DISCUSSION

i Discussion

Documentation of traditional knowledge on medicinal plants from different

tribes/cultures/communities is an important tool in identifying/discovering plants with

useful medicinal properties (Balandrin et al., 1993). It is also helpful in the discovery of

novel chemicals from plants and conservation of important species and their sustainable

use (Gemedo-Dalle et al, 2005). The documentation and preservation of traditional

utility of medicinal plants is the first step towards developing potential drug(s) for the

treatment of chronic diseases (Said et al., 2002).

A survey of Shimoga district for ethnobotanical information for the treatment of

ailments affecting human and veterinary animals indicated that this district has a vast

reservoir of information. Ethnobotanical formulations involving a variety of plants are

being used by the healers. The details of all aspects of reveals and observations are

subjected to analytical methods and discussed in detail in this section.

I. Ethnomedico-botanical field survey in Shimoga district

1. Socio-demographic information of resident traditional lierbal practitioners in Shimoga district

Most of the resident informants who have good experience in folk medicine love

farming. The major economy of healers of the study area is through agriculture and some

times through livestock.

Socio-demographic data of Shimoga district revealed that most informants

received primary and secondary level education and some are illiterate. Despite their low

level of education, most of the traditional herbal healers have acquired sound knowledge

of medicinal practices from their ancestors. The data of the present study also indicate

223

! Discussion

that elder healers of the study area have good knowledge of the utilization of medicinal

plants and provide remedies for both human as well as veterinary complaints. They are of

the opinion that the young generation is not showing any interest in practicing/using these

traditional medicines as they are lured to towns for better living standards. This is well

reflected in other studies (Kargioglu et al., 2008). Most of the healers are reluctant to the

transfer of traditional medical knowledge to others, and only a few of them are willing to

part with their knowledge. Most healers believe that the medicinal property of the plant

species would be lost if revealed to other people, should they take up practicing.

In Shimoga district, majority of the male healers practiced herbal medicine for

more than 10 years whilst most female healers had practiced for less than 10 years. From

across the globe male rather than female healers were involved in herbal medicine

(Begosi et al., 2002; Collins et al., 2006; Teklehaymanot and Giday, 2007). In central

Ethiopia male healers used an average of 5.77 medicinal plant species as compared to

1.67 by females (Teklehaymanot and Giday, 2007). This was supported by reports from

other regions (Weldegerima et al., 2008; Roosita et al., 2008; Mesfin et al., 2009; Jaroli

et al., 2010). However, the female informants were consulted mainly to treat

diseases/disorders that affected children and women such as cough, cold, fever,

dysentery, fits, stomach-ache, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, dysmenorrhoea and pregnancy

related problems. In most cases, the traditional herbal knowledge utilization in the

community or family has been passed on from grand-parents and parents to their

offsprings. This corroborates with the findings of other studies from African countries

(Srithi et al., 2009; Okello and Ssegawa, 2007).

2. Treatment of human and veterinary ailments with medicinal plants in Shimoga district

Out of 52 human ailments, the most widely occurring human diseases include

dysentery/diarrhoea, wounds, rheumatic pain, jaundice, bone fracture, herpes,

224

Discussion

leucorrhoea and fever. In addition to this, other ailments like piles, diabetes, dental

problems, snake bite, cough, cold, head-ache, asthma, stomach-ache, eczema and

ringworm are also reported to occur. The utilization of 263 plant species for the treatment

of 80 diseases and disorders that affected human and veterinary animals reflected the

depth of traditional knowledge of the locally available medicinal plants and their uses.

The large number of medicinal plant species associated with ethno-medicinal knowledge

in the district as compared to reports from other regions in Karnataka (Harsha, 2004;

Bhandary et al, 1995, 1996; Prashanthkumar and Vidyasagar, 2008) indicated that

Shimoga district is bestowed with diverse medicinal plant species which find their

application in indigenous herbal medicine.

Diversity of medicinal plant utility could be attributed to the prevalence of diverse

ailments in the local communities of Shimoga district. The importance of each ailment

was evaluated based on the number of citations made by informants. Among the ten

disease categories, gastro-intestinal diseases are the most prevalent and an important

ailment in the community. Results of the present study corroborated with the findings of

other workers in different regions of the world, such as, ethnic communities of Mexico,

Argentina, Portugal and Spain (Estomba et al, 2006; Leonti et al, 2001; Novais et al,

2004; Bonet et al, 1999). The second most prevalent disease category is the skin

diseases, which is followed by general health, respiratory disorders, wounds, urological

problems, women's disorders and liver complaints.

Many farmers in developing countries are unable to access veterinary

pharmaceuticals to cure ailments of their animals (Ketzis and Brown, 2003). However,

they depended on the locally available alternatives such as plant or animal products to

treat many primary diseases and disorders of their livestock. Out of 28 veterinary

ailments are reported in Shimoga district, foot and mouth disease, bone fracture,

dysentery, skin allergies, snake bite, and wound and worms occurred commonly. Cattle

225

Discussion

are the most treated animals. The use of the bark of Terminalia bellirica in the treatment

of foot and mouth disease in cattle in most of the cases (15) and Tabernaemontana

alternifolia in the treatment of snake bite (8) are important reveals. Followed by these

two plant species, is the use of Vallaris solanacea for bone fracture and wound healing.

Ticks are the main ecto-parasites of cattle which are controlled with Tridax procumbens,

Tagetes erecta, or Mimosa pudica. In Kenya, people used Tithonia diversifolia and

Tagetes minuta extensively for controlling the tick menace (Njoroge and Bussmann,

2006).

2.1. Life forms and habitat of medicinal plants

The resident folk practitioners of Shimoga district used tree species mainly for the

herbal formulation as they are available all through the seasons. Reports from other

regions also suggested that trees are the most preferred growth forms for herbal drug

preparation (Raju and Reddy, 2005; Albuquerque, 2006; Collins et al, 2006; Yineger and

Yewhalaw, 2007). The second preferred life form is herbaceous plants. There are also

reports that revealed the use of herbal species as the major source of herbal drugs (Pandi

kumar et al, 2007; Panghal et al, 2010; Tabuti et al, 2003; Muthu et al, 2006; Uniyal et

al, 2007).

Most of the medicinal plants used by healers in Shimoga district are collected

from the wild as reported from other regions (Tabuti et al, 2003; Bussman and Sharon,

2006; Wondimu et al, IQQl; Yineger et al, 2008). Majority of plants are harvested from

forested area, grazing land, road-side or near riverine area. Certain plants were also

collected from their own farm land or home gardens. Many practitioners did not cultivate

medicinal plants in their home gardens as they are reluctant to share their knowledge with

others; they also believed that the cultivated medicinal plants have low potency. The

healers of Shimoga are wise and knowledgeable and collected plants or their parts

226

: Discussion

depending on their availability in different seasons. This reflected their concern for

sustainable utilization and conservation of certain rare and endangered medicinal plants.

Plants grouped under 'rarely found' category (Table 12) are either under threat critically

endangered or highly vulnerable (Ravikumar and Ved, 2000). Hence, there is a need to

educate healers on the conservation of these plants under in-situ or ex-situ conditions.

Investigations have also indicated that the healers used more native species than

the exotic the plants. Native species are frequently used for digestive, respiratory and skin

diseases while the exotic species (such as Chromolaena, Lantana, and Ageratum) are

used for wound healing purposes. The Curruhuinca community of North-western

Patagonia knew and used more native species than the exotic species and older people

used more native species than the younger ones (Estomba et al., 2006).

2.2. Families of medicinal plant species used in ethnoformulations

The plant families most commonly and frequently used by the resident

practitioners of Shimoga district are Apocynaceae followed by Fabaceae, Lamiaceae,

Caesalpiniaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae and other families. Twelve plant species of

Apocynaceae are used for treating both human as well as veterinary diseases and

disorders. This indicated that healers of Shimoga district have good knowledge of plants

of Apocynaceae and their medicinal properties. Important plant species are Alstonia

scholaris for the treatment of fever, Ervatamia heyaniana for snake bite, Holarrhena

pubescem for dysentery and intestinal worms, Rauwolfia serpentina for high blood

pressure and snake bite, and Vallaris solanacea for wound and bone fracture. In Nepal,

Apocynaceae members were mainly used for wound and skin diseases (Manandhar et al.,

2000). Fabaceae is the second dominant family and plant species of this are used for

fever, cough, cold, diabetes, blood pressure and wounds in Shimoga district. Sapera

community in Haryana also utilized highest number of Fabaceae plants (Panghal et al.,

Ill

i Discussion

2010). Traditional healers of Zimbabwe and South-eastern Ethiopia also used plant

species of Fabaceae (Kambizi and Afolayan, 2001; Yineger and Yewhalaw, 2007). The

local people of Brazil used Fabaceae plants for wounds, urinary and microbial infections

(Coelho de Souza, 2004), while in Ecuador, they were used for stomach and hepatic

pains, and for wound (Tene et al., 2007). Lamiaceae is the third important plant family

used in the study area for treating cough, cold, sore nose, wound and skin diseases.

Santayana et al. (2005) reported that Lamiaceae plants are mainly used for stomach

related problems and also as relaxant. In Laklei village of Mexico, the local community

used high percentage of plant species of Apocynaceae followed by Euphorbiaceae and

Fabaceae (Collins et al, 2006). Utilization of large number of life forms of different

families indicated the prevalence of highly diverse plant species in the study area.

2.3. Plant parts in herbal formulation

Amongst all the plant parts, leaf is most commonly used in the preparation of

different remedies in the study area. This is in agreement with most other ethnobotanical

studies in the world (Macia et al, 2005; Gazzaneo et al, 2005; Koduru et al, 2007; Srithi

et al, 2009; Neves et al, 2009). In India, Khamptis of Arunachal Pradesh (Sen et al,

2008), Kani of Tamil Nadu (Ayyanur and Ignacimuthu, 2005), Saperas of Haryana

(Panghal et al, 2010), people of Thar desert (Upadhyay et al, 2007) and tribals of

Manipur (Khumbongmayum et al, 2005) also commonly used leaf for the formulation.

Healers of Shimoga district believe that leaves have higher healing potential than the

other parts of plant. According to the folk people, leaves are easily accessible and most

abundant in the area. It is also thought that since leaves are the most vulnerable part, they

might contain more bioactive compound(s) to protect themselves from herbivores

(Bhattarai et al, 2006). Another reason from the sustainable utilization point of view is

that the collection of leaves is more sustainable than the underground parts, stem, bark or

228

i Discussion

entire plant (Giday et al., 2003) as the collection of leaves do not pose danger to the

existence of an individual plant. It could also be due to its availability in plenty in most

parts of the year. These practices might help in reducing the threat on the plant species or

help in the sustainable harvest of plant species, since removal of an appreciable quality of

leaf could be tolerated by the people (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2005).

