Divine Messages and Human Actions in the Argonautica

Divine Messages and Human Actions in the Argonautica

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RitualandReligioninFlavianEpicAntonyAugoustakis

Printpublicationdate:2013PrintISBN-13:9780199644094PublishedtoOxfordScholarshipOnline:May2013DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199644094.001.0001

DivineMessagesandHumanActionsintheArgonautica

GesineManuwald

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199644094.003.0003

AbstractandKeywords

ThischapterdiscussesthedescriptionofdivinemessagesandtheirimpactonthehumancharactersinValeriusFlaccus’Argonautica:althoughhumanbeingsneverlearndetailsoftheoveralldivineworld–planthattheyaremadetoimplement,theyacknowledgedivineinterferenceandmakeattemptsatlearningdetailsaboutthefutureviapropheciesandoracles.Ultimately,thehumans,thoughunaware,andthegodsaresubjecttotheworkingsoffateandJupiter’sworld–plan,whichprovideaframeworkofoutsideforces.Byincreasingtheroleofdestiny,Valeriushascreatedaset–upnotonlyinlinewiththeliterarytraditionofepic,butalsorelevanttophilosophicalconcernsofhistime;thisprovidesameansofexplainingeventsotherwisedifficulttounderstand.

Keywords:ValeriusFlaccus,gods,Jupiter,fate,prophecy,oracle

Divinemessages:statusandfunction


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Followingancientepicconventions,ValeriusFlaccus’Argonauticaincludesactivitiesonadivinelevel:thepoempresentsgodsactingaccordingtotheirownagendas,divinecouncilschairedbythesupremegod,Jupiter,andcooperationandargumentamonggods,aswellasawebofcommunicationbetweenthedivineandthehumanspheres.Thisinteractiontypicallyhappensbyindirectmeans,suchasprodigies,dreams,oracles,andpropheciesonthepartofthegods,aswellasprayersandsacrificesofferedbyepiccharacters.OnlywhenthegoddessesJunoandVenusmakeMedeafallinlovewithJason(andsimilarlyfortheflashbackontheeventsonLemnos)istheredirectinterventionofgods,thoughthegoddessesappearindisguise(6.427–506,7.153–322).Communicationbetweenthedivineandhumanspheresislimited:whilethemeaningofmanymessagesiscleartoreaders,epiccharacterscanonlyinterpretthemonthebasisoftheirownexperiences,sothatsignsmayremainpartlyorcompletelyobscuretothem.

Mostimportantly,theArgonautsneverlearnofthewiderpurposeoftheirjourneyaccordingtoJupiter’splanforthedevelopmentofworldhistory,i.e.thedestinedchangesofhegemony(1.531–60).1Fortheseshiftstohappen,theopportunitiesformilitaryconflictsbetweenpeoplesfarremovedfromeachotherbynaturalbarrierswillhavetobeexpanded.Valeriusinsertstheannouncementofthisplan(withoutanequivalentinApolloniusRhodius)asaspecialdivineprophecy,Jupiter’s(p.34) addressatthedivinecouncil.2GivenbyJupiter,fatapredeterminethesuccessfulcompletionoftheArgonauticvoyage,sinceitisastepthatwillcreatethenecessarypreconditionsforGreecetotakeoverfromAsiaastheforemostpower.3

Humansintheepicarenotawareofthisdivineframework;hencetheirownactionsfollowtheirpersonalplansand/orindividualdivinemessages,whichtheyreceive(e.g.indreams)orrequestfromgods.Thereforeepiccharacterscanbevariouslyinfluencedbydivinemessages:godscanguideprotagonists,determinethetimingofactions,orconfirmdecisions.4Yettheformandstructureofthesedivinemessagestypicallydonotcommithumanstospecificactions;hencethecharactersfeelfreeintheirdecisionsandmaytrytoworkagainsttheannouncements,mayforgetorignoreomens,ormayfeelencouragedintheirplans(esp.1.156–83).Ultimately,however,whateverthemotivationandtherelationtodivinesigns,allhumanactionsareshowntocontributetotheoverallgoaldeterminedbyJupiter’splan.5

Suchaframeworkraisesquestionsconcerningthestatusandfunctionofdivinemessages,aswellastheroleofthegods,anissuethathasreceivedmuchattentionfromscholarswhoaredividedinbetweentwooppositeends:doesthetraditionaldivineapparatusrepresentdivinepowerstobeworshipped,orisitpartoftheconventionalnarrativestructure,thusfunctioningasasymbolforthehumans’ownfeelings?ThelatterviewisparticularlyconnectedwiththepresentationofMedea’sstrugglebetweenloyaltytoherfamilyandloveforJason;the‘goddesses’areseentopromoteloveforJasonasamotivatingfactorinoppositiontoMedea’smoralconcerns(7.292–9,7.309–24,7.371–2,7.461–2).6Theproblemofthestatusofspontaneousorrituallyrequesteddivinemessagesthereforebecomesevenmoreurgent.Psychologicalinterpretationshavebeensuggested:divinemessagesdonotmovehumanbeingstoanything(p.35) thatis


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againsttheirnature,7orpropheciesagreewiththehopesofhumanbeings.8

Yetthehypothesisthattheintroductionofdivineinterventionisdesignedtoillustratedeeperpsychologicalprocessesseemsdifficulttosustain,evenwithregardtothedivineinfluenceonthedecisionofMedea,who,atleastinitially,opposesthewishesofthe‘goddesses’.Withitsjuxtapositionandconnectionofhumanthoughtsanddivineintervention,Valerius’narrativeincludeshintsthatdivinemessagesmaybereadasexternalinfluencesonhumans.Inviewoftheongoingscholarlydiscussion,thischapterwillanalysethedescriptionofdivinemessagesandtheirimpactonhumansintheArgonautica,therebymakinganattemptatdetermininghowthepoetmayhaveenvisagedgodsandothersupernaturalforces.

