ED 128 305

DOCUMENT RESUME

95 SP 010 377

AUTHOR Duke, Daniel L.TITLE Our Focus on Teaching Needs a Wide-Angle Lens:

Consider Extra-School Teaching. Teacher EducationForum; Volume 4, Number 10..

INSTITUTION Indiana Univ., Bloomington. School of Education.SPONS AGENCY Bureau of Educational Personnel Development

(DHEW/OE), Washington, D.C.PUB DATE May 76GRANT OEG-0-72-0492-725NOTE 13p.; For related documents, see SP 010 368-388

EDRS PRICE'DESCRIPTORS

ABSTRACT

MF-$0.83 HC-$1.67 Plus Postage.Conventional Instruction; *Educational Alternatives;*Educational Innovation; *Educational Theories;*Instructional Design; Preservice Education; *TeacherEducation Curriculum; Teacher Educators; TeachingMethods; *Teaching Models; Teaching Techniques

Today educators are finding the public turning ingreater numbers to alternative forms of instruction, includingTranscendental Meditation, apprenticeship, and consciousness-raisinggroups. This paper attempts to (1) map out the "universe" ofinstruction, going beyond the frontier of public elementary andsecondary teaching to consider other variants and (2) to investigatethe desirability of including examples of "extra school" teaching inthe preservice and inservice education of teachers. The discussionoffers an analysis of what qualifies as teaching; types of teachingincluding ten general classifications, their primary function, andexamples of each. A brief review of one example of extra schoolteaching--teaching archery, Zen style--is presented to illustrate thepotential value to teachers in training of a broadened perspective onteaching. Eight categories of teaching in public schools that wouldbe improved by the consideration of "extra school" teaching arepresented as illustration. (JMF)

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Our Focus on Teaching Needs a Wide-Angie Lens:

Consider Extra-School Teaching

division of teacher education323 education buildingindiana universitybloomington, indiana 47401

ley 1976

DANIEL L. DUKE

Volume 4 NuMber 10

4

The bugle sounds and 300 young recruits get dressed and stagger out tothe parade ground for early morning drill. A solitary archer pa-s his re-spects to the aged master and practices drawing a six-foot bow. A group

of drug addicts gulp great quantities of coffee and "rap" through the nightabout how they got "hooked."

What do these three situations have in common? Two things. Each repre-

sents an Instructional encounter in which teaching and learning occur, and

each is rarely, if ever, studied in the context of teacher education.

Today educators are finding the public turning in greater numbers toalternative forms cf instruction, including Transcendental Meditation,apprenticeship, and consciousness raising groups. my present concerns are

1) to map out the "universe" of instruction, going beyond the frontier ofpublic elementary and secondary teaching to consider other variants and 2)to investigate the desirability of including examples of "extra-school"

teaching in the pre-service and in-service education of teachers.

What Qualifies as Teaching?

Programs in teacher education have been accused of too narrow a focus

on teaching for several reasons. Social scientists argue that teachereducators treat teaching and learning as if they took place in a vacuum.Schools are not bell jars. They point to the ft that education reflectsand is a product of a society and is inrluenced by groups and institutionsin that society.

Teacher educators and those who do research on teachers also are reputedto ignore those learnings and interactions that occur in school, but not in

classrooms. Despite their pervasive influence on students, extra- or co-curricular activities rarely merit a special course in college or thescrutiny of a researcher. In a similar sense, the "hidden" curriculum --what students learn that they are not expected to learn -- is neglected byall but a handful of educators.

Recently, more attention has been devoted to the study of extra-curricularactivities, the "hidden" curriculum, and the social context in which schools

exist. Still remaining outside the purview of most teacher education programsand research on teaching, however, has been teaching not found in elementaryand secondary schools. What can be said of "extra-school" examples of teach-

ing?

To help conceptualize teaching in its many forms, I employ a typologybased on the primary intended function of the teaching. Naturally, a par-

ticular type of teaching may be characterized by numerous intended, as wellas real, functions, but in general a primary function can be specified.

For the purposes of the present typology, I do not distinguish between

DANIEL L. JUKE is an assistant professor of teacher education at StanfordUniversity.

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secondary functions or, for that matter, between teaching and training.Often the latter two exist side-by-side, as in the case of a high schoolin which are found driver training and citizenship traini2g, 3 well asthe teaching of mathematics and science.

