovided where appropriate, and face-to-facemeetings organised to suit students' needs. A newpublic university, Sunshine Coast, began its to-tally online M.B.A. in 1997 and now has 50 stu-dents. This currently appears to be the only whollyInternet-based M.B.A. in Australia.

Some Australian institutions have collaboratedwith media companies. Monash, which has hada long association with the Australian Broadcast-ing Commission (ABC) through its involvementin the Open Learning Agency, has forged an in-teresting alliance for a pilot not-for-credit sub-ject, Money, Markets, and the Media. This was

Virtual Education Institutions in Australia 1 53

developed by Monash academics and is deliv-ered through complementary online real audioand text and shortwave and satellite radio trans-mitters (see www.abe. net' mong). For Monash ViceChancellor David Robinson, the venture is a part-nership that allows the university and the ABC"to capitalise on global broadcast technology todeliver education throughout Australia and in-ternationally." For the ABC's Managing DirectorBrian Johns, it is a glimpse of the ABC's digitalfuture "where convergence means that our pro-gramming can be accessed by audiences on dif-ferent mediums, and online," (Campus Review, Sep-

tember 23-29, 1998, p. 6)In November 1998, the first full-page adver-

tisement for a US. -based distance university pro-gramme appeared in the specialist education press,offering tuition via the Internet, video-conferencing,videotapes, satellite, and correspondence. (Campus

Review, "International Education," November 11-17, 1998, p. 3). There was no indication whetherthe qualifications would be accepted in Australia,nor indeed whether Colorado State UniversityNetwork for Learning (CSUN) was a private armof this state university.

The VET sectorAfter some 15 years, the Australian NationalTraining Authority (ANTA) has succeeded in se-curing all states' agreement for a national trainingframework and a national curriculum for sometrade and semi-professional areas. Consequently,it has 18 packages of teaching and learning ma-terial developed in these areas. These have a strongemphasis on computer-based resources andonline delivery, and they often incorporate video-conferencing for teaching purposes, especially inthose vocations where employers preferworkplace delivery. The college network in Ad-elaide, South Australia, for example, uses video-conferencing extensively across campuses withinthe metropolitan area to avoid students havingto travel for specialised subjects. In Queensland,

an early use of video-conferencing for teachingwas employed in the hospitality industry, wherestudents are often situated in remote areas suchas island resorts.

Many of these innovations in delivery usingnew technologies occurred because employersdemanded less time off site for their trainees. Itmight also be noted that VET courses might bemore amenable to multimedia delivery than uni-versity-level courses, especially if technical skillsare involved.

Private providersQantas College Online is the Internet-based vir-tual college of one of Australia's air carriers. Thecorporation has various training arms, and QantasCollege was the brand name of the corporatedevelopment and training area charged with iden-tifying training needs across the corporation andfocusing on interpersonal skills. It had no respon-sibility for cabin crew or operational training.

Qantas College Online was established to pro-vide a framework and policy delivery mechanismand as a means to deliver training needs. The vir-tual training arm was set up after the corporationidentified a need to provide training to the 30,000odd corporate staff, who travel frequently andwork a high proportion of shift work, which lim-ited their ability to access face-to-face training. Thecorporation used to publish a schedule of face -to -face courses on offer at various locationsaround the world; this has now been replaced byonline courses including business, management andcustomer service skills, and interpersonal commu-nication. The virtual college offers accredited quali-fications at certificate and diploma level in cus-tomer service, leadership, and management andhas set up paths of articulation.

Much of the assessment is project-, compe-tency-, or work place-based. It can be accessedat home, the work place, or in a number oflearning centres set up in some of the corpora-tion's larger operational areas throughout the

154 Virtual Education Institutions in Australia

16

world. There are more than 40 different coursemodules, which take from 4 to over 20 hours to

complete.Qantas College traditionally operated on an

outsource model, with external consultants deliv-

ering its in-house training. One result of the moveto virtual delivery is that the college, in putting some

of those programmes online, has purchased themand now owns them. It has also expanded its rangeof offerings and taken the opportunity to reviewits business programmes and develop new onesneeded by their business and staff.

Other business training arms such as Optus, atelecommunications sales arm of the U.K Cableand Wireless, prefer CD-ROM, audiographics, andface-to-face, although some components useInternet delivery

"Off-the-shelf" solutionsAustralian institutions tend to orchestrate theirmove towards virtualisation in one of two ways:

By recreating the whole process for them-selves, creating their own software pro-grammes for administration, information,and communications.

By taking advantage of "off-the-shelf" al-ternatives.

By the end of September 1998, at least eightuniversities had installed Callista, an Australian-developed student systems software programme.Both Top Class and WebCT (North Americandeveloped programmes for putting courses, classadministration, student and staff communications,and teaching resources online) are in use in vari-

ous universities.At the same time, some universities have been

developing their own products and making themmore widely available. The previously mentionedCreator, a software programme that "allowsanyone who can use a keyboard and a mouse toeasily create courses online," was launched inAugust 1998. The product had already been sold

to two universities and a corporate training com-pany. It provides infrastructure for authoring ofcontent online, content management, student as-sessment, bulletins, forums, chat sessions, prob-lem-based learning, search facilities, and admin-istration functions (including student records,enrolments, and database management).

Not surprisingly, myriad private providers ofvarying quality and credibility have emerged tocapitalise on the perceived move to virtual edu-cation. These include operators who guaranteeto move the traditional university to virtual cam-pus in less than 60 days. Some examples are asfollows:

Real Education, the most-known proponentof this approach, has registered as a busi-ness in Australia and its supporters are knownto have approached a number of Australianinstitutions.

DVP's 32 CD-ROM CDX automotive train-ing package was developed to service a worldmarket, taking $5 million and three years tocomplete.

Armstrong Fleming has established a "virtualeducation centre online" (including an "en-terprise learning centre environment"), whichcan be customised to the client's satisfaction.

Redbean PO Lid bills itself as "one of the pio-neers of online education in Australasia."Redbean developed Big Tree OnLine to "fa-cilitate the creation, management, and securedelivery of Web-based training and educa-tion programmes"(www.bigtree.com.au). Clients

and partners include Apple Australia, Sun-rise Research Laboratories (this partnershipdelivered an online education master class forAustralian and New Zealand universities), andvarious K-12 schools.

CBTS Australia distributes a range of com-puter-managed learning, curriculum, andassessment products (including Learning

Virtual Education Institutions in Australia 155

.163

Management System, The Learning Managerand TLM (Web) to Australia and Asia(www.ola.edu.au/providers/ virtcon/ stubbs/poster.htm). The largest user is Curtin Univer-sity, with about 13,000 on- and off-campusstudents accessing approximately 40,000computer-mediated assessments annually.