SignificanceofdivinemessagesThesignificanceofdivinemessagescanbeseenalreadyintheepic’sintroductoryproem(1.5–21)immediatelyafterthementionofitstopic(1.1–4):herethepoetplaceshispoetryunderdivineguidancebyinvokingPhoebusApollo(1.5),justasApolloniusRhodiusdoes(A.R.1.1).WhereasApolloniusmentionsPhoebusprimarilyasthegodofprophecy,sinceoraclesformthestartingpointoftheplot(A.R.1.1–7),andaddsaninvocationtotheMusesinthecatalogueofheroes(A.R.1.22),ValeriusappealstoPhoebusforinspirationandintensifiestheinvocationbyareferenceto‘thetripodawareoftheSibylinhishouse’(1.5–7).Althoughscholarscontinuetodebatewhetherthisstatementimpliesthatthepoetisoneofthequindecemuirisacrisfaciundis,whosedutiesincludeacultofApolloaswellasmaintenance,consultation,andinterpretationofthepropheticSibyllinebooks,orwhetherheassumesapose,itisstillnoteworthythathechoosestomentionthisofficeortoinventitforhispoeticpersona.9

(p.36) Whilereferencestothepersonalityofthepoet,particularlyinprologuesorepilogues,arenotunprecedentedinRomanepic,includingsuchadetailisunusual.EarlierRomanpoetslikeNaeviusandEnniususereferencestotheirownexperiencestoenhancetheircredibilityandstanding.10ValeriusplaceshisstoryundertheguidanceofPhoebus(andalsoofthesoon-to-be-deifiedVespasian),onthebasisofacloserelationshipbetweenthepoeticpersonaandthegodduetotheactivitiesofthequindecimuiri.Contemporaryritualpracticesandinstitutionsaretakensoseriouslythattheycanbeusedtoenhancethepoet’srole;sincethequindecimuiriareconcernedwithlookingaftertheSibyllinebooks,suchareferenceimpliesthatthecustomofdealingwithoraclesinRomanlifeispresentfromthestartoftheArgonautica.

Thesignificanceofprophecyforthenarratedactionishighlightedfromthebeginning:evenbeforethereferencetothepoet(1.5–21),theArgoisintroducedasthe‘propheticship’,lit.‘fate-tellingship’(fatidicamqueratem,1.2).InApollonius,theArgoisdefinedas‘well-benched’(A.R.1.1–4).Byendowingtheshipwiththespecialabilityofprophecy,Valeriusindicatesthatsacredphysicalitemshavetheabilitytoconveyinformationaboutfate.Onthelevelofthenarrative,thereasonfortheArgo’sfacultyisexplainedbythefactthatshehasbeenbuiltwithdivinesupportandincorporatesabeamfromaDodonianoak:afterJasonhasprayedtoJunoandPallas,thetwogoddessesdonotreactdirectly;


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instead,theyaredescribedasmakingpreparationsforthejourneyonhisbehalf(1.91–5).

TheArgo’sdivinepropertiesareexplainedatherfirstappearancetoJasoninhissleepbeforedeparture,whenthesacredoakencourageshimnottodelaysettingoffanyfurther(1.300–10).TheArgoassertsthatsheisan‘oakfromDodona,theservantofChaonianJupiter’(1.302–3)andthat‘theSaturniangoddesscouldnothavetornherfromthepropheticwoodshadnotheavenbeenpromisedtoher’(1.304–5).SheencouragesJasontogetridofhisfearandtotrustinthegodsandtheArgo.Jasonreacts‘infear,favourablethoughtheomenfromheavenwas’(1.309),anindicationofhisawebeforethedivineappearance.11Jupiter’soak,however,hasnowprovidedhimwithananswertohisprayerforhelp(1.80–90):hehasreceivedreassurancethatthegodswillsupporthim.ThustheArgo’sdivineinterventionisnot(only)intendedtoconfirmJason’sowndecisiontogoonthisjourneyortodeterminethetimingof(p.37) thedeparture;12instead,Jupiter’spropheticoakpromisesdivinesupportofthevoyagetoJasoninlinewiththeroleofthejourneyaccordingtoJupiter’splans.

TheArgohasbeenendowedwithdivinepropertieswhichcannotbereadasmeremanifestationsofhumanemotions,asbecomesapparentalsoontwootheroccasions.Thesacredoakplaysadecisiverolewhenanewhelmsmanhastobeselectedafterthedeathoftheoriginalhelmsman,Tiphys:theArgochoosesathirdpersonotherthanthetwowhocontendforthejob(5.63–6).Thisoutcomeispredetermined,astheArgoisgovernedbytheunspecifiedhigherpowersof‘Fate’sprompting’(5.65),whichrecognizethebesthelmsmanforasuccessfulcompletionofthejourney.

AftertheArgonautsreachColchis,theArgoturnsroundofherownaccord,providinga‘sureomen’(5.210–12).TheArgonautsinterpretthisasapromiseofreturn(5.212–13).13AstheomensconveyedbytheArgoconcernthesuccessofthevoyage,theserevelationsbringtheArgonautsclosetogettinganideaofJupiter’splans,sincetheportentscomefromaservantofhis.Inhisworldplan,Jupitersaysthathis‘oaktrees,thetripods,andthespiritsoftheirancestors’havesentforththeArgonauts(1.544–5).14Althoughtherearenootherreferencestothesemotivations,thecorrespondencebetweenJupiter’splanandthesignalsgivenbytheArgosuggestsJupiter’sinvolvement.

DivinemessagesandhumanknowledgeTheclearsignalsconveyedbytheArgoareuniqueamongthedivinemessagestoepiccharacters.ThePhineusepisodeinparticularshowsthatJupiterwisheshumanstohaveonlyincompleteinformationaboutthefuture:becauseofhisrevelationofJupiter’sthoughtsanddecisionstohumansoutofcompassion,PhineusistormentedbytheHarpies(4.477–82).Heiskeptalivebythehopethatthefatahavedecreedthat‘thesonsofAquiloshoulddispelthecruelplague’,andheknowsthatthe(p.38) Argonautsarecoming(4.431–64);henceheisconvincedthat‘notchancebutGod’sownwill’hasbroughttheArgonautstohim(4.483–4).UponarrivaltheArgonautsreactaccordingtothefata(4.485):twoofthemfreePhineusfromtheHarpies(4.501–28).Yettheissueofwhetherthissalvationwillbepermanentiscalledintoquestionlater,whenPhineusremembersanother,ambiguouslywordedprophecy,conveyedby‘avoicefromheaven’(4.580),withtheexactsourcesremainingobscure:thissors…diuum(‘heavenlydecree’,


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4.577)haslinkedtheendofhispunishmentwiththeArgo’ssuccessfulpassingthroughtheSymplegades(4.577–84).Phineuscannottakeforgrantedatthisstagethatthiswillhappen(4.585–6).15WhilethedivinepropheciesfirstmentionedbyPhineus,namelythathewillbefreedfromhispunishmentbytheArgonauts(4.460–61),couldbeinterpretedasasymbolicexpressionofhiswishes,suchaninterpretationisunlikelywithrespecttothesecondprophecy,non-existentinApollonius.ThecomplexcausallinkbetweenthecontinuationofthejourneyandPhineus’rescueratherindicatesthefatefulcoincidencesthathavebeenengineeredbyahigherpowerwiththeultimateaimofopeningtheseaspermanentlytotraffic.

Phineus’uncertaintyabouthisownfateunderscoresthelimitsofhumanforeknowledgemoreprominentlythaninApollonius(A.R.2.178–96,2.311–425):evenaseerdoesnotknoweverything;whatismore,hedoesnothavepermissiontorevealdetailstootherhumans.HencePhineus’prophecytoJason,concerningthesubsequentstagesoftheArgonauticvoyage,isonlygrantedbyexceptionanddoesnotconveycertainknowledge(4.557–60):whatwillhappenaftertheSymplegadesispresentedundertheconditionthattheArgonautsmanagetopassthrough,andtheseerisnotallowedtotalkabouttheendoftheArgonauticvoyage(4.623–5).Jupiterdoesnotwishhumankindtobeawareofitspredeterminedfate(4.559–60).Still,seershaveaspecialroleamonghumanbeings:duetotheirrelationshiptothegodstheyknowmore,thoughtherearelimitationsforthemtoo.

PropheticknowledgeofseersandhumandesireforinformationAritualscenepriortothedepartureoftheArgodemonstratesthattheaccessofseerstoknowledgeoffutureeventsvaries,andthattheir(p.39) messagesarenotalwaysclearandmaydiffer:theseerMopsusforeseesnotonlydangersloomingbecauseofthevoyagebutalsodetailsrelatingtoincidentsduringthejourneyandtoeventsinColchisandbeyond,uptothemurderofJason’schildrenbyMedea(1.207–26).16Thisbleakprophecy,incomprehensibletotheepiccharacters(1.227–8),17isfollowedbyanother,contrastingprophecybytheseerIdmon(1.228–33):Idmonalsoannouncesperils,whileheincludestheprospectofthesuccessfulcompletionofthejourney.18Theprophetkeepssilentabouthisowndeath,whichheseesforecastbytheomens(1.234–9;cf.also1.360–61).IndeedwhenIdmonpassesaway(5.1–12),hisqualitiesasatruthfulseerareconfirmedonlyforthereader.19

ThepositiveoutlookconveyedbyIdmonisessentialwithintheimmediatenarrative:derivedfromApollo,hisprophecyisasufficientbasisforJasontoinferthatthegodssupporttheArgonauticmission.ForhimitisJupiterhimselfwho‘haswilledthefellowshipofmenthroughouthisworld,andtheirunioninsuchmightytasks’(1.245–7).Jason’sconclusioncannothavebeendeducedentirelyfromIdmon’swords,buttheseer’spositiveprophecyprovidestheherowiththecertaintythattheenterprisehasapurposebeyondcarryingoutPelias’tyrannicalwill.EventhoughJasonalmostidentifiestheactualintentionbehindtheArgonautictrip,hecannotimaginethemostimportantelementofthejourneyaccordingtoJupiter,namelyenablingmilitaryconflictsbymeansofinitiatingcontactbetweendistantpeoples.20


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Aseer’sfunctionisnotlimitedtobeingamediumfordivinemessages.Becauseofspecialknowledge,hemayalsomediatebetweenhumanand(p.40) divinespheresbymeansofrituals.HenceMopsuscanfreetheArgonautsfromtheirguiltwhentheyhavesunkintolethargyaftertheeventsonCyzicus.InresponsetoJason’squestionwhetherthispredicamentisordainedbyfatumorcontrivedbyhumanhearts(3.374–5),21Mopsusarguesthatpeoplewhohavekilledunwillinglyareterrifiedbytheirconscience;atthesametime,heexpectsthattheArgonautscanbecuredbyasupernaturalritual,revealedtohimbyaCelaeneusattheedgeoftheUnderworld(3.377–416).22

Furthermore,theseersIdmonandMopsusarecalledApollo’smen(1.228,1.383–4,3.372),theprophetessPolyxoisafavouriteofApollo’s(2.316),ApollohashisseatinPhineus’breast(4.445–6),andthegodhimselfisdefinedbythetermaugur(1.234).23ThepoetcreatesaconnectionbetweenhimselfandthosewhoserveApollobyalludingtotheofficeofquindecemuirintheproem(1.5–7).TheRomanizationofpracticesandterminologyindicatesthatthepoem,thoughaliterarytext,isrootedinthereligiousrealityofthetime.24

Thespecialstatusofseerscorrespondstotheexpectationsoftheepiccharacters.Accordingly,afterthebattleonCyzicus,duringwhichheaccidentallykillshishost,Cyzicus,JasoncomplainsthatneitherApollo’snorJupiter’soraclesnorthepredictionsofseershadwarnedhimofthismisfortune,although‘other’evilwasindeedforetold(3.299–302).25Clearly,oraclesandtheinterpretationsofseersareexpectedtoprovidesupportandforewarnings.Therefore,astheArgonautsapproachColchis,Jasonisevenmoreworried,andthepropheciesoftheArgo’sownseers,MopsusandIdmon,nolongersuffice;henceheasksPhineusforacomprehensiveprophecy(4.538–46).Jasondoesnotlacktrustinhisownseers,andheknowsthathehasreceivedhelpfromPallasandJuno,butheiskeenonlearningasmanydetailsaspossibleaboutthefuture.Heobviouslybelievesthatthecourseofeventsispredeterminedandcanbepredictedbyseers.

(p.41) ThatJasoncontinuestoseekreassurancewithregardtothefuture,althoughhehasbeentoldthattheArgonauticvoyagewillultimatelybesuccessful(1.234–8,2.592–7),maybeinterpretedasalackofconfidenceinthegods.26Infactitisanexpressionofuncertainty,sincethusfarJasonhasbeenprovidedwithvagueallusionsratherthandefinitivecertainties.Atthesametimeitshowsthathecontinuestohavefaithinthegods.Likehisparents,Jasonisdescribedassomeoneforwhomreligioisimportantandwhoiscarefultoobservereligiousrituals.HenceheasksJunoandPallastosupporttheArgonauticvoyagebeforehesetsoff.Accordingtothenarrative,itisthisbeliefindivinehelp(religio)thatconfirmshisdecisiontoundertakethevoyageorderedbyPelias(1.79–90).Jasonimmediatelysacrificestotheseagodswhencaughtbyaseastorm(1.659–80),asheisawarethatapossiblereasonforthetempestmaybetheArgonauts’transgressionintothenewandhithertoclosedrealmofNeptune.

DivineplansanddivineinterventionReaderswillrecognizethatJason’sassumptionconcerningtheseastormiscorrect:thewindsandBoreasinparticularfeelenragedattheGreeksandtheir‘madbark’(1.574–


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607).Thisisnottheonlytimethatgodsactandreactforpersonalreasons:Mars,forinstance,intervenes,promptedbyarequestfromAeetes(5.250–5;cf.also6.28–30);theeventsonCyzicusarearesultofCybele’sanger(3.19–31);JunoandPallasinterfereintheaction:notonlydotheytakecareforprovidingtheshipanditscrew(1.91–9),buttheyalsoagree,upontheArgonauts’arrivalinColchis,thattheyshouldjointheongoingfightonAeetes’side,althoughtheyknowthattheArgonautswillnotwintheGoldenFleecebydoingso.AfterwardsthegoddesseswilljointlymakesurebyothermeansthattheGreekscangaintheFleeceandsafelyreturnhome(5.278–99).Thescenecloseswiththeauthorialcomment:‘Soplannedatthattimetheheavenlyonesformen’srenown’(5.296).

Ultimately,allhumanactions,directedorsupportedbyindividualgodsdependingonpersonalinterest,contributetotherealizationofJupiter’splan.Ifdivineactivitiescontradictthisgoalorthreatentodelayittoomuch,Jupiterintervenes(e.g.3.249–52,4.1–21,5.672–89).Onlywithinthisframeworkarethegodsgiventhefreedomtopursue(p.42) theirownagendas.27Forinstance,NeptunewithdrawshissupportforhissonAmycusbecauseJupiterwisheshimtobedefeatedbytheArgonautstoopenuptheseas(4.114–32).PrevaileduponbyJunoandPallas,Neptunecalmstheseastormraisedbythewinds,becausetheArgonauticvoyageisdestinedtotakeplace(1.188–204and1.641–80).Despitehisgreatpowers,evenJupiterhastoaccepttheforceoffateanddoesnotmakeanattempttosavehissonColaxesfromdeathduringthebattleinColchis;heonlygrantshimenormousfightingprowesstowinfinalhonours(6.621–30).28

Humans,however,arenotprivytodivineoperations.Forinstance,whentheArgonautsapproachLemnos,theLemnianwomenareinitiallymindedtoconfrontthemuntilVulcanquellstheirpassions.Polyxo,‘thepriestessbelovedofPhoebus’(2.316),29declaresthat‘thegodthatfavoursLemnos’,presumablyJupiter(cf.2.356–60),hasbroughttheArgonautsthere,30andthatVenusherselfgivestheArgonautsandtheLemnianwomenachancetobejoined(2.316–25).Sanctionedbydivinemessages,thefriendlyreceptionbytheLemnianwomenmakestheArgonautsloseinterestintravellingfurther(2.371–3),untilHerculesremindsthemoftheirjourney’spurpose(2.373–92).Herethemotivationforreturningtothemainactionderivesfromanepiccharacter;ultimately,thisisanothersteptowardsthefulfilmentofJupiter’splan.

DoublemotivationofhumanactionsWhereasonLemnosprogressisbroughtaboutwithinthehumansphere,actionsofepiccharactersareoftengivendoublemotivation:apsychologicaloneandonebasedondivinemessages.31WhenJasondecidestoacceptPelias’order,oneofthemotivationsistheexpectationofwinningglory(1.75–8).StrivingforgloryisthereforeoftenseenasJason’ssolemotiveandpresentedasanegativetrait.32Thestructureofthenarrative(p.43) makesitclearthatJasonbuildsonconfidenceinJunoandPallas,andthathisreligiofinallygiveshimthereassurancetogo(1.73–4,1.79–80).Thegoddessesbecomeactiveimmediately(1.91–9),aproofthatJason’sreligioisvalued.

Peliasisalsodoublymotivated:thepoetnarratesthattheageing‘tyrant’isconcernedbecauseofJasonand‘threatsofheaven’,sincesoothsayershavepredictedhisdownfall


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atJason’shands,andvictimsatthealtarhaverepeatedthewarning.33Aboveall,Jason’sfameandvirtueareweighingheavilyuponPelias(1.26–30).ThemaliciousplanPeliasdevelopsasaresponse,namelytodestroyJasonbyorderinghimtotraveltoColchis,introducestheArgonauticvoyageatthelevelofthenarrative.WhenPeliastriestocircumventwhathasbeenforetoldbydivineomens,heactuallycontributestothecompletionofJupiter’splan.Peliasmaybesaidtoreacttothedivinemessageaccordingtohisnature,orthedivinesignsmaybethoughttodeterminethetimingofhisinitiative.34Yetsuchreadingsdonotfullycoverthecomplexcharacteroftheomens:thepoetmentionsthethreateningsigns,broughtaboutbyanonymousgods,asasecondelementindependentofPelias’personalfears,whilethephrasing,accordingtowhichsacrificialvictimsreinforcewhattheseerssay,strengthenstheforceandplausibilityoftheexternaldivinesignal.OnlybymeansofthisdivineauthoritydoesPeliasgetconfirmationthathisjealousfearsarenotwithoutreason.

AsimilarstructureappliestoAeetes’motivationinColchis.35Heretheentireset-upisrathercomplexandalsoincludesdirectdivineintervention.Inadream,AeetesseesPhrixus,whosays:‘dolourandruinofyourrealmshallaboundforyou,whenthefleeceisstolenfromthesleep-druggedgrove’(5.236–7);thenheordersAeetesnottoletMedea,whomeversheshouldmarry,remainwithinherfather’skingdom.36Phrixusfunctionsasamessenger;theultimateoriginoftheprophecyisnotrevealed.LikePelias,Aeetesisonlyconcernedwithretaininghispower;thereforehetakesactiontoforestallthedangersprophesiedbyPhrixus,firstbyaskingthegodsSolandMarsforsupportandthenbypromisingMedeatoanAlbanianprince(5.244–58).Aeetes’appealtothe(p.44) godsmeetswithsuccess:aserpentappearsimmediately‘notwithoutthewillofthegod’,entwiningthegrovewheretheGoldenFleeceiskeptandlookingtowardsGreece(5.253–5).

ByinterpretingPhrixus’wordsonlywithaviewtomaintaininghispower,anddisregardingthewelfareoftheColchians,asthepoetnotes(5.263–5),thekingplaceshimselfinoppositiontohisownpeople,whoaskforthereturnoftheFleece.Inparticular,‘thegodwhoalwaysforewarns’(5.260)37sendsevilomensandportentsthroughoutthecity;apriestinterpretsthemasindicationthattheFleeceshouldbereturnedtoGreece(5.259–62).Thiscreatesadivineentitywithadifferentmessage,thoughitsidentitydoesnotbecomeclear.Bycomplyingwiththisadvice,theColchianscouldhaveavoidedamilitaryconflict.ButbecauseAeetesinterpretsPhrixus’warningwithreferencetohimselfandthereforerefusestofollowthepeople’swishes,andasheseesPersessettinghishopesonpower(5.269–71),38thetwomessagessentbyundetermineddivinitiescausethemilitaryconflictbetweenAeetesandhishalf-brotherPerses(5.271–5).

WhileitispossibletoassumethatthedreamappearanceisexploitedtoillustrateAeetes’ownanxieties,theincidentsinthecityandtheirinterpretationbyapriestbelongtoacourseofeventsthatisunexpectedlycreatedbyexternalintervention.Theoccurrenceoftwodivinemessagesmightbeinterpretedasindicatingtwodifferentpointsofvieworasambiguouslyphrasedoraclesexpressingthesameidea.39Butwithnoportents,therewouldbenomotivationforPersestotakeaction.Thepresentationrathersuggeststhat


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theeventsaretobeseenasdirectedbythedivineinthebackground,justasthearrivaloftheArgonautsduringatrucebetweenthetwobrothersisdescribedas‘ordainedbyfate’(5.277)andtherebycharacterizedasexternallydetermined.

(p.45) TheinvolvementoftheArgonautsinthecivilwarinColchisisnotyetthemilitaryconflictbetweenAsiaandGreeceintendedbyJupiter(1.542–54),asisrevealedinadiscussionbetweenJunoandPallasupontheArgonauts’arrival.ThegoddessesdecidethattheArgonautsshouldsupportAeetes,sothatPallashasachancetoengageinbattle,andtheyagreethattheywillresorttoothermeanslater,inorderforJasontowintheFleeceandreturnhome(5.278–96).Thegoddesses’plansaretranslatedintorealityonthehumanlevelwhentheArgonautsareinitiallydeceivedbyAeetes,who‘promises’theFleeceasarewardfortheirparticipationinthefighting(5.528–41).Asaresultofthedivineandhumanmotivationscombined,theArgonautsmakenoprogress,andJunoeventuallyrealizesthatheractualgoalcannotbeachievedinthisway.ThereforeshedecidestogainMedea’ssupport(6.427–55,7.153–299).

AhorrifyingdreamhasindicatedtoMedeathattheArgonauts’arrivalinColchiswillhaveterrible,predeterminedconsequencesforher(5.329–42).Again,nospecificgodisidentifiedasinitiatingthisdream,whichforeshadowsthemurderofMedea’sbrotherandherchildren.Theseportentsaffectanaddresseewhoisvirtuallyunprepared,sinceMedeaislyinginrelaxedsleepwithoutanytroublewhenthedreamappears(5.333–4).Thusitismadeclearthatthedreamhaspropheticsignificance;ithasnotdevelopedfromhumanpreoccupationsanddoesnotrevealsecretwishes.40Bycontrast,inApollonius’account,MedeahasadreamaftermeetingJason;thisdreamdoesnotextendtothefuture,butratherfocusesonthedecisiontobemadebetweenJasonandherparents(A.R.3.616–32).AsValerius’Medeaisunexpectedlyconfrontedbydivinepredictions,whichshedoesnotunderstand,sheseekspurificationfromthedreaminanattempttoavoidtheundefinedhorrors.Thishumanreaction,however,bringsaboutherfirstmeetingwithJason,beautifiedbyJuno(5.329–98).Withinthiscomplexseriesofforeshadowing,activitiesofindividualgodsandhumanactions,bywhichValeriuslaunchesthepresentationoftheeventsinColchis,humansmaybelievethattheyareactingfreely.Infact,theybecomesubjecttoasuperiordirectingforce,particularlywhentheyreacttodivinesignals.

Directdivineintervention(indisguise)ThesamerelationshipbetweenhumanactivitiesanddivinewillappliestoMedeabeingbroughttosupportJason:Junoresolvestointervene(p.46) whensheseesnootherwayofensuringJason’ssuccess(6.427–54).41ThegoddessfirsttriestodeceiveVenusbyaskingforthelatter’smagicgirdle,allegedlyforherself(6.455–76).Thoughrecognizingthedeceit,Venusagrees,becauseofherlong-standinghatredofColchis(6.467–9).ArmedwiththegirdleanddisguisedasChalciope,Medea’ssister,JunoputspressureonMedea(6.477–94,6.575–601,6.657–80);sheleavesherwhensheisconfidentthathertrickwillbesuccessful(6.680).Medea,however,isnotaneasilypliableobjectofdivinewill:sheopposesthedivineforces(7.160–61)withsuchmightthatJunoisobligedtocalluponVenusformorehelp.DisguisedasCirce,Medea’saunt,Venus


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managestoleadtheheroinetoameetingwithJason(7.153–406).ThegoddesseseventuallygetMedeatoturnagainstherfatherandfatherland,althoughherpudor(‘shame’)andpietas(‘piety’)adviseagainstit;yetsheisonlyovercomeafteralongstruggleandmuchhardworkonthepartofthedivine.

Theinterventionofthetwogoddessesismotivatedbypersonalinterests.Medea’sstrugglewithopposingpowerfulforcescouldbeconstruedasaprocesstakingplacewithinhersoulandmind,asinOvid(Met.7.7–99).Valerius,however,hasnotchosenthisoption.IfthegoddessesarestillseenasrepresentingconflictingviewsandfeelingsinMedea’smind,i.e.assymbolsoftheforceoflove,thenthequestionremainswhyonlyonesideshouldbesymbolizedbydivinitieswhereastheotherpartisportrayedbythepoetstraightforwardlyasMedea’sthoughtsandvalues.42Thereisnooppositionbetweenpersonifiedmoralentities,asincontemporaryepics,when,forinstance,VirtusandVoluptaseachtrytopersuadeScipioinSilius(Sil.15.1–130),orwhenPietasandTisiphonefighteachotherinStatius(Theb.11.457–96).Valeriusshowsthatall-powerfulsupernaturalforcesmanipulatehumans,sothattheyfollowthepredeterminedcourseofevents,evenagainsttheirwill.43

ThisisalessfancifulportrayalthanthecorrespondingsceneinApollonius,wherethegoddessesmanagetowinthesupportofEros,whoiscalledawayfromhisgamesandthenpiercesMedeawithanarrow(A.R.3.6–166,3.275–98).Valerius’Medeaisdescribedasan‘unhappy’girl,unawareoffutureevils,atthemercyofher‘false’relative(6.490–91).Moreover,ValeriusmakesHecate,Medea’spatroness,commentthat(p.47)MedeawillgotoGreece‘unwillingly’(haudsponte,6.498).Attheendofthelongprocess,MedeaherselffeelsthatsheisdefeatedbyanunspecifiednumenandJason’sfata.44JupiterhasannouncedMedea’sliaisonwithJasonaspartofthepredeterminedcourseofeventsinworldhistory(1.546–51);theactivitiesofthegoddessescontributetoitsfulfilment.

DivinemessagesandhumanreactionsPredeterminedincidentsaretranslatedintoreality,evenwhenepiccharactersdonotreacttodivinemessages.Forinstance,JasonseemstohavelearnedthatHerculeswouldnotparticipateinthejourneyuntilitsveryend.WhentheArgonautsareabouttosailfromMysiaandleaveHerculesbehind,Jasonremembersanoraclethathadannounced‘thathewhowasthemightiestinarmsofallthisbandshouldbeheldfastbyfateandJove’scommandbeforehereachedtheseathatstormsaboutthewanderingrocks’(3.619–21).Jasonwishesthatthiswereafalseoracle,buthastoacceptitsvalidity.45InthiscaseJasonhasknownfuturesadevents,buthasapparentlytakennostepstopreventthemortopreparehimselffortheireventualrealization.Thereforehehastoacceptwhatisfated,eventhoughitgoesagainsthissenseofloyaltyandduty.46

Likewise,Cyzicushasnotpaidattentionwhenbirdsandflashesoflightningpredictedhisdeath.Inthiscontext,anauthorialcommentaskswhichhumanwouldnotrejectthefirstdivinesignsandinsteadexpectalonglife(3.352–6).Knowledgeofthefuturehasbeengranted,buthasnothelpedtheindividualtocope;thisisexplainedbyacommonhumantendencytoshyawayfromterribletruths.HencenoparticularguiltonCyzicus’partis


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highlighted;hiskillingofthesacredlionandCybele’sresultingangerandrevenge(3.19–31)turnoutonlytohavetriggeredhisend,butCyzicuscouldnothaveavoidedhispredeterminedfate.47ThesourceofthesedivinewarningsandthetimeatwhichCyzicus’fate(p.48) issealed(thebuildingoftheArgo)suggestthathisdeathispartofthepredestinedplanfortheworldinconnectionwiththeArgonauticvoyage.BothCyzicus’andJason’sbehaviourrevealsacertaintypeofhumanreactionstodivinemessages,whichissimilarlydescribedbyStatius(Theb.6.934–7)andSilius(Sil.13.494–506).

SincesucharesponsetodivinelyconveyedmessagesispresentedascharacteristicofhumansinValerius,itbecomesallthemoreremarkablehowseriouslyepiccharacterstakedivinemessages:eithertheyobeythemortheytrytoachieveadifferentresult.WhilesomeoftheforeshadowingislinkedtoJupiterorApollo,alargeproportioncomesfromunidentifiedsources,fromunspecifiednumina/diui,orisgiveninimpersonalform.Nevertheless,theyarealltakenintoaccountbytheepiccharacters.Thismightsuggestthatthepresenceofgodsasnamedindividualsisratheranelementofpoetictradition;andinValerius’timeanthropomorphicfeaturesthatturngodsintofull-scaleindividualsarelimitedinliterarydescriptions.Yetthisdoesnotexplainsufficientlythedivineinfluenceonthelivesofthecharacters,aswellasthecomplexjuxtapositionoffatum,theintentionsofothergods,andJupiter’sworldplan.

Fateand‘free’decisionsofgodsandhumansIntheArgonautica,thereexistsahierarchybetweenfatumandindividualgods,inasmuchasJupiter’splandeterminesthelivesofthecharacters.Therestofthegods,includingJupiterhimself,cannotobstructtheforceofdestinysetalongtimebeforehand.Onlywithinthispredeterminedframeworkarethegodsgiventhefreedomtopursuetheirownagendas.WheneverJupiterintervenesasmoderator,otherdivinitieslearnwhytheiractionshavetobelimitedbyfirmboundaries.Fortheprotagonistswhoneverreceiveclearinformationabouttheoverallframework,thegodsremaintheiraddressees:humansworshiptheminritualsandaskforsupportandfurtherinformationaboutthefuture.Itisnotobvioustohumansthatthegodsthemselvesarenotcompletelyfreeintheiractions.

Sincetheepicprotagonistsareawarethattheyaresubjecttotheworkingsoffate(orthewishesoftheindividualgods)beyondtheir(p.49) control,theytrytolearnasmuchaspossible.Bybeingforewarnedorbyatleastunderstandingthecontextafterwards,humansareabletocometotermswithwhattheyexperience.Divinemessagesareoftenunclearandmustbeinterpreted;thepersonalityofindividualsinfluenceshumanactionsaccordingly.48Thereisthereforespaceforpsychologicalmotivationbehindhumanactions,asValeriusseemstosuggestbyexploitingdoublemotivation.

DivinemessagesThestatusandfunctionofdivinemessagesemergesfromtheoverallrelationshipbetweenhumancharactersandthegodsorfata:49humansviewthegodsaspowersthatinfluencetheirlivesanddeserveworship;divinemessagesmayprovide(partial)insightintowhatispredeterminedbyfate.50Thegods,however,oftenfollowtheirownagendas


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anddonotactinaccordancewiththefata.ThereforeJupiterhastocallthemtoorder.51Stillitisclearthat,besidesthenoticeableinfluenceofgods,thereisanimpersonalfatetowhichevenJupiterissubject,andwhichwillberealizedatanycost.

Thisprovidesafurther,philosophicallayer,informedbyStoicdoctrine:although,incontrasttohispredecessorLucan,Valeriushasintroducedgodsintotheepicnarrative,theconceptunderlyingtheArgonauticaisactuallynotsodifferentfromtheDebellociuili,becausefortuneandfateareimportantfactorsinLucan’sepictoo(e.g.,Luc.1.262–5,2.699–701,3.392–4,9.890–91).Thereforethe(Olympic)godsinValeriusfunctionbothastraditionalelementsinthenarrativeandasrepresentativesofamiddlelevelintherelationshipbetweenthedivineandthehumanspheres.Acrucialdifference,however,isthatthe(p.50) narratorinLucanwishesthatJupiterlefthumansunawareofthefuture,sothattheycanstillenjoyhoperatherthanliveinfearofterribleeventstocome(Luc.2.4–15);inStatius(Theb.3.551–65)thereisalsoanoutburstagainsttheunsettlingconsequencesofwantingtoknowthefuture.Conversely,Valerius’characterstrytoseekreassurancebygaininginformationaboutthefuture,whileJupiterwithholdscompleteknowledgefromthem.

WithinthecontextoftherelationshipbetweengodsandhumansJupiterispresentedasoccupyingaspecialrole:hehascreatedtheworldplan,hechecksthatitisfulfilledbycontributionsfromgodsandmenandthatothergodsdonotinterferetoomuch,butheishimselfsubjecttothenecessitiesofthisplan.52Jupitercallshisplanfata(1.534),thoughelsewherefatum/fataandJupiterarejuxtaposed(3.620).53Indeed,theideathatJupitermaynotbetheconcretefigure,whohurlsthunderbolts,butratherasupernatural,powerfulforcethatdetermineseverything,andcouldalsobecalled‘fate’or‘providence’,agreeswithStoicdoctrinefoundinSenecatheYounger(Sen.Nat.2.45).ThathumansareruledbypredeterminedfateisinlinewithideasinSenecaandLucan:humanwillisirrelevant,forwhathasbeendeterminedbyfatewillhappen,andunwillinghumanswillbedraggedalonginthatdirectionandevenmadeguiltyagainsttheirintentions(Sen.Ep.107.7–11;Luc.7.485–8).ThenotionthatJupiterasacreatorhasfixedaworldplanandcannotchangeitafterwards,andthathumansandgods,includingJupiterhimself,aresubjecttoitsrules,hasaparallelinSeneca’sDeprouidentia(Sen.Dial.1.5.8–9).Thedialogue’sjuxtapositionofStoicfatumandactivegodsreadsalmostlikeaphilosophicalconceptforValerius’Argonautica.ThusValeriushascreatedaframeworknotonlyinlinewiththeliterarytraditionofepic,butalsorelevanttophilosophicalconcernsofhistime.

IntheArgonauticatraditionalgods,aswellasoracles,prodigies,andpropheciesofthepoetictradition,havebeenadaptedtoamorerationalistorphilosophicalframework,where,however,external,supernaturalforcesandmysteriouscoincidences(actuallydeterminedbyfate)remainasoutsideinfluencesonthelivesofepiccharacters.Engagingwithgodsaspowerfulentitiesbyreceivingdivinemessagesandprayersinan(p.51)attempttowardoffbadconsequencesoratleasttobepreparedforimpendingeventsistheonly,notalwayssuccessful,optionfortheprotagoniststocopewiththeirsituation.Attributingeventstotheworkingsofdestiny,whichwillcarryonirrespectiveofthe


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wishesandintentionsofindividuals,isasteptowardsanexplanationofthecourseofeventsthathumansareconfrontedwith,butdonotalwaysunderstand.(p.52)

Notes:

(1)Cf.Ferenczi(1996:44–6).

(2)Theexistenceofanoverallplanthatdeterminestheoutcomeofdivineandhumanactionsdoesnotnecessarilyimplythatitmustleadtoapositiveoutcomeforallpartiesconcerned(butcf.e.g.Lefèvre1998:230).

(3)OnseveraloccasionsitishighlightedthattheArgonautslandsomewhereasarrangedbyfataand/orgods,andinsomecasesthelocalsentertainhopesthatthiswillbringthehelppredictedbydivinesigns(2.322–4,2.356,2.445–6,2.486,4.483–5);seeAdamietz(1976:38and59).

(4)Forsomeexamples,seeGroß(2003).

(5)Cf.Billerbeck(1986:3130)(thoughshebelievesthatJupiter’splandoesnotplayamajorroleintheepic);Groß(2003passim).

(6)Seee.g.Eigler(1991:163–4and167);Gärtner(1996:295–6);contrastSoubiran(2002:36).

(7)SeeGroß(2003:9,123,243).

(8)Forinstance,HesioneseesinHerculesthesaviourpromisedbyauguries(2.485–6).SuchanoracleisonlyfoundinValerius’version;cf.Poortvliet(1991:262);Spaltenstein(2002:444);Dräger(2003:395).SeealsoGärtner’s(1996)interpretationofdreamsasannouncinganindividual’swishes.

(9)Forasummaryoftheissue,cf.Zissos(2008:xiii–xiv,80).Boyancé(1935;1964)claimsthatreligionplaysamajorroleintheepicandisanimportantsourceforcertainritesdescribed,becauseofValerius’positionasquindecimuir.

(10)OnNaevius,cf.Gel.17.21.45;onEnnius,cf.Enn.Ann.2,3,11Skutsch;Tert.An.33.8;Schol.adPers.Prol.2–3andadPers.6.11.

(11)Cf.Spaltenstein(2002:137);onthisscene,seeSchubert(1984:182–3);Gärtner(1996:292–6);Groß(2003:130–38).

(12)ThusLüthje(1971:27–8);Groß(2003:134–5).

(13)LatertheArgoexhibitsjoywhenJasonwinstheFleece(8.129–30),thoughwithoutanypropheticforce;cf.Spaltenstein(2004:441).

(14)Onthedifficultiesofa‘realistic’explanationofthisstatement,seeZissos(2008:317).Dräger(2003:357),forinstance,concludesthatitmustrefertoanoraclethatJasonhad


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receivedinthemeantime(seen.20below).Feeney(1991:318)assumesthatoneoftheprophesyingoaksistheArgo.

(15)ForafullerdiscussionofthePhineusepisode(includingtheselines)andbibliography,seeManuwald(2009).

(16)Mopsusisawareoffutureeventsalsoelsewhere(8.247–51,8.395–9).

(17)Difficultdivinemessagesarenotlimitedtoverbalcommunications.OnthedecorationofthedoorsofSol’stemple,fashionedbyVulcan,theColchiansarenotyetabletoidentifythefutureeventsdepicted,butareratherawestruck,asaretheArgonauts(5.408–55);seeGroß(2003:177–83).

(18)Lovatt(Ch.3)pointsto‘thecontrastbetweenthestageyprophecyofMopsusandthematter-of-factinterventionofIdmon…twodifferenttypesofprophecy,thedramaticandthepersuasive’.

(19)SeeLovatt’sanalysisinCh.3belowofthetheatricalityofprophecyanditspoliticalsignificance.

(20)Cf.Ferenczi(1996:45);butcf.Lefèvre(1991:178).Again(seen.14above),Dräger(2003:333)infersthatJason’sassessmentisbasedonanoraclesoughtbutnevermentionedinthetext.ThereisnoevidencethattheArgonautsareawareofJupiter’splan.Dräger(1993:336–55)and(1998:206–11),however,assumesthatJasonhadgainedinformationfromtheoraclesatDelphiandDodonabeforesailingoff.Eventhoughpronouncementsoforaclesarementionedthroughoutthepoemwithoutnarrationofanactualconsultation,thisisnotasufficientbasisforconstruingaprehistory.Anearlierauguriuminadifferentcontext(1.156–62)hasalsobeenseenasanexplanationforJason’sviews,seeLüthje(1971:20and27n.2).

(21)Forasimilaralternative,cf.Virg.Aen.9.184–7.Lüthje(1971:108)relatesJason’squestiontohisdesireforgloryandfame.ButJasonandhismenwouldnotbeabletomoveonwithoutthesupportofMopsus’ritual.OnthesignificantroleofMopsusinValerius,seeSpaltenstein(2004:114);onthispassage,cf.alsoSchubert(1984:269–71).

(22)Mopsus’erectingaltarsto‘godswithnamesunknown’(3.426–7)willhaveresonatedwithRomanreaders.OnrelevantRomanbeliefs,seeScheid(2003:153–4).

(23)OnthesignificanceofApolloinconnectionwithprophecies,seeSchubert(1984:183–4).

(24)OnreligioninRomanepic,seeFeeney(2007)andtheIntroductiontothisvolume.

(25)Scholarshaverightlyobservedthatsuchpredictionsarenotmentionedelsewhere,withdifferentexplanations(seenn.14and20above);seeDräger(2003:414);Groß(2003:191);Spaltenstein(2004:96).ThepoetinsertstheinformationatthispointtoillustratetheseverityoftheblowtoJason.


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(26)SeeGroß(2003:76–80).

(27)Cf.Billerbeck(1986:3130)andGroß(2003:226–38).

(28)Cf.Virgil’sJupiterandHercules(Aen.10.466–72).ContrastStatius’Jupiter(Theb.1.197–213),whoseordersareobeyedbythegodsandfollowedbythefata.

(29)OnlyinValerius:seeAdamietz(1976:34);Poortvliet(1991:182);Spaltenstein(2002:394);Dräger(2003:386).Onthisscene,seeGroß(2003:141–4).

(30)IfSummers’(1894:72)supplementfatisfortheincompleteline(2.322)iscorrect,agodandthefataarebehindtheArgonauts’stoponLemnos;cf.Spaltenstein(2002:396).

(31)Theinterpretationthattheinvolvementofgodsaddsapsychologicaldimensiontoindividuals’motivation(seee.g.Groß2003:239)explainsonlyapartofthecomplexset-up.

(32)Seee.g.Lüthje(1971:6);Lefèvre(1991:178–80);Gärtner(1996:295);Groß(2003:12–19);butalsoZissos(2008:127).

(33)ThedivinesignsaredirectlyrelatedtoJasoninValerius(thereisnowarningagainstapersonwearingoneshoe,asinotherversions);thusthedivinemessagecanbecloselyassociatedwithapsychologicalmotivationonthehumanlevel.ThepoetalsopresentsthedivinemessageaccordingtotypicalformsofRomandivination;cf.Dräger(2003:320).

(34)SeeGroß(2003:7–8).Theview,however,thatdivinesignshaveprovokedPeliastodowhathewouldnothavedoneotherwise(so,elsewhere,Groß(2003:121))ignoresoneelementofthemotivation.

(35)Cf.Adamietz(1976:70–71).

(36)SeeFucecchi’sdiscussioninCh.1above.

(37)Itisunclearfromthenarrativewhetherthephrasesempermonensdeusreferstoaparticulargod(andtowhichone)orwhetheritfunctionsasageneraltermfordivinity;seeDräger(2003:459);Spaltenstein(2004:456).Onthisscene,seeGärtner(1996:298–300);Lefèvre(1998:225–8).

(38)Lüthje(1971:207–8)andLefèvre(1998:228)highlightthatPerses’actionsaredeterminedbyconcernforhisownpowerratherthanbyhisintentiontofollowdivineorders.Perses’motives,however,aredescribedfromAeetes’pointofview,andheonlybecomesactiveinresponsetodivinesigns.

(39)Somescholarsplaceemphasisonrapta(‘seized’,5.237)andtrytoreconcilethetwopiecesofadvice:AeetesistoldofdangeronlyiftheGoldenFleeceweretobe‘stolen’,butthereisnowarningwithregardtohandingitover.Yethemisinterpretstheprophecy,drivenbyhisdesireforpower;seeLüthje(1971:206–7);Gärtner(1996:


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299–300);Groß(2003:113).Thisreadingispossibleinhindsight.ButAeetesreactslikePelias,readingtheprophecyinthemostobviousway,whichisprobablyintended.

(40)Ondifferenttypesofdreamsintheancientworld,seeKessels(1969).

(41)Throughoutthepoem,Junoisperhapsthegoddesswhohasrecoursetothemostdirect(andtraditionalepic)meansofsupportingJasonandinfluencingthecourseofevents:shebeautifiesJason(5.363–72);shesurroundshimwithaprotectivemist(5.399–401);sheincreaseshisfightingpower(6.602–8);cf.Schubert(1991).

(42)Forargumentsagainstasymbolicinterpretationofthegods,seeFerenczi(1998:344–6).

(43)ThepoweroffataisanissueinVirgil’sAeneidaswell,anditismadeexplicite.g.inAeneas’answertoDidowhenheisabouttoleaveCarthage(Aen.4.340–47).

(44)Cf.esp.7.292–9,7.309–24,7.371–2,7.446,7.461–2.

(45)Thetheorythattheselinescouldbeignoredbecausethepoetwouldhaverevisedthembeforepublication(Lüthje1971:118n.1)isaneasysolution,butthereisnoevidenceforsuchanassumption.Dräger(2003:423)againinfersthatJasonhadsoughtthisoraclebeforedeparture;cf.alsoGroß(2003:228–9).

(46)OntheconsequencesofthissceneforJason’scharacterization,seeAdamietz(1976:51).

(47)Lüthje(1971:106–7)believesthatCyzicusbearssomeguiltforhisdeathbecausehehadnottakenthewarningsseriously.Thepoet,however,emphasizesthatthisisnotCyzicus’particularfault,butrathertheordinarybehaviourofhumans;seealsoGroß(2003:192–3).

(48)Groß(2003:9,123,243)stressesthatdivinemessagessupportthecharactersofindividualsandthathumanshavetoactbythemselves.Thepresentationintheepicseemstosuggest,however,thathumansarehappytoobeydivinewishes,eventhoughitisoftendifficulttoidentifythem.

(49)Fortunaisalsomentionedseveraltimesasacauseforparticularactionsorevents(e.g.2.594,3.293,5.113).

(50)Cf.Tuttle,Ch.4below,onaugury.

(51)Cf.Jupiter’swordstoJunoatVirgil’sAen.12.800–6:sheisawarethatwhathasbeenordainedbyJupiterandbyfatemusthappen,andsheonlyasksforconcessionsinanareathathasnotbeendeterminedinordertosatisfyherpersonalwishes(Aen.12.807–28).ToacertainextentJupiterallowsthefatestohavetheirwaywithoutintervening(Aen.10.111–13).


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(52)Ferenczi(1996:esp.37–8,46,47–8)emphasizesthatinValeriusthereislessscepticismandmoreharmonythaninLucan,andthatthereishopeforabasicorderofthings.Valeriusshowsthatthereisanoverallorder,eventhoughitmaynotbealwayspositiveforthehumansaffected.

(53)ForsomepreliminarythoughtsonthegodsandfateinValerius,seeManuwald(1999:177–224).

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Divine Messages and Human Actions in the Argonautica