Unit 1 – Ancient Civilizations AP World History

Guns, Germs, and Steel Jared Diamond Why did history unfold differently on different continents? Why has one culture—namely that of Western Europe—dominated the development of the

modern world? In his Pulitzer Prize-winning book Guns, Germs and Steel, scientist Jared Diamond argues

that the answer is geography. The physical locations where different cultures have taken root, he claims, have directly

affected the ability of those societies to develop key institutions, like agriculture and animal domestication, or to acquire important traits, like immunity to disease.

Paleolithic Era The Stone Age (known to scholars as the Paleolithic era) in human prehistory is the name

given to the period between about 2.5 million and 20,000 years ago. It begins with the earliest human-like behaviors of crude stone tool manufacture, and ends

with fully modern human hunting and gathering societies. Neolithic Era

The Neolithic period or New Stone Age was a period in human history when humans were still using stone tools, but they had started to settle in permanent encampments.

This transition allowed people to create permanent towns and villages, and it paved the way to a more complex culture.

In addition to growing crops, these early humans also started domesticating animals to work for them and to serve as sources of food.

Early River Valley Civilizations – 3500 BCE to 600 BCE Mesopotamia

Fertile Crescent – arc of land between Persian Gulf and Mediterranean. Includes Mesopotamia – “land between the rivers” – a fertile plain. Tigris and Euphrates rivers flood once a year, leaving rich soil. Environmental Challenges Around 3300 BCE Sumerians began farming southern Mesopotamia. Environment poses three disadvantages: Floods are unpredictable; sometimes no rain. Land offers no barriers to invasion. Land has few natural resources; building materials scarce. Solving Problems Through Organization Sumerians work together; find solutions to environmental problems. Build irrigation ditches to control water, produce crops. Build walled cities for defense. Trade grain, cloth, and tools for raw materials – stone, wood, metal. Organization, leadership, and laws are beginning of civilization. Sumerian City-States By 3000 BCE Sumerians built cities surrounded by fields of crops. Each is a city-state – an independent political unit. Sumer city-states: Uruk, Kish, Lagash, Umma, and Ur. Each city-state has temple and ziggurat; priests appeal to gods. Priests and Rulers Share Control Sumer’s early governments controlled by temple priests. Some military leaders become rulers; dynasties rule after 2500 BCE Dynasty – series of rulers from a single family. The Spread of Cities

By 2500 BCE many new cities in Fertile Crescent Sumerians exchange products and ideas with other cultures. Cultural diffusion (Cross Cultural Exchanges) – process of one culture spreading to others. A Religion of Many Gods Sumerians believe in many gods – Polytheism. Gods are thought to control forces of nature. Gods behave as humans do, but people are gods’ servants. Life after death is bleak and gloomy. Life in Sumerian Society Sumerians have social classes – kings, landholders, priests at top. Wealthy merchants next; at lowest level are slaves. Women have many rights; become priests, merchants, artisans. Sumerian Science and Technology Sumerians invent wheel, sail, and plow; first to use bronze. Make advances in arithmetic and geometry. Develop arches, columns, ramps, and pyramids for building. Have a complex system of writing – cuneiform. Study astronomy, chemistry, medicine. The development of writing enabled the Mesopotamians to transpose their oral legends like the

Epic of Gilgamesh. The Epic of Gilgamesh is, perhaps, the oldest written story on Earth. It was originally written on 12 clay tablets in cunieform script. It is about the adventures of the historical King of Uruk (somewhere between 2750 and 2500

B.C.E.). King Gilgamesh of Uruk oppresses his people. As punishment, the gods send him a companion, Enkidu, who is his mirror image and

becomes his good friend. Together, Gilgamesh and Enkidu defy the gods by killing the giant Humbaba, cutting down

the sacred cedar forest which he guards, and killing the Bull of Heaven. Enkidu has ominous dreams of the destiny of tyrants who become slaves in the House of

Death. Enkidu finally dies of an illness sent by the gods. Horrified by Enkidu's death and the prospect of his own demise, Gilgamesh undertakes a

quest for immortality This brings him to the house of Utnapishtim, a virtuous man who obeys the gods and was

saved by them from the Great Flood. Utnapishtim puts Gilgamesh to various tests which he fails and eventually sends him away,

assuring him that he cannot escape death. A humbled Gilgamesh returns to Uruk and orders his story to be inscribed in stone. Epic criticizes: Tyranny Oppression Violence Conquest ambitions of the powerful Promotes the values of a simple life of rest and enjoyment of the pleasures of human

companionship, love, food, and drink. Another idea of the epic is a carpe diem ("seize the day") theme. Pro-nature, pro-environmentalist stance of the poem. Epic expresses a belief in a divine justice, order, or balance of things requiring punishment in

kind for transgressions such as violence, cruelty, pride and the destruction of nature.

The First Empire Builders From 3000 to 2000 BCE city-states at constant war. Around 2350 BCE, Sargon from Akkad defeats city-states of Sumer. Creates first empire – independent states under control of one leader. His dynasty lasts about 200 years. Babylonian Empire Amorites, nomadic warriors, take control of region around 2000 BCE. Make Babylon, on Euphrates River, the capital. Babylonian Empire at peak during Hammurabi’s rule (1792-1750 BCE). Hammurabi’s Code Hammurabi creates a code of laws for the Babylonian Empire. 282 laws on all aspects of life; engraved in stone and made public. Set different punishments depending on social class, gender. Goal is for government to take responsibility for order, justice.

The more important later ruler was the Babylonian King Hammurabi who improved administration with an extensive legal code built on previous regional laws.

The foundation of the code was lex talionis, or the law of retribution, with punishments tied closely to offenses.

So, the loss of an eye between equals demanded the loss of the offender’s eye. But the loss of an eye between different classes required more punishment for the lower-class

offender and less for the upper-class offender. In reality, judges had some latitude to make their own decisions, but it set a strong precedent

for the rule of law. If a merchant increases interest beyond that set by the king and collects it, that merchant will

lose what was lent.If that woman has not kept herself chaste but enters another man's house, they shall convict the woman and cast her into the water.If he puts out the eye of a free man's slave or breaks the bone of a free man's slave, he shall pay half his price.If the slave of a free man strikes the cheek of a free man, they shall cut off his ear.'”

If a free person helps a slave to escape, the free person will be put to death.What can you tell from the Hammurabic code about the social and family structure of Mesopotamia?

What is the relationship between law and trade? Why did agricultural civilizations such as Babylon insist on harsh punishments for crimes?

Amorite rule of Fertile Crescent ends 200 years after Hammurabi. ANCIENT EGYPT

The Gift of the Nile Yearly flooding brings water and fertile black mud – silt. Farmers build irrigation system for wheat and barley crops. Egyptians worship Nile as a god. Environmental Challenges Light floods reduce crops, cause starvation. Heavy floods destroy property; deserts isolate and protect Egyptians. Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt River area south of First Cataract is elevated, becomes Upper Egypt. Cataract – where boulders turn Nile River into churning rapids. River area north, including Nile delta, becomes Lower Egypt. Delta – land formed by silt deposits at mouth of river; triangular. King Narmer Creates Egyptian Dynasty

Villages of Egypt ruled by two kingdoms – Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt. King Narmer unites them around 3000 BCE; makes Memphis capital. Establishes first Egyptian dynasty. Pharaohs Rule as Gods To the Egyptians, kings are gods; Egyptian god-kings called pharaohs. Pharaohs control religion, government, army, well-being of kingdom. Government based on religious authority – theocracy. Builders of the Pyramids Kings believed to rule even after death; have eternal life force, ka. Build elaborate tombs, pyramids, to meet needs after death. Pyramids made with blocks of stone, 2-15 tons each; 481 feet high. Kingdom had leadership, government; economically strong. Religion and Life Egyptians believe in 2,000 gods and goddesses – polytheistic. Re is sun god; Osiris, god of the dead; goddess Isis is ideal woman. Believe in life after death; person judged by deeds at death. Develop mummification, process that prevents body from decaying. Book of the Dead contains prayers and spells, guides souls after death. Social Classes Society shaped like pyramid, from pharaoh down to farmers, laborers. Few people at top have great power; most people at bottom. People move into higher social classes through marriage or merit. Women have many of the same rights as men.

Egyptian women were relegated to lesser roles at home and in public although they had more authority than Mesopotamian women.

Nevertheless, some Egyptian women gained power as regents to young rulers and one, Queen Hapshetut, even attained the throne as a co-ruler.

But a woman as ruler was so disconcerting for Egyptians that artists depicted her with a beard.

Women in Egypt also priestesses and, in some cases, educated scribes. Egyptian Writing In hieroglyphics writing system, pictures represent ideas. Paperlike sheets made from papyrus reeds used for writing.

Egyptian Science and Technology Egyptians invent calendar of 365 days and 12 months. Develop system of written numbers and a form of geometry. Skilled engineers and architects construct palaces, pyramids. Egyptian medicine famous in the ancient world. Invaders Control Egypt

Changes to Egyptian Society Power of pharaohs declines around 2180 BCE; end of the Old Kingdom. In Middle Kingdom (2040 to 1640 BCE), some pharaohs regain control. Improve trade, dig canal from Nile to Red Sea; drain swamps for farms. Hyksos move into Egypt from Palestine; rule from 1630 to 1523 BCE. Return of the pharaohs – New Kingdom – temples, statues.

Indus River Valley Civilization (India) Indian Subcontinent

Subcontinent – landmass that includes India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. World’s tallest mountain ranges separate it from rest of Asia. Rivers, Mountains, and Plains Mountains to north, deserts to east, protect Indus Valley from invasion.

Indus and Ganges rivers form flat, fertile plain – the Indo-Gangetic. Southern India, a dry plateau flanked by mountains. Narrow strip of tropical land along coast.

Monsoons Seasonal winds – monsoons – dominate India’s climate. Winter winds are dry; summer winds bring rain – can cause flooding.

Environmental Challenges Floods along the Indus unpredictable; river can change course. Rainfall unpredictable; could have droughts or floods. Influenced an area larger than Mesopotamia or Egypt. About 7000 BCE, evidence of agriculture and domesticated animals. By 3200 BCE, people farming in villages along Indus River.

Planned Cities By 2500 BCE, people build cities of brick laid out on a grid system. Engineers create plumbing and sewage systems. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Indus Valley called Harappan civilization after Harappa, a city. Harappan Planning City built on mud-brick platform to protect against flood waters. Brick walls protect city and citadel – central buildings of the city. Streets in grid systems are 30 feet wide. Lanes separate rows of houses (which featured bathrooms). Language Had writing system of 400 symbols, but scientists can’t decipher it. Culture Harappan cities appear uniform in culture; no great social divisions. Animals important to the culture; toys suggest prosperity. Role of Religion Priests closely linked to rulers. Some religious artifacts reveal links to modern Hindu culture. Trade Had thriving trade with other peoples, including in Mesopotamia. Harappan Decline Signs of decline begin around 1750 B.C.E. Earthquakes, floods, soil depletion may have caused decline. Around 1500 B.C.E., Aryans enter area and become dominant.

Indo-Europeans. Horses. Polytheism.

Ancient China Barriers Isolate China Ocean, mountains, deserts isolate China from other areas. River Systems Huang He (“Yellow River”) in north, Yangtze in south. Huang He leaves loess- fertile silt- when it floods. Environmental Challenges Huang He floods can devour whole villages. (China’s Sorrow) Geographic isolation means lack of trade; must be self-sufficient. China’s Heartland North China Plain, area between two rivers, center of civilization. The First Dynasties

Around 2000 B.C. cities arise; Yu, first ruler of Xia Dynasty. Yu’s flood control system tames Huang He (“Yellow River”) Shang Dynasty, 1700 to 1027 B.C., first to leave written records. Early Cities Built cities of wood, such as Anyang –one of its capital cities. Upper classes live inside city; poorer people live outside. Shang cities have massive walls for military defense. Chinese Civilization Sees China as center of world; view others as uncivilized. The group is more important than the individual. Family Family is central social institution; respect for parents a virtue. Elder males control family property. Women expected to obey all men, even sons. Social Classes Emperor and warrior-nobles lead society and own the land. Religious Beliefs Spirits of dead ancestors can affect family fortunes. Oracle bones used to consult gods; supreme god, Shang Di -Priests scratch questions on animal bones and tortoise shells Development of Writing Writing system uses symbols to represent syllables, not ideas. People of different languages can use same system. Huge number of characters make system difficult to learn. The Zhou Take Control In 1027 B.C.E., Zhou Dynasty takes control of China. Mandate of Heaven Mandate of Heaven- the belief that a just ruler had divine approval. Developed as justification for change in power to Zhou. Dynastic cycle- pattern of the rise and decline of dynasties. Control Through Feudalism Feudalism- system where kings give land to nobles in exchange for services. Over time, nobles grow in power and begin to fight each other. Improvements in Technology and Trade Zhou Dynasty builds roads, canals to improve transportation. Uses coins to make trade easier. Produces cast iron tool and weapons; food production increases. A Period of Warring States Peaceful, stable Zhou empire rules from around 1027 to 256 B.C.E. In 771 B.C.E., nomads sack the Zhou capital, murder monarch. Luoyang becomes new capital, but internal wars destroy traditions.

Early Societies in the Americas and Oceania Early Societies of Mesoamerica

As sea levels dropped during the Ice Ages, humans took advantage of the exposed land bridges to migrate into new lands and establish cultures there. Human groups migrated to the Americas long after people had established communities throughout the eastern hemisphere but before people understood or practiced agriculture. By the time the Ice Ages ended, about 18,000 years ago, people had become well established in the Americas, the islands of southeast Asia, and Australia. By 700 C.E., people had established communities throughout most of the habitable world.

The high sea level made it difficult, but not impossible, for these people in the Americas and Oceania to interact with their neighbors near and far. Particularly after the discovery of agriculture in northern and southern America, population pressures, trade, and the need for additional new resources led to the development of increasingly complex social forms. The first complex society in the Americas was the Olmecs. These people, who modern researchers named after the rubber trees in the region, built a complex society on the rich agricultural harvests of their ancestors. Beans, chili peppers, avocados, squash, gourds, and eventually maize provided these people of Mesoamerica with ample food sources. Turkeys and small dogs were also domesticated and used for food, but the larger animals of Mesoamerica were not subject to domestication. There were no Horses Mules Cattle Pigs in this region until the Europeans arrived in the 16th century. No large domesticated animals also meant animal energy for transportation was impossible and therefore the wheeled cart was unnecessary. The Mesoamericans managed very well using human power for labor and trade. Olmec society was probably authoritarian as archeological remains show huge construction projects such as pyramids, temples, altars, and tombs which would have demanded coordination of large numbers of workers over vast periods of time. The necessity for drainage systems to divert abundant water also indicates that the Olmecs had some social class system which allowed for the construction of such large public works. The most compelling evidence that the Olmec people labored for the elite at least part of the year are the sculptures of colossal human heads (18 tons) carved from huge slabs of black basalt. These most distinctive Olmec artistic creations are believed to have required thousands of laborers to quarry, transport, carve, and set in place in each of the Olmec capital cities. Trade was also important to Olmec culture. Imported jade was turned into decorative objects, imported obsidian was used to create wickedly sharp knives and axes, and abundant rubber was used to make balls and other objects which the Olmecs could trade along with their basalt carvings, ceramics, and animal skins. The demise of the Olmecs is somewhat mysterious, as they left no written language other than their calendar inscriptions. It appears, perhaps, that civil conflicts and a loss of religious faith might have caused the Olmecs to abandon their cities.

Early Societies of South America Hunting and gathering peoples made their way from Central America to South America c. 12,000 B.C.E. The Andes highlands provided deer, llama, and alpaca. The cold coastal regions provided fish as well as ample natural supplies of squash, gourds, and wild potatoes to keep those non-farmers well nourished. As the climate began to change after 8000 B.C.E. however, the natural occurring supplies of food could not meet the population needs so these human communities began to experiment with agriculture. Agriculture proved highly successful in these regions and thus the populations grew. Complex, organized cultures developed. Large cities and states were established over the next 9000 years. Early Andean society occupied the region that is now Peru and Bolivia.

Though contemporary with early Mesoamerican cultures, the difficult geography and lack of pack animals made communication or trade between these regions extremely unlikely. Agricultural products like maize and squash spread southward. Andean gold, silver, and copper were traded, but regular and consistent commerce between other regions was not feasible. Between 2500 and 2000 B.C.E., many small, but permanent, farming settlements took root along the Pacific coast. Farmers cultivated beans, peanuts, and sweet potatoes for food. Cotton for fishing nets and textiles. The arrival of maize c. 1000 B.C.E. appears to have suddenly created quite a change in this region. The Chavin Cult is the term modern historians give to the period between 900 and 800 B.C.E. Large temples. Elaborate works of art. Intricate stone carvings of animals. Development of gold, silver, and copper. Population boom. The Chavin Cult promoted fertility and abundant harvests. Large ceremonial centers were built during this period which later would emerge as great cities.

Early Societies of Oceania People reached Australia and New Guinea long before the advent of agriculture. For thousands of years, hunters and gathers must have traveled between the two islands, taking advantage of the lower sea levels during the Ice Ages. Once the Ice Ages ended and the high waters returned to separate the two islands, the people of each place took very different paths. The aboriginal peoples of Australia happily maintained their hunting and gathering traditions until the forceful settlement of the Europeans in 19th and 20th centuries. The aboriginal people of New Guinea, however, interacted with outsiders much, much earlier than their Australian counterparts. About 5000 years ago, seafaring people from southeast Asia, who spoke languages known as Austronesian, visited the coast of New Guinea, traded with the indigenous people, and even established trading communities of their own. Coming from agricultural communities in Asia, these settlers introduced root crops like taro and yams as well as domesticated animals including chickens and pigs, all of which caught on quickly with the New Guinea aborigines. As always, the introduction of agriculture quickly brought population growth. specialization of labor. growth of permanent settlements. development of complex social and material culture. The Austronesian-speaking traders soon turned their attention to establishing settlements further and further out into the Pacific Ocean. It was the Austronesian-speaking people who possessed the sophisticated maritime technology and the agricultural expertise to establish human settlements on the islands of the Pacific. By 1500 B.C.E., they had established trading colonies in Vanuatu, by 1000 B.C.E., they reached Tahiti, by the early centuries C.E. they had reached Hawai’i, and by 700 C.E. they were in New Zealand. Another group of the Austronesians sailed westward into the Indian Ocean as far as the island of Madagascar.

The earliest known Austronesian-speaking peoples are known as the Lapita, named after a beach in New Caledonia where 20th century archaeologists discovered some of their artifacts: Terra-cotta pottery specifically decorated with a distinctive stamped geometric design. The Lapita traded this pottery and their highly prized obsidian across the wide expanses of the Pacific for nearly 1000 years between 1500 B.C.E. and 500 B.C.E. After 500 B.C.E., Lapita trading networks declined, probably because their settlements had grown large enough to provide for themselves. Local hereditary chiefdoms developed physical contests for leadership roles. The possibility of migration to surrounding islands appears to have been used to ease tensions and avoid widespread bloodshed. Over time, descendants of the Lapita built elaborate societies with complex social classes including chiefs, priests, administrators, soldiers, and servants, especially on the large islands like Hawaii. There, chiefs and their nobles organized public life in their districts. led public ritual services. maintained the irrigation systems necessary to grow crops. These chiefs and aristocrats eventually came to be seen as semi-divine or divine by their island subjects.