Eastern House has developed a range of print-based resources and test banks used in con-junction with CBTS support systems; theseresources are now used by more than 400education providers and enterprises in Aus-tralia (via face-to-face classes, Intranet, andInternet).

WHOLE COMMUNITY APPROACH

There are initiatives in Australia that represent a"whole life-whole community" approach to theintegration of technology and virtualisation ofgovernment, administrative, health, education, andsocial interaction. Such an initiative is the seven-site

Tanami Network, using high-speed digital narrowband video-conferencing technology via ISDNand satellite, which was established by four Abo-riginal communities in remote areas of Australia.

The Tanami Network is about far more thaneducation, although that is an important focusand was the initial reason for a three-year projectthat got underway in 1992. There is no accessto comprehensive secondary education forAborginal tribes in the Northern Territory, andthe average school completion age is 12 to13 yearsfor boys and 14 to 15 years for girls. J.M. Barker,in a paper presented in Perth in 1998, said "Manyparents despair of making the impossible choicebetween a decent European education and deal-ing with the difficulty caused by children beingabsent in the very years they would be learningtheir position in the community and their roles inceremony and cultural life." (See References.)

The Network started out with an emphasison secondary and tertiary education in a trial of

mixed-mode delivery, and a relationship was es-tablished with the Secondary CorrespondenceSchool in Darwin. Setting up links to tertiary pro-viders was more difficult because of the limitednumber of remote sites. The project was drivenby members of the local communities for mem-bers of the local community, and as a result hasbeen used for a range of commercial, govern-ment, and social programmes. The Tanamimodel, which puts Aboriginal tribes in chargeof their own communications and gives themthe opportunity to communicate beyond tribal,geographic, and cultural boundaries, has beensuch a success that it is to be extended to com-munities in other remote parts of Australia.

Facing the IssuesThere are many inhibiting factors and impedimentsto a wholesale move to an e-education system akinto the e-banking system, where limited face-to-face service has rapidly become the norm in Aus-tralia. We have explored these more fully in ourbook New Media and Borderless Education (see Ref-

erences); briefly, they are summarised as follows:

PRACTICAL ISSUES

Bottom line: Is there enough money in educa-tion for the media corporations?

Core business: Will stakeholders and the man-agement see education as a core business ofthe corporation?

Branding What is the place of brand nameslike Harvard? Can brand names like Disney,for example, compete against these "educa-tion names"?

Costs: Electronic forms of education are ex-pensive unless there is huge volume. No ex-tensive financial model yet exists which takesinto account all the factors involved. Costfactors are an issue for students, institutions,and government.

156 Virtual Education Institutions in Australia

164

Differential regional take-up The take-up rate

for Internet connection and telephony varieswidely across the world.

Household take-up: Notwithstanding optimis-tic forecasts about Internet connection indomestic residences, the figures continue toindicate that in Australia, most people accessfrom work for work-related activities.

Industry volatility. Both the technology itselfand the booming nature of a new industrymean that instability is part of the scene.

Partnerships, alliances, and cultural clashes: Edu-

cational institutions and business have hadrobust relationships in the past based on dif-fering cultures.

Intellectual properly and copyright: No jurisdic-

tion has yet grappled successfully with theclaims of staff developing materials forInternet use through their institution or withthe matter of electronic library access to allprint-based materials.

Training teachers, support staff, and learners Huge

programmes of staff development and learnerdevelopment must be considered in any inte-gration of online teaching and learning

PEDAGOGICAL ISSUES

Age-related factors. Lifelong learning may be areality for educational mangers and teachers,but it is far from being an accepted rubric inthe community at large, especially in relationto learning via technology, where older em-ployees may not have the skills or disposi-tion to learn in this mode.

Local support: UKOU has relied on local tu-tor support, and this is crucial in electronicdelivery.

Education versus training :: There may be a limit

to the sorts of activities that can be success-fully learned online only.

Competency -based education: This remains an is-

sue at universities, where competency hasbeen a hotly contested concept.

Cultural differences in learning styles: There is in-

sufficient acknowledgement in the literatureof the learning preferences of different cul-tural and ethnic groups.

Technology and learning: There is insufficientresearch to indicate whether students learnbetter with technology.

POLICY ISSUES

Accreditation: This is the single most pressingissue for many institutions that are consider-ing sharing courses to minimise costs, or tostudents who wish to enrol in organisationsoutside their state jurisdictions.

Levels of government support: Who pays forcross-border enrolments?

Consumerprotection: Who verifies the new pro-

viders?

PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES

Access and equity: Notwithstanding the lowerprices for telephony services and computerequipment, regional differences and distancemean that equity remains an issue, even withindeveloped countries.

Cultural imperialism: There have been majorconcerns expressed about the imposition ofU.S.-centric values via educational material.

PERSONAL ISSUES

Teaching and learning from a box: This concept

had a poor reputation in the 1950s. Radioand TV were also hailed as the educationsystem of the future in their time; scepticsargue that the Internet may be another vari-ant on that theme.

Virtual Education Institutions in Australia 1 57

The Australian PerspectiveThe issues, we believe, remain the same today,despite debate that now accepts the Internet andvirtual institutions as the way of the future. Here,we update several of these issues in the Austral-

ian context.

STAFF DEVELOPMENT

Across all education sectors, staff familiarity anduse of newer technologies remains a limiting fac-tor in the uptake of electronic media. For exam-ple, a recent study in Australian universities ("Aca-demics Online," reported in The Australian HES,October 28, 1998, p. 39) indicated that a lack oftraining was responsible for limited use of dig-ital technologies for teaching and research. One-quarter of academics never used e-mail to com-municate with students, and a large proportionused it no more than once a week to communi-cate with someone other than a friend on theirown campus, the study found. More positively,58% of academics at isolated rural campuses usedthe Web daily, compared with 42% of metro-politan institutions. Over 40% did not subscribeto any electronic newsgroups. Staff remainedsceptical of the usefulness of the Internet fordirect teaching and learning purposes: "TheInternet as a teaching tool is far from useful atthe moment. This is because access is slow, con-tent of material available is, on average, verypoor...Apart from e-mail and access to librarycatalogues, the Internet is a huge and costly wasteof time" (Campus Review, October 28Novem-ber 3,1998, pp.1-2). (This report also called forresearch into whether the infrastructure and main-tenance costs were justified in view of the edu-cational returns, based on these figures.)

The relative poverty of TAFE institutionssuggest that usage is even lower in that sector.Despite the drives of state education departmentsto supply infrastructure in the form of modemsand computers in all public schools, the staff

development needs of the secondary and pri-mary sectors are enormous, according to unionand departmental sources. With the exception ofBond University, most "for-profit" post-schoolproviders in Australia have no policies on staffdevelopment for their casual teachers, nor do theypretend to be "technology-savvy." Indeed, theymake a virtue of intensive face-to-face teaching.

SUPPORT CRISIS

Uptake of Internet-based or flexible-deliveryteaching options, while not leading directly to thetotally virtual campus, has been significant in someparts of the education sector, creating its own staffdevelopment problems. R. Atkinson, in a paperto the Ascilite Conference, December 1997, ar-gues that the support crisis identified by an Aus-tralian Vice Chancellors' Committee (AVCC) pa-per in 1996, continues to be a problem:

Teaching staff need support services suchas media specialists, instructional systemsdevelopers, computing consultants andequipment technicians to assist them ingaining access to and effectively using IT. A

phenomenon confronting many universi-ties, however, is an insatiable demand forinformation technology services which ap-

pears to be growing day by day...The re-sult is that many universities report thatthere is a "siege" environment in their ITsupport organisations...Many universitiesreport an IT support crisis.

INFRASTRUCTURE AND TECHNICAL

DIFFICULTIES

Unlike most European and North American in-stitutions, many Australian universities are largefederations of institutions separated by large dis-tances. Charles Sturt University (CSU), for ex-ample, is spread over 500 kilometres in NewSouth Wales, with five campuses and an externalenrolment of 72%.

158 Virtual Education Institutions in Australia

166

Telecommunications constitute an increasinglylarge component of the running costs of uni-versities, despite the moves to shift these costs tostudents. Administrative costs cannot be shiftedhowever, and the result is that a number of insti-tutions have been obliged to provide their owninfrastructure to avoid commercial providers'STD charging rates. The costs of "bricks andmortar" are rapidly being overtaken by fibre andmicrowave costs, which, perhaps unfortunatelyfor politicians, are invisible.

Charles Sturt University has committed an ini-tial $3 to $4 million for a 34 megabit microwavelink for Internet access and voice and video-conferencing, although this is only expected tomeet the university's bandwidth needs for the nextfive years. CSU's information technology execu-tive director reported that the investment wasnot desired but necessary, because leasing adequatebandwidth from Telstra was too expensive. Inlate June, CSU joined a delegation of other re-gional Australian universities in proposing that thefederal government fund a $20 million inter-var-sity microwave network so they could competewith city institutions to provide distance educa-tion. Regional universities were reportedly des-perate to increase access to affordable techno-logical infrastructure.

The Australian Vice Chancellors' Committee(AVCC) was prescient enough to establish a ro-bust Australian Internet (Australian Academic andResearch Network, AARNet) for universities andthe premiere research entity, the CommonwealthScientific and Industrial Research Organisation,(CSIRO) in 1990. It has since committed largeamounts of money to extend and maintain thissystem, $16 million of the total operating budgetof the AVCC (Campus Review, November 11-171998, p. 2). Conscious of the need to divest it-self of a "non-core business," in 1995 the AVCChanded management of the backbone to Telstraand in 1997, to a rival company, Optus. As an

indicator of the centrality of the university sec-tor in the growth of the Internet in Australia, itshould be noted that AARNet still constitutes 40%of Australia's Internet traffic.

Upgrading of equipment and standards is amajor issue for the public sector, with most statedepartments choosing to purchase rather thanlease, with inevitable redundancy problems.

TECHNOLOGICAL LITERACY AND

DEMAND FOR ONLINE LEARNING

The abilities of students to benefit from any moveto virtual education have as yet received limitedattention outside controlled classroom situations.Our own research has shown that when TAFEor university students are asked their preference,they rarely ask for less face-to-face teaching. Theevidence comes from qualitative data like theBaron, Thiele, and Hintz (1995) South AustralianTAFE study of a new flexible delivery campusat Tea Tree Gully. One student wailed "I camehere to learn and you aren't teaching me any-thing!" because the delivery method was resource-based learning supplemented with optional ac-cess to learning skills advisers.

The evidence also comes from quantitative datasuch as the recent Australian National TrainingAuthority (ANTA) study by Warner, Christie, andChoy (1998), which reports that 86% of studentspreferred face-to-face modes of instruction. Thisstudy found that over 70% of students had aver-age or below average levels of readiness for self-directed learning. All of their students were sec-ond-year TAFE students, and 67% were under25 years of age. The authors observe that TAFEstudents are highly teacher-oriented, relying onteachers for motivation and direction. The extentto which we can expect students of any age tohave the independent learning skills required withnew technologies has not been fully explored.

An Australia-wide evaluation of informa-tion technology projects showed that university

Virtual Education Institutions in Australia 1 59

students, too, while enthusiastic about the use ofICT in education, still preferred face-to-face teach-ing and learning, although it was not always possi-ble (UTS Anchor, September 14-17 1998, p. 1).The federal government-funded study, An Evalu-ation of Information Technology Projects for University

Learning, highlighted the dilemma for those con-templating greater integration of ICT into educa-tion programmes. The two-year study reviewedmore than 100 projects undertaken at Australian

universities, finding that massive expenditure onICT alone was not enough to ensure learning. Re-port author Shirley Alexander concluded learningdesign is the over-riding factor in successful inte-gration of information technology "Spending alot of money on a flashy Web site and complexcontent is not enough...Some educators rushedto put lesson material on the Web, but that wasonly one percent of what was needed." (UTSAnchor, September 14-17 1998, p.1)

Despite the push for Australian education andtraining to "go virtual," considerable questions arestill raised about the demand and market for onlinecourses and virtually delivered teaching. An Aus-tralian Bureau of Statistics household survey inFebruary 1998 showed there were three millionadult users of the Internet in Australia at that time(Online-Ed, September 13 ,1998). Of these, aboutone million used the Internet to find informationrelating to their studies, but this was the least re-ported type of Internet activity by adult users.

