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Chapter Four

DIMENSIONS OFEDUCATION QUALITY:STATUS, CHALLENGES ANDPOLICY RESPONSES4.0 Introduction4.1. The quality of education,broadly defined to covercognitive achievement as well asother dimensions of learning,such as good team work, adisciplined and industrious workethic, effective communication,visionary leadership, and goodcivic attitudes and practices, is atthe core of the Sri Lankaneducation policy agenda [seeNEC (2003)]. This chapteranalyzes several importantdimensions of education quality.First, an analysis of the level anddeterminants of cognitiveachievement is undertaken. Thisis followed by a discussion ofthe government strategy toimprove education quality andlink education to the world ofwork. Next, a set of four casestudies undertaken specially forthis report, are presented. The

first case study examineseducation management practicesin schools, an issue that is at theheart of the school effectivenessand school performanceliterature. The second case studycovers an area of increasingpolicy interest and concern inSri Lanka, early childhooddevelopment. The third casestudy focuses on thereconstruction of the educationsystem in the least developedarea of the country, the conflictaffected region. The final casestudy examines an importantelement of the relationshipbetween education and socialcohesion, the civic attitudes andunderstanding of students.

4.1 Dimensions of Edu-cation Quality: Levels andDeterminants of CognitiveAchievement

Cognitive achievement levels ofstudents in the primaryeducation cycle

4.2. Education policy makersexpress concern at theunsatisfactory state of learninglevels in the country [see NEC(1997), (2003)]. Cognitiveachievement tests amongprimary school children showsubstantial shortfalls in masteryof fundamental language andnumeracy skills towards the endof the primary cycle [see Table4.1 and Table 4.2]. In firstlanguage (Sinhalese and Tamil),average mastery is only 37%.This implies that two out ofevery three children have notachieved the targeted level offirst language mastery throughgrades 1-4. Writing (28%) andsyntax (30%) are the weakestmother tongue skills.Comprehension (45%), too, is

poor. Vocabulary skills (70%)are better, but even here one inthree children has an inadequatecommand of the language.English language skills areextremely low. Only 10% ofprimary children achieve thetargeted level of mastery.English language writing skillsare virtually non-existent, withjust 1% of children exhibitingthe required skill level. Englishlanguage comprehension (16%)and syntax (20%) are also verypoor. English languagevocabulary skills are higher(35%), but show that two out ofthree children lack even thisbasic skill.

4.3. In mathematicsachievement, too, overall

mastery is only 38%. Mastery ofmathematical concepts is 45%,procedures 51% and problemsolving only 34%. The low levelof cognitive achievement amongprimary students is especiallyworrying, from a policyperspective, as primaryeducation forms the foundationupon which secondary andtertiary education and varioustypes of skills training are built.Hence, the quality andperformance of the entireeducation system is constrainedby the low achievement levels inthe primary grades.

4.4. In addition to these lowoverall achievement levels,there are also significantdisparities in achievement

between urban and rural areas.First language (Sinhalese orTamil) mastery in urban areas is51%, but falls to 34% in ruralareas. In English language skills,23% of urban children achievemastery, but in rural areas only7% of children reach mastery. Inmathematics, 52% of urbanchildren attain mastery, whilejust 35% of rural childrenachieve the required level ofcompetence. These urban-ruraldifferences can be attributed to acombination of factors, such asthe lower quality of educationservices in rural areas, poorerparental capability and support,and weaker opportunities forchild activities that promotelearning.

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Table 4.1. Proportion of Children Achieving Mastery ofLanguage Skills at Grade 4, 2003

Source: National Assessment of Grade 4 Learning Achievement: National Education Research and Evaluation Center, University ofColombo.

Note: Numbers have been rounded to the nearest integer.

Vocabulary 70 81 68 35 48 30

Comprehension 45 56 43 16 33 13

Syntax 30 44 27 20 34 17

Writing 28 40 25 1 4 1

Total 37 51 34 10 23 7

Skill First Language (Sinhala or Tamil) English LanguageSri Lanka Urban Rural Sri Lanka Urban Rural

% Sector % Sector % % Sector % Sector %

Table 4.2. Proportion of Primary Children Achieving Mastery ofNumeracy Skills at Grade 4, 2003

Source: National Assessment of Grade 4 Learning Achievement: National Education Research and Evaluation Center, University ofColombo.

Note: Numbers have been rounded to the nearest integer.

Concepts 45 58 42

Procedures 51 56 40

Problem Solving 34 39 26

Total 38 52 35

Skill Sri Lanka Urban Sector Rural Sector% % %

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Analysis of factors associatedwith grade 4 cognitiveachievement

4.5. The results of aneconometric analysis of thefactors associated with grade 4cognitive achievement arepresented, in terms of school,household and child specificvariables, in Table 4.3. Amongeducation variables, teacherperformance plays an importantrole in determining the learningoutcomes of students. Studentsperform better in classes whereteachers use child centeredlearning methods, preparelessons daily, employ desk workas part of classroom practice,use oral English in theirteaching, and evaluate studentexercises. These are plausiblefindings, as teachers set the toneand content of the classroomexperience of students. Inaddition, within schools,teachers determine the level andextent of student exposure tofirst language and Englishlanguage skills such asvocabulary, comprehension,syntax and writing, andmathematical skills such asconceptual understanding,knowledge of procedures andapplication to problem solving.From a policy perspective, thesefindings emphasize theimportance of teacherperformance. Hence, initiativesto improve the capabilities,motivation and classroompractice of teachers needs to be acore element of educationdevelopment strategy.

4.6. The adoption of a childcentered learning approachcontributes positively tolearning outcomes in all threesubject areas, first language,English and mathematics. Thisfinding provides importanteconometric support to findingsfrom qualitative studies thatparents and teachers perceivechild centered learning asimproving student performance.The use of oral English inteaching contributes favorablynot only to English languagescores, but also to first languagelearning and mathematicsachievement. This can beattributed to the ability ofteachers conversant in Englishto access ideas and generalinformation better than teacherslacking English languagecompetency. Improving theEnglish language capabilities ofteachers, hence, could yieldbroad benefits to students.

4.7. The timely possession oftextbooks has a positive andsignificant impact on learningachievement. This findingillustrates the importance oftextbooks as a key teaching andlearning resource to improvecognitive achievement.Government policy is to provideschools with a choice of freetextbooks for children in grades1-11, purchasing the selectedtitles from private textbookpublishers. This policy, referredto as the multiple textbookoption (MBO), is intended topromote learning by ensuringthat all students have textbooks,

while relying on private sectorpublication of competingtextbooks to increase quality andreduce cost.

4.8. Students attending schoolswith electricity perform betterthan students in schools withoutelectricity. Schools withelectricity are likely to be betterendowed, in terms of facilitiesand services, so that this is aplausible finding. Children inschools in municipal areasperform better than children inurban council or rural areas.However, the differencebetween children in urbancouncil and rural areas isinsignificant. This may be due tothe intense attention given bygovernment to improve thequality of rural schools.

4.9. The analysis also throwsup a number of anomalousfindings. For instance,observations on the enthusiasmof teachers, the pleasantness oflearning activities and the abilityof teachers to cope with learningdisabilities, are all negativelyassociated with cognitive scores.These findings may partlyreflect the difficulty ofmeasuring such variables, whichare based on third partyobservations, accurately.Children in schools withclassroom cupboards performworse than other children, whichis again an anomalous result. Itmay indicate the difficulty ofdirectly relating such inputs asclassroom cupboards to finallearning outcomes in aproduction function framework.

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Table 4.3. Regression Analysis of Student, Household andSchool Characteristics Affecting Learning Achievement in

Grade 4 in 2003

Explanatory Variables Mathematics English language First languagelearning levels learning levels (Sinhalese or Tamil)

learning levels

Male child -0.185*** -0.254*** -0.298***(0.039) (0.037) (0.038)

Age of child -0.018 -0.075 -0.065(0.048) (0.046) (0.051)

Mother's education 0.016** 0.019*** 0.019***(0.007) (0.007) (0.007)

Father's education 0.041*** 0.056*** 0.045***(0.007) (0.007) (0.007)

Log of household 0.166*** 0.231*** 0.169***spending per capita (0.037) (0.039) (0.037)

Parental aspirations 0.049*** 0.049*** 0.047***for child's education (0.010) (0.009) (0.010)

Schools located in 0.174** 0.396*** 0.332***a municipal council (0.088) (0.085) (0.082)

Schools located in -0.079 0.116 0.057an urban council (0.080) (0.078) (0.075)

Child's height 0.103*** 0.120*** 0.119***(0.020) (0.020) (0.020)

Child missed school -0.144** -0.166*** -0.143***frequently due to illness (0.057) (0.051) (0.055)

Child has hearing difficulty -0.723*** -0.365** -0.433**(0.187) (0.148) (0.180)

Child suffers from -0.052 -0.033 -0.072worm infections (0.072) (0.068) (0.074)

Schools with grades up to GCE A/L -0.124 -0.181** -0.259***(Arts, Commerce & Science) (0.095) (0.090) (0.091)

Schools with grades up to GCE A/L 0.031 -0.289*** -0.073(Arts & Commerce only) (0.089) (0.085) (0.087)

Schools with grades up to GCE O/L 0.077 -0.090 -0.086(0.088) (0.085) (0.086)

Private schools -1.141*** -1.454*** -1.378***(0.208) (0.213) (0.188)

School has a walled compound 0.138* 0.122 0.117(0.082) (0.082) (0.080)

Electricity available in school 0.261*** 0.249*** 0.221***(0.072) (0.065) (0.070)

School principal male -0.149** -0.081 -0.076(0.060) (0.062) (0.060)

Availability of textbooks by the 0.603*** 0.432*** 0.620***beginning of the second term (0.089) (0.092) (0.088)

Teacher prepares daily lesson plans 0.149*** 0.151*** 0.113**(0.057) (0.051) (0.053)

Household variables andlearning outcomes

4.10. Household variables playan extremely important role indetermining cognitiveachievement levels. Theeducation attainment of fathers

and mothers exert a positiveeffect on learning levels in allthree dependent variables,mathematics, English languageand first language achievement.Parental educational aspirationsfor children are also favorably

associated with learningoutcomes in all three subjects.These are plausible findings, aseducated parents with higheducational goals for theirchildren are more likely and ableto provide an encouraging and

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Table 4.3. Regression Analysis of Student, Household andSchool Characteristics Affecting Learning Achievement in Grade 4 in 2003

contd.,

Source: World Bank estimates, based on the NEREC study of learning assessments, 2003 and National Education Commission education,health and household survey data, 2003.

Note: Standard errors in parentheses.* significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. All regressions were estimated using ordinary least squares(OLS) methods. Some regressions also added community fixed effects, which in effect add a dummy variable for eachcommunity. These fixed effects regressions control for all observed and unobserved community characteristics and thus areuseful for reducing bias in the estimated impacts of household and school characteristics. For example, it is possible in aregression without such fixed effects that an observed school characteristic is correlated with some unobserved communitycharacteristic that raises educational achievement, such as the prevalence of tutoring services in the local community (wealthycommunities may have better schools and also more tutoring services). This correlation would lead to overestimation of thecausal impact of school characteristics on test scores, but adding community fixed effects removes this potential source of bias.