I envisage ten basic types of teaching, each with a L or of varia-tions based on factors such as the age of the learner, geog ohical loca-tion, the length of time required for in_Aruction, and the L _imate purposeof the instruction. As each type of teaching is listed, the reader mightmake a mental note of those that he encountered in his or her own professionaleducation.

IYPf!_clEas.

General Classification

General Preparatory

Professional Pre-paratory

Vocational Preparatory

Career Development

Skills Development

Primary Function

To prepare persons inthe basic skills ne-d-ed for the pursuit offurther vocational,professional, or lifegoals.

To prepare persons forlicensure and/or cer-tification in areasrequiring extensive post-collegiate educationof a theoretical as wellas a practical nature.

To prepare persons forlicensure, certification,and/or candidacy in areasrequiring extensive prac-tical experience, oftenof a manual nature.

To provide experiencedpersons with continuingeducation or to preparepersons for promotion,qualifying exams, etc.on a short-term basis.

To provide persons witha relatively short-term,intensive training pro-gram in a particular

6

Examples

2 public schoolsK-12 private or

parochial schoolsK-12 alternative

schools (with a fewexceptions)

Early childhood educationAdult basic educationEquivalency progransSpecial compensatory

prograns

Medical schoolLaw school or "readinglaw"

School of EducationArmy or Navy War CollegeArchitecture School

Ballet SchoolApprenticeship programsTraining programs for

pilots, hygienists, etc.On-the-job training or

re-training programs

Cram course for the medicalor law boards

Dale Carnegie courseIn-service workshops andcourses for teachers

Professional conventions,conferences

Public health nursetraining for mothers

Speed reading coursesOutward Bound

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General Classification Primary Function

Recreational

Spiritual

Promotional

Socialization

TherapeuticRehabilitational

skill or set of relatedskills. The objectiveis mastery or competencein the skill.

To provide persons witha pleasant, typicallyshort-term program di-rected toward enjoymentand exploration ratherthan mastery or com-petence.

To provide persons withreflective or intro-spective experiences andinsights that permitthem to see themselvesmore clearly in relationto God, the world, orthe cosmos.

To provide consumers withproduct information in-tended to encourage sales.

To prepare persons forgeneral membership in agroup or community.

To provide persons withinformation and experi-ences designed to corrector compensate for aspecific problem or sourceof conflict.

Examples

Tennis CampBerlitz language programMusic lessonsDriver training courseTeacher Effectiveness

TrainingLamaze childbirth classes

Some adult continuingeducation courses

Playgroups for pre-schoolers

Art courses at mmeumsYMCA/YWCA summer camps

Monastic trainingZen archery instructionor flower arrangement

Weekend religious "retreats"SermonsApprenticeship to a

"person of knowledge"

Department store deron-strations

Some advertisementsDrug salesmen's in-service for physicia--

Confirmation classSunday schoolCitizenship classes forimmigrants

Boys' State/Girls' StatePre-Cana conferences

prior to marriage"Boot camp"College "orientation week"Fraternal initiations

Consciousness raising groupErhard Seminars TrainingSynanon rehabilitatiun

programsWeight WatchersAlcoholics AnonymousCourt-mandated drivereducation for convictedspeeders

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Of the ten types of teaching listed above, only the first is familiarto most teacher educators. In fact, specialization has meant that teachereducators concerned with secondary tenching are largely unaware of currentdevelopments in elementary teaching, and vice versa. A review of the arti-cles in the dournal of Teacher Education from 1970 through 1974 finds onlyfive articles on teaching outside of American public schools. One articledealt with student teaching in a Job Corps center and the other four describedpre-service education in several foreign countries. By way of comparison,there were 67 articles setting out new approaches to or ideas on pre-serviceeducation and 22 articles po_ teaching in urban schools.

Researchers in teacher education manage to focus on some professionaland vocational teaching In addition to preparatory teaching in publicschools, but their effortq are rarely comprehensive or coordinated. Thereis no systematic treatment, tor example, of the effectiveness of individual-ized instruction in public schools, the military, yoga, and apprenticeshipprograms. Until recently, for example, medical educators, agricultureeducators, and military educators functioned in separate worlds. There havebeen a few attempts at cross-fertilization in the past few years, though.Teacher educators have experimented with adaptations of the agriculturalextension agent. Largely derived from technical instruction and researchin the military, behavioral objectives and task analysis have gained inpopularity. Medical and military educators now are joining the AmericanEducational Research Association in numbers sufficient to justify theformation of Special Interest Groups (this trend may not aid the cause ofcross-fertilization, however).

I do not wish to imply that the primary concern of teacher educatorsshould be teaching that occurs outside the sphere of public preparatoryeducation. I am mLLely suggesting that teacher educators and those who doresearch on teaching should devote some time and effort to the study ofextra-school teaching in order to gain perspective on their major area ofinterest. It is all too easy to remain "adjustment-oriented," holding toa course of practicality and least resistance by preparing teachers toview teaching in a single, prescribed way. An appreciation of instructionalmethods in extra-school settings could provide the imaginative spark somany educators complain is lacking. A few pioneering programs already exist,but mor:.. are needed. At Cornell University, George Basner's "Art of Teach-ihg" course presents filns of teachaing in a variety of contc s includingballet -md mclern dance. The sheer aesthetics of teaching momentarilyreplaces concern with efficiency, effectiveness, and economy. At Stanford'sGraduate School of Education, Jack Bock offers a course in "Alternative andNon-formal Systems of Education." Emphasis is placed on non-Western teach-ing. In addition, I offer a course entitled "Images of the Teacher andTeaching" which focuses on the role of the teacher in different societiesand in a variety of situations, ranging from a yoga class for out-a'1-shapesuburbanites to an interchange between a medicine man and his young apprentice.Indiana University provides unique programs for those interested in alterna-tive school teaching. In each case mentioned, teaching is seen as a humanenterprise occurring elsewhere besides public school and college classrooms.

Teaching Arche , Zen-qtyle

By briefly reviewing one example uf extra-school teaching, I hope toillustrate the potential value to teachers-in-training of a broadened

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perspective their chosen profession. I hope to suggest that those whodo research on teaching also might profit from a wider focus.

Eugen Herrigel wrote Zen ana "Zen in the Art of Archery" after hehad undergone extensive training in Japan.1 His brief, but classic de-scription shows how he initially sought instruction in we philosophy ofZen, only to discover that no master would accept him as a student. In-stead, he was counseled as a foreigner to approach Zen indirectly byfirst learning the art of archery. Archery, in the language of RobertGagne, becomes prerequisite learning in the study of Zen philosophy. InJapan archery is inten,ed to serve no function other than the aesthetic.The objective hardly could be termed "behavioral." Rather than hitting abullseye or killing game, the archel. strives to become one with the arrow.Archer and target no longer are opposing forces.

From the very onset of his instruction, Herrigel experienced teachingin a much different form than it is found in conventional classrooms. Ofcourse, he had sought his master. No compulsion to be taught existed.Masters are selective in their "admissions" policies. They refuse to teachthose who are "merely curious." Herrigel had to appear sincere, but notover-zealous. What would a public school teacher give for a student whowas "curious" or "over-zealous"?

Some teacher educators might stop reading here and offer the observa-tion that the problem of motivating students does not exist for the archerymaster. Students seek him out. Hence, archery instruction has littlerelevance for pre-service teacher education. For years, such reasoninghas resulted in our virtual ignorance of what goes on in private and paro-chial schools, speed reading courses, therapeutic settings, confidence-building programs, and a host of other educational operations.

If the non-compulsory nature of archery instruction were not atypicalenough, consider the underlying premise of archery instruction. Mastersbelieve man is a thinking animal, but that his greatest works do not re-sult from methodical reasoning or calculation. Are the masters seekingto teach non-thought? Or insight? I am afraid it sounds like it.

In case a few teacher educators have stuck with me this far, it mightbe comforting to realize that a "competent" master is considered absolutelyessential for archery instruction. Before fans of competency based teachereducation and performance objectives register yet another possible applica-tion of their techniques, it should be noted that competence is understoodby the master to mean perfection. The master must model correct physicaland spiritual conduct, lest his student be unable to visualize the ultimategoal of instruction. This goal defies simple description. It does notlend itself to expression in terms of behavioral objectives, skills, com-petencies, or even expressive object!mes. The goal of archery instructionis simply to prepare the student for further efforts aimed ultimately atthe annihilation of everything that is the student's. At this point,archery instruction and Marine "boot camp" might seem similar. In fact,

1The account of the archery instruction is taken from Eugen Herrigel'sZen (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964).

9

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both systematically attempt to tear down the learner's previous beliefsand habits and rebuild him in a new image. Both attack this task by makingcertain that the student will fail and fail repeatedly (William Glassernotwithstanding), thus losing faith in his traditional coping mechanisms.Strong dependence on the judgment of the drill instructor or the masterensues. All talk of personal progress or selfish goals is replaced byan almost inexplicable brand of selflessness, of caring but not caring.Obviously the comparison has limitations. It is significant to note, how-ever, that both types of teaching value the constructiveness of failureand the relationship between the expert and the novice.

Herrigel provides a fascinating description of his six years oi some-times frustrating, sometimes exhilerating training. From the first daythe master closely scrutinized his handling of the bow, a process ofcourteous correction of attitudes and unswerving patience was set in motion.The student's attitude toward the task at hand was considered as importantas the task itself (take note,advocates of affective education). Themaster never failed to be polite nor did he at any time act in a way thatwould suggest he was anything less than a perfect model.

Mention has been made of the importance of failing. The master shunsany effort to bypass failure. He also avoids positive reinforcement andextrinsic rewards. The student must not be motivated by the expectationof praise. He is expected to reach a point of personal frustration whichwill permit him to heed the master's advice. Until this point is reached,the master senses that any advice would be a waste of time and energy. Hechooses only to comment that the archery student is not performing properly.The master, of course, is always willing to demonstrate the current pro-cedure once or twice. Since he is an expert archer, the demonstration in-evitably seems effortless, thus heightening the student's frustrations.Still, no attempt is made to sympathize with the neophyte's plight. Whatwould a humanistic educator say?

The manner in which the master teaches the art of archery might warmthe heart of any advocate of task analysis. The student first learns todraw the bow properly, an exercise that can take many months. Then, howto breathe correctly, nock the arrow, raise the bow, and take aim. Eachtask .ias a special purpose. Correct breathing, for example, teaches thestudent 1.-.ow to concentrate on a task and eliminate peripheral, interferingthoughts. Only at an advanced stage of instruction is the actual dis-patching of the arrow toward a target attempted. Although the studentgets amious to move from one task to the next, the master insists on the"mastery" of each operation.

The master refrains from answering all of the questions a student in-evitably possesses. A sense of mystery and unrequited curiosity is cul-tivated. Eventually the flood of queries cease as the student realizesthat skill will come with practice and that too much curiosity actuallyserves to impede progress.

The student also learns to prepare himself properly for instruction.To do this he need only follow, as in all things, the example of the master.

who hastily gulp a cup of coffee and arrive late for class with aca, indigestion and no plans should take note. In the art of archery,preparation for teaching and learning is an act of importance equal to

10

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teaching and learning. On his way to the lesson, a student begins to con-centrate on purifying his mind and attending to the task ahead. Shunningthe crowded and distracting subway, he might choose to walk to class instead.Meanwhile the master already has begun ta place himself in the proper frameof mind for teaching. Naturally, it helps not to have 45-minute, bell-punctuated periods and classes of 30 students, but these factors do notobviate the importance of mental, physical, and spiritual preparation forteaching in any instructional setting.

Is the teacher of teachers wasting his time studying "exotic" teachingsuch as that practiced by the archery master? Critics always can pointto the unique qualities of Japanese students, to the non-compulsory natureof the instruction, and to.the one-on-one relationship between teacher andstudent. Few would contest the fact that public schools present problemsthat make the master's concerns seem minor by comparison. I contend that,despite the obvious differences in situations, teacher educators and theirstudents :lave much to gain from a study of the archery raster and hismethods.

Previously reference was made to the importance of proper preparationfor teaching. Setting the mind to a single task does not come automatically.Practice is required. The reader might take note of how many differentthoughts are competing with this essay for his attention at this very moment.Recently, educational researchers have spent more time studying the in-fluence of concentration and "attending" behavior. Still, these skillsare much-neglected in American classrooms. The archery master spends agreat deal of time developing the student's ability to concentrate. Repetitionis his fundamental method. Would researchers and teacher educators be well-advised to study yoga, Transcendental Meditation, Zen, and other teachingmethods that concentrate on concentration? I think so.

Other aspects of archery instruction with potential value for the teachereducator and, ultimately, the classroom teacher include the intimate, yetdetached, relationship between master and student and the process by whichthe complex art of archery is broken down into specific tasks arranged care-fully in sequence. No devotee of the "individual differences" school-of-thought, the archery master treats all students the same and never altershis instruction to accommodate a particular student. Before criticizing thisapproach as unrealistic or inhumane, it would be worthwhile to note thatthe established routine (some would call it the Procrustean bed) of themaster provides a sense of security for the student and yields positive re-sults. Perhaps the key element in his success is the master's own abilityto be patient, polite, and respectful toward the stuient. These qualitiescontribute to an air of trust surrounding the instruction. Rather thancandy or praise, the master relies on communicating to the student his ownpersonal interest in him, his unfaltering dedication to his art, and histhorough expertise as an archer. Would teacher educators be well-advisedto encourage the acquisition of professional integrity and evenness of temperand to de-emphasize the provision of positive reinforcement at the slightestprovocation and the seduction of students with imaginative gimmicks? What-ever the answer, studying teaching that occurs outside of the context ofconventional public education can offer a badly needed perspective on theprofessional attitudes and behaviors that teachers too often take for granted.

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Why Study Different Examples of Teaching?

It would be unfortunate if the current interest in competency basedteacher education, performance modules, and behavioral objectives compelledteacher educato7:s to ignore areas of teaching that defy expression ascompetencies, performances, and behaviors. Is "gaining perspective" or"broadening understanding" without value because it cannot be measured withease?

Teachers-in-training as well as veteran teachers can learn much aboutthe critical elements of their profession from a scholarly considerationof extra-school teaching. From Outward Bound and scouting much can begained about the motivation'of learners and how to get the most effortout of each learner. From Alcoholics Anonymous and Weight Watchers much canbe learned about managing tt-e instructional environment and controllingthe reinforcement of desired behavior. From Armed Forces technical trainingprograms and Zen archery instruction much can be learned about task analysisand the sequencing of curriculum content. The list is almost endless. Theyoga teacher can import valuable knowledge on die impact of the human voiceas an instructional tool. Drug rehabilitation programs like Synanon canteach how to use peer influence for positive effects.

There are at least eight aspects of teaching in public schools thatwould be informed by removing the blinders and considering extra-schoolteaching. Below each of these eight categories are a few specific examplesto illustrate.

1. General teaching methodsa. clinical "rounds" - medical schoolb. extension agent - agricultural researchc. moot court - law schoold. diagnosis of abilities and attitudes - Zen master

2. Instruction for cognitive development and self-disciplinea. creative problem solving - Mind Dynamicsb. concentration - Zen, yoga, Transcendental Meditationc. coping with failure - ballet training

3. Instruction for basic skills developmenta. speed reading - Evelyn Wood coursesb. total immersion approach to foreign language Berlitzc. basic skills development - cognitive therapy (Arthur Whimbey)

4. Classroom management and disciplinea. Marine "boot camp"b. transactional analysisc. peer-c6ntrolled discipline in Soviet schoolsd. Rudolf Dreikurs' "logical consequences" training

5. Student motivationa. positive self-concept - Erhard Seminars Trainingb. poor reinforcement - consciousness raising groupsc. "hands on" learning apprenticeship programs

6. Instructional planninga. sequencing content - correspondence coursesb. task analysis - Air Force training manualsc. proper frame of mind for teaching - Zen archery master

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7. Interpersonal skillsa. patience - yoga instructorb. peer pressure - Weight Watchersc. multicultural awareness - International Children's Villagesd. trust - Outward Bound

8. Instruction for moral and affective developmenta. communal expression of values - church "retreats,"

Quaker meetingsb. group problem solving - Synanonc. total moral environment - Fenton and Kohlberg's Just

Community School

These and other examples not only promise to enlighten the way teachersare prepared for public schools, they can serve to extend the generalizabilityof our research on teaching. How do school driver training courses compareto private lessons? How does apprenticeship training compare to vocationalinstruction in school? What variables influence attentil,eness in yoga in-struction and in mathematics class?

At the same time teacher educators are widening their focus on teaching,they also can exert their influence as consumer advocates in education. Checksare needed on hucksterism and unethical practice in extra-school teaching.Too often the consumer must suffer because there has been no scholarly effortto study "new" instructional prograws.

If education is to gain reccguition as a discipline and if teaching iato be an integral part of that body of knowledge, those who call themselvesteacher educators must not limit their attention to a single variety ofteaching -- that found in public schools.