B. Pattinson and J. Di Gregorio found thatroughly 80% of studying adult Australiansaccessed the Internet as part of that study. Themajority of Internet education users were young(43% aged 18 to 24 years; 37% aged 25 to 39years), adult Internet education users were largelycity-based (79% living in capital cities) and mostwere employed (full-time 48%; part-time 22%).The authors concluded that while it was clear theInternet was an integral part of the educationsystem for adult Australians, it was not clear

whether they were using the Internet as a substi-tute for face-to-face classes, or simply as just an-other source of information for assignments. (Seetheir article at www.edfac.unimelb.edu.au I online-ed)

GOVERNMENT POLICY

We address the issue of government policy inNew Media and Borderless Education, but in the time

since the release of that report, the federal gov-ernment's enthusiasm for online education hasapparently grown. The final report of the WestCommittee, which reviewed Australian highereducation in 1997-98, had a heavy emphasis ontechnological solutions to perceived problemswith the sectorproblems including cost, access,and quality of education.

In July 1998, the federal government releaseda preliminary statement, Towards an AustralianStrategy for the Information Economy (www.noie.gov.au 1

nationalrtrategy resource.html). The document liststhe government's 10 strategic priorities "to achieveits vision for the information economy," two ofwhich deal with education and/or training:

Train our workforce to harness opportuni-ties within the information economy.

Unlock the market potential of the healthand education sectors.

Responses to the policy statement, whileagreeing that education and training were keybuilding blocks for an information economy,again raised concerns about funding priorities andinadequate infrastructure. EdNA (www.noie.gov.au/nationatrtrategy/ submit32.htm argued the key im-pediments to effective participation in the infor-mation economy were:

Lack of universally accessible infrastructure atan affordable price for educational institutions;

inadequate access to dedicated high band-width communications in the post-secondarysector; domestic shortages of skills and theprofessional development to address the lackof understanding of the technology.

1 60 Virtual Education Institutions in Australia

1 G 3

Lack of high-quality, locally generated onlinecontent, applications, and services.

EdNA called for "co-ordinated action toaddress the key roadblocks," saying that in theeducation and training sector, this must involveactions by governments:

Commonwealth, state, and territory govern-

ments must commit the necessary resources

to remove the impediments to effective par-

ticipation in the information economy by the

education and training sector. This will re-

quire both readjustments of funding priori-

ties and additional funding commitments.In order to ensure that these resources areused effectively a national plan of action must

be developed to provide a high level strategic

focus for activities across the sector.

The July statement followed the earlier re-lease (December 1997) of the Australian Gov-ernment's policy document "Investing forGrowth" which Prime Minister John Howardproclaimed a major step in ensuring the countrycould make the most of the opportunities of-fered by the 21" century. Education and trainingwas one of four sectors identified in that docu-ment as a major focus in the endeavour to "getAustralia online" (the others being government,community, and business).

Education and training (at school, TAFE, anduniversity levels) was to be targeted as an "essen-tial foundation to create a workforce with the req-uisite skills" to compete in the informationeconomy. Measures announced included an analysisof current ICT skills of school students, $600,000for a community access pilot project to introducethe education community to the uses of technol-ogy in education in rural and solo- economicallydisadvantaged areas, and the donation of surplusgovernment ICT products to schools.

There can be no argument with the notion thataccess to ICT and information and technologyliteracy skills needs to be provided to workers andstudents. However, this document appeared to

situate the need for these skills solely in terms ofthe dollar benefits they are likely to bring the com-munity. There is no discussion of pedagogical orlearner-led need for such change.

However, both documents are consistent withstated government objectives to get Australian edu-cation online and to move funding away from tra-ditional "bricks and mortar" institutions. The pref-erence expressed is for virtual, online, or technol-ogy-dependent education solutions, preferably of-fered in cross-sectoral collaborative ventures involv-

ing various post-secondary institutions and industrypartners, and delivering to a global market.

In the MakingOne difficulty with analysis of the state of vir-tual education in Australia is that developmentsare ongoing. While there may be no clearly de-fined virtual institutions apparent at present, anumber of institutions and projects are workingtowards that aim. It is appropriate, then, to con-sider some projects "in the making," which areat various stages of the virtualisation continuum.

ASIASPACE

The AsiaSpace Trials Project appears to holdconsiderable promise for those nations and or-ganisations for which heavy bandwidth, telecom-munications, and electricity-intensive technologyoptions are problematic. Ironically, its support-ers report great difficulty in interesting Australiancontent providers in the project because it is nottechnologically intensive or interactive enough.

The project involves the use of AsiaSpace, apoint-to-point multi-point satellite service, whichhas the capacity to deliver data to fixed andmobile locations in remote regions withoutpower or phone. The wireless broadcast systemoperates through the use of the satellite and low-cost, transistor radio-sized digital receivers withexternal antenna (audio only) and a PC adaptor(data and multimedia services). The system is

Virtual Education Institutions in Australia 161

169

specifically designed to deliver services to homes,buildings, and vehicles in areas with traditionallypoor access to traditional broadcasting and tel-

ecommunications infrastructure.The Australian trial, due to get underway af-

ter the satellite is launched in mid-1999, involvesa collaboration of industry (Asia Space andWorld Space), educational providers (MurdochUniversity, South Metropolitan College ofTAFE), research groups (Centre for InternationalResearch in Communications and InformationTechnologies), and government bodies (Officeof Information and Communications, Depart-ment of Commerce and Trade, Regional De-velopment Commissions). The trial will involvethe creation of distributed virtual classrooms inremote areas of Western Australia (including in-digenous communities, remote islands and minesites, rural fishing communities, remote house-holds, and ships at sea). For the purposes of thetrial, the technology will be used to deliver someuniversity courses into Asia. Educational contentwill be provided from the TAFE and MurdochUniversity partners, along with radio broadcastservices and a virtual edition of The Land, a na-tionally distributed rural issues based newspaper.

ADMISSIONS DATABASE

In support of calls for greater national studentmobility by the federal department responsiblefor university (but not TAFE) funding, the state-based tertiary admissions centres plan to assem-ble a Web database of national subjects andcourses and hot-link course information to othercourses across the country (The Australian HES,October 28, 1998, p. 37).

VIRTUAL TAFEAs stated previously, Victoria has become oneof the most advanced states in Australia in thedevelopment of the new technologies and hasbeen in the forefront of linking its educational

1 62 Virtual Education Institutions in Australia

establishments via communications technology.Its planned TAFE Online 2001 project, rep-

resenting some 30 TAFE colleges as well as pri-vate providers, will be a Web-based campus(TAFEVC) catering for external students outsideVictoria, including overseas. The system is de-signed to allow students to choose a course, en-rol, access materials, join discussion groups, andsubmit assignments. Per subject costs would beidentical to on-campus costs ($40 per subject).