Teacher prepares visual aids -0.035 -0.039 -0.063(0.058) (0.055) (0.053)

Teacher uses student centered 0.288*** 0.179*** 0.272***teaching methods (0.059) (0.055) (0.056)

Teacher uses deskwork 0.100** 0.102** 0.064(0.041) (0.041) (0.041)

School has book cupboards -0.120*** -0.172*** -0.167***(0.043) (0.042) (0.041)

School has playgrounds -0.011 0.050 -0.068(0.054) (0.052) (0.050)

Teacher uses textbooks 0.018 0.101** 0.054(0.049) (0.047) (0.047)

Teacher evaluates students' exercises 0.099 0.113* 0.152**(0.065) (0.059) (0.066)

Pleasantness of learning activities -0.141** -0.146** -0.228***(0.060) (0.057) (0.057)

Teacher's ability to cope with children -0.282*** -0.240*** -0.235***having learning disabilities (0.056) (0.050) (0.055)

Teacher uses oral English 0.075** 0.099*** 0.138***(0.037) (0.036) (0.034)

Enthusiasm of the teacher -0.218*** -0.156** -0.134**(0.068) (0.070) (0.067)

Constant -2.262*** -2.207*** -1.813***(0.579) (0.562) (0.608)

Number of observations 2,177 2,220 2,205

R-squared 0.34 0.43 0.39

Explanatory Variables Mathematics English language First languagelearning levels learning levels (Sinhalese or Tamil)

learning levels

supportive learning environmentat home. The econometricanalysis also shows that childrenfrom affluent households havehigher learning outcomes.Again, this is an intuitivelyreasonable finding, as wealthyfamilies are better able to investin the education of theirchildren.

Child specific variables andcognitive achievement

4.11. The health and nutritionstatus of children aresignificantly related to studentachievement. Height ispositively related to learninglevels, suggesting that stuntedchildren perform worse thannormal children. This isintuitively plausible, as stuntingis an indication of low nutrition,and under-nutrition impairslearning ability and attention inclassrooms. Children withhearing impediments and sicklystudents perform poorly on allthree dimensions of learning,mathematics, English and firstlanguage. These findingssuggest that attention needs tobe given to factors outside theeducation system too, such aschild health conditions andnutrition levels, when seeking toimprove education quality.Strengthening the school healthprogram and special educationprogram for children withlearning disabilities, such ashearing impediments, couldcontribute to improvededucation outcomes amongsome of the most disadvantagedand vulnerable children. Male

children appear to performworse than female children, withsignificantly lower test scores.This finding needs to beinvestigated further, as it mayindicate school and classroompractices that place primaryaged boys at a disadvantage.

4.2 Enhancing EducationQuality: GovernmentPolicies and Strategy4.12. The unsatisfactory state ofeducation quality has led tointense public debate andinterest in developing educationpolicies to improve learningoutcomes. Government policy toimprove education qualitycontains seven interactingcomponents, drawn from theeducation performance ofcountries with more advancededucation systems and theliterature on schooleffectiveness and performance.

4.13.Curriculum modernization.The primary educationcurriculum has been reformed toimplement the policy frameworkproposed by the NEC (1997).Three key components of thesepolicies are:

(i) integration of the primarycurriculum around the subjectareas of first language,mathematics, religion andenvironmental studies; (ii)introduction of oral Englishfrom grade 1 onwards andformal English from grade 3onwards; and (iii) organizationof the primary education cyclealong the key stage model used

in England, with three keystages, grades 1-2, grades 3-4and grade 5. Essential learningcompetencies have been set foreach key stage, so that masteryof these competencies can beassessed.

4.14. The junior secondaryeducation curriculum has beenorganized to emphasize activitybased learning, practicalprojects and subject contentknowledge, with greateremphasis on practical work atthe earlier levels of secondaryschooling. The senior secondaryeducation curriculum awardsimportance to subject contentdepth, broad general knowledgeand awareness, problem solvingskills, strong reasoning abilityand accurate comprehension.

4.15. Two sets of key policychanges were introduced intothe university system at theundergraduate level during the1990s: (i) new universities wereestablished, such as Rajarata,Sabaragamuwa and Wayamba,to offer non-standard degreecourses; and (ii) the course unitsystem was introduced, to offergreater flexibility in coursedesign, enable wider studentchoice and a broaderundergraduate education thanthe older, highly specializedacademic system. The newsystem sacrifices subject contentdepth at the undergraduate level,however, which is a problem forhierarchically ordered subjects.Further, the absence of a well-developed postgraduateeducation program constrains

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the ability of the tertiaryeducation system to compensatefor this loss of subject contentdepth at the undergraduate level.

4.16. Introducing modern,student-friendly teachingapproaches and learningmethods. The primary andsecondary education systemseeks to adopt a student-centered approach to learning.This includes, over the keystages of the primarycurriculum, guided play, activityand desk work. In the secondaryeducation curriculum, theemphasis is on projects, self-learning, hands-on experiencesand learning by doing. Therecent implementationexperience of these curriculumapproaches and teaching-learning models have beenintensively assessed at theprimary and secondaryeducation levels. Severalevaluations of the primaryeducation system [see SLAAED(2000) and NEREC (2002)]found that the approach washighly popular amongstakeholders and beneficiaries,such as children, parents,teachers, principals andeducation administrators.Evaluations of key recent policymeasures in the seniorsecondary education system,too, found favorable responsesfrom stakeholders andbeneficiaries [see Wijetunge andRupasinghe (2003), Perera,Gunewardena and Wijetunge(2003) and Karunaratne(2003)]. The design and

implementation of the reforms atboth the primary and seniorsecondary education stages weregenerally considered sound andwell prepared, and were stronglysupported by the central andprovincial education systems.Inevitably, in a wide-rangingreform process, there were alsoteething problems, especiallygiven the tight fiscal constraintsand limited administrativecapacity of the system.However, these were not seriousproblems, and the NECproposes continuing thesepolicies, with some fine tuningat the senior secondary level[see NEC (2003)].

4.17. Policy measures andimplementation at the juniorsecondary education level havebeen less successful [seeMettananda (2002),Gunewardena and Lekamge(2003), Perera, Gunewardenaand Wijetunge (2003)]. Themain reasons for the weakerperformance of education policymeasures at this level appear tobe: (i) policy inconsistency,especially on the grade span andcurriculum organization; (ii) thefailure to establish a high leveltechnical committee to overseeand support implementation, asat the primary level; and (iii)inadequate resources to supportthe ambitious reforms proposed[see NEC (2003)].

4.18. Developing effectiveleadership and managementcapabilities among heads ofeducation institutions,

especially principals and sectionheads. The cardinal importanceof good leadership in developingand maintaining highperforming educationinstitutions has been stressed bypolicy makers in recent years. Aformal Principals’ Service wasestablished in 1997. In addition,a Principals’ Training Center isbeing developed at Meepe bythe National Institute ofEducation (NIE), and offers awide range of educationmanagement programs, fromshort thematic courses topostgraduate Diplomas andMasters degrees. As with newinitiatives, considerable furtherdevelopment is needed.Currently, school principals areappointed from both thePrincipals' Service and the older(1971) Sri Lanka EducationAdministrators' Service, withlittle synchronization betweenthe two. Further, principals andschool section heads (headmasters and head mistresses) lackincentives to engage inprofessional development andtraining activities. Also, suitableperformance appraisal systemshave not yet been established.The NEC (2003) recommendsdeveloping a national policy forschool principals, outliningqualifications, appointment andpromotion criteria, relationship toother education services,professional and careerdevelopment incentives andopportunities, and performanceappraisal and rewards. Such anational policy can be extremelyuseful. Further, government

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needs to consider extending thepolicy to cover school sectionheads, such as headmasters andheadmistresses, as well.

4.19. Increasing the quality ofthe teaching force. Sri Lankaneducation policy makersemphasize the crucial role ofteachers in delivering educationservices [see NEC (1997),(2003)]. Over the past sevenyears the country has established17 National Colleges ofEducation (NCOEs) to ensurethat all individuals joining theteachers' service successfullycomplete a three year pre-service teacher educationprogram and receive duecertification, or are universitygraduates. The number ofuntrained teaches in the systemhas been reduced from about45,000 in 1997 to around 2,000in 2003. In addition, 94 TeacherCenters (TCs) have beenestablished, one in each zone, tofacilitate continuingprofessional developmentopportunities for teachers,especially to widen and upgradesubject content knowledge, andrefresh pedagogical skillsthrough continuing teachereducation. A national TeacherEducators’ Service has also beenestablished to provide anacademic cadre for the NCOEsand TCs. Key proposals todevelop teacher quality in thefuture include: (i) developing anall graduate teacher cadre; (ii)establishing a TeacherEducation Board for planning,coordinating and quality

assurance of the teachereducation system; and (iii)ensuring teachers acquirecompetency in English,computer literacy, counselingand guidance, and the teachingof Sinhalese or Tamil as thirdlanguages, in addition topedagogy and subject expertise.The findings from theeconometric analysis of therelationship between learningoutcomes and teacher variablesin the preceding sectionhighlight the importance ofthese policy measures toimprove the motivation andperformance of teachers.

4.20. Providing on-siteacademic support to schools andeducation institutions. Schoolsare supported through a systemof in-service advisors who areexpected to visit schools andprovide advice, guidance andtechnical support to principalsand teachers. This systemfunctioned well in earliergenerations, but recently thesystem appears to haveweakened, especially at the levelof Divisional Education Offices.Current policy thinking is toabsorb the Divisional EducationOffices into the Zonal EducationOffices, and strengthen thecapabilities and performance ofthis important administrativetier. This is an area where furtherpolicy development andcapacity building would beextremely useful.

4.21. Reforming examinationsand assessment systems.Continuous assessment methods

have been introduced inuniversities and are in theprocess of being introducedwithin the school system. Theobjective of continuousassessment methods are tostrengthen the project andactivity based approach topedagogy and learning, improvethe work ethics and discipline ofstudents by compelling them toprepare throughout the year, andprovide students with a betteropportunity to perform at theirnormal level than can beobserved through single year-end examinations. In the schoolsystem, school based continuousassessment has been introducedas part of the GCE O/L and GCEA/L examination cycles. Policymakers plan to review theimplementation experience ofschool based assessment over athree year cycle and developfurther refinements to the model[see NEC (2003)]. In theuniversity system, continuousassessment was introduced inthe late 1990s to complementthe course unit model. Theuniversity assessment methodsinclude examinations at the endof semesters, and classroomtests and take home assignmentsduring the semester. In addition,some degree programs also offermid-semester tests.

4.22. Strengthening educationresearch, monitoring andevaluation. This is an importantpolicy measure, introduced toobtain regular and systematicfeedback on the performance ofvarious aspects of the education

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system and design policiesbased on objective and rigorousevidence. A key initiative todevelop education research andevaluation capacity has been theestablishment of a NationalEducation Research andEvaluation Center (NEREC).This center has commencedconducting statistically rigoroustests of learning achievement inthe country.

4.3 Pursuing Excellence inEducation Quality4.23 The developmentmeasures above provide apromising foundation uponwhich Sri Lanka can build ahigh quality education system.The education developmentliterature, the education reformexperience of other countries,and the education experience ofSri Lanka itself, suggest severalfurther development initiativesthat are urgently needed toimprove the quality of educationand establish high performingschools in the country.

Improving understanding, atschool level, of targetedcompetencies in the primaryeducation curriculum

4.24. Currently, thecompetencies, skills andexpected learning outcomes ofthe primary school curriculumare clearly specified. However,understanding of theseachievement levels amongprincipals and teachers is limitedand inadequate. Further, thecapabilities of principals and

teachers to translate theseprimary school achievementlevels into effective teachingstrategies in schools andclassrooms are weak. Thegovernment could consider twokey initiatives to combat thisproblem:

a. ensure widespreaddissemination andunderstanding of thecompetencies, skills andexpected learningoutcomes of the primaryschool curriculum amongprincipals and teachers,including making printedversions of theseachievement levelsavailable to schools; and

b. strengthen the capacity ofteachers to equip studentsup to the achievementlevels specified in thecurriculum.