The second and third preferred plant parts in Shimoga district are the root and

bark, particularly, in dry regions such as Shikaripura and Bhadravati taluks. Since these

regions have dry-deciduous and scrubby jungle type of forests, leaves are not always

available through different seasons which might have forced healers to the use of bark

and roots. Different communities in China and Ethiopia opted for the above plant parts

(Huai and Pei, 2005; Yineger et a/., 2008). Ethnobotanical studies in African countries

highlighted the importance of root in the preparation of herbal remedies (Weldegerima et

al, 1999). In Tanzania, roots are most commonly harvested for remedy preparation as

they are thought to contain more active ingredients (Kitula, 2007). This was also true

with healers of Nepal (Kunwar et al, 2006). Fruits and seeds are used during the non­

availability of leaves during dry season. Sometimes, more than one plant part of the same

species is used in the treatment of different ailment. For example, bark of Cassia fistula

was used for wound, leaves for diabetes and fruits for skin diseases. This might indicate

the selective use of plant parts of the same plant in different seasons for different

ailments.

2.4. Herbal drug preparation and mode of administration

The preparation of herbal therapies from raw materials of medicinal plants are one

of the most important processes in traditional medical practices. Most of the remedies are

prepared from fresh materials of plant species. Scarcity of fresh plant materials led to the

use of dried or stored plant materials. Similar observations were also made by other

229

: Discussion

reports (Giday et al., 2003; Macia et al., 2005). Paste form is used by most of the

medicine men in Shimoga. This was followed by juice, decoction and others. In Sikkim

Himalyan region and Northwestern Ethiopia, local people recommended juice for most of

the ailments (Chanda et al, 2007; Waldegerima et al, 2008).

Healers in Shimoga district used different parts of the same species for different

diseases. Often single plant derived formulations were commonly observed. Healers in

Bolivia and Tanzania also used single plant species for the preparation of herbal remedy

(Macia etal, 2005; Kitula, 2007).

However, polyherbal formulations also find importance in the treatment of certain

diseases like paralysis, rheumatism, cardiac problem and hydrocele. Generally, plants

have different active principles which might exhibit different therapeutic activities, but it

is very interesting to note that the combination of active compounds in these herbs have

been helpful to cure such complex diseases. The efficacy of the mixture of plant species

could be attributed to the promotive effect(s) of additives in herbs or synergistic effects of

different active compounds (Bussmann and Sharon, 2006). Kani tribe of Tamil Nadu

used poly-herbal formulations as they believed that the combination would cure the

disease rapidly (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2005).

The mode of administration of the herbal formulations in Shimoga district is

mainly oral as found in Bolivia and other African countries (Macia et al, 2005; Giday et

al, 2003; Kambzi and Afolayan, 2001). In case of skin diseases and wounds, healers

applied herbal medicine topically. For example, bark paste of Plumeria rubra and leaf

paste oi Persia macrantha for ringworm and wounds, respectively. Traditional healers of

Tanzania also preferred topical application in case of treatment of skin infection and

wounds (Maregesi et al, 2007). The administration of herbal remedies orally or

externally depended on the disease and drug formulation. The inhalation of vapour from

230

Discussion

leaves of Vitex negundo boiled in water relieved fever in the study area. Vapour

inhalation was also practiced in Southeastern Ethiopia (Lulekal et al., 2008).

2.5. Diagnostic tools and prescription, dosage and duration and additive(s)

The disease/disorders were diagnosed based on the physical symptoms as well as

inspection of urine or stool. In most cases, the healers are near accuracy, although

sophisticated techniques involving modem instruments are necessary for fair diagnosis.

The dosage of drug always depended on the experience of the healers and on the

condition and age of the patients.

In the study area, the dosage of traditional herbal medicines depended on healers.

For example, healers of Shimoga taluk used one teaspoonful of root juice of Phyllanthus

amarus whereas those in Soraba taluk prescribed two teaspoonful of root decoction for

the treatment of jaundice. The doses also differed according to different

communities/tribes and regions.

The dosage of herbal drug also depended on the age, sex and physical appearance

of patient, severity of ailment and experience of the healer. This observation was also

reported from Ethiopia (Bekalo et al, 2009). Duration of the treatment also depended on

the severity and nature of illness.

The folk practitioners of Shimoga district recommend the use of certain additives

for bitter herbal remedies that are taken orally. These additives are sweet, salty or sour

and improved the acceptability of the remedy by reducing the bitterness. Water, and milk

products are the main vehicles used in the oral administration. Even in allopathy, drugs

are combined with vehicles and other additive agents to improve the palatability, activity

and absorption by the human body. Healers of Shimoga district prefer milk of a local

breed of cow in a majority of oral applications. Local breeds of cattle are thought to

produce milk which is nutritions and has properties to induce disease resistance in human

231

: Discussion

individuals. This has been attributed to their diet which is predominantly a variety of

grass species. Many ethnic/tribal/rural community people also used suitable additives for

the preparation of herbal remedies (Ozgokce and Ozcelik, 2004; Ratnam and Raju, 2005;

Mesfin et al., 2009). Lack of information on the biological role of these additives has

been discussed in the literature (Ayyanur and Ignacimuthu, 2009).

3. Noteworthy medicinal plants used by the folk healers of Shimoga district

A comparison of the ethno-medico-botanical data collected from Shimoga and the

ethnomedicinal texts (Nadakami, 1994; Jain, 1991; Anonymous, 1992; Maheshwari et

al., 1993; Kirtikar and Basu, 1995) revealed the use of certain plant species from

Shimoga district that are not been mentioned in the previous literature. In Shimoga

district, as many as 54 ethnoformulations involving 70 plant species are new claims,

being exclusively used for the treatment of specific ailments (Table 53). Some of the

noteworthy ethnomedicinal plants have been discussed briefly.

Table 53. Novel applications of traditional medicinal plants in Shimoga district

SI. No. Plant Species Plant part Ailment Taluk

1 Alstonia scholar is Bark Cold and cough Shimoga 2 Amaranthus spinosus Root Fits Shikaripura 3 A. viridis Root Boils Shikaripura 4 Anacardium occidentale Bark Broken horn Hosanagara 5 Apama siliquosa Fruit Intestinal

worms in cattle Sagara

6 Aporosa lindleyana Leaves Fits Thirthahalli Leaves and bark

Dog bite Thirthahalli

7 Artocarpus hirsutus Bark Rheumatism Shikaripura Contd ..

232

Table 53 Continued ...

^= Discussion

8 A. lakoocha Leaves Bone fracture Hosanagara 9 Bacopa monnieri Leaves Stammer Hosanagara 10 Balanites aegyptiaca Fruit Fever Shikaripura 11 Biophytum sensitivum Roots Piles and

retention of placenta in cattle

Hosanagara

12 Blumea lacera Leaves Ectoparasites (lice)

Soraba

13 Calycopteris floribunda Leaves Bum wound Hosanagara 14 Canthium parviflorum Fruit Piles Soraba 15 Cardiospermum halicacabum Leaves Cough Shimoga 16 Carissa carandas Roots Asthma Shimoga 17 Cassia fistula Leaves Acidity Shimoga

Leaves Head-ache Shimoga Leaves Eczema Shimoga

18 C. occidentalis Leaves Nerve swollen Bhadravati Leaves Whitlow Sagara

19 Centella asiatica Leaves Rheumatic pain Soraba 20 Clematis gouriana Leaves Asthma and

ulcer Shimoga

21 Connarus wightii Roots Nerve swelling Sagara 22 Couroupita guianensis Bark Cuts and

wounds Sagara

23 Crinum viviparum Leaves Foot swell Thirthahalli 24 Croton roxburghii Roots Goiter Hosanagara 25 Curculigo orchioides Leaves Dislocation of

bones Sagara

26 Cyclea peltata Leaves Dental pain Hosanagara 27 Datura metel Leaves Jaundice Sagara 28 Elephantopus scaber Leaves Diabetes Soraba 29 Embelia ribes Leaves Paralysis Bhadravati 30 Emilia sonchifolia Leaves Leprosy Shimoga 31 Erythrina variegata Leaves Tooth-ache Shimoga 32 Ficus racemosa Roots Stammer Thirthahalli 33 F. asperrima Bark Skin allergies Sagara 34 Garuga pinnata Bark Jaundice Hosanagara 35 Gnidia glauca Stem bark Wound Thirthahalli 36 Holoptelea integrifolia Bark Cold and cough Shimoga

Contd ...

233

Table 53 Continued ...

^= Discussion

Leaves and bark

Fever Soraba

37 Holarrhena pubescens Roots Ringworm Bhadravati 38 Ixora coccinea Roots Urinary

infection Hosanagara

39 Jasminum malabaricum Stem juice Corneal opacity Thirthahalli 40 Kigelia pinnata Fruit pulp Weakness Soraba 41 Leea indica Leaves Fever Soraba 42 Leucas aspera Leaves Conjunctivitis Shimoga 43 Lobelia nicotianaefolia Leaves and

roots Wound Thirthahalli

44 Memecylon umbellatum

Leaves Fits Thirthahalli

45 Mimosa pudica Leaves Fits Thirthahalli 46 Oroxylum indicum Root and

bark Intestinal worms

Shikaripura

47 Osbeckia cupalaris Leaves Herpes Thirthahalli 48 Oxalis corniculata Leaves Tooth-ache Shimoga 49 Pandanus fascicularis Root Jaundice Hosanagara 50 Persia macrantha Leaves Bum wound Hosanagara 51 Ruta graveolens Leaf Typhoid Bhadravati 52 Santalum album Leaves Menorrhoea Thirthahalli 53 Sapindus laurifolius Fruits Eczema Bhadravati 54 Scleropyrum pentandrum Fruit Wound Thirthahalli 55 Sida acuta Root Rheumatic pain Soraba 56 Spondias pinnata Bark Wound Soraba 57 Tabernaemontana

alternifolia Bark Fits Thirthahalli

58 Terminalia arjuna Leaves Head-ache Sagara 59 T. paniculata Bark Leucorrhoea Sagara 60 T. tomentosa Bark Eczema Soraba 61 Tinospora cordifolia Leaves Dhobis itch Bhadravati 62 Tridax procumbens Leaves Ectoparasites Hosanagara 63 Vallaris solanacea Leaves Bone fracture Hosanagara 64 Vanda tesellata Leaves Lumbago Thirthahalli 65 Valeria indica Leaves Dysentery Soraba 66 Vitex altissima Bark Skin allergies Sagara 67 V. negundo Leaves Sore nose Sagara 68 Withania somnifera Leaves Paralysis Bhadravati 69 Zanthoxylum rhetsa Leaves Fits Thirthahalli 70 Ziziphus oenoplia Fruits Indigestion Shimoga

234

: Discussion

1. Alstonia scholaris

Alstonia scholaris is used commonly for weakness, cold and cough in cattle, and

fever in humans by the local healers of Shikaripura, Shimoga and Sagara taluk,

respectively. The noteworthy observation in Shimoga taluk and not reported hitherto is

the preparation of herbal formulation (extract) from bark and leaves of A. scholaris to

treat severe cough and cold in cattle. However, in the literature, this plant is used for

various complaints like skin allergies, wound, boils and bums (Yesodham and Sujana,

2007) and asthma (Sajem and Gosai, 2006) in humans. This plant contain phytochemical

compounds such as ditamine (Nair and Mohanan, 1998), alstonine, villastonine,

echitenine and echitamine (Arulmozhi et al., 2007). The solvent extracts of ^. scholaris

have been shown to possess broncho-vasodilatory (Channa et al., 2005), antimalarial

(Jagetia et al., 2005) and antimicrobial activities (Khyade and Vaikos, 2009).

2. Aporosa lindleyana

In Thirthahalli taluk, both bark and leaves of ̂ . lindleyana are extracted into juice

and given to the cattle bitten by dog (non rabid). Tender leaves of this plant are also

helpful in the treatment fits in humans. These two uses are reported for the first time in

the present study. The plant has been reported for its antioxidant (Badami et al., 2005),

hypoglycemic (Jayakar and Suresh, 2003), antimicrobial and analgesic activities

(Srikrishnae/ijr/., 2008).

3. Blumea lacera

This plant of Asteraceae is being used for the first time for treating stammer in

children and removal of lice from cattle. According to the review of literature, the plant is

used (leaf paste) to relieve pain (Sarmah et al, 2008), cuts, wounds, bums, piles and

urinary complaints (Jain, 1991). Chemical constituents of this plant are triterpenoids and

235

: Discussion

phenol glycosides (Agarwal et al., 1995). The essential oil of B. lacera was shown to

possess the depressant effect on the central nervous system (Dixit and Varma, 1976).

4. Biophytum sensitivum

In Hosanagara taluk, root paste for diabetes and hair growth, root decoction for

piles, and leaf juice for retention of placenta in cattle are some noteworthy observations

of this herbaceous medicinal plant. In the literature, B. sensitivum is used for fever and

eczema (Bhandary et al, 1996). Solvent extracts of this plant showed anti-inflammatory

activity (Jachak et al, 1999).

5. Calycopteris floribunda

This climbing shrub is used by the local people of Hosanagara taluk to heal

wounds caused by bum injury. This plant was recommended for cuts and snake bite

(Murthy et al, 2008), mother care (Rajit et al, 2010) and as a laxative (Bapuji and

Ratnam, 2009). Biflavonoids such as calyflorenones A and B (Mayer, 1999) have been

reported from this plant. The plant is reported to possess antibacterial activity (Dey et al,

2005).

6. Cardiospermum halicacabum

One of the healers from Shimoga taluk used this plant for the first time for an

effective treatment of severe cough in children. In this novel method of treatment, fresh

leaves are placed over charcoal fire and the smoke generated is inhaled (two times in a

day for 3 days). This plant has been recommended for treating rheumatoid arthritis

(Ragupathy et al., 2009), and used as blood purifier (Udayan et al, 2005), anti-diarrhoeal

(Rao et al, 2006), anti-pyretic (Asha and Pushpangadan, 1999) and for anti-parasitic

activities to Strongyloides stercoralis (Boonmars et al, 2005).

236

: Discussion

7. Carissa carandas

This plant species is used for the first time to treat asthma by the resident healers

in Shimoga taluk and verrucose veins in Hosanagara taluk. This plant was recommended

for stomach problem and skin diseases (Vanila et al., 2008), wound (Manandhar, 1998)

and fever (Shanmugam, 2009). Extracts of the plant have been shown to possess

hepatoprotective (Hegde and Joshi, 2009), antipyretic (Rajasekaran et al., 1999) and

anticonvulsant (Hegde et al., 2009) activities. The plant has been reported contain

triterpenoids (Siddiqui et al., 2003) and glycosides (Dhawan and Patnaik, 1985).

8. Cassia fistula

Cassia fistula grows throughout Shimoga district and is used for treating many

ailments such as acidity, jaundice, joint pain, eczema, head-ache and wounds. Many

healers in Thirthahalli taluk use this plant for treating joint pain. Survey of literature

indicated that C. fistula was used to treat various ailments in different places. For

example, folk people of Bhadra wild life sanctuary to cure herpes (Parinitha et al, 2004),

tribals of Uttara Kannada district for stomach-ache and swellings, scabies, warts and

ringworm (Bhandary et al, 1995; Harsha et al, 2002), tribals of Tamil Nadu for

stomach-ache (Udayan et al, lOQl) and local people of Davanagere district to treat

leprosy (Maruthi et al, 2000). Methanolic extract of this plant was shown to possess

anti-tumour activity (Gupta et al, 2000). The active compound present in this plant is

identified as isoflavone biochanin which is clinically proved for its anti-parasitic activity

(Sartorelli et al, 2009). The plant also possess antioxidant activity due to the presence of

phenolic compounds like proanthocyanidins and flavonoids; anti-tumour activity of seed

extract has also been reported (Luximon-Ramma et al, 2002).

237

: Discussion

9. Cassia occidentalis

Folk healers in Bhadravati taluk use leaf paste of C. occidentalis both orally as

well as externally for treating verrucosis in humans. In case of whitlow, leaf paste of this

plant is used by medicine men in Sagara taluk. However, this plant was used by tribals of

Orissa for chest pain (Satapathy and Panda, 1992). The plant has wound healing (Sheeba

et al, 2009) and antimicrobial activities (Arya et al, 2010). The compound emodin

isolated from this plant has antibacterial property (Chukwujekwu et al., 2006).

10. Connarus wightii

In Sagara taluk, root paste of this plant is used for the first time by three healers

for the treatment of verrucosis and boils. The information on the data of chemical

constituents and their pharmacological activities are not available in the literature.

11. Croton oblongifoHus

Folk healers in Thirthahalli and Hosanagara taluks use this plant widely for the

treatment of goiter, while in Thirthahalli and Shimoga taluks, it is used for snake bite and

cardiac problems, respectively. Harsha et al. (2002) reported that Kunabi tribes used

Croton oblongifoHus to treat herpes and sore throat. Khamti tribes of Arunachal Pradesh

used it for bone fracture and cancer (Das and Tag, 2006). Gowlis of Uttara Kannada used

this plant for flatulence and body swellings (Bhandary et al, 1996), while the tribals of

Orissa used this plant for diarrhoea and dysentery (Mondal and Mukherjee, 1992). Three

labdane diterpenoids have been isolated from stem bark of Croton oblongifoHus that

showed positive cytotoxicity (Roengsumran et al, 2001).

12. Elephantopus scaber

This plant finds a lot of medicinal application in Shimoga district. These include

roots for head-ache, leaf juice for diabetes and rheumatic pain in humans and leaves for

238

: Discussion

poor lactation in cattle. Gowlis of Uttara Kannada used this plant to increase lactation in

cattle and partial head-ache in humans (Bhandary et al, 1996). The occurrence of

tannins, sesquiterpene dilactones, lupeol, stigmasterol (Girach et al., 1998) and

elephantopin (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2005) are reported. It is not clear which

chemical constituent(s) is responsible for the reported effects.

13. Emilia sonchifolia

Healers in Shimoga taluk used this plant for leprosy. The ash of burnt leaf in

sesame oil is applied externally on the infected part for two times a day for one month or

until cure. In Uttara Pradesh, Pinswari community used this for inflammation of eye and

ear (Badoni, 1990). The chemical compounds identified are simiral, beta-sitosterol,

stigmasterol and palmitic acid (Gao et al, 1993). Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory

activities were demonstrated for this species (Shylesh and Padikkala, 1999).

14. Ensete super bum

This is the wild banana used by the healers in Soraba taluk for kidney problems.

According to the literature, E. superbum is used for leucoderma, dog bite and venereal

diseases (Prashantkumar and Vidyasagar, 2008). The information on phytochemical

constituents of this plant species and claimed pharmacological activities are not available

in the literature. The inflorescence cultivated banana is also known to heal kidney stones

in humans (Prasad and Pandey, 1993).

15. Gnidia glauca

Thin outer layer of stem bark is used for wound healing by two healers in the

study area. In Kenya, herbalists used this plant for back-ache and joint pain (Kareru et al.,

2007). Tribes of African countries also used this plant as arrow poison (Bussmann, 2006).

The plant has mosquito larvicidal (Amarajeewa et al, 2007) and antifeedant activities

239

• Discussion

(Sundararajan and Kumuthakalavalli, 2001). The plant is shown to contain bicoumarin

and diterpene (Amarajeewa et al., 2007).

16. Holoptelea integrifolia

In Shimoga district, this plant is frequently used by healers for the treatment of

herpes, fever, scabies and skin allergies in humans and fever, cough and cold in

veterinary animals. The findings on herpes corroborates with that of Parinitha et al.

(2005). The literature survey revealed that inflorescence paste of H. integrifolia is used

for scorpion sting (Johnson et al., 2008), stem bark for sprains (Reddy et al, 2007) and

leaf for tooth-ache (Patil and Patil, 2005). The wound healing, antimicrobial and

antioxidant activities are associated with the active compounds of//, integrifolia (Reddy

et al., 2008).

17. Holarrhena pubescens

Different parts of the plant are used for treating intestinal worms, stomach-ache,

ringworm, skin allergies, snake bite, cancer and wound. The novel use of this plant is the

root paste for the treatment of ringworm. Reports suggested that this plant is being used

by people of various regions of India for medicinal purposes. For example, fruit paste of

H. pubescens used for haemorrhoids (Jadeja et al. 2006), bark for bone fracture, wound

and dysentery (Parinitha et al, 2004, 2005). The plant has antimicrobial (to enteric

bacteria) (Ballal et al, 2001), and anti-diarrhoeal activity (Daswani et al, 2002). The

leaves of H. pubescens contain naringenin glycoside, naringin, naringenin 7-0-P-d-

glucoside, lupeol, lupeol p-hydroxyhexadecanoate and ursolic acid (Tuntiwachwuttikul et

al, 2007).