A limited number of course materials havebeen developed at this stage in Business Studies,Hospitality, and Electronics, which are the mostpopular of TAFE's internal courses, and whichhave a high number of students in the workforce,where non-campus based education is an attrac-tive option to employers. Equity and access is-sues are acknowledged through the establishmentof planned learning centres across the state, simi-lar to the QOLN centres in Queensland.

The Education Minister is adamant that theadvent of TAFEVC will not diminish on-cam-pus provision, although on-campus students willbe urged to utilise the system. Mr. Honeywoodsaid, "This is an additional tool intended to putflesh on the bones of the rhetoric about lifelonglearning." Its development, he said, had beendriven by access issues for the disadvantaged andhousebound, although as stated above, employ-ers wanting less down-time for trainees were adriving force as well. The amount of fundingallocated for professional development for staffconstitutes only $2 million (although it was ini-tially reported at a generous $10 million), andonly $4 million has been earmarked for curricu-lum development (Campus Review, October 14-20, 1998, p. 3).

SCHOOLS

In the schools sector, Victoria also appears to beleading the way. A deal was recently announced(Campus Review, October 28November 3 1998,

p. 4) between the Education Department, Acer,and Apple to supply all teachers (including TAFEteachers) with laptops via a lease arrangement withtheir schools for $3 per week, on the provisothat they first undertake 40 hours of training. Acerwill commit up to $15 million a year in Victoriafor research and development into local multi-media applications. In November 1998, 11,000computers were to be delivered in the firsttranche, with science and technology teachers thefirst priority. This is an example of the sort ofprivate-public co-operation we predicted in NewMedia and Borderless Education, and seems likely to

play a major part in staff development and fa-miliarity with new technologies.

In Queensland, central departmental initiativesinclude ConnectEd, designed to allow all primaryand secondary state schools Internet access bythe end of 1999. This will necessarily involve sub-sidies for telecommunications costs, as many re-mote schools are disadvantaged by STD chargesto the nearest ISP provider. Currently, the ma-jority of students have only one-hour-a-weekaccess to a computer in the classroom becauseof the shortage of computers and large num-bers in classes.

Most state education departments are planningon a ratio of one computer to five pupils at highschool and one to ten at primary level by 2002.

UNIVERSITIES

The University of Southern Queensland (USQ)is one of several regional universities with an ex-isting strong distance education provision to de-cide on a future as an online institution. Othersinclude Central Queensland University, CharlesSturt, and Monash, although none of these ex-pects to be solely online.

USQ has high expectations of its improvedexternal computer interface throughUSQConnect, and its use of FarSite, anaudiographics system replacing SMART 2000,

capable of delivering via the Internet (seewww.databeam.com). In November 1998, USQ'scommercial arm, INDELTA, received $200,000from the federal government to launch a virtualcampus initiative that would provide Web-basedcourse delivery in Australia and overseas (CampusReview, November 18-24 1998, p. 4). The virtualcampus is to be set up through a company callede-HIGHERed. Campus Review reported USQwould become the first Australian university tobecome a shareholder, with a 25% stake in thecompany, and that seven other Australian uni-versities were negotiating with e-HIGHERed.

USQ Vice-Chancellor Peter Swannell saidUSQ would put 50 to 100 units on the Web in1999, targeting full-fee paying overseas studentsand fee-paying postgraduate Australian students.Swannell predicted modest enrolments in the vir-tual campus of 100 to 200 students in first se-mester 1999, and possible enrolments over thenext three years of up to 2,500 students. In thesame week, three USQ students graduated overthe Internet (in an online ceremony) after com-pleting a graduate certificate totally online. Thestudents, two from Kuala Lumpur and one fromToowoomba, were the first to complete theInternet-based Graduate Certificate in Open andDistance Learning. About 300 students are cur-rently enrolled in the course.

TELECOMMUNICATIONS

The major telecommunications corporations inAustralia are focusing on core business and atleast one, Cable and Wireless Optus, is now ap-proaching all educational sectors with a view tobuying content for their cable carrier. Optus hasapproached all Australian universities, TAFEs, andschools in a bid to establish a relaunched educa-tion channel to operate from March 1999, from10 a.m. to 8 p.m., with Australian content. Thechannel will be bundled free with the Disney chan-nel and others. Optus intends to put only three

Virtual Education Institutions in Australia 1 63

171

hours of U.S.-sourced education material on thischannel, and it is looking for partners in devel-oping Australian material.

Last WordsPerhaps, as suggested by Professor Tony Adams,director of Macquarie University's internationalcentre, "Australia will be the home of the firstglobal or regional universities." However, ratherthan being a virtual institution based on electronicdelivery, Adams reportedly argues that the emerg-ing global and regional university would be a"bricks and mortar" institution in which the vir-tual university will be an important part (CampusReview, October 7-13, 1998, p. 4). Regardless ofwhether or not government and institutional as-pirations of global markets will be realised,Adams' model appears to be the most accuratein describing the current state of virtualisation inAustralian education and training.

ReferencesAtkinson, R. Murdoch Online: Preparing an Infrastructure for

Virtual Campus Operations, Ascilite Conference,December 7-10 1997. (www.curtin.edu.au/confer-ence/ ascilite97/ papers' Atkinson)

Baron, J., Thiele, D. & Hintz, E. (1995) Following the YellowBrick Road- Implementation and Evaluation of Flex-ible Learning Systems at the Tea Tree Gab, Campus

of Torrens Valley Institute of TAPE, NCVER, Ad-

elaide.

Barker, J.M., ed. Learning Together: Collaboration in Open Learn-

ing. Proceedings, International Conference, Perth,Australia, 1998.

Cunningham, S., Tapsall, S., Ryan, Y., Stedman, L., Bagdon,K. & Flew, T. New Media and Borderless Education:A Review of the Convergence Between Global Media

Providers and Higher Education Provision. AGPS:Canberra, 1998.

Fiddes, Tony. Manager, Qantas College Developments. Con-versation with author, November 27, 1998.

Healy, G. "E-mail links search," The Australian, November18, 1998, p. 44.

Holt, P. and R. Japanangka. "Mixed-Mode Delivery ofHealth and Education Services in the TanamiDesert Region of the Northern Territory" inBarker, J.M., ed. Learning Together: Collaboration inOpen Learning. Proceedings, International Con-ference, Perth, Australia, 1998.

King, B. "The Australian Open Learning InstituteNewdirections for higher education?" ASPESA Pa-pers, No 12, pp.7-15.

Nipper, S. "Third Generation Distance Learning and Com-puter Conferencing," in Mindweave: Communica-tion, Computers and Distance Education, 1989.

Spencer, M. "Regionals Link Up for IT Network," TheAustralian, Wednesday, July 1, 1998.

Taylor, J. Perspectives on the Educational Uses of TechnologyToowoomba: University of Southern Queens-land, 1996.

Warner, D., G. Christie, and S. Choy. The Readiness of theVET Client for Flexible Delivery, 1998.(www.worklearningarorskillcom.au accessed Septem-

ber 1998)

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

164 Virtual Education Institutions in Australia

17 2

re in the Virtual Delivery of

ca i,p in New Zealand and the

Pacific Islands

Introduction

DR. LALITA RAJASINGHAM

New Zealand and the Pacific Islands are like everycountry in the world, finding that the key to theirfuture economic advancement and cultural in-tegrity depends on the way their people are edu-cated. At the same time advances in informationtechnology has a great impact on all aspects ofour professional and private lives, changing theway we learn, do business, bank, shop, and play.Increasingly, society is global and digital in na-ture, and the key to socio-economic growth andsuccess will be education based on telecommu-nications-networked environments.

The dilemma all societies face is that their edu-cation systems are designed to meet the needs ofthe industrial society of the past, not of the com-ing information society. We are preparing peoplefor jobs, ideas, and values of a way of life that isfading away and for work in areas of shrinkinglabour requirements. What is needed is effective,cost-efficient instruction that matches the skills re-lated to technological change, delivered interac-tively, at the convenience of the learner. This isdistance education using new communications andinformation technologies (ICT) virtual classesso that no matter where people live, they can ac-cess education anytime, from anywhere. Equita-ble access means access to quality teachers andcontent to ensure effective learning outcomes.

What kind of education system is needed toprepare people for life in an information soci-ety? What will be the shape of education in thefuture? It is the search for answers that promptedJohn Tiffin and I to write our book in 1995, InSearch of the Virtual Class: Education in an Informa-

tion Society. (Routledge, 1995) in which these ques-tions are explored more fully.

In this report, I examine the status of thisnew mode of delivery of education in NewZealand and the Pacific Islands. I argue that edu-cation is communication and I use the followingbenchmark, building on Lev Vygotsky's conceptof the Zone of Proximal Development(Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky specifies three fac-tors in the educational process:

1. Someone in the role of learner

2. Someone in the role of teacher

3. Something that constitutes a problem whichthe learner is trying to solve with the help ofthe teacher

By implication there is also a fourth factor:the knowledge needed to solve the problem. Isuggest that it is the interaction of these four fac-tors in a particular context that constitutes thefundamental communication process that is edu-cation. The virtual delivery of education is wherethe four factors of education can interact, usingICT to deliver the spoken word, written word,

Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education in New Zealand and the Pacific Islands 1 65

1r3

and pictures in different locations. This is the com-munications environment that must be providedby a virtual institution.

New Zealand and the South Pacific share theglobal problem of the lack of equitable access toquality educational opportunity. We also have ourown geographic, demographic, socio-economic,and cultural challenges. Isolation from the rest ofthe world is a major factor. Although the new in-formation technology has eliminated the barriersof distance and time, access to technology con-tinues to dog small island nations in the Pacificand, to a lesser extent, rural New Zealand. Amongthe critical issues are telecommunications penetra-tion, tariff structures, lack of government fund-ing, and no coherent ICT and education policies.

The region is one of great geographic, cul-tural, linguistic, political, and economic diversity,and the traditional dichotomy of developing anddeveloped economies is becoming a less usefulconcept when considering the particular issues ofvirtual education. All societies are facing the needto adapt to rapid change brought about by ICTadvancements, and no society, even the so-calleddeveloped ones, can justifiably claim that all sec-tors have equal access to the necessary technology.

Without access to technology, people are de-nied the capacity to build and develop humanresources, a critical component of which is edu-cation and training opportunities. Disenfranchise-ment is a universal condition and women, indig-enous peoples, and other minorities in this re-gion are the most vulnerable.

New ZealandNew Zealand is one of the most deregulatedeconomies in the world, and this is especially re-flected in the telecommunications industry. How-ever, its market-driven philosophy and the lackof coherent education and ICT policies has re-sulted in a serious deficiency in its ability to re-spond to the urgent need for educational reform.

While New Zealand has one of the highest percapita telecommunications access in the devel-oped world, and the highest proportion ofInternet users, educational institutions and schools(primary, secondary, and tertiary) seriously lackaccess to ICT. In an increasingly user-pay envi-ronment, and with the stringent cuts in govern-ment funding, educational institutions can simplynot afford ICT.

While many institutions have centrally admin-istered e-mail, the management infrastructure tointegrate ICT into curriculum is not present.However, there are a few departments in uni-versities (e.g., in the Department of Communi-cations at Victoria University, Wellington) where,with the help of industry, they have been research-ing, developing, and piloting online courses since1995, using the Internet.

CURRENT EXAMPLES OF VIRTUAL

EDUCATION

There are two reasons for educational institutionsto use technology:

1. To offer instruction as effective and as highquality as the conventional classroom

2. To give access to educational opportunitiesto more people than is possible with currenteducation systems, and therefore, to do socost efficiently (in terms of unit costs).

Some examples of the application of tech-nology in educational institutions in New Zea-land are described here.

UNIVERSITY SECTOR

University of Wellington: My colleague, Profes-

sor John Tiffin, and I in the Department ofCommunications Studies have been research-ing and teaching the application of ICT toeducation and training since 1986. We havepublished internationally, and have pioneeredthe implementation of virtual classes, virtualuniversities, and virtual learning organisations

166 Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education in New Zealand and the Pacific Islands

17 4

on the Internet. We offer master's and doc-

torates in communications studies designedto equip New Zealand with a cadre of pro-fessionals in an increasingly competitive en-vironment. The master's of communicationsis offered on the Internet nationally (and inthe near future internationally) using cost-effective platforms and software (Talk Showand Vphone), providing synchronous andasynchronous seminars.

However, Victoria University, like alluniversities in New Zealand (except forMassey University), is a single-mode, face-to-face institution. Although there is an in-creasing effort to offer courses off-cam-pus (mainly through audio-conferencing,face-to-face block courses, and video-conferencing via the Internet), the mainthrust of such approaches is restricted toparticular schools and departments. Theseinitiatives rely on "champions" of the causewhose efforts to inspire colleagues is of-ten very hard going in an economicallypunitive environment.

Massey University is a dual-mode institution,with a larger enrolment in their off-campuscourses than on-campus. However, themode of delivery is mainly correspondenceand attendance at block courses, and since1992, a limited number of courses on edu-cational television. However, Massey is cur-rently exploring the use of multimedia andWeb-based technologies in the area of openand flexible learning, For Massey, these de-velopments are important because they willallow their courses to be electronically de-livered at its other campuses. Waikato Uni-versity and Massey University are pilotingmulti-campus teaching using computer net-works, particularly ATM, to provide tele-presence in off-campus sites.

Open Polytechnic of New Zealand is New Zea-

land's first and only distance education (sin-gle-mode) tertiary institution. Since its incep-tion in 1946 (named the New Zealand Tech-nical Correspondence Institute) it has beenprint- and postal-based. In 1992, the Insti-tute became the Open Polytechnic and soughtto move into a computer-based environ-ment. At present, about 40% of its coursesare on disks and mailed to students, and theOpen Polytechnic is gradually moving into anetworked environment.

The Wellington Polytechnic has established theEducational New Media Centre to spear-head the use of new media to improve andinnovate open flexible learning initiatives fordifferent learning styles in the polytechnicsector.

While all tertiary institutions are acutely awareof the need to incorporate ICT into learning,teaching, administration, and management sub-systems, they lack trained staff, adequate finance,technology, and support systems, and most im-portantly, a vision, strategic thinking, and cham-pions of the cause. While there are pockets ofdevelopment, there is also a lack of co-ordina-tion and collaboration among the universities aseach institution competes with the others forgovernment funding, which is predominantlybased on the number of bodies on seats.

SCHOOLS SECTOR

The school sector faces similar issues in trying tointegrate technology into curricula in a holisticand culturally appropriate manner. While theMinister of Education is committed to ensuringthat schools are funded for ICT, the $4.6 millionover three years for nearly 3,000 schools in NewZealand is grossly inadequate. The Ministry hasrecently launched the technology-in-schoolsproject where four clusters of five schools eachthat have progressed in integrating technology in

Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education in New Zealand and the Pacific Islands 167

175

curricula will mentor other schools that do nothave these skills. If efficiently executed, this projectcould be very useful in disseminating ICT skillsto all schools and facilitating teacher training inthe use of technology.

The school sector appears to be more en-trepreneurial than the tertiary sector, althoughall educational institutions at all levels are begin-ning to realise that if they do not make the moveto integrate technology in curricula, the qualityof education in this country will be seriouslyjeopardised.

Maori education: In 1993, I was commissioned

by the Ministry of Maori Development (TePuni Kokiri) to develop a project that lookedat the use of ICT for Maori education in thepredominantly Maori population living inrural East Cape in New Zealand. The ob-jective was to link the largest Maori School,Ngata Memorial College with 1,500 studentsto international and national databases andexpert teachers in Physics, Chemistry, andMathematics for Forms 6 and 7. Because ofthe few students in these classes, it was ex-tremely difficult to retain teachers in the area.In short, my brief was to ensure that ruralMaori students would be able to access thesame quality of education available to thecity-based students, in a culturally appropri-ate way. This project was very successful andlinked three schools, the marae (meetinghouse) and Wananga (higher education insti-tute) in a 600-kilometre area. The audio-graphic conferencing system that we haddesigned, tested, and used at Victoria Uni-versity was extended to link most Maorischools from the north and south islands,which lead to the birth of the "clustering"concept.

Telecom New Zealand, who sponsoredthe project, adopted the research and estab-lished the IT Schools Education section.

Telecom has sponsored a number of ITschools competitions, which has lead to sev-eral school clusters gaining funding for com-puters and telecommunications infrastructures.

The Cantatech Project is a notable initiative inNew Zealand involving a group of ruralschools in Canterbury (South Island) thatcaptured the vision of the virtual class andactively planned to make it a reality. Theproject enabled students to have remote ac-cess to specialists, teachers to provide effec-tive learning over the telephone, businessesto deliver affordable, stable, and easy-to-usetechnologies, and government to encourageschools to explore new models of learning.Those involved are pioneers who are suc-cessfully reaching out to settlers and sharingexperiences in tele-learning with all NewZealand schools.

The Correspondence School was founded in 1922

to service New Zealand's dispersedpopulations. It was correspondence basedand was supplemented by school radiobroadcasts. It provided vital and effectiveschooling, not only for New Zealanders liv-ing in isolated communities but also, in the1980s, for over 600 students in the PacificIslands. Essentially, parents took charge ofthe teaching based on the CorrespondenceSchool lessons delivered by the postal sys-tem. Periodically, a Correspondence Schoolregional teacher would visit the homesteadto advise and monitor the process.

In order to ensure its future, the Corre-spondence School is involved in exploringtele-learning and has used CD-ROMS, vid-eos, and disks and has even explored the useof broadcast satellite. (Land line telecommu-nication is not an economical option in themostly mountainous areas of the Corre-spondence School constituents.) However,

1 68 Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education in New Zealand and the Pacific Islands

gib

the demographics have changed and haveaffected the Correspondence School's origi-nal mandate. Increasingly, the dropouts ofconventional classrooms, the truants, the"difficult" children, and the adult dropoutsseeking a second chance education make upthe school's enrolees.

There is another problem. In the 1990s,New Zealand faced its most severe unem-ployment ever. Many people, through ne-cessity or choice, moved to rural areas.Eighty percent of Correspondence Schoolchildren in rural areas (1998) live with a soloparent. Not only are resources to technol-ogy scarce, there is often not the supportof a skilled parent to provide the motiva-tion and discipline so needed for distanceeducation. Later this year, the Correspond-ence School year will be reviewed byministerial audit as part of the future ofdistance education schooling.

Pacific IslandsIn the Pacific Islands, the most significant pro-vider of virtual delivery of education is the Ex-tension Unit of the University of the South Pa-cific (USP) in Suva, Fiji. It has had this role ofproviding distance and continuing education sincethe 1980s. The formal higher education pro-grammes were delivered face to face either withstudents from the 12 island states physically at-tending classes in Suva or with instructors visit-ing the centres.

Since the late 1980s, USP has used a satellitenetwork (USPNet) that links five centres:Lautoka, Fiji; Cook Islands; Tonga; Vanuatu; andSamoa, to the Suva studio. Samoa is patched invia high frequency radio, and the link is used forweekly administration meetings and point-to-point sessions between two people on request.

ICT is increasingly used for data transmission andenrolments are logged in at five centres anddownloaded in Suva. Suva staff provide basictraining for staff at the centres by "talking themthrough" various problems associated with thesatellite link. (All satellite discussion is audio only.)

MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT, PRODUCTION,

AND DISTRIBUTION

The section responsible for design and develop-ment communications with the course writers atthe two campuses in Samoa and Vanuatu ismainly by point-to-point discussion or teamteleconferencing. Increasingly, draft attachmentsare exchanged through e-mail. Similarly, somecourses (drafts and manuscripts) developed inSuva are sent electronically, and in the near futurevideos will be included in the courses. Effortsare being made to move into multimedia in thenear future.

Management and administration communi-cations within University Extension and the pro-duction and distribution are becoming fully corn-puterised.

DELIVERY AND TUITION

The four time zones and two sides of the date-line in the region present significant challenges.Satellite tutorials are held up to 7 p.m. on Tues-days to Fridays, and on Mondays for studentson the same dateline as Fiji. However, publictransport being very limited in the evening, stu-dents find it a serious problem attending the cen-tres. A few courses are beginning to use CD-ROM and the Internet.

The most significant operation is the assign-ment traffic, with daily assignments from 12 cen-tres. A specially designed programme is used tolog in and out and to track the movement of theassignments, and to monitor the turnaroundtimes of marked assignments.

Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education in New Zealand and the Pacific Islands 1 69

,11 i7

CAREER COUNSELLING AND STUDENT

SUPPORT

A beginning is being made to use the studentrecord systems to counsel students, although ca-reer counselling is usually done at the centres.E-mail and satellite are used to communicatewith students. It is proposed to have video-conferencing facilities in the year 2000 with thenew standalone satellite network (funded by thegovernments of Australia, Japan, and New Zea-land). This will provide voice, video, anddatacommunications in a dedicated system.

EDUCATION FOCUS

Most courses are degree level, provided off andon campus. Two courses are offered at Forms 6and 7 using study packages. A few certificate anddiploma courses are offered for teachers, as wellas some continuing (non-credit) programmestailored to specific needs (e.g., computer aware-ness, creative writing, arts and crafts).

ConclusionTransport technologies provided the infrastruc-ture for conventional classrooms and traditionaldistance education, and telecommunications net-works will provide the infrastructure for virtualeducation. The virtual class can provide effec-tive, cost-efficient learning opportunities to morepeople than is possible in the conventional class-room or by traditional distance education basedon print and transportation technologies.

New Zealand and the Pacific Islands are wellaware of the need for a paradigm shift in educa-tion delivery, but are grappling with the world-wide problem of a lack of resources to provideequitable access to information technology. Morespecifically, the following issues must be faced:

A policy for ICT in education: Tariffs andcost categories for off-campus and on-cam-pus delivery of education.

Pedagogy: Teacher training in the use of tech-

nology; instructional design and develop-ment; teacher and student support.

Institutional change: Allocation of funds forthe new pedagogy; vision for the virtual class;a shift in institutional culture in a competitiveenvironment; commercialisation of educa-tion (i.e., who will pay?).

Accreditation of courses.

Technological challenges: Hardware, softwarecompatibility issues; training and maintenance;

bandwidth; ongoing technical support; ac-cess to the technology (equity issues).

Culture (remembering that there are manydiverse paths to the development of virtualinstitutions).

Intellectual property rights and technologi-cal proprietary rights: Who owns the courses?Will implementation be stalled because ofproprietary rights of technology?

ReferencesTiffin, J.W. and L. Rajasingham. In Search of the Virtual

Class: Education in are Information Society. Londonand New York: Routledge. 1995.

Vygotsky, L.S. Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MITPress. 1962.

. Mind in Society: The Development of the Higher Pycho-

logical Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni-versity Press, 1978.

170 Trends in the Virtual Delivery of Education in New Zealand and the Pacific Islands

U.S. Department of EducationOffice of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI)

National Library of Education (NLE)Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)

REPRODUCTION RELEASE(Specific Document)

I. DOCUMENT IDENTIFICATION:

ERIC

WIC Pe A'40 nteft, 0-"f #414 ( Qucati 0 p,

alc,1 diAuthor(s): pfr-. Giber. Fq Nrell 5 /Let 4), Ve an. Lee v ant_ Fe( or .

Title:

Corporate Source:

1-4 e rnysi ofrgde /71.4 0( 6a p.m /

II. REPRODUCTION RELEASE:

Publication Date:

/ 977

In order to disseminate as widely as possible timely and significant materials of interest to the educational community, documents announced irc themonthly abstract journal of the ERIC system, Resources in Education (RIE), are usually made available to users in microfiche, reproduced paper copy,and electronic media, and sold through the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS). Credit is given to the source of each document, and, ifreproduction release is granted, one of the following notices is affixed to the document.

If permission is granted to reproduce and disseminate the identified document, please CHECK ONE of the following three options and sign at the bottomof the page.

The sample sticker shown below will beaffixed to all Level 1 documents

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE ANDDISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS

BEEN GRANTED BY

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

Level 1

Check here for Level 1 release, permittingreproduction and dissemination In microfiche or other

ERIC archival media (e.g., electronic) and papercopy.

Signhere,-)please

The sample sticker shown below will beaffixed to all Level 2A documents

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE ANDDISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL IN

MICROFICHE, AND IN ELECTRONIC MEDIAFOR ERIC COLLECTION SUBSCRIBERS ONLY,

HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

2A

\e)

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

Level 2A

Check here for Level 2A release, permittingreproduction and dissemination in microfiche and in

electronic media for ERIC archival collectionsubscribers only

The sample sticker shown below will beaffixed to all Level 2B documents

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE ANDDISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL IN

MICROFICHE ONLY HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

2B

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

Level 2B

Check here for Level 2B release, permittingreproduction and dissemination in microfiche only

Documents will be processed as indicated provided reproduction quality permits.If permission to reproduce is granted, but no box is checked, documents will be processed at Level 1.

I hereby grant to the Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) nonexclusive permission to reproduce and disseminate this documentas indicated above. Reproduction from the ERIC microfiche or electronic media by persons other than ERIC employees and its systemcontractors requires permission from the copyright holder. Exception is made for non-profit reproduction by libraries and other service agenciesto satisfy information needs of educators in response to discrete inquiries.

Signature:

Co wt. AA aim- wadi .4 Leak 4,--f2-7 s-- ar04 eitvoye VG ra o v

WA/ --ge

Printed Name/Position/Title:

Dave 01/1-0).. Co isimmx;c44.5 flormq 0.

E.76,14:is-oh _,c0/.

'rose/ 7-75 - sak),Date: ictit7TOF

I