Clarifying and detailing thesecondary school curriculum

4.25. Unlike in the primaryschool curriculum, thecompetencies, skills andexpected learning outcomes ofthe secondary school curriculumare not clearly specified. Inconsequence, the secondarycurriculum is disorganized, withpoor sequencing across gradelevels and cycles. In addition,schools are unable to set goalsand targets for achievementlevels in each grade, or organizetheir teaching methods andlearning strategies around aclearly articulated curriculum.Hence, two core development

initiatives that can be consideredby government to strengthensecondary education in thefuture are to:

a. clarify and organize thesecondary schoolcurriculum, specifying thecompetencies, skills andexpected learningoutcomes in each gradeand subject; and

b. ensure widespreaddissemination andunderstanding of theseachievement levels amongprincipals and teachers,including making relevantprinted material availableto schools.

Strengthening professionalcompetencies and skills ofteachers

4.26. The quality of theteaching force is of cardinalimportance in any educationsystem. Sri Lanka investedheavily, over the past five yearsor so, to construct, staff andequip a complete network ofnational colleges of education(NCOEs) to provide pre-serviceteacher education and teachercenters (TCs) to delivercontinuing teacher education.Virtually all school teachers arenow trained, and enjoyopportunities for professionaldevelopment during their career.The government can build onthis institutional foundation todevelop the professionalcapabilities and skills ofteachers. Key actions that wouldhelp achieve this objective are:

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a. introducing continuingteacher training programsaimed at transforming anddeveloping entire schoolsthrough on-site training,to complement the off-sitetraining activitiescurrently offered throughteacher centers to enableindividual teachers toupgrade their skills;

b. modernizing the curriculaand instructional practicesof pre-service andcontinuing teachertraining programs to equipteachers to utilizeequipment and technologyin teaching activities, suchas course planning andorganization, classroompractice, studentassignments andhomework, andassessment of studentknowledge and skills;

c. developing the curriculaand instructional practicesof pre-service andcontinuing teachereducation programs toequip teachers with thepedagogical skills neededto promote child-centeredand activity basedt e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n gapproaches in the primaryand secondary gradecycles;

d. endowing teachers withthe skills to forgepartnerships with localcommunities to improveschool quality;

e. equipping teachers to

assume responsibility,under the leadership ofprincipals, to set andachieve high schoolperformance standards;and

f. strengthening theprofessional knowledgeand understanding ofsubject areas and thepedagogical skills ofteachers on a regular,continuing cycle overtheir teaching careers.

Strengthening the leadershipand management capabilities ofprincipals, headmasters andheadmistresses

4.27. The central importance ofhigh quality school leadership isappreciated by Sri Lankaneducation policy makers. Aprincipals' training center isbeing developed to provideleadership and managementtraining to principals and schoolsection heads such asheadmasters andheadmistresses. Further, policymeasures are being introducedto empower principals anddevolve considerablemanagerial power to schools.Strengthening the leadershipskills and managerialcompetencies of schoolprincipals, headmasters andheadmistresses is a key area fordevelopment. Importantleadership and managementskills required in the futureinclude the abilities to:

a. clearly articulate thevision and educational

goals of schools;b. organize schools to

implement the curriculumeffectively;

c. match the pedagogicalcompetencies of teachersto the classroom and co-curricular needs ofschools;

d. appraise staff, especiallyteachers, andprogressively improvetheir competencies andskills;

e. motivate staff andstudents towards highperformance;

f. deploy and utilizephysical resources topromote school goals;

g. develop close ties withcommunity organizations,including parent-teacherassociations and pastpupils associations; and

h. maintain high visibilityand accessibility to pupils,teachers, parents and othercommunity members.

Developing academic andadministrative support systemsfor schools

4.28. Support networks thatprovide academic andadministrative assistance andguidance to schools are at arudimentary stage in Sri Lanka.The existing system of in-service advisors to providesupport to schools is poorlydeveloped. Strengthening thissystem is of strategic importancefor future educationdevelopment. Priority areas for

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future development include:

a. clearly articulating theroles and responsibilitiesof in-service advisors;

b. selecting and appointingin-service advisors on thebasis of provenprofessional competenceand performance;

c. equipping in-serviceadvisors to provideservices, includinginformation and trainingregarding goodinstructional practices, toschools to raiseperformance;

d. utilizing in-serviceadvisors effectively toevaluate and provideconstructive feedback onthe academic performanceand efforts of schoolprincipals and teachers;and

e. incorporating on-sitesupport to schools into theregular developmentactivities of provincialeducation authorities andzonal education offices.

Expanding the education capitalstock and increasing the use ofequipment and technology inteaching and learning

4.29 As Sri Lanka standspoised on the threshold of thesecond stage of educationdevelopment, the school systemneeds to advance from a low-technology environment heavilydependent on “chalk and talk” toa modern, equipment andtechnology intensive education

system. The education capitalstock of IT centers andequipment, science laboratories,libraries, activity rooms,instruments and tools, needs tobe increased in stages.Concurrently, equipment andtechnology have to be awarded aprominent role in teachingmethods, learning approachesand examinations. For instance,instructional time in science canbe weighted more in favor oflaboratory work, and lab-basedassignments used as part of theassessment mechanism.Similarly, teaching methods insubjects such as mathematicsand physics can include the useof educational software toenable, inter alia, self-pacedlearning among children. Audioequipment can be utilized inlanguage instruction, especiallyEnglish, to develop vocabulary,pronunciation and oral fluency.And increasing use of librariesand reading material provide anextremely effective method ofenhancing learning outcomes.

Improving the quality oftextbooks

4.30. Textbooks constitute themain learning resource in theeducation system. Further, for adeveloping country such as SriLanka, it is likely to remain thechief quality input for manyyears into the future. As such,ensuring high quality textbooksis vitally important. In recentyears, the government hasimplemented an importantpolicy initiative to increase thequality of textbooks and widen

the choice of textbooks availableto schools by dismantling a statemonopoly and opening textbookpublication to competitiveprivate firms. Futuredevelopment of private sectortextbook publication couldinclude the following key steps:

a. enhancing the technicalcapacity of textbookwriters, illustrators andeditors in the country;

b. strengthening qualitycontrol of manuscriptsand drafts, includingchecking factual accuracyand eliminating materialthat hurts differentreligious and ethnicgroups;

c. speeding up contractingand delivery to ensuretimely distribution toschools prior to thecommencement of theacademic year; and

d. developing technicalcapacity among writers toproduce supplementaryreading material,workbooks and textbookguides.

Reconstructing damagededucation institutions in conflictaffected areas

4.31. Enrolment and learninglevels are lowest in the conflictaffected areas, which experiencespecial challenges caused by thedestruction of educationinfrastructure. Governmenteducation institutions in theconflict affected areas,especially schools, suffered

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damage during the conflictperiod. An assessment of thereconstruction, rehabilitationand developmental needs of theregion [see UNICEF-WorldBank (2003)] estimated thatabout USD140 million isrequired to restore the educationcapital stock in the region.Technical capacity, however, is amajor challenge inimplementing educationreconstruction and rehabilitationwork in the conflict affectedregions. In particular, there areshortages of material and skilledlabor. Also, as funds havepoured into the region forreconstruction work, prices ofgoods and wages have risen.Long-term support to restore theeducation system in the conflictaffected areas requiresconsiderable capacity buildingactivity.

Promoting social cohesionthrough education

4.32. Enhancing civicknowledge and understandingamong students is an importantmeasure to promote respect fordiversity, democraticgovernance and civil liberties inthe backdrop of the 20 year longsecessionist conflict in thecountry. Additional measures topromote social cohesion througheducation include producingtextbooks that are sensitive tothe cultures of different socialgroups, using the curriculumand co-curricular activities topromote respect for diversity,introducing schools wherechildren from different ethnic

groups can study together andpromoting the use of English asa link language. These are usefulmeasures, although their impactclearly depends on thecooperation of different socialgroups. In particular, thecooperation of dominant groupsin the conflict affected areas isneeded to promote theseactivities effectively.

Improving the quality ofuniversity education

4.33. The university system hasnot experienced the sameintensive process of consultativepolicy development as theschool system. However, theUGC and individual universitieshave developed severalinitiatives to enhance quality.These include reformingcurricula and examinationsystems, especially organizingdegree programs around courseunit systems and introducingcontinuous assessment systems,developing corporate plans foruniversities, introducingperformance appraisal systemsfor staff, setting up anaccreditation process under anindependent board, andintroducing an element ofperformance based funding.These initiatives have yet to betested, and good evaluations,especially of the older initiativessuch as the introduction ofcourse unit systems andcontinuous assessmentmechanisms, could be helpful topolicy makers and academics.

4.4 Orienting theEducation System to theWorld of Work4.34. The Sri Lankan educationpolicy framework stresses theimportance of orienting theeducation system to the world ofwork [see NEC (2003)]. Policymakers are aware that the bestfoundation for the world of workis a high quality school systemwhich can supply the labormarket with trainableindividuals and provide a strongspring board for technical,professional and universityeducation. The school systemplays a pivotal role in producingknowledge and generic skills,such as team work, decisionmaking, initiative, problemsolving, responsibility,leadership and communication,which are important in the worldof work. The school system alsoconstitutes the basic curriculumframework for the acquisition ofknowledge and specificcapabilities in demand in thelabor market. Plans to improvethe orientation of the Sri Lankaneducation system to the world ofwork needs prioritydevelopment initiatives incurricula, use of IT andtechnology in education,language skills and fluency, andcareer guidance and counseling.

Developing and implementingan activity based curriculum

4.35. The activity basedcurriculum approach advocatedby Sri Lankan policy makers forsecondary education is explicitly

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designed to develop a soundwork ethic among schoolchildren [see NEC (2003)]. Assuch, it can play a key role inorienting the education systemto the world of work. The futuredevelopment andimplementation of the activitybased curriculum approachdepends on key initiatives to:

a. train teachers in activitybased pedagogy;

b. train principals toorganize schools for anactivity based curriculum;

c. provide sufficientclassroom space andactivity rooms toimplement activity basedlearning; and

d. make adequateequipment, technologyand reading materialavailable in schools tosupport activity basedteaching and learning.

Increasing IT literacy and skillsand introducing IT basedteaching and learning

4.36. IT literacy and skills arefundamental in the modernworld, and vastly increase thenational and global labor marketprospects of school completersand university graduates.Education policy makers areaware of the cardinal importanceof IT, and advocate expandingand deepening the use of IT inthe education system. This is anextremely important, highpriority policy measure. Keyinitiatives to develop the use ofIT in the school system and

implement IT based teachingand learning include:

a. equipping schools with ITfacilities and connectivityin stages;

b. establishing a nationaleducation network tomaximize access to ITbased education material;

c. training teachers in ITequipment, educationalsoftware and on-lineeducation resources;

d. creating awareness amongschool principals on theuse of IT in education; and

e. making provision for ITequipment and IT basededucational resources inschool quality inputallocations.

Improving English languageskills

4.37. English language skillsand fluency enjoy strongdemand in the national labormarket. In addition, Englishlanguage competency opens jobprospects in the global economy.In consequence, developingEnglish language skillsconstitutes a central element ofthe education policy frameworkto improve the labor marketorientation of the school system.Important developmentinitiatives for the future include:

a. allowing private schoolsto provide students achoice of English as amedium of instruction,along with Sinhalese andTamil, from grade 1

upwards;b. introducing English as a

medium of instruction ingovernment schools instages, as and whenadequate teachers becomeavailable;

c. training teachers,including re-training“excess teachers” in thesystem, to teach Englishas a subject;

d. training teachers,including re-training“excess teachers” in thesystem, to teach inEnglish as a medium ofinstruction; and

e. utilizing audio-visualeducational resources andIT based educationmaterial widely forEnglish language teachingand learning.