240

: Discussion

18. Ixora coccinea

In Hosanagara taluk, roots of this plant is used for urinary infection while, folk

healers of Thirthahalli taluk used it for skin allergies. In the literature, roots of/, coccinea

are used for treating dysentery (Jain, 1991). Pharmacological activities demonstrated

include anti-inflammatory (Handunnetti et al, 2009) and antimicrobial activities

(Annapuma et al., 2003).

19. Jasminum malabaricum

The plant is mainly used for veterinary care. Flower juice for cataract, leaf juice

for wound and stem juice for corneal opacity in cattle are the new reveals. Information on

active compounds and pharmacological activities of J. malabaricum have not available in

the literature.

20. Leea indica

A less known species in Shimoga district, only healers of Soraba taluk use this

plant for releiving fever in cattle. According to the healers, leaf juice with additives is

given in warm water. Udayan et al. (2005) reported that the stem bark was used by the

Kaadar tribe of Kerala for treating wounds. In Rajasthan, it was used for body-ache

(Choudhary et al, 2008). The plant contains 23 chemical compounds including lupeol,

phthalic acid, galic acid, solanesol and ursolic acid (Srinivasan et al, 2008).

21. Lobelia nicotianaefolia

Commonly called, wild tobacco, it is widely used by healers of Thirthahalli for

wound in cattle. The plant is highly toxic but healers prepared medicine from this plant in

usable form. Root juice is gargled three or four times in a day for the treatment of throat

pain is the new reveal. This plant is used to treat com by healers of Uttara Kannada

district of Kamataka (Harsha et al, 2003), for nasal allergy and cold by Paliyani tribes of

241

Discussion

Tamil Nadu (Karuppusamy, 2007) and respiratory disorders by Madugga tribes of Tamil

Nadu (Soudhamani et al, 2005). The plant contains the alkaloid like lobelidine,

lobelanine, nor-lobelaine, lobelanidine, nor-lobelanidine, lobeline and isolobenine

(Simons/a/., 1984).

22. Oroxylum indicum

The interesting remedies for dislocated bones and intestinal worms of veterinary

animals in the study area are as follows. Three teaspoonfuis of bark infusion (bark soaked

in water contained in copper vessel over-night) given orally with a cup of cow's butter­

milk early in the morning to cattle for dislocated bones. Healers of Shikaripura use root

and bark juice for expulsion of intestinal worms in cattle. This plant was cited for many

ailments in the literature, such as dysentery (Raju and Reddy, 2005) and respiratory

problems (Panghal, 2010). The plant possesses antimicrobial activity (Valsaraj et al,

1997).

23. Osbeckia cupularis

This plant of Melastomataceae is the only familiar plant known to healers of

Thirthahalli taluk for the treatment of herpes. There are no previous reports available on

the active constituents and pharmacological activities. However, Memecylon

malabaricum and M. umbellatum are widely used in Shimoga district to cure herpes.

24. Oxalis corniculata

This plant is frequently used for treating tooth-ache by healers of Shimoga taluk.

Apart from this, the other uses are for chest and rheumatic pain in Hosanagara taluk. This

plant was used for skin ulcer and wound by rural women practitioners of Uttaranchal

(Uniyal and Shiva, 2005). The plant is being used by people of Dibrugarh district of

242

: Discussion

Assam for diabetes (Kalita et al., 2005). Khamti tribes of Arunachal Pradesh it used for

the treatment of head-ache, loss of appetite and indigestion (Das and Tag, 2006), local

healers of Khammam district of Andhra Pradesh for dysentery (Raju and Reddy, 2005),

and Hakka community of China for herpes zoster (Au et al., 2008). Flavonoids, votexin

and isovitexin were isolated from this plant (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2005).

25. Tabernaemontana alternifolia

Several complaints such as snake bite, high fever, throat pain, wound, eye

disorder and fits are treated by the folk practitioners of Shimoga district using this plant.

Ervatamia heyaneana has high use reports and also informant consistency for treating

snake bite. This plant was used for treating sensation of sore eye and tooth-ache

(Sukumaran and Raj, 2010) and cure boils and skin allergies (Harsha et al, 2003). Three

triterpenoids and 14 indole alkaloids are characerized from bark and wood of

Tabernaemontana alternifolia. Bioactive compounds of the plant - camptothecin, 9-

methoxycamptothecin, coronaridine, pericalline, heyneatine and methoxyeglandine- N-

oxide were shown to have showed cytotoxic activity (Gunasekera et al., 1980).

26. Terminalia tomentosa

In Soraba taluk, one woman healer preferred bark ash of Terminalia tomentosa

for complete healing of eczema. This is the new reveal of the usage of T. tomentosa. This

plant is used for various purposes such as bums, cholera, dysentery, fever, sores and

stomach-ache (Jain, 1991).There is no information on the active compounds in the plant

and their therapeutical properties.

27. Tinospora cordifolia

Tinospora cordifolia, a well known plant, is used very commonly for the

treatment of various human diseases and disorders in Shimoga district. The new reveal of

243

Discussion

this plant is to treat boils by the elder people of Bhadravati taluk. The literature indicated

that, Gowlis of Uttara Kannada district in Kamataka used leaves of this plant for asthma

(Bhandary et al., 1996), herbal healers of North Gujarat used stem juice to treat malarial

fever and snake bite (Dabagar, 2006), various ethnic people of India used this plant for

Jaundice (Sharma et al., 1979) and piles (Singh, 1988). Tinocordifolin, berberine,

palmatine and cordioside are some of the chemical substances documented in Tinospora

cordifolia. This plant has hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic, anti-oxidant

activities and anti-stress property which were clinically proved (Singh et al., 2003).

28. Tridax procumbens

Healers used this plant for novel purposes to control ticks in cattle in Bhadravati

taluk, tooth-ache in Hosanagara taluk. The plant was used for wounds (Ragupathy et al.,

2008), piles and sore wound (Dabagar, 2006) and cuts (Pattanaik and Reddy, 2008).

Chemical constituents such as lupeol, sitosterol, luteolin, palmitic and stearic acids

(Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2005) are documented from this plant.

29. Vallaris solanacea

It is one of the most important Apocynaceae member used by the folk healers of

Shimoga district for wound and bone fracture in both humans as well as veterinary

animals. Milky latex was used for sores, cuts and wounds in Garhwal Himalaya (Tiwari

et al., 2010). The chemical constituent - 0-acetyl-solanoside extracted from seeds of V.

solanacea possessed cardiotonic activity (Vohra et al., 1966).

30. Vanda tessellata

This epiphytic plant is well known by healers of Thirthahalli taluk for the

treatment of joint pain and diabetes. Formulation include mixing of leaves of V. tessellata

244

: Discussion

with rice grain, soaking overnight, and cooking in the morning, and eaten with cow's

butter for a week for treating joint pain. Bone fracture, eye diseases, sores, rheumatism,

ear-ache and night blindness, nervous disorders and venereal disease are some of the

ailments treated with V. tessellata (Jain, 1991; Dash et al., 2008). The plant also possess

aphrodisiac property and contain alkyl perulate and b-sitosterol D glucoside, alkanes,

alkanol, resins and fatty acids (Sumalata et al, 2010.).

4. Medicinal plants used in Shimoga district and Indian traditional systems of medicine

Apart from the above listed note-worthy observations, some of the plant species

used by the village folk practitioners in Shimoga district also find mentions for the same

purposes in the traditional systems of medicine in India such as ayurveda, siddha and

unani (Kirtikar and Basu, 1995; Nair and Mohanan, 1998; Joshi, 2000) (Table 54).

Twenty eight medicinal plant species used by the local people of Shimoga district

are already documented in Ayurvedic literature for the same ailments. For example,

Phyllanthus amarus, Memecylon malabaricum, Achyranthes aspera, Hemidesmus

indicus, Ensete superbum, Oxalis corniculata and Saraca asoca in Shimoga district finds

the same application as mentioned in the literature (Nadakami, 1976; Kirtikar and Basu,

1986; Anon., 1992), however, the plant parts used for formulation varied. Folk herbal

healers of the study area used Cassia fistula for treating acidity, eczema, jaundice and

head-ache, and in Ayurveda it is used to cure jaundice in addition to stomach disorders,

leprosy and syphilis (Nair and Mohanan, 1998). Similarly, leaves of Gymnema sylvestre

are used widely and frequently by the local communities of Shimoga district for the

treatment of diabetes (Table 54). The plant is reported to contain gymnemic acid which is

responsible for anti-diabetic, anti-sweetener and anti-inflammatory activities (Sugihara et

al., 2000, Malik et al., 2008). In Shimoga district, many people frequently used

Phyllanthus amarus for the treatment of jaundice. Ayurvedic literature also document a

245

•• Discussion

similar application of this plant (Joshi, 2001; Nair and Mohanan, 1998). The plant is also

associated with hepato-protective activity (Pramyothin et al., 2007), and antiviral activity

against hepatitis B virus (Thyagarajan et al, 1988). Leaf and root of Adhatoda zeylanica

is used to treat bronchial asthma and cough in Siddha system (Ram et ah, 2009).

The local people in Shimoga district also used leaves and roots of 4̂. zeylanica for

treating cough and asthma and fever. In Unani system of medicine, Zingiber officinale is

used to treat gastric ulcer (Jamal et al, 2006), whereas in Shimoga, resident healers used

rhizome of this plant in the treatment of gastric problems. These observations suggest that

the folk knowledge of herbal medicine in Shimoga district could have been largely

influenced by traditional systems of medicine like ayurveda, siddha and unani, since a

long time. Other medicinal plant species that are used for the same purposes in study area

as well as in other systems of Indian medicine are detailed in Table 54.

Table 54. Medicinal plants used in the study area that find mentions in Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani systems of medicine

SI. No.

Plant species Plant parts

Ailment Taluk System(s)

of medicine 1 Achyranthes aspera Root Stomach-ache Sagara Siddha 2 Acorus calamus Rhizome Fever Soraba Ayurveda 3 Adhatoda zeylanica Roots Asthma Bhadravati Siddha

Leaves Cough Shikaripura Ayurveda 4 Aristolochia indica Roots Snake bite Sagara Ayurveda 5 Asparagus racemosus Roots Menstrual

problems Thirthahalli Ayurveda

6 Azadirachta indica Bark Skin problems Bhadravati Ayurveda 7 Caesalpinia bonduc Seeds Hydrocele Bhadravati Ayurveda 8 Cassiajistula Leaves Jaundice Bhadravati Unani 9 Gymnema sylvestre Leaves Diabetes Hosanagara Ayurveda 10 Hemidesmus indicus Roots Leucorrrhoea Hosanagara Ayurveda 11 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Flower Menstrual

problems Bhadravati Siddha

12 Lawsonia inermis Leaves Jaundice Thirthahalli Unani 13 Leucas aspera Leaves Snake bite Soraba Siddha 14 Ocimum basilicum Leaves Intestinal

worms Hosanagara Ayurveda

Contd.

246

Table 54. Continued...

= Discmsiun

15 0. tenuiflorum Leaves Cough and cold

Shimoga Siddha

16 Oxalis corniculata Leaves rheumatism Hosanagara Siddha 17 Phyllanthus amarus Roots Jaundice Shimoga Ayurveda,

Unani 18 Psidium guajava Leaves Rheumatic

pain Soraba Ayurveda

19 Pterocarpus marsupium

Bark Diabetes Sagara Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha

20 Punica granatum Fruit Dysentery Shimoga Unani 21 Rauwolfia serpentina Root Snake bite Hosanagara Ayurveda 22 Saraca asoca Bark Menstrual

problem Shimoga Ayurveda

23 Syzigium cumini Bark Diarrhoea Thirthahalli Ayurveda Bark Dysentery Shimoga Ayurveda

24 Tinospora cordifolia Whole plant

fever Soraba Ayurveda, Siddha

25 Tylophora indica Roots Bronchitis Soraba Siddha 26 Vitex negundo Leaves Rheumatism Bhadravati Ayurveda 27 Zingiber officinale Rhizome Gastric

problems Shimoga Unani

5. Medicinal plants used by resident healers of Shimoga district in comparison to other regions of the world

Each community/culture/tribe residing in a particular region around the world has

its own custom, ritual and medical systems. Certain medicinal plants used by the people

of Shimoga district are also being used but in a different way or for different purposes by

tribals and ethnic communities residing in elsewhere the world. The medicinal uses of

herbal drug and method of drug preparation differed from one ethnic/tribal group to the

other or one region to the other (Table 55). For example, resident healers of the study

area used Jatropha curcas to treat dysentery and herpes in humans and bloat in cattle.

However, people in eastern Guatemala used this plant for curing mouth sore and fever

(Kufer et al, 2005), and herbal healers of Nigeria used it for head-ache and fever (Idu

and Ndukwu, 2007), while elder people of Honduras used this plant for stomach pain

247

! Discussion

(Ketzis and Brown, 2009). Ethiopian people used Achyranthes aspera for the treatment of

herpes zoster (Teklehaymanot and Giday, 2007), while traditional healers in Bangladesh

used this plant for menstrual problems and gonorrhea (Hossan et al., 2010). Folk

medicine men of Nigeria used it for dysentery and ulcer (Ajibesin et al., 2008) and

practitioners of Ethiopia used it for bone fracture in cattle (Weldegerima et al, 2008).

However, in Shimoga district, Achyranthes aspera is used for treating stomach-ache,

cardiac problems, dog bite and scorpion sting. Results also revealed that some medicinal

plants used in the study area are distributed over a wide geographical area and are being

used in different traditional medical systems of the world.

Table 55. Medicinal plants used in the present study that And mention in other regions of the world

SI. No.

Ailment Tribe/location of SI. No. Plant species treated in the other countries of Ailment treated SI. No.

study area the world 1 Achyranthes Stomach-ache, Ethipoia Herpes zoster

aspera cardiac problems,

(Teklehaymanot and Giday, 2007)

scorpion sting and dog bite (V)

Nigeria

Nigeria

Bangladesh

Dysentery and ulcer (Ajibesin et al, 2008) Bone fracture in cattle (Weldegerima et al, 2008) Gonorrhea (Hossan et a/., 2010)

Ageratum Wound Sundanese Lung diseases 2 conyzoides community/Indonesia

Ecuador (Roosita et al, 2008) Stomach-ache (Tene etal,2Q01)

3 Anacardium Piles, wounds. Nigeria Malaria (Ajibesin et occidentale broken horn (V) al, 2008)

4 Bacopa monnieri

Stammer Jordan Epilepsy (Al-Quar'n, 2008)

5 Cardiospermum halicacabum

Cough Tanzania Septic wounds (Maregesi et al, 2007)

Contd...

248

Table 55. Continued...

Discussion •

Samburu/Kenya Snake bite and malaria (Bussmann, 2006)

6 Cassia fistula Acidity, diabetes

Eastern Guatemala Measles and fever (Kufere/a/., 2005)

7 Datura stramonium

Goiter Nepal Fever and rheumatic pain (Kunwar et al., 2006)

8 Gliricidia Cuts and Eastern Guatemala Head-ache and fever sepium wounds (Kufer et al, 2005)

9 Hibiscus rosa- Leucorrhoea, Popoluca/Mexico Cough (Leonti et al.. sinensis Weakness 2001)

10 Jatropha curcas Dysentery, Herpes, Bloat (V)

Nigeria

Sundanese community/Indonesia Eastern Guatemala

Ecuador

Honduras

Head-ache and Gonorrhoea (Idu and Ndukwu, 2007) Stomach-ache (Roosita et al., 2008) Mouth sore and fever (Kufer et al., 2005) Herpes (Tene et al., 2007) Stomach pain (Ketzis and Brown, 2009)

11 Lantana Cuts and Wounds Sundanese Stomach-ache camara community/Indonesia

Popoluca/Mexico

Izmir Province, Turkey

(Roosita et al., 2008) Cough (Leonti et al., 2001) Cold, flu and tooth decay (Ugula et al., 2009)

12 Mangifera Diabetes, Nigeria Hypertension indica Scorpion sting. (Ajibesine/a/., 2008)

Leucorrhoea Uganda

Tanzania

Diarrhoea and cough (Okello and Ssegawa, 2007) Tuberculosis (Kisangau et al., 2007)

13 Mimosa pudica Piles, Partial Head-ache, Menstrual disorders. Fits, Skin infection

Popoluca/Mexico Insomnia (Leonti et al., 200\)

Contd...

249

Table 55. Continued..,

Discussion

14 Ocimum Diabetes, North-eastern Brazil High blood pressure tenuijlorum Eczema, Ear

boil, Nose bleeding. Vomiting

(Almeida et al., 2006)

15 Oxalis Tooth-ache, Hakka Herpes zoster (Au et corniculata Cardiac problems community/China

Ecuador

Swat, Pakistan

al., 2008) Diarrhoea (Tene et al., 2007) Stomach-ache and tooth-ache (Humayun et al., 2009)

16 Phyllanthus amarus

Jaundice Nigeria Malaria (Ajibesin et al., 2008)

17 Plumbago Eczema, Sundanese Muscle pain, tooth­zeylanica Wounds, Com,

Ringworm, Piles community/Indonesia ache, head-ache

(Roosita et al., 2008) 18 Punica Dysentery Hakka Coughing up blood

granatum community/China North-eastern Brazil

(Au et al., 2008) Sore throat (Almeida etal., 2006)

19 Ruta graveolens Cough and Cold, Cape province. South Diabetes, fever, head­Typhoid, Fits, Stomach-ache, Herpes

Africa

Curruhuinca community/Argentina

Brazil

Italy

ache and stomach complaints (Thring and Weitz, 2006) Gastrointestinal problems (Estomba et al., 2006) Colic pain (Gazzaneo et al., 2005) Styptic (Vitalini et al., 2009)

20 Senna Rheumatism, Brazil Cough (Gazzaneo et occidentalis verrucosis. al, 2005)

Whitlow Tanzania Chronic diarrhoea (Kisangau et al, 2007)

21 Sida acuta Boils, Itching, Rheumatism

Nigeria Cholera and Whitlow (Ajibesin et al, 2008)

Contd.

250

: Discussion

Table 55. Continued.

22 Tridax procumbens

23 Vitex negundo

Tooth-ache, Ectoparasites (Ticlcs) Fever, Rheumatism, Sore nose, Cancer, Mental weakness. Body-ache

Nigeria

Haicka community/China

Skin diseases (Ajibesine/fl/., 2008)

Diarrhoea (Au et al., 2008)

V-veterinary

6. Quantitative ethnobotany

Quantitative ethnobotany is necessary both for analyzing the large volume of data

of plant uses being generated for improving the rigor and validity of ethnobotany as

science. These techniques have been used in ethnobotany to compare the medicinal uses

of plants with the cultural importance of individual plant species (Philips, 1996; Kufer et

al, 2005).

6.1. Informant consensus factor

Informant's consensus technique (Trotter and Logan, 1986) was used to identify

the disease category which was most important in the interview and this might indicate

the requirement of intensive study in such type of plants.

The informant consensus factor is used to evaluate the variability of the use of

plant species and to determine whether plant species from certain groups (usage category)

are of particular interest in the search for active compound(s) (Heinrich et al, 1998).

Consensus in medicinal plant utilization is widely considered as an indicator of 'clinical

efficacy'. There is also substantial pharmacological and phytochemical evidence to

suggest that these resources are biologically active and hence potentially adaptive.

However, the lack of agreement among the traditional herbal healers amounts to their

diverse background or their inhabitation in comparatively a large study area where local

251

: Discussion

knowledge of ethnomedicinal plants might vary greatly between study sites. The

calculation of the ICF allowed for a more objective selection of plant species for the

scientific study in order to validate traditional knowledge.

In the present study, certain disease categories showed high ICF, because of

greater homogeneity of some plant species used for the treatment of those ailments. High

ICF was observed in the liver complaints category. However, the average ICF value for

all disease categories was 0.56 which is considerably high as compared to similar studies

conducted from other countries (Heinrich et ah, 1999; Ankli et al, 2000; Giday et ai,

2009). The plant species that are effectively used in the treatment of liver disorders and

pain are worth explored for the presence of bioactive compound(s).

The largest number of medicinal plants used fell within the general health

category. This category of illness was not actually included in the standardized illness

category suggested by Cook (1995). In this study, general health category was included

since it is an integral part of traditional medicinal concept among the people of Shimoga

district. The highest consensus value of the particular plant species might indicate the

possibility of occurrence of certain phytochemicals that might have contributed to the

reduction in disease. On the other hand, the low ICF in the present study might indicate

the occurrence of less severe ailment in the study area. The fever and pain disease

category attracted the lowest ICF in Shimoga district. This could be due to the

availability of quick relieving allopathic medicine in affordable prices in the local

medical shops. The other reason for the low ICF could be due to the utilization of a

variety of plants for this purpose. Another probable reason could be due to the selection

of a large study area where knowledge about these plant species might vary depending on

the population size of taluk(s), their geographical location and its vegetation pattern.

In the present study, ailments were grouped into 10 disease categories based on

which the ICF was determined. A total of 263 plant species were used for treating 80

252

: Discussion

ailments of 10 ailment categories with 657 use reports. Each disease category is

discussed briefly below.

6.1.1 Gastro-intestinal complaints

In this category, 42 plant species were used with 98 use reports. This is the

highest number of use reports recorded as compared to the other disease categories. The

review of literature indicated maximum number of medicinal plants and highest number

of use reports for this category from eastern Guatemala (Kufer et al., 2005). Among the

ailments, dysentery was the most prevalent disease in all the study taluks for which

Syzygium cumini (bark, 12 use citations) and Cyclea peltata (leaves, 7 use citations) were

used widely. These two plants are well studied for their phytochemical constituents and

pharmacological properties (Kupchan et al, 2006; Singh and Gupta, 2007; Karthic et al,

2008; Kirana and Srinivasan, 2010; Mohanthy and Cock, 2010).

The second important ailment in this group is stomach-ache in which people used

root juice of Achyranthes aspera (5 use reports). Phytochemicals such as betaine (Kapoor

and Singh, 1966) was extracted from A. aspera. This plant has been studied for various

pharmaceutical properties such as antioxidant (Nehete et al, 2009), anti-inflammatory

(Vetrichelvan and Jegadeesan, 2003) and analgesic activities (Kumar et al, 2009).

6.1.2. General health

This category received lowest ICF (average, 0.19) value in the entire Shimoga

district. This indicated less agreement among healers on the use of plant species for the

treatment of this disease category. This probably is due to the fact that healers used

variety of plants for variety of diseases in general health category. This category was

included in the present study as it was thought to be an integral part of local people to

maintain their good health. However, Cook (1995) did not include general health

category under standardized illness grouping, probably for the same obvious reason. Low

253

: Discussion

level of homogeneity (94 use citations) on the use of plant species to treat diseases under

this category could have resulted due to the easy availability of allopathic medicine

(particularly antibiotics) from local pharmaceutical shops, which provides for fast relief

(Raghupathy et al., 2008). The most important medicinal plant used by many healers (15

members) for the treatment of snake bite is Tabernaemontana alternifolia. Although, the

plant is known to contain many phytochemicals (Gunasekera et al., 1980), it has not been

tested for clinical efficacy.

6.1.3. Liver complaints

With 36 use reports for seven plant species, the group ranked high with ICF of

0.82 as compared to the rest of the ailment groups in Shimoga district. This pointed at the

greater homogeneity of selection criteria among the informants. Gazzaneo et al. (2005)

also made a similar observation. Most folk healers of Shimoga district recommend

Phyllanthus amarus for jaundice. Healers in Malasars community in Tamil Nadu also had

greater homogeneity of agreement with respect to the treatment of jaundice (ICF=0.92)

with this plant (Raghupathy et al, 2008). Phyllanthus amarus is also being used for

jaundice by many cultures in India, and this plant is proven clinically for jaundice

(Pramyothin et al, 2007). Active compounds such as phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin

are shown to have hepato-protective activity.

6.1. 4. Menstrual disorders (Women's problems)

This category could gather an ICF of 0.56 as it is supported by 40 use reports.

Leucorrhoea is the main complaint for which Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (19 use reports) was

recorded. In India, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is a common ornamental plant which finds

mention in ayurveda for various disorders (Nair and Mohanan, 1998). Many

ethnopharmacological reports support the importance of H. rosa-sinensis. It has

254

i Discussion

antioxidant (Gauthaman et al., 2006), hypolipedemic (Kumar et al., 2009) and anti-ulcer

(Kumari et al., 2010) properties

6.1.5. Pains and fever

The highest ICF (0.58) of this category was recorded in Bhadravati taluk and

lowest zero in Thirthahalli taluk. Head-ache, rheumatism and tooth-ache are the major

ailments in this category. Leaves of Vanda tessellata recommended for back-ache is the

note-worthy claim in Thirthahalli taluk. However, there is no pharamacological study in

support of this claim.

6.1.6. Respiratory tract disorders

In this group, 56 use reports with 31 plant species are recommended by the folk

practitioners of Shimoga. The most popular plant - Adhatoda zeylanica is widely used

for asthma and cold. In Ayurvedic system of medicine, this plant finds application in

diseases of respiratory tract (Joshi, 2000). Many phytochemical constituents such as

vasicine, vasicol, vasicinone, adhatonine, quercetin and others were isolated from this

plant (Ahmad et al, 2009). This plant was thoroughly studied for its medicinal properties

using different pharmacological models (Shrivastava et al., 2006; Chakraborthy and

Brantner, 2001). Another very frequently used plant species for the treatment of cough is

Coleus aromaticus. The highest number of use reports were assigned to this plant. This

plant, generally cultivated in their own home gardens, is used mainly by mothers for the

childcare.

6.1.7. Skin diseases

Many plant species are recommended for this treatment category, but with

relatively a few use reports. Memecylon malabaricum is the popular plant and widely

used for herpes by the folk in Thirthahalli and Sagar taluks. Methanol extract of M

255

: Discussion

malabaricum has been shown to have anti-bacterial and anti-fungal activities (Hullatti

and Rai, 2004). Certain Apocynaceae members such as Plumeria rubra, Rauwolfia

serpentina and Holarrhena pubescens are being used in the district frequently for the

treatment of ringworm. These three plant species have been studied for their

antimicrobial activity (Egwaikhide et al, 2009; Jigna et al., 2005; Ballal et al, 2001).

The above reports corroborate with the indigenous claim of Shimoga district.

6.1.8. Urological problems

The highest ICF was recorded for this problem. Gymnema sylvestre was widely

used to control diabetes in most taluks. Tinospora cordifolia was also used frequently for

diabetes. Both plants have been subjected to phytochemical and pharmacological

evaluations (Khramov et al, 2008).

6.1.9. Veterinary ailments

The ICF (OM) was high for this ailment in Hosanagara taluk. The most popular

plant for treating foot and mouth disease is Terminalia bellirica. The plant fruit is also

one of the three ingredients of the famous ayurvedic formulation 'Triphala Chuma'

which is used for gastric problems, indigestion, fever and cough. Previous literature also

highlighted the pharmacological activities of T. bellirica such as wound healing

(Choudhary, 2008) and antimicrobial (Elizabeth, 2005) activities. Many resident healers

in Hosanagara use Vallaris solanacea for bone fracture and wound which are the new

claims of the study area. The pharmacological activities have not been studied.

6.1.10. Wounds

This category attracted the second highest ICF of 0.81 in Shimoga district. One of

the interesting part of the investigation is that, many exotic plant species like Ageratum

conyzoides, Chromolaena odorata and Lantana camara are used by a large number of

256

: Discussion

healers for the purpose of wound healing. These plants have proven wound healing

property as revealed by studies with different wound models (Shukla et al., 1999;

Mackay and Miller, 2003; Nayak et al, 2009).

6.2. Use value

The use value determination is found to be the best technique for evaluating the

potential use of a plant species. This technique is derived from the perspective of what

people consider useful (Albuquerque et al., 2006). Plant species with highest use value

appear to be the most preferred species in at least one use category. Based on the

importance of plant species or highest use value of a particular region, the important plant

species will suffer greatest harvesting pressure (Albuqerque et al., 2006). The low use

values of plant species indicate the declining state of traditional medical knowledge

which is not being transmitted, finally resulting in the gradual disappearance of the

species. The low use value of some plant species could also be due to the scarcity of these

plant species in a particular region (Benz et al, 2000). The use value is not dependent

only on how many uses a particular plant has, but also on how many people use it for a

particular complaint.

Among the 10 plant species with high use value, the Tinospora cordifolia is

widely used throughout the district for many ailments. This plant possesses anti­

inflammatory, anti-pyretic, anti-oxidant and hepato-protective activities (Singh et al.,

2003). In Bhadravati taluk, Tinospora cordifolia is considered as the most popular plant

followed by Adhatoda zeylanica. The high use value species in Hosanagara taluk is

Vallaris solanacea followed by Tabernaemontana alternifolia and Gymnema sylvestre.

Terminalia bellirica with 15 use reports for foot and mouth disease in cattle attracted

high use value in Sagara taluk. This is followed by Memecylon malabaricum. Coleus

257

Discussion

aromaticus is widely used for cold and cough in Shikaripura taluk followed by Tinospora

cordifolia. The ayurvedic herb - Phyllanthus amarus found in Shimoga taluk and widely

used for jaundice has high use value followed by Chromolaena odorata. The high use

value plant species in Soraba taluk are Jasminum tnalabaricum and Pothos scandens. In

Thirthahalli taluk, Tabernaemontana alternifolia is followed by Memecylon malabaricum

in its high use value.

In Atlantic forest of Brazil, local specialists used Pithecellobium cochliocarpum

for wounds and Alpinia zerumbet for cough and head-ache which resulted in attracting

the high use value of 1.8 and 1.6, respectively (Gazzaneo et al., 2005). Anadenanthera

colubrina used by the rural community of Pernambuco State in northeastern Brazil

showed high use value of 2.00 (Albuquerque et al., 2006). As compared to different

regions in the world, the medicinal plants in Shimoga district show a considerablly high

use value. This could be because of the large floral diversity in the study area. However,

these species need further experimentation to prove the efficacy of reported medicinal

property. Hence, the use value technique demonstrates the existence of a direct

relationship between the relative importance of the plant and its local abundance as

opined by Phillips et al. (1994).

6.3. Fidelity level, Relative popularity level and Rank order priority value

The above indices were used to determine the efficacy of medicinal property of

the plant species as claimed by healers. The indices such as FL, RPL and ROP reflected

the therapeutic effects of medicinal plants (Al-quaran, 2008). The medicinal plants of

Shimoga district had relatively high FL, RPL and ROP as compared to the other reports

(Friedman et al, 1986; Ali-Shtayeh et al, 2000), however, values of these indices are

low in comparison to plants of Jordan (Al-quaran, 2008).

258

Discussion

6.3.1. Fidelity level (FL)

The plant species that are frequently used by the local people for a specific

ailment are said to have high fidelity level. For example, 14 informants used Phyllanthus

amarus in the treatment of jaundice, 7 respondents used Memecylon malabaricum for

herpes and 5 informants used Diospyros montana for jaundice and this attracted a fidelity

level of 100%. On the other hand. Cassia fistula used for acidity, eczema, head-ache,

jaundice, joint pain and wounds attracted a FL of 20.0%. In Northwestern Ethiopia, seven

plants that were widely used for certain ailments showed high FL of 100.0%; on the other

hand, Dorstenia barnimiana which was used for treating several diseases attracted a low

FL of 22% (Teklehaymanot and Giday, 2007).

Results of the present study clearly pointed out that Phyllanthus amarus with the

high fidelity level of 100% finds use in the treatment of jaundice. The plant has already

been screened for its phytochemicals with proven the hepato-protective activity

(Pramyothin et al., 2007). Similarly, Chromolaena odorata with 100% FL is used for the

treatment of wound. The efficacy of this plant was also proved in studies involving

different wound models (Mahamood et ah, 2005). In addition to the above, Alternanthera

sessilis for stomach-ache, Calycopteris floribunda for wound caused by bum, Caryota

urens for skin allergies, Cassia auriculata for cold. Clematis gouriana for head-ache and

stomach ulcer, Connarus wightii for nerve swelling, Diospyros montana for jaundice,

Elaeagnus kolaga for cough, Gnidia glauca for wound, Helicteres isora for headache,

Ixora coccinea for urinary problems, Memecylon malabaricum for herpes and Mussaenda

frondosa for skin allergies have 100% FL. These plants have not been shown in the

litrature with any supportive data proving their clinical effectiveness. This might

necessitate a more detailed evaluation of these plants for their use in the treatment of

chronic diseases.

259

: Discussion

6.3.2. Relative popularity level (RPL)

The number of popular plants (11 species, 10.18 %) is considerably smaller than

that of the less popular ones (97 species, 89.81%). Popular medicinal plants are also

believed to be more effective and used by various folk practitioners for the treatment of

different ailments. The people of Jordan used widely 29 aquatic plants with maximum

RPL (1.0) and hence they were considered as popular plants of Jordan (Al-quaran, 2009).

In Israel, only eight plant species were popular (Friedman et al., 1986).

Among the popular plants. Cassia fistula is used for various ailments such as

acidity, diabetes, eczema, jaundice, joint pain, head-ache and wounds by the people of

Shimoga district. The bark extracts of Cassia fistula were shown to have significant anti­

inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities (Ilavarasan et al, 2005), while leaf and seed

extracts possessed antimicrobial (Vasudevan et al, 2009) and hepatoprotective activities

(Chaudhari et al., 2009). Major phytochemicals present in this plant were also

documented (Bahorun et al., 2005). The other most popular plants of Shimoga are

Adhatoda vasica for fever, asthma and cough, Careya arborea for dysentery, stomach­

ache and wound, Cyclea peltata for dysentery, Tabernaemontana alternifolia for snake

bite, Ficus racemosa for piles, leucorrhoea and respiratory problems, Gymnema sylvestre

for diabetes, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis for leucorrhoea, Phyllanthus amarus for jaundice,

Tinospora cordifi)lia for diabetes, high blood pressure and fever, and Vallaris solanacea

for wound. The pharmacological activities of some of these plants are described

elsewhere in this thesis.

260

: Discussion

6.3.3. Rank-order priority (ROP)

Among 13 popular plant species, Tabernaemontana alternifolia for snake bite,

Vallaris solanacea for wound, Cyclea peltata for dysentery, Memecylon malabaricum

and M umbellatum for herpes are being widely used by the local people in Shimoga

district whose pharmacological activities have not been established in the literature. Some

of the popular plants of the present study have also been shown by the previous literature

for the same specific use. For example, Lantana camara having high ROP value was

screened for its wound healing property using certain pharmacological models (Nayak et

al, 2008). Another well known plant - Gymnema sylvestre which is used mainly for

diabetes in the study area with high ROP was also tested clinically and proved for its

therapeutic value in animal models (Khare et al., 1983). In Jordan, 45 medicinal plant

species with ROP values > 50 indicated that the people in Jordan still have fair

knowledge of folk medicine (Al-Quran, 2008). In Negev district of Israel, only three

plant species were found to have ROP values > 50 (Friedman et al, 1986). Even in

Palestinian area, only eight plant species have been shown with ROP > 50 (Ali-Shtayeh

et al, 2000). This might probably be due to the declining popularity of traditional herbal

medicine among the people in these area (Friedman et al, 1986, Ali-Shtayeh et al.,

2000). When compared to the other regions of the world, results of the present study

clearly indicated that the local people of Shimoga district have very good knowledge of

medicinal plants and still practice folk medicine using plants available in the natural

repositories. Some plant species with high ROP values might require further scientific

evaluation to determine the efficacy of the claimed medicinal plants of the study area.

261

Discussion

6.4. Ethnobotanicity index

The ethnobotanicity index is the ratio between the useful plants and the total flora

of the particular region, and is expressed as percentage (Guarrera et al., 2008). This index

gives an idea of the importance of medicinal plants in a region. The only problem with

this index is its requirement of a complete flora of the area concerned. However, in the

present study, it was possible to calculate this index since a reasonably complete floral

survey of Shimoga district has been done (Ramaswamy et al, 2001). The local flora

gives an approximate estimate of 850 plant species in Shimoga district (Ramaswamy et

al, 2001). The medicinal plants used in Shimoga district by the local herbal healers are

263. The calculated ethnobotanicity index (El) of Shimoga district is 30.14% which

means that 30.14% of plant species are known to the herbal healers of Shimoga district.

The EI of 30.14% in Shimoga district is higher than that of regions of Pallars of Spain

(29.1) (Agelet and Valles, 2001, 2003), Caurel of Spain (27.9%) (Blanco et al, 1999),

South of Portugal (23.1%) (Camejo-Rodrigues et al, 2003), Madeira/Porto Santo of

Portugal (21.4%) (Rivera and Obon, 1995) and Arabida of Portugal (12.1%) (Novais et

al, 2004). In contrast to the above, Navarre Pyrenees of Spain (Akerreta et al, 2007)

and High Molise region of Italy (Guarrera et al, 2008) had an EI of 5.05% and 6%,

respectively. This suggests that a few plant species are being utilized by the local people

of those regions of the world in comparison to the vast floral diversity. The

ethnobotanicity index for medicinal plants also indicated that Shimoga district topped the

list of regions having ethnobotanical treasure (Table 56). The lower EI in many regions

could be mainly due to the declining traditional medicinal practices and rapid process of

cultural erosion in these regions. These observations suggest that traditional herbal

medicinal practices in Shimoga district are still alive, where moderate numbers of plants

are being used for medicinal purposes. This might also sound an alarm cautioning the fast

262

•• Discussion

decline of the utility of knowledge of medicinal plants in the near future in Shimoga

district. The EI points out at the need for sustainable utilization and conservation of local

useful flora and also the conservation of traditional medicinal knowledge of the particular

area.

Table 56. Comparison of ethnobotanicity index (EI) in different regions of the world

SI. No.

Region/Country Flora EI (%) Reference

1 Shimoga, India 850 30.14 * Present study 2 South of Portugal 800 23.10 Camejo-Rodrigues et al. (2003)

3 Navarre Pyrenees, Spain 1822 5.05 Akerreta et al. (2007) 4 High Molise region, Italy 800 6.00 Guarrera et al. (2008) 5 Madeira/Porto Santo

islands, Portugal 1290 21.40 Rivera and Obon, (1995)

6 Alt Emporda, Spain 1650 11.00 Bonete/a/. (1999) 7 Guielliries, Spain 1100 20.00 Bonetera/. (1999) 8 Pallars, Spain 1500 29.10 Agalet and Valles

(2001,2003a, b) 9 Chaves, Montalegre,

Northern Portugal 537 16.00 Neves et al. (2009)

10 Andalusia, Spain 1000 25.30 Martinez-Lirola et al. (1996)

* Ramaswamy et at., 2001, Flora of Shimoga district

II. Pharmacological screening of Vallaris solanacea - an important ethnomedicinal plant of the study area

1. Pharmacological screening of Vallaris solanacea for wound healing activity

Since ancient times, ethno-medicinal plants are being used as topical and internal

preparations to heal wounds. Validating the efficacy of herbal drugs and to understand

the mechanisms of the wound healing activity holds an important key in exploiting new

phytochemicals for controlling some of the chronic diseases. Medicinal plants have great

potentials and have been shown to be very beneficial in wound care, promoting the rate

of wound healing with minimal pain, discomfort and scarring to the patient (Odimegwu

263

: Discussion

et al., 2008). Some of the medicinal plants have direct effect on the wound healing

process while others work by their antimicrobial properties.

Medicinal plants have great potential and have been shown to be very beneficial

in wound care. In India, a large number of plants are being used by tribal and ethnic

communities for the treatment of bums, cuts and wounds (Kumar et al., 2007; Okoli et

ah, 2007). The objective of proper care is to minimize the possibility of infection and

scarring.

In the present study, by excision wound model, it was demonstrated that the

external application on wounds with chloroform fraction of V. solanacea incorporated

individually into the ointment base caused a considerable and faster rate of wound

contraction and decreased the epithelialization period. The process of wound healing

involves activity of a complicated network of blood vessels, cytokines and growth factors

that lead to the normalization of the injured tissue or skin (Odimegwu et al, 2008).

Wound healing process occur in three phases such as inflammation, proliferation and

remodel. The inflammatory phase is characterized by hemostasis which is followed by

epithelialization, angiogenesis and collagen deposition in the proliferation phase.

Granulation tissue formed in the final process of the proliferative phase is primarily

composed of fibroblasts, collagen, edema and new small blood vessels (Nayak et al.,

2008). The increase in granulation tissue occurred during the maturation and remodel

phase, and during the final phase of healing, the wound undergoes the process of

contraction resulting in the closing up of the wound and finally reduction of the apparent

scar area.

Dead space wound model demonstrated that the animals treated with chloroform

fraction exhibited significant gain in wet and dry weight of granulation tissue. The

moderate level of gain of granulation tissue weight was observed with petroleum ether

264

: Discussion

and methanol fractions. The increase in the weight of granulation tissue in chloroform

fraction treated rats could be due to high protein concentration and collagen formation as

suggested by Shirweiker et al. (2003). This is supported by the histological study which

revealed an increase in collagen deposition, more fibroblasts and a few inflammatory

cells in granulation tissues of rats following treatment with chloroform fraction of V.

solanacea. Histological studies also supported the observation that the chloroform

fraction caused enhanced rate of wound healing as compared to the other treatments.

Results of the experiments with excision and dead space models clearly indicated

that crude solvent fractions, particularly, the chloroform fraction of V. solanacea could be

used to enhance significant wound healing. Phytochemical screening revealed that the

chloroform fraction of V. solanacea contained steroids and flavonoids which might be the

compounds behind the process of wound healing. This study corroborated with other

reports involving different plants (Jalalpure et ah, 2008; Pradhan et al, 2009). The

steroids has been shown to increase collagen content and promote cell division and the

growth of bone, cartilage and other connective tissues (Douglas and Alan, 2003).

Methanol fraction in case of excision wound model and was next in effectiveness in

wound healing. Preliminary phytochemical studies indicated the presence of steroids,

flavonoids and saponins in the methanol extract. However, the petroleum ether fraction as

well as methanol fraction promoted biomass increase of granulation tissue in dead space

wound model. Since petroleum ether solublises phenols and glycosides, these two

compounds might also play roles in wound healing. Further, the phytochemical studies

are required to attribute the role of active compound(s) in the fraction that promoted and

caused wound healing. The results of the present study supported the views of herbalists

of Hosanagara taluk of Shimoga district that the ethnoformulation involving V. solanacea

could be used for the treatment of wounds.

265

: Discussion

2. Antimicrobial activity

One of the recent problems with the use of antibiotic substances is multiple drug

resistance in human and veterinary animals. Plant pathogenic microorganisms have also

been shown to develop resistance to antibiotics. As a result, there is an increase in

research interest among scientists to screen a large number of plants possessing

antimicrobial activity and identify novel antimicrobial compounds of plant origin (Irobi

et al, 1994, Wiart et al, 2004).

The antimicrobial activity of petroleum ether, chloroform and methanol fractions

of Vallaris solanacea was tested against nine test organisms. Results of the present study

indicated that all three solvent fractions of V. solanacea had no effect on the growth of

four fungal species - Fusarium oxysporum, Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger and

Candida albicans. Of these, Fusarium oxysporum, Alternaria alternata are plant

pathogens, and Aspergillus niger is a storage fungus, while Candida albicans is a human

pathogen. The ineffectiveness of the extracts could be due to the low level of active

compounds that might be present (Taylor et al, 2001, Parekh and Chanda, 2008).

Another possibility might be their selective ineffectiveness to the test organism(s)

selected in the present study.

As far as the antibacterial activity of chloroform extract of V. solanacea is

concerned, different degrees of antibacterial activity were expressed against

Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This might be due to the presence

of steroids and flavonoids in the chloroform extract. The findings corroborated with the

report of Ikram and Inmal (1980). The methanol fraction of V. solanacea caused growth

inhibition of E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Xanthomonas campestris culture. The

phytochemical compounds such as steroids, saponins and flavonoids, which could be

266

: Discussion

extracted into methanol, could be act synergistically and cause antibacterial activity.

Similarly, the petroleum ether fraction which might contain phenolics and glycosides

could possibly involve in the inhibition of the growth of X. campestris. Results also

indicated that the phytochemicals were effective on both the gram-positive and gram-

negative bacteria. None of the solvent fractions of V. solanacea in petroleum ether,

chloroform and methanol could inhibit the growth of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Preliminary phytochemical screening revealed the presence of glycosides,

flavonoids, steroids, saponins and phenolics in different solvent fractions of leaf powder

of V. solanacea. All these or individual phytochemicals might possess antimicrobial

activity against most of the test bacterial species.

III. Partially purification of crude chloroform fraction of Vallaris solanacea

Medicinal plants still continue to be one of the major raw materials for drugs in

treating different ailments. Majority of the drug discovery research programs indicated

that plants used in traditional/indigenous medicine have shown their efficacy because of

the presence of bioactive compound(s) (Norman and Famsworth, 2001). Phytochemical

screening helps in determining the presence of contain compounds that might be

responsible for the medicinal property of the plant. The information on indigenous

medicinal use of plants lead to a shortcut method in the discovery of many bioactive

drugs (Cox and Balick, 1994). As many as 119 chemical compounds have been isolated

from higher plants and are being used in medicine for the same or related uses mentioned

in ethnomedicine (Fabricant and Famsworth, 2001).

In the present study, leaf extracts of V. solanacea are selected for phytochemical

and pharmacological studies. A survey of literature on phytochemistry of this plant

267

i Discussion

species indicated that the work has been carried out only to certain extent (Kaufmann,

1965; Vohra et al., 1966). A few reports are also available on the pharmacological

activities. Vallaroside is a glycoside extracted from seeds of V. solanacea (Kaufmann,

1965). However, information on the screening of phytochemicals of V. solanacea for

wound healing and antimicrobial activities is lacking. Also, it is not clear which chemical

compound(s) in leaves of V. solanacea might be responsible for wound healing activity.

In the present study, chloroform extract showed higher wound healing activity as

compared to petroleum ether and methanol extract. The crude chloroform fraction was

selected for further partial purification and amorphous powder was obtained. The

preliminary phytochemical screening of the partially purified compound indicated the

presence of steroids. The spectroscopic studies involving FT-IR, LC-MS and H-NMR

also confirmed the presence of steroids as the major group of compound. The

conformational characteristics point out at the presence of lower mass, with UV-inactive

nature and the presence of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbon compound, which

suggested that the major compound present might be steroids.

Plant based natural products have great role in the discovery and development of

new pharmaceutical drugs. In recent years, a number of studies are being conducted by

researchers to analyze the crude natural products for their claimed therapeutic activity

and also the active compounds (Cordell, 1995). The major secondary metabolites

identified from medicinal plants include alkaloids, flavanoids, glycosides, phenolics,

tannins, steroids and saponins (Harbome, 1998, Patwardhan, 2000, Prajapati et al, 2003).

Among the above, steroids have been shown to have good medicinal properties which is

supported by clinical studies (Moghadasian, 2000). The most commonly identified plant

steroids are sitosterol, stigmasterol and campesterol. Beta-sitosterol is one of the

medicinally important sterol extracted from various plants and used for its analgesic

268

: Discussion

(Villasenor et al., 2002) and cholesterol lowering properties (Brunzell and Austin, 1989).

The findings of the present study corroborate with the above reports that steroids present

in V. solanacea could be used in the treatment of certain ailments, particularly, the

wound. Further, very few reports are available on the scientific evaluation of steroids.

Hence, a thorough scientific investigation of the steroids in particular and other

phytocompounds in general is required.

Conclusion

The present study was conducted based on the fact that the documentation of

ethnomedico-botanical information in Shimoga district is incomplete. Seven taluks were

identified as study area with 20 villages (study sites) in each area. Ethnomedical

information was collected through open-ended, semi-structured and structured interview

techniques. A total of 263 medicinal plant species of 80 families were used for the

treatment of 80 human and livestock ailments. Trees, shrubs and herbs were commonly

used for the treating various diseases/disorders. Apocyanceae followed by

Caesalpiniaceae and Asteraceae were preferred for their medicinal properties to cure

diseases. Several ethnoformulations (54) involving 70 plant species from seven taluks

were identified and documented. Many note-worthy observations were made which have

not been reported by previous workers.

The present study indicated that different quantitative analytical tools such as UV,

ICF, PL, RPL and ROP could be used for the identification of potentially useful

ethnomedicinal plants of the study area. The use value demonstrated the overall

usefulness of the reported plant species in the study area. This technique indicated how

knowledge about a plant is distributed in a community or region of the study area. In

Shimoga district, certain plant species have high use value and are very useful in the

269

Discussion

treatment of many ailments. Tinospora cordifolia has a very high use value (0.36)

followed by Tabernaemontana alternifolia, Adhatoda zeylanica, Vallaris solanacea,

Syzigium cumini, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Phyllanthus amarus, Holoptelea integrifolia,

Holarrhena pubescens, Carey a arborea and Memecylon malabaricum. The use value

technique is also important from the point of view of conservation, since most important

species in the study area experience high harvest pressure. The limitation of the technique

is that the plant may be highly rated even through it is cited by only a few people.

The analyses of data by ICF determine the group of plants that require an in-depth

investigation. This high ICF is an indication of those categories of ailments for which a

number of potentially interesting plants are used. The high consensus in Shimoga district

is observed in case of liver complaints (0.82) and wounds (0.81). Plant species like

Phyllanthus amarus, Diospyros montana, Vallaris solanacea, Ageratum conyzoides,

Tabernaemontana alternifolia, Careya arborea and Tectona grandis are frequently used

for these two categories of ailments.

Analysis of the ethnobotanical information through different indices allowed the

classification of plants in a rank order priority based on their relative effectiveness and it

was derived by multiplying FL with RPL. Accordingly, 13 plant species that ranked the

top of the list are frequently used in the study area. Some of the top ranking plants in the

study area are, Memecylon malabaricum, M. umbellatum, Phyllanthus amarus, Lantana

camara, Diospyros montana, Clematis gouriana, Calycopteris floribunda, Gymnema

sylvestre, Vallaris solanacea and Tabernaemontana alternifolia. These plant species have

been used in the treatment of liver complaints, wounds or urinary infection. Hence,

higher priority should be given to these plants for the scientific evaluation of the claimed

medicinal uses.

270

i Discussion

Based on the preference ranking of the highly effective medicinal plant species

for wound care by the resident healers, Vallaris solanacea was selected for further

studies. Quantitative analyses of leaf samples of this plant indicated the presence of

secondary metabolites like steroids, flavanoids, phenols, saponins and glycosides. Three

solvents methanol, chloroform and petroleum ether were used to fractionate the

compounds present in the leaves. The three crude fractions were tested for wound healing

and antimicrobial properties. Chloroform fraction followed by petroleum ether and

methanol fractions caused quick wound healing. All the above fractions were ineffective

to all test fungal species. However, chloroform fraction inhibited colony growth of

Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa while methanol inhibited E. coli,

Staphylococcus aureus and Xanthomonas campestris and petroleum ether fraction

inhibited only the latter bacteria. This indicated the selective action of fractions of V.

solanacea on bacterial species.

The above observations prompted the conduction of the next experiment to

partially purify the chloroform fraction since it was the most effective agent for wound

healing with antibacterial properties. The modem spectrophotometric methods involving

the use of sophisticated techniques like FT-IR, LC-MS and ' H - N M R indicated that the

compound partially purified with chloroform contained steroid in major quantity. This

suggested that steroids could be behind wound healing and antibacterial activities of V.

solanacea. However, completely purified compound could alone tell which active

compound(s) is really the reason for the above said pharmacological activities.

271