Strengthening skillsdevelopment and training

4.38. Skills developmentconstitutes the chief active labormarket strategy of thegovernment to promote the jobprospects and labor productivityof school leavers. Severalpromising developmentinitiatives and policy measureshave been proposed by policymakers, including:

a. strengthening theTechnical and VocationalEducation Commission(TVEC) as the apex bodyfor TEVT;

b. developing the role ofgovernment to function asa facilitator, standard

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setter and regulator oftraining;

c. fostering private sectorparticipation in training;

d. promoting government-industry partnerships inskills development;

e. accrediting andmonitoring the quality ofpublic and private traininginstitutions;

f. rationalizing the publicsector TEVT system;

g. improving the linkages ofthe TEVT system with theschool and universitysystems; includingestablishing careerguidance and counselingin schools anduniversities;

h. promoting vocationaltraining for the informalsector; and

i. providing financialincentives for trainingtargeting the corporatesector.

These are rational andpotentially productive ideas,reflecting international thinkingand practice. The actual stage ofdevelopment of these variouspolicy initiatives is modest, withmany ideas still at the level ofblue prints. Translating thesepolicy ideas into developmentstrategies and implementingthem constitute the next majorchallenges faced by the TEVTsector.

Developing career guidance andcounseling

4.39. An important governmentrecommendation to linkeducation to the world of workis the development of effectivecareer guidance and counseling.Universities have commencedcareer guidance and counselingactivities. However, in theschool system, career guidanceand counseling is virtually non-existent. Developing careerguidance and counseling inschools is an important initiativefor future implementation. Keyactions to promote this initiativecould include:

a. training a core cadre ofschool staff in careerguidance and counseling;

b. prioritizing schools inpoor regions in thedevelopment of guidanceand counseling, asstudents in such areashave less access to labormarket information; and

c. developing informationnetworks betweenvocational training andtechnical educationinstitutions and guidancecounselors in schools.

4.5 Case Studies ofSelected Dimensions ofEducation Quality4.40. The preceding analysisexamined important dimensionsof learning outcomes andgovernment education strategyat the broad level of nationalpolicy. The current sectionpresents four case studies,specially commissioned for this

report, which analyze keyelements of education quality:(i) education managementpractices and the interaction ofinputs and processes at schoollevel; (ii) Early ChildhoodDevelopment; (iii)reconstruction of the educationsystem in conflict affected areas;and (iv) the promotion of socialcohesion through the schoolsystem.

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Developing ResponsiveSchools for QualityLearning4.1.1. Analyzing the qualitativedynamics of the interactionamong the conditions withinschools in Sri Lanka isimportant for education policymaking, as generalrecommendations aboutprogram design based onquantitative assessments need tobe supplemented by qualitativeinformation. For example, thereis strong research evidence thatthe presence of textbooks affectsschool achievement positively.However, the dynamics andefficacy of book use in schoolsis not well understood. Foreducational reform and programdesign to be successful, thesequantitative analyses need to beenriched by systematicqualitative information on thedynamics within schools.

4.1.2. As part of a process totake a fresh look at the guidingparameters which should be inplace for learning environmentsin Sri Lankan schools, aqualitative study was undertakenby the National EducationResearch and Evaluation Center(NEREC) for this report. Thestudy focused on 100 schools(92 public and 8 private) acrossall provinces in Sri Lanka andrepresents all school types.More in-depth case studies arealso underway in eight schools,including two private schools.

4.1.3. The study particularlyfocused on key interactingschool-related factors and theirrelationships with the largereducation system and localcommunities. These factorswere based on those identifiedfrom international experiencewhich improve student learningenvironments [see ANTRIEP(2000), Heneveld and Craig(1996), Lockheed and Verspoor(1991)]. These include:

• Strong parent andcommunity support

• Effective support from thelarger education system,including clearly definedstudent outcomes;transparent and merit-based career opportunitiesfor staff, and frequent andappropriate teacherdevelopment activities

• Adequate materialsupport; i.e., sufficientinstructional materials,adequate facilities

• Effective leadership• A capable teaching force• Flexibility and autonomy

to organize schoolpriorities and activities

• Sufficient days spent inschool during the schoolyear

• Clear goals and highexpectations of studentsand staff

• Positive teacher attitudes,collaborative planningand collegial relationships

• Order and discipline• Sequenced curriculum

articulation andorganization

• School-wide recognitionof academic success andincentives

• Maximized learning timein the classroom

• Variety in teachingstrategies

• Well supervisedhomework appropriate tothe age level of students

• Frequent constructivestudent assessment andfeedback

4.1.4. Based on the informationcurrently available from thisqualitative analysis, seven keyareas that appear to warrantstrong consideration in SriLanka, especially as school-based management isdeveloped, are: (i) clearlydefining student outcomes andhigh expectations that are theneffectively translated intoclassroom learning practice; (ii)modernizing the curriculum tobetter match the expectedstudent learning outcomes andto develop more child-friendlyclassroom practice; (iii)strengthening the instructionaland managerial leadershipwithin schools, most typically asprovided by the schoolprincipal, headmasters andheadmistresses; (iv) developingmore capable and motivatedteachers with positive teacher

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Case Study I

attitudes; (v) maximizing thesupport and participation fromthe local community; (vi)developing alternative methodsto corporal punishment tomotivate children to undertakethe needed learning tasks, and tobe excited about their ownongoing learning; and (vii)specifying more clearly thepower, authority andresponsibilities at each level ofthe education system.

a. Clearly defined studentoutcomes and highexpectations. In thequalitative analysis, it isstriking that of the 100schools studied, themajority of them haddifficulty in translating theexpected learningcompetencies of students(i.e. cognitive, affectiveand psycho-motor) intoschool objectives andclassroom practice. It isimperative that teachersknow what students needto learn. Based oninternational research,effective schools tend tobe places of commitmentto learning. This is clearlycommunicated by theprincipal and the teachers.Student performance ismonitored regularly. Alsostudent assignments aresufficiently frequent anddifficult so as to conveythis high expectation andteachers’ confidence instudents’ abilities andconfidence in students is

reinforced by giving themmany opportunities totake responsibility forschool activities. Theseexpectations tend totranslate into morepositive self-concepts andgreat self-reliance amongstudents.

b. Curriculum relevantschool activities. Based onthe expected studentcompetencies, schoolsneed to develop acomprehensive writtenscheme of work thatidentifies learningobjectives andrealistically availablematerials, and all teacherscan explain what theyteach in terms of thisscheme. Materials, bothprovided and locally-prepared, identified in thisscheme of work should beavailable and used byteachers. In the primaryschool, all teachers shouldbe able to identify basicskills in each subject anddemonstrate how theyensure mastery of theseskills by students. Subjectcontent across gradelevels needs to be relevantfor current and futurelearning needs, respectfulof diverse cultural andreligious backgrounds,and be presented in anintegrated sequenceacross grade levels. Thereshould also be someflexibility for teachers toadapt the curriculum to

their specific students'needs.

c. Strong school leadership.School principals play akey role in the school to:(i) see that the resourcesare available to provide,adequate support toteachers, sufficientlearning materials, and anadequate and well-maintained learningfacility; (ii) pursue highinstructional standardsthrough written policies,high expectations andmanagement of thelearning process; (iii)communicate regularlyand effectively withteachers, with parents andothers in the community;and (iv) maintain highvisibility and accessibilityto pupils, teachers, parentsand others in thecommunity. Teachers alsohave a responsibility towork with and shareaccountability with theprincipal for the ongoingimprovement of theirinstructional practice andschool quality.

d. Capable and motivatedteachers: Characteristicsof teachers in effectiveschools tend to fall intotwo categories. There areconditions that it appearsmakes teachers in a schoolmore capable of beingeffective, and there are theattitudes and behaviorsthey exhibit in their work.Among the conditions that

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define the capability of aschool's teaching forceare: (i) the teachers'mastery of the materialthey are supposed toteach; (ii) the amount ofteaching experience theyhave; (iii) the length oftime they have been in theschool; and (iv) the extentto which the teachers arefull-time in the school.Regarding behavior,teachers tend to be moreeffective when they haveconfidence in their abilityto teach, care aboutteaching and about theirstudents, and cooperatewith each other. This isreflected in teachers'comfort in using learningmaterials and in tryingnew ideas, by low teacherabsenteeism and tardiness,and in a high level ofgroup involvement inplanning, teaching and inresolving whole-schoolissues. The lack of directpedagogical support toteachers in theirclassrooms is problematicin Sri Lankan schools.Teacher support networksthat bring this support intoclassrooms, either fromh e a d m a s t e r s ,headmistresses, schoolprincipals, otherexperienced teachers,learning advisors or otherresource persons, wouldprovide an invaluableservice to teachers to bothmotivate and increase

skills.e. Parent and community

participation: From thebroader researchliterature, five categoriesof parent and communitysupport that are relevant tothe Sri Lankan contextare: (i) children come toschool prepared to learn(e.g., are healthy, andwhere possible have beeninvolved with reading,conversations anddirected play at home); (ii)the community providesfinancial and materialsupport to schools(monetary, or in-kindcontributions, assistanceto build schools); (iii)communication betweenthe school and communityis frequent (e.g., school-public events and parent-teacher conferences arefrequent and meaningful);communications toparents by school staff arefrequent and meaningful,positive parent-initiatedcontacts with school staffare frequent andmeaningful); (iv) thecommunity has ameaningful role in schoolgovernance (e.g., the role,functions and authority ofthe school board are clearand agreed-upon; theschool board meetfrequently and makemeaningful decisions);and (v) communitymembers and parentsassist with instruction

(e.g., parents support theidea of homework andmonitor it,parents/community serveas information sourcesand/or an audience forstudent work).

f. Order and discipline:Disciplinary matters canbe minimized inclassrooms often by theway the classroom isorganized as well as theinterest level generated byengaging, child-friendlypractices. For example,seating arrangementsshould be uncongested;external noise levels andlighting conducive tolearning; school rules andregulations clearlyarticulated, agreed uponby teachers and students,and equitably maintained;learning centers ofindividual activitiesavailable for students whomay finish work early orneed either remedial orfurther engagingactivities, and good workrewarded publicly.

g. Effective support from thelarger education system:Support to individualschools by the educationsystem's managementstructure is important toenhance school quality. Interms of demonstrating itssupport, the system needsto: (i) delegate authorityand responsibility forimprovement to theschools themselves; (ii)

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c o m m u n i c a t eexpectations and exertpressure where necessaryfor successful academicresults; (iii) provideservices to the schools tohelp them succeed,including information andtraining regardinginstructional practices andprotection from politicalturbulence; and (iv)monitor and evaluateschools' academicperformance and theefforts of schoolprincipals, particularly asinstructional managers.The system of a clearly-defined policy forauthority delegation andof expected studentcompetencies arenecessary to promote highacademic standards. Thiswill also mean that, in SriLanka, there is a need tomore clearly specify thepower, authority andresponsibilities at eachlevel of the educationsystem, especially as thesystem moves moretowards school-basedmanagement. Areas of thesystem where there arecurrently overlappingresponsibilities will alsoneed clarification so thatschool principals willknow clearly to whomthey are accountable. Atpresent, as noted by NEC(2003), some schools aresubject to multiple controlby different layers.

4.1.5. The move to developmore school-based managementin Sri Lanka has the potential tobetter address these differingneeds and processes at eachschool, bringing more authorityand responsibility closer to theteaching-learning interactionwithin schools. As the unit offocus of greatest learningimpact, schools are essentialplayers in the processes ofregulation, monitoring and self-renewal.

Teacher Support Networks

4.1.6. The quality of a student'seducation depends largely on thequality of teachers. This isespecially important in theprimary school level, whenchildren's learning is veryformative and not soindependent. It is even more trueof developing countries, where,especially in rural areas, otherfactors involved with thelearning process, such as accessto appropriate textbooks is moreproblematic [see Carron andNgoc Chau (1996)]. If teachersare absent, discouraged, do nothave the needed pedagogicalexpertise to maximize learningtime, do not believe in thecapability of students to learn,and/or do not work in supportiveteaching environments, studentlearning suffers. Teachers arealso key agents for socializationin schools. So the role ofteachers is critical and warrantsspecial attention.

4.1.7. Teacher support networksare needed if sound pedagogical

practice and motivation are to bedeveloped. These networks andtheir associated activities can bevaried in structure andorganization. As a general rulethough, those that focus oncontinuous development toguide, monitor, and supportnecessary skills, knowledge andnew ideas, tend to be moresuccessful in bringing aboutchange at the classroom levelthan those which seek quickfixes to fill up deficiencies, orprograms that simply provide aqualification. Impact is evenfurther enhanced when thesupport (skill development andresources) is brought directlyinto teachers' classrooms, incontrast to support that isoffered at a distance andrequires time to travel. Theschool setting should be theprime focus of activity.

4.1.8. A central principle ofsupport networks is that theprofessional development ofteachers is a process, not an event.It involves change over time and isachieved in stages during ateacher's career as moreexperience is gained. The stagesare impacted by: (i) the degree andaccessibility of services andsupport that can be providedwithin the education system; and(ii) the willingness of teachers towant to learn and apply new ideas.

4.1.9. The following providesinformation on some differenttypes of teacher networks thatmight be considered. Acombination of these isdesirable:

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4.1.10. S c h o o l - B a s e dNetworks: The one model notedfor its effectiveness in changingclassroom practice is school-based support. This typicallyinvolves the direct participationand joint control by teachers andschool principals, along withother officials, usuallyinspectors/supervisors. Thesupport and participation of theschool principal or other“director-organizer” is essential.Self-explanatory teacher guidesand shared teacher idea bookletsfurther strengthen this approach.

4.1.11. In-school activities,held regularly, typically include:(i) individual consultationsbetween the teacher and theprincipal, supervisor or otherexperts, especially withemphasis on classroomsupervision and use ofinstructional materials; (ii)observation of excellentteachers, discussion, peercoaching, and mentoring; (iii)visits to other classrooms andschools; and (iv) regular groupteacher meetings, either bygrade level or subject to discussissues and share resource ideas.Peer coaching, in which twoteachers observe each other'sclasses with the objective ofhelping each other improve theirinstructional abilities, hasbecome increasingly popularalong with mentoring programs.Activities tend to focus onconcrete and specific trainingfor instructional andmanagement practice, and areappropriate to the current needs

of the teacher. This assistancecan also provide a valuable linkwith more formal in-servicetraining that might have beenprovided but which needsclassroom practice to ensureimplementation of the acquiredlearning. Similar support shouldalso be organized for schoolprincipals so that they alsomight develop better leadershipand pedagogical skills.

4.1.12. The school-based modelis very effective for long-termguided learning, depending onthe caliber of staff available inthe school or other staff who canregularly visit the school. Therole of the principal asinstructional leader, and not justadministrative manager tends tobe a feature. If a school does nothave competent staff to provideappropriate advice andassistance, then the services of avisiting resource teacher, orother appropriate personnel whomight be found in a school-cluster network, or within otherteaching institutions/servicesfrom the larger education systembecomes a necessity for success(see Egyptian example, Box4.1).

4.1.13.School-Cluster Networks,Teacher Centers and ResourceCenters: School-clusternetworks (such as thoseemployed in Colombia,Guatemala, Indonesia, Lesotho,Nepal, the Philippines, SriLanka, Thailand and Zambia)are very helpful to share scarcematerial and human resources.Core schools tend to host

educational resource centersdeveloped and operated jointlywithin the cluster. The LearningAction Cells in the Philippinesexist at the school, district andregional levels and are used forschool evaluation and staffdevelopment for both teachersand principals. Similarorganizational patterns operatein many other countries. Inreality, the activities undertakenat the cluster level, tend to bemore formal and related todecentralized in-service trainingprograms [see Colombianexample, Box 4.2]. However,there is the potential to also haveactivities more akin to theschool-based networks. Clustersoffer the added advantage ofhaving greater access to sharestaffing, material resources, anda range of ideas.

4.1.14. Resource Centers tendto be prominent within schoolclusters, However, theirestablishment is alwayscontroversial. The concept issimple, but clarity of purposeand the implementation of thesupport structure which isneeded for classroom practiceimpact, tend to be problematic.

4.1.15. Based on internationalexperience [see many studiesreferred to in Bray (1987), Craiget. al. (1997), Knamiller andFairhurst (1998)], instructionalsupport to teachers vianetworks, i.e., regular meetingsof teachers between and withinschools to share resources andideas, team teaching with anexperienced teacher, regular

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visits and advice by learningcoordinators/ resource teachers,sharing useful classroommaterials etc., tend to be moreeffective than the establishmentof fixed site centers. However,

if the establishment of a fixedsite center is being considered,the following key issues whichneed to be addressed in theaffirmative for successfuloperation of resource centers in

school clusters, should bethoroughly addressed. Becausemany of the following elementsare difficult to achieve, thebetter advice is often to placeeffort and financial resources

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School-based training and support has been operating since 1994 in several areas of Egypt as pilot programs for Englishteachers at the preparatory level. The main goal is to provide in-service training and support to increase the effectivenessof teachers through training and mentoring at the school site.

Targets of the programs include:• Teachers effectively using the instructional texts in the classroom.• Unifying the teachers in a school and actively encouraging them to work as a team.• Improving communication among Ministry of Education inspectors, senior teachers, school principals, school

directors and parents.• Recognizing, acknowledging and rewarding individual creativity to create greater job satisfaction, enhanced self-

worth, and professional pride in teaching.• Providing a model for the sharing of effective strategies for solving problems.• Identifying and actively encouraging those individuals who are models of excellence and potential leaders in their

schools.• Providing a forum for participatory input that affects the sense of investment and consequent ownership that all

participants develop toward their school.• Encouraging inspectors, teachers, and administrators to develop strategies for resolving conflict.• Encouraging more active and communicative pupil participation in the learning process.• Institutionalizing the model of using the school as a unit for ongoing professional development.

Strengths of the program:• Preparatory school teachers receive materials on basic classroom teaching techniques. These materials are based on

the instructional texts and can be used immediately by the teacher to make classroom teaching more interesting andeffective.

• Because the training and support takes place at the school site:- Teachers receive training without having to take time off work or travel long distances;- Teachers can practice new techniques and discuss the new material with colleagues and senior teachers on a dailybasis;- The senior teacher (or any interested and motivated teacher) can give classroom demonstrations using SBTactivities, or attend demonstrations given by other teachers in the school.

• SBT activities increase communication and sharing of ideas among the English teaching staff.• Transferring the SBT activities and ideas to other English classes in a school gives the senior teacher increased

responsibility for professional development, and increases the status of the senior teacher.• Teachers in participating schools develop a better rapport through working together to integrate SBT activities into

their classes.• All teachers in the school receive new material and observe demonstrations (rather than one or two teachers being

nominated to attend a local training session).• SBT provides a positive focus for inspectors' school visits, classroom observation, and meetings with teachers.• Senior teachers monitor teachers using SBT activities on a day-to-day basis and can thus better assist inspectors on

their observation visits.• Among the most motivated teachers, SBT encourages creative thinking and problem solving.• SBT involves inspectors as demonstrators, trainers, observers and evaluators; and it strengthens the relationship

between the supervising inspector, and the senior teacher in a participating school by focusing on professionaldevelopment.

• SBT can serve as a link between a centralized type of in-service training program and specific teacher needs. Itincludes schools identified by the inspector general and the inspectors for improvement.

• Participating teachers and inspectors are encouraged to make suggestions and revisions, which are then incorporatedinto the SBT materials.

Box 4.1: School-Based Training/Support (SBT) in Egypt: Programs for English Teachers

into a visiting “resource teacher”program [see Lesotho example,Box 4.3] rather than a fixed sitecenter:

• Is there commonagreement between theschools about clearlystated objectives?

• Does the topography ofthe areas to be coveredallow easy access to thecenters - consider ease ordifficulty ofcommunication andtransportation, time,physical weariness andcost?

• Is there support andcollaboration ofparticipants involved inthe cluster?

• Is there participatoryplanning andimplementation by stafffrom the schools?

• Is there support andcollaboration of educationofficers higher up in theeducation system?

• Are the skills of thepeople responsible for theteaching, training,mentoring and supportadequate?

• Do the activitiesundertaken at the resourcecenter have a strongapplication to classroompractice?

• Are there outreachprograms or personnelthat visit the other schoolsin conjunction withprograms offered at themain resource center?

• Are the resources andsupport in the centerappropriate to current staffneeds?

• Is there adequateequipment and resources?

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According to Schiefelbein (1992:69-71), the teachers:

.. learn by doing in three programmed one-week workshops organized by the decentralized regional unit in charge oftraining with intervening practice periods, and limited supervision. In the first workshop, each teacher visits ademonstration school, learns about the cooperation of the student council and the layout and organization of the learningactivities areas, and participates in group discussion. The second workshop is held when the school has been adopted asthe Nueva Escuela model: a student council is elected and the community informed usually two or three months after thefirst workshop. In that week, teachers learn to use the self-instructional textbooks correctly, practice the multi-gradeapproach, flexible promotion, and are encouraged to introduce innovations. In the third workshop, teachers learn toorganize and use the class library, maps, posters, and reinforce their ability to work with several grades at the same time.This is also occasion for review, follow-up evaluation and problem solving. At the end of the third workshop, teachersreceive a 100-book library. After each workshop, teachers are invited to meet once a month in a nearby school in what isknown as a Micro-center. These micro-centers operate within demonstration schools to analyze problems and to discusssolutions. No hierarchical staff relationships are generated by microcenters, but supervisors do attend the meetings whenfeasible.

Box 4.2: The Micro-centers (Teacher Centers) in the Escuela Nueva in Colombia

To ensure the success of the program:• The inspector-general or senior inspector must strongly support the introduction of the SBT into local schools, want

to assist in its implementation, and keep pressure on inspectors and senior teachers to do the work.• The inspector-general or senior inspector must identify key schools with strong senior teachers (especially in the first

year of implementation), and make sure that the supervising inspector actively participates in SBT.• The inspector-general or senior inspector and participating inspectors must be willing to implement procedures for

quality control of SBT (e.g. attendance at demonstrations, following visits for instructional support, observations andconstructive feedback to participating teachers, and encouragement and advice to senior teachers).

• The inspector-general or senior inspector and participating inspectors must be willing to meet regularly to discussSBT, or to include SBT implementation as a discussion item during regularly scheduled weekly meetings.

• The format and advantages of using the school as a unit of ongoing professional development must be wellunderstood by all participants.

• This school-level support must be linked to the larger education in-service training system.• SBT must be viewed as a means of promoting community and organizational development, in addition to providing

a forum for professional development, and improving teachers’ use of the books and other classroom skills.

Source: LeBlanc 1997

• Is there sufficient releasetime for staff to attend thecenter during schoolhours?

• Are there incentives inplace to attract staff to usethe center andcollaborate?

• Is additional staffingneeded for the center? Isadditional staffing feasibleand affordable?

• What are the requirementsfor financing: the center,

release time for teachers,outreach program fromthe center to the otherschools, staffing?

• Are the costs and benefitsof resources shared -financial and non-financial?

4.1.16. Sri Lanka currently has84 Teacher Centers. Their primefunction is to hold non-residential courses running fromone to three days. While the idea

of having an outreach programdirectly to classrooms issupported in principle by manyof the Directors of these centers,lack of appropriate staff andresources, logistical constraints,as well as lack of clear policyand authorization to undertakemore direct classroom support ispreventing this development.This will be an important area offocus for the Office of the ChiefCommissioner for TeacherEducation (CCTE).

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Box 4.3: Teacher Support Networks: The District Resource Teacher (DRT) Program in Lesotho

Highlights :• One of the attributing factors for the success of the teacher education program is that it began as an idea from the

Ministry of Education rather than by the project, thereby encouraging ownership and motivation.• The program particularly targets small schools in scattered and distant locations where teachers are often isolated.

The schools tend to be multi-grade, and have fewer than five teachers. About 700 of the 1,200 schools in the countryare covered, accounting for 2,000 of the country's 6,000 teachers.

• Classroom environments are very conducive to learning, e.g., visual aids are used and displayed on walls, andlearning centers are organized in classrooms.

• The DRT's supportive role is coordinated with that of the Inspectorate, whose current role involves checking onwhether the schools are doing their work properly.

Observations:• Activities include individual consultations, group workshops for school clusters, and dissemination of new curricula

produced by the National Curriculum Development Center.• DRTs sit down with teachers, discuss their perceived difficulties, and offer suggestions to deal with them.• Typical difficulties involve classroom organization and management of multi-grade schools, group work, learning

centers, peer learning, and mobilizing community members to help with classroom activities such as reading tomothers.

• DRTs team teach with local teachers and help develop teaching materials.• DRTs usually visit schools four times a year, which allows two to three visits a year for all the teachers in the schools

under the DRT's care (typically between ten and fifteen schools). Workshops are often held on weekends.

Selection of DRTs:• The first efforts were rather random - experienced teachers proposed by the district education officers were appointed.

But this did not necessarily work very well.• The second group recruited at the end of the program needed to be qualified, experienced teachers, with head teacher

or deputy-head teacher experience, willing to travel frequently and ride horseback where necessary. Efforts weremade to try to have a gender balance as well as distributions by district and religion.

• Potential participants needed to write about why they wanted to be DRTs, interviews were conducted, and werefollowed by training.

Sustainabilty:When donor support ended, DRTs were given a teacher's salary on a special scale of a resource teacher or a seniorresource teacher that was paid by the Ministry of Education. Over seventy DRTs were operating and some werepromoted into the Inspectorate. The DRTs are within the teaching service and paid from the regular governmentbudget. The extra expenditures of the DRT program, mainly travel costs and per diems of DRTs while they are in theschools, are paid through the Ministry of Education.

Source: O'Grady 1996

4.1.17. School, Institutional,Teachers' Union, BusinessNetworks: Other collaborativeefforts for professional supportinclude: (i) institutionaltwinning, where teachereducators in a teacher traininginstitution (or even secondaryschool) develop a partnershipwith another well establishedinstitution in either the samecountry, another developingnation or a more resource richnation to provide staffexchanges, shared training,ideas, curriculum and otherongoing support; (ii)partnerships between localschools and the teacher traininginstitutions to provide testinggrounds for new researchpractices intended to maximizestudent learning (university staffmeet regularly in the schools todiscuss practical concerns andproblems of the classroom, andthe schools provide places forstudent teaching andopportunities for research); (iii)partnerships between teachers'unions and schoolclusters/districts/central levelsto contribute as part of theprofessional network tocollaboratively provideworkshops, discussion forums,and training; (iv) individualcollaboration of teachers orschool districts with institutionsof higher education to pursuemutually-beneficial projectssuch as science and technologyexchanges and in-servicetraining for teachers related tohigher education institution

programs; and (v) collaborationbetween schools andbusinesses/industries. This canbe particularly advantageous atthe secondary school levelwhere businesses and industries,as well as tertiary institutions,have an interest in studentsdeveloping appropriate skills forthe workforce and for higherlearning, and therefore take amore active role in supportingschools and the teachingprocess.

4.1.18. Unstructured andresource-based networks: Thereis a strong argument that, asexperienced or qualifiedteachers will have demonstrateda capacity to learn, there is noneed to create a formal systemof training for their continuingprofessional development.Rather, provided educationalresources are available to them,they should be able to choosewhat meets their needs and learnwithout a formal structure.

4.1.19. Both industrialized anddeveloping countries have usedresource-based approaches inorder to strengthen the teachingforce, using discussion forums,general information andnetworking opportunities, and avariety of different media.Increasingly, and especiallywithin the industrialized world,use is being made of the internetas a means to network andaccess resources. A Britishprogram, TeacherNewsUK, forexample, aims to supportprofessional development by

selecting appropriate webprojects, facilitating links tonational and internationalnetworks of teachers anddeveloping on-line discussions.The Canadian School Netprovides discussion groups,teacher-designed networkingprojects, a virtual environmentfor situation-based learning,interactive curriculumresources, on-line careermaterials and access to specialprocesses for hardware andsoftware companies. Ninethousand schools and 900libraries were connected by1997 to this network. Examplescan be found in other countriesas well.

4.1.20. But resource-basedapproaches are not limited to theadvanced technologies. Forexample, Bhutan relies on radio,and India's “Hints to Teachers” aweekly 45 minute broadcastuses television. There is also anincreasing network ofbroadcasted programs that aredesigned to reach teachersinternationally, e.g., BBC WorldService. These learning supportopportunities for teachers areless well documented than thosethat are structured, and littleevaluation of them is available.But it seems likely that, just asmany adult learners benefitmore from unstructured thanstructured programs, so teachersare likely to be influenced byprograms of this kind [see Craigand Perraton (2003)], theexception being that newteachers who have had limited

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teacher preparation tend tobenefit more from structuredlearning support, at least tobegin with.

4.1.21. In conclusion, teachersupport networks must be aimedprimarily at helping each teacherfacilitate change in theclassroom. The success of

improved teaching practice isthe key to help children learn,and the success of each school toensure this, is the key to overallquality improvement in theeducation system. Support toteachers is not just about moretraining. It is about a continuumof opportunities for teachers to

become better at their classroompractice. Teacher support shouldalso include a more thoroughconsideration of schools associal organizations, since thiscontext influences teaching andlearning [see Rosenholtz(1991)].

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Case Study IIEarly ChildhoodDevelopment in Sri LankaEarly childhood development:Importance and significance

4.2.1. The First Six Years ofLife: The first six or so years ofa child's life, known as the earlychildhood stage, is globallyacknowledged to be the mostcritical years for life longdevelopment, as the pace ofgrowth in these years isextremely rapid. Recentresearch in the field ofneuroscience has providedconvincing evidence of theexistence of critical periodswithin the early years for theformation of synapticconnections and the fulldevelopment of the potential ofthe brain. Research has alsoindicated that if these early yearsare not supported by, orembedded in, a stimulating andenriching physical and psycho-social environment, the chancesof the child's brain developing to

its full potential is considerably,and often irreversibly, reduced.This early childhood stage in lifeis also important as a foundationfor social and personal habitsand values which last a lifetime.Hence, investing in these earlyyears in children is extremelyimportant for the quality of lifein a country. Formal earlychildhood development (ECD)programs, which have becomecommon in developingcountries, derive theirimportance from this rationale.

4.2.2. Planning early childhoodprograms needs to take intoaccount three importantprinciples of child development.First, the child developmentprocess is continuous andcumulative. In consequence, it isimportant to address the entirechildhood continuum, fromprenatal to the end of theprimary stage, as opposed tointervening in any one sub-stageonly. For example, primary and

secondary education learninglevels are significantlyinfluenced by favorable earlychildhood outcomes. Second,health, nutrition and education-psychosocial development areall synergistically related, so thataddressing these needs in acombined, holistic frameworkmaximizes impact. Third, childdevelopment is optimized whenthe programs address not onlythe child, but also the child'soverall growth context.

Early childhood education in SriLanka

4.2.3. There are about 11,000-12,500 pre-schools, such asnurseries, Montessories andkindergartens in the country.Enrolment in these institutions isestimated to cover about 60% ofchildren aged 3-5, [seeAbhayadeva (2003), Wijetungeand Wickremaratne (2003)].These pre-school institutions arelargely, over 80%, within the

private sector. As a result of theincreasing recognition of theimportance of early childhooddevelopment by policy makers,Sri Lanka drafted a NationalPolicy on Early Childhood Careand Development (ECCD) in2003. This draft policy adopts acomprehensive definition ofECCD to address the needs ofchildren from pre-natal to 5years. As defined in the draftpolicy document,“……..programs for ECCDshould ….take intoconsideration the holistic natureof the process of developmentand adopt an integratedapproach giving attention to thechild's health, nutrition,cognitive and psychosocialneeds” [see Ministry of SocialWelfare (2003)]. The same draftpolicy states, as its mission, the“….holistic growth anddevelopment of all children byproviding a safe, caring andconducive environment in thehomes and other settings, wellsupported by a comprehensiveand integrated system of earlychildhood care and developmentservices.” The plan of action torealize this mission identifiesfour areas of intervention: (i)building knowledge and skills ofcare givers to promote optimalchild survival, growth anddevelopment; (ii)improving and expandingtraining opportunities for serviceproviders; (iii) transformingscholastically focused pre-schools into communitymanaged, child-friendlydevelopment centers; and (d)

providing equal opportunities toall children, including thosewith special needs, for theirsurvival, growth anddevelopment. To implement thisplan, the policy suggests acoordination system withrepresentation from acrossdepartments at the national anddifferent sub-national levels,and highlights the role of keystakeholders, particularlyparents, communities and theprivate sector.

Key issues in earlychildhood care anddevelopment 4.2.4 The central ECCD issue inSri Lanka is the absence ofclarity regarding theresponsibility for ECCD. TheMinistry of Social Welfare hastechnical responsibility, withoutany link to the Ministry ofHuman Resource Development,Education and Cultural Affairs,and the Ministry of SchoolEducation. This disregards thefact that the age range of 0-5/6years covered by ECCDcontains a range of sub-stagespecific developmentalpriorities which require holisticnurture and development. Thisage range is conventionally sub-divided into two sub-stages of 0-3 years and 3-6 years. Health,nutrition and psychosocialstimulation constitute the chiefpriorities for the younger agerange. Pre-school educationassumes priority importance inthe age range of 3-6 years,although health and nutrition

naturally continue to beimportant. While theinterventions and outcomes ofthe 0-3 age group also have abearing on learning potentialand achievements in later life,the stage of pre-schooleducation directly precedesprimary education and has aclear link with learning at theprimary stage. Hence, it isimportant to have continuity inthe curriculum between pre-school and primary education.The Sri Lankan ECCD andeducation system have not yetevolved to the point ofestablishing this connection.Given the crucial importance ofECCD in determining learningability and cognitive potential atthe primary education level, thisgap needs to be urgently filled.

Shortfalls in access to earlychildhood care anddevelopment4.2.5. Ensuring access to pre-school education programs forall children is an immediatechallenge to fulfill the policymission and to realize EFAgoals. The Sri Lankan Draft Planof Action for EFA sets a target of80% coverage against a baselineof 62% for the period 2004 to2008. It mentions home basedprovisions for the residual 20%.To achieve this targetedexpansion of enrolment,increasing pre-school facilitiesconstitutes an urgent need. Aformal study of the network ofpre-schools and potential policyinitiatives to stimulate

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investment in this sub-sector,especially from privateproviders, is a priority. Onepotential source of supply ofpre-school facilities could be theexcess classroom buildingsfound in some areas of thecountry, as population outflowsfrom rural to urban regions hasreduced enrolment in ruralschools. These buildings couldbe sold or leased to civil societyorganizations interested inoffering pre-school services.

Quality of early childhoodcare and development4.2.6. Policy makers andresearchers argue that thequality of ECCD services isunsatisfactory [see UNICEF(2003), NEC (2003)]. TheUNICEF (2003) study indicatesthat the majority of ECCDcenters included in a samplesurvey lacked adequate physicalfacilities. Most centers did nothave an appropriate buildingsince they were run in homes orcramped spaces, there was ashortage of appropriate furnitureand play material. Arrangementsfor children with disabilitieswere also lacking. In terms ofacademic qualifications andteacher training, only about 29%of teachers had school leavingqualifications, while just 17% ofteachers had received anysystematic training in ECCD.Teachers' salaries rangedbetween Rs. 500-6,000 permonth. In terms of classroomprocesses and curriculum, therewas a tendency to teach the

primary curriculum inpreschools, rather than acurriculum appropriate for pre-primary aged children. The rapidexpansion of pre-schools, theabsence of sufficient trained pre-school teachers and the scarcityof suitable play materialcontributed to this tendency toteach the primary curriculum.This downward extension of theprimary curriculum, whichimplies introducing formalinstruction in reading, writingand arithmetic to children below5/6 years, results in mis-education at this stage and canbe detrimental to children'seducation and development.Centers which follow theplayway method advocated byECCD experts anddevelopmentally appropriatecurricula are small in number,although the few that do existappear considerably moreeffective than institutionsfollowing academic typeprimary curricula [see UNICEF(2003)].

Professional development ofpre-school teachers4.2.7. The need for trainingteachers in pre-schools has beenhighlighted by the Children'sSecretariat through itsDivisional Centers and with thehelp of NGOs. With a largenumber of untrained teachers inthe system there is a need to: (i)provide different types andlevels of training in ECCD; and(ii) institute a system ofcontinuous training, since one

point training does not havesufficient sustained impact,especially in the absence of anyfollow up support. Setting updecentralized training systemsfor pre-school teachers could bea promising option to improvethe quality of professional staff.

4.2.8. The Open Universityoffers a one year pre-schoolteacher training diploma inECCD. The Open University isconsidering preparation of amulti-disciplinary degreeprogram to prepare pre-schoolteachers with multiple skills andan adequate knowledge base towork primarily in the NGOsector. This could be a usefulcourse to equip workers toaddress the multiple linkageswithin the area of childdevelopment. However, it wouldbe necessary to supplement thiswith specific training for pre-school teachers in knowledge,skills and attitudes for EarlyChildhood Education. TheMinistry of Human ResourceDevelopment, Education andCultural Affairs has set up eightprovincial centers under its Non-Formal Education Branch, fiveof which conduct training inECE. Clearly, it is important toensure that these centersthemselves have a trained corefaculty to provide relevant andneeds-based training to pre-school teachers.

4.2.9. With the rapid expansionof pre-schools in the country,largely in civil society, issues ofregulation, minimumspecifications, quality standards

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and training, assume greatsignificance. The Children'sSecretariat has drawn up someminimum requirements forregistration for pre-schools, butthese have not yet beenimplemented. The mainconstraints appear to beinsufficient public awarenessand the absence of anappropriate advocated system inthe provincial councils toimplement the regulations. TheChildren's Secretariat has also

prepared a standard curriculumfor pre-schools to standardizequality. This is currently onlyreference material, in theabsence of provision forsupportive training or authorityfor supervision. However, itcould form the basis for a formalcurriculum if the necessarysupport structures could beestablished. The Ministry ofSocial Welfare policy documentalso suggests coordinationcommittees at various levels.

But for quality assurancefunctionaries are required in thefield who have the training,experience, authority andaccountability to ensure qualityand promote it through pro-active and positive supportprograms and supervision. Clearlines of authority andimplementation, from nationalto the provincial and sub-provincial levels, are required toestablish this as a formal system.

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Rehabilitating andReconstructing Educationin the Conflict AffectedAreasIntroduction and Background

4.3.1. The 20 year secessionistconflict in parts of North-Eastern Sri Lanka has resulted inconsiderable damage toeducation in that region. Acomprehensive assessment ofeducation sector needs in theconflict affected areas,conducted in 2003, covered: (i)the physical capital stock, suchas school buildings andfacilities, furniture andequipment; (ii) teachers,principals and section heads;(iii) children with special needs;(iv) non-formal education; (v)peace education; (vi) schoolfeeding programs; and (vii) pre-school education. The fulleducation sector reconstruction,

rehabilitation and developmentneeds were estimated at aboutUS$164 million ($136 millionfor the North-Eastern Provinceand $28 million for fouradjacent districts). Out of thistotal, the education capital stock,such as school infrastructure

reconstruction, furniture andequipment, constituted thelargest segment (77%) [seeFigure 4.1]. In addition thetertiary education sector needswere estimated at $26 million.The tertiary education needscovered reconstruction of

Case Study III

Capital Stock 77%

PreSch 5%

SchFed 4%

CpcBuld 4%

SpNeeds 4%

NFE 2%Other 4%

Figure 4.1: Needs of the Education Reconstruction,Rehabilitation and Development Program

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damaged infrastructure and costof staff training.

The financing gap

4.3.2. The current donorprograms consist mainly of theWorld Bank's GEP2 project andADB's NECORD project forschool infrastructure in theconflict affected areas. The totaldonor programs are estimated atapproximately US$15 million.These cover about 12% of thecapital stock needs in theseareas. In addition to donorsupport, the governmentprovides development grants toprovincial schools through itsProvince Specific DevelopmentGrant (PSDG) program. Thisprogram is quite small comparedto the level of need. The PSDGfor the NEP was only onemillion dollars in 2003 andabout $1.2 million in 2004. Thesmall government contributionto capital expenditure is mainlydue to the tight fiscal conditionof public finances and its impacton the education budget. Publiceducation sector expendituredeclined in real terms during2000-2002. If the Governmentcontinues its PSDG programs atthe same level, its contributionin the coming five years will beabout US$5 million, which willleave a financing gap of over$107 million for schoolreconstruction, rehabilitationand development in the conflictaffected areas [see Figure 4.2].The government is expected torely heavily on donor support tofinance this gap.

Government support forrecurrent education expenditure

4.3.3. The government currentlycovers the operational costs ofthe education system in theconflict affected areas, includingpaying salaries, textbooks,teaching materials, transportsubsidies and student uniforms.These operating expensesconsume a substantial volume ofresources. For instance, thegovernment allocated overUS$13 million for salaries in theNEP districts in 2003. As is to beexpected, districts with largestudent populations receive thelargest share of expenditure. Thefour largest districts Jaffna,Amparai, Batticaloa andTrincomalee receive over 80%of total salaries. These largedistricts also have quite highexpenditures per student andfairly low student teacher ratios[see Figure 4.3]. These districtsoften voice concerns overshortages of teachers. The

existence of teacher shortages insome subjects, such as English,science and mathematics, is tobe expected, given the difficultyof finding such teachers at thenational level. However, thisregion also has potential to meetteacher demand through greateruse of multi-grade and multi-subject teaching, teacherredeployment and schoolrationalization.

Capacity constraintsStaff shortages and surpluses

4.3.4. Detailed information onthe shortages and surplusesaccording to the approved cadreand existing staff in theprovincial and zonaldepartments shows that thesituation is complicated, withouta clear pattern of shortages andsurpluses across thedepartments. Overall, zonal andprovincial departments show asmall net shortage while

Current donors& gov prog

$ 20m

remaining needs$ 107m

Figure 4.2: The Financing Gap of Capital Stock Needs in theConflict Affected Areas

divisional offices show a netsurplus of staff. As foroccupations, directors, specialiststaff and accountants aregenerally in short supply, whileclerks and unskilled workers arein excess supply.

4.3.5. Extra care has to be takenwhen examining the shortagesand surpluses according to thecadre as in so many instances,the cadre does not reflect theactual needs. For example,according to the cadre there areenough engineers (5) andtechnical officers (48) in NEPdistricts. But there are noengineers in the districts ofKilinochchi, Mannar andMulativu, where the needs arehigh and demand is escalatingwith increased schoolreconstruction activities. Thecadre also shows large surplusesof in-service advisors.

4.3.6. There is mountingpressure to revise the cadre to

reflect the needs, especially inthe hard hit areas of the conflictzone. Extra care has to be takenduring such estimates. The surgein demand could be temporaryand loading the public sectorwith more staff will strain thebudget and could be costineffective, as governmentofficials tend to stay in serviceuntil retirement. The needsshould be assessed carefully interms of their magnitude andexpected duration. Also,alternative ways to recruitshould be identified and applied,such as recruiting specialists oncontracts. Furthermore,investing in means to improveworkers’ productivity should beexplored such as offeringspecialized training, providingIT and other essential officeequipment with associatedtraining, and transport funds,especially for remote areas,where supervision andmonitoring is logisticallydifficult and time-consuming.

Planning school facilities

4.3.7. Currently the planningprocess combines subjectivejudgment and needs based oncriteria such as the need perstudent and number ofclassrooms per school. Usuallythere is a lack of professionaljudgment with regard toprovision of new buildings orfurniture and the identificationof buildings that can berehabilitated or repaired. Theschool works departments as awhole lack skilled humanresources and transport facilitiesto perform adequate supervisionvisits to schools.

Capacity for reconstructionand supervision4.3.8. The capacity forreconstruction in the districtsthat are badly affected by theconflict, like Jaffna,Kilinochchi, Mulativu, Mannarand Vavuniya, are limited due toshortages of qualifiedcontractors and skilled workers.In addition, there are scarcitiesof construction materials, suchas river sand and concreteaggregates. So far theseshortages have not becamemajor obstacles and contractorsreport the availability of laborand materials. They also reportsubstantial increases in thewages for skilled and unskilledworkers and high mobility ofworkers with the end of theconflict and the removal of roadblocks and other barriers.Furthermore, the existing short-term skill development training

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0

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MANN

BATTM

ULLKIL

IN

VAVUTRIN

C

AMPA

JAFF

0

5

10

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20

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30

Sal per St

STR

Sal

arie

s pe

r st

uden

t Rs

ST

R

Figure 4.3: Salaries per Student andSTR in NEP Districts

for youth has helped in meetingthe demand for some skills.However, the situation couldchange if demand for labor andmaterials continues to escalateas a result of the expectedincrease in constructionactivities of other sectors.

4.3.9. The school worksdepartments in the provincial

offices of the conflict affectedareas have enough staff structureto supervise the construction ofschool facilities. However, staffcapacity needs to bestrengthened by filling thevacant positions of technicalstaff and training. Qualifiedstaff hired by donor projectsplay a major role in meeting thedemand for operational staff.

The shortage of transportfacilities, office equipment suchas computers andtelecommunication equipment,has negatively affected thecapacity of the existing staff.The provision of such facilitiesto school works departmentscould improve service deliverycapability.

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Case Study IV

Promoting Peace building,Civic Values and SocialCohesion throughEducationGovernment policies andstrategies

4.4.1. The goals of peacebuilding, good citizenship andsocial cohesion run as consistentthreads through the recenteducation policy and planningdocuments [see NEC (2003)].Current and proposed policiesinclude the following measures:(i) the proposed re-introduction

of 'civics / citizenship' in theschool curriculum; (ii)strengthening the curriculum topromote civic values acrosssubjects and grade levels; (iii)investing in the teaching of thesecond national language andthe 'link language' English; (iv)creating opportunities to breakdown the language and ethnic-based segregation of schoolsthrough the re-introduction ofEnglish-medium instruction; (v)providing schools a choice offree textbooks, written by avariety of authors and

systematically screened for bias;(vi) training teachers to handlesensitive issues of culture andethnicity in the classroom, andsupporting multi-ethnic teachertraining institutions, wherefeasible; and (vii) supportingschool-based strategies topromote peacebuilding and civiccompetencies through inclusiveschool management practices,co-curricular activities, andschool-community links. Theimplementation of thesemeasures has been mixed in itscoverage and its impact.

Table 4.4. ‘Civic Education Study’ Student Questionnaire,Civic Knowledge

Variable Categories Sample Civic knowledge

% %

Variable Categories Sample Civic knowledge

% %

Total 100 56

Sex Male 45.7 58Female 52.1 54

Students' Sinhalese 72.7 56Ethnicity Sri Lankan Tamil 16.3 48

Indian origin Tamil 3.0 54Muslim 6.9 60Other 0.2 60

Province Western 22 53.9Central 13.6 52.7Southern 14 55.3Northern 5.5 46.5Eastern 7.8 49.2North-Western 11.8 56.4North-Central 6.8 53.2Uva 7.5 55.9Sabaragamuwa 10.2 58.4

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Civic competencies among SriLankan 14 year-olds - findingsof a national research study

4.4.2 Three areas of a recentstudy [see NEREC (2004)] onthe civic competencies ofchildren are briefly reported onhere: (i) 'Civic Knowledge' testscores; (ii) opportunities to learnthe second national language;and (iii) findings from thespecial survey section on 'SocialCohesion, Diversity and Peace'.The study was based on anationally representative sampleof 2660 students, taken from133 schools in all 25 districts.

4.4.3. 'Civic Knowledge' testscores for Sri Lankan Tamilstudents, and for the North-Eastern Province are lower thanfor the other ethnic groups andprovinces, probably due to theeffects of the conflict. Therelatively low test scores forNorth-Eastern Province mirrorlow levels of achievement in thenational assessment of learningoutcomes at primary level, whencompared to other provinces[see NEREC (2004)].

4.4.4. 18% of all respondentshad 'never' or 'rarely' had theopportunity to study the second

national language - acompulsory subject from Grades3-9. Tamil-medium studentswere particularly isolated, with34% of respondents 'never' or'rarely' learning Sinhala. In theNorthern part of North-EasternProvince, this figure rises to61%. When asked whether theyshould have opportunities forsecond national languagelearning, 89% of all respondentsagreed. The low levels of secondnational language learning canbeen attributed to demand-sidefactors (the second nationallanguage is not a compulsorysubject in Grade 5 scholarship

23

54

43

35

10

7

24

4

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Tamil medium

Sinhala medium Often

Sometimes

Rarely

Never

"I have had the opportunity to study (Sinhala / Tamil)as a second national language"

Figure 4.4. 'Civic Education Study' Student Questionnaire (Social Cohesion, Diversity, Peace)

62 60

39

28

52 4840

4957

51

84 84 85

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7584 87 88 91

82

0102030405060708090

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tern

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estern

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entra

lUva

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agam

uwa

Sri La

nka

I have had theopportuntiy tolearn togetherwith children ofother ethnicgroups(sometimes / often)

I should be giventhe opportunity tolearn together withchildren of otherethnic groups(agree / totallyagree)

Figure 4.5. 'Civic Education Study' Student Questionnaire (Social Cohesion, Diversity, Peace)

89

and O/L examinations, therebyreducing the incentives to studyit; there is also a higher demandfor English, for socio-economicreasons), and supply-side factors(e.g. a shortage of teachers).

4.4.5. 51% of all respondentshave 'sometimes' or 'often' hadthe opportunity to learn togetherwith children of other ethnicgroups. The figure is lowest inthe Northern part of the North-Eastern Province, and in theSouthern Province. When askedwhether they should have theopportunity to learn togetherwith children of other ethnicgroups, 82% of all respondentsagreed. 49% of all students alsoreported that they had no closefriends from other ethnicgroups. Answering a separatetest item, 61% of all respondentshave ‘never’ or ‘rarely’ had theopportunity to discuss ethnicproblems with children of otherethnic groups. When askedwhether they should have theseopportunities, 77% of all

respondents agreed. There is aclear disparity, in all Provinces,between actual and desiredopportunities across thesecategories: children want moreopportunities to learn the secondnational language, to learntogether, and to exchange ideaswith other ethnic groups. Focusgroup discussions were also heldwith students in seven zones inthe north and east. Studentsdisplayed: (i) enthusiasm forcross-cultural activities; (ii) astrong appetite for peace; (iii)disillusionment with ‘politics’;(iv) a notion of ‘citizenship’ thatis multi-cultural and not mono-

cultural in nature; and (v)modest knowledge of currentpolitical processes [see NEREC(2004)]. In a separate test item,90% of students felt that schoolsshould contribute to activities tobring about peace.

The school curriculum andbroader instructional processes

4.4.6. A literature review revealsthat studies15 which address theinstructional challenges ofpromoting peace building in SriLankan schools show broadconsensus in two areas: (i) theeducation system needs to orient

Figure 4.6. Integration of Peacebuilding & Civics in Schools (UNESCO, 2001, adapted)

Peacebuilding & Civics:concepts and practice

Curriculum: subject content

Teaching methods

School management

Textbooks & materials

Total Curriculum

Co-curricular activities

School-community links

School-level pilots in civics & citizenship - an example fromNorthern IrelandThe two-year 'Social, Civic and Political Education Project' was a partnershipbetween the Council for Curriculum, Examinations & Assessment, and auniversity. The project included the development and trialing of curriculumresources, teacher training modules, and models of cooperation betweenschools, curriculum developers, NGOs and community organizations. Througha process of piloting different approaches, the project arrived at a model ofteaching and learning where 'citizenship' concepts were designed to beinvestigated, rather than taught didactically: “In the attempt to move beyond'polite exchange' and to avoid a compliance model of citizenship we havearrived at an investigatory curriculum driven by questions rather than answers”.

15. E.g. NEC, (2003), Perera et. al., (2003); NEREC, (2004).

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itself further to addressadequately the challenges ofpeace building, pluralism andcivic education; and (ii)educational strategies to addressthese issues should adopt a‘systemic’ or ‘integrative’approach, which will involve arange of institutions andinterventions at different levels,with particular emphasis on theschool. Figure 4.6 provides auseful conceptual framework.

Curriculum and assessment

4.4.7. The school curriculum isstructured around 5 broadcompetencies: communication,the environment, ethics andreligion, play and leisure,learning to learn. Within thisframework, specific ‘EssentialLearning Competencies’ aredefined for the different KeyStages at primary level. They arecurrently being developed forthe secondary level.Consideration might be given todefining broad competenciesrelating to civic values, andestablishing a clear andmanageable link establishedbetween these competencies,curriculum and syllabusspecification, teacher guides andtextbooks, teacher training andassessment (both school-basedassessment and examinations).

4.4.8. Many countries areinvesting in ‘citizenship’, evenat the primary level. In the UK,while citizenship education isnot a statutory requirement for

primary schools, there exist awide range of resourcesincluding teachers’ guides,schemes of work, guides formanagers, and ‘whole-schoolplanning’ frameworks.16 A‘peace curriculum’ has beenpiloted in Sierra Leone, withcurriculum units, cross-curricular units and ‘whole-school and communityactivities’ from Grade 1. TheNEC recommendations proposea continuation of the primaryreforms, with renewed attentionin areas including “thedevelopment of values andattitudes”, and “the teaching oflanguages”, [see NEC (2003),pp. 156-158, emphasis added].Three approaches might beadopted: (i) develop resourcesand programs of work to supportprimary teachers in thepromotion of peace building andcivics; (ii) strengthen theteaching of languages; and (iii)reinforce measures to promotemulti-culturalism and socialinclusion within the core NIEfunctions of curriculum andmaterials development, andteacher training.

4.4.9. At the secondary level,there is a particular opportunityarising with the reintroductionof civics / citizenship into thesecondary curriculum, startingfrom 2005. The recent NECanalysis also concludes thatcompetencies relating to socialharmony and citizenship are“crosscutting issues that eachcurriculum developer has to

integrate appropriately intosyllabi” [see NEC (2003)].These strategies can be pursuedtogether, combined withapproaches piloted at the schoollevel.

4.4.10. Selecting from a choiceof items listed, teachers listedthe following items as theirgreatest needs in terms ofimproving civic education: (i)additional training in subjectmatter knowledge; (ii)additional training in teachingmethods; (iii) better materialsand text books; (iv) moreopportunities for specialprojects; and (v) more resourcesfor extra-curricular activities[see NEREC (2004)]. 70% ofteachers agreed that they shouldnegotiate with students what isto be studied in civic education,while 88% of students replyingto the Student Questionnaire feltthat their active participationshould be obtained for civiceducation activities. Theseresponses seem to allow for ahigh degree of interaction in theteaching / learning of civics,supporting the NEC'srecommendations for an issuebased and activity basedapproach [see NEC (2003)]. InFocus Group discussions in theNorth-Eastern Province,emphasis was placed on thecontested and political nature of‘citizenship’ and ‘civics’. It wassuggested that an approach tocitizenship based on co-existence would be preferable toan assimilationist approach,

16. See e.g. (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/ks1-2citizenship)

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which might be perceived as athreat to cultural and ethnicidentity.17

4.4.11. Perera et. al. (2003)highlight similar concerns forhistory: “…reaching consensuson some of the fundamental andmost sensitive issues such as'whose history, selected bywhom, and for what purpose',seem well nigh impossible”.They conclude that “Creativesolutions may need to be sought,allowing for the flexibilityalready existing in the systemfor regional variations, themultiple book option, etc.” [seePerera et. al., 2003, emphasisadded]. Both areas seem toindicate potential to advance amodel of history teaching thatcan encourage critical thinkingbased on evidence, andaccommodate alternativeperspectives. First, the scope foraccommodating regionalvariations in the historycurriculum - as the UvaProvince has commenced -should be explored. Second, theMultiple Textbook Option offersthe possibility of providingdifferent perspectives, within anational curriculum framework.

4.4.12. The potential oflanguages to promote inter-cultural understanding liesperhaps in three areas: (i)improving the languagecompetencies of children willincrease the opportunities forchildren to communicate acrosslanguage divides; (ii) expandingEnglish-medium instruction willcreate opportunities to breakdown the language-basedsegregation of schools; and (iii)the teaching of languages can beused as a vehicle to promotemulti-culturalism. There is alsostrong potential to promotepeace building / civics insubjects such as Religion,Aesthetics, and IT.

4.4.13. The subject LifeCompetencies was introduced inGrades 7-9 in the current cycleof reforms, to address a range ofareas including civics and inter-cultural understanding. Small-scale surveys and focus groupdiscussions with teachersindicate the following needs tostrengthen this program: (i)increase clarity over objectivesand curriculum content; (ii)greater teacher and staffdevelopment; and (iii) increased

resources and system-widesupport [see Perera et. al.,2003].

Textbooks

4.4.14. Textbook writing andproduction processes have attimes resulted in textbookcontent which is error-riddenand insensitive to various socialgroups. In recent years,however, the government hasembarked upon a series ofreforms, including: (i)introducing the 'MultipleTextbook Option', moving froma state monopoly singletextbook policy to private sectorproduction of three titles persubject per grade; (ii) a focus oninclusion and equity in materialproduction processes at the NIE,particularly at the primary level;(iii) developing 'sensitivity'guidelines for Subject SpecialistTeams in textbook selectionprocedures; and (iv) constitutinga specialist 'Diversity ReviewPanel' - representing differentethnic groups and religions, anddiverse academic disciplines - toreview materials for bias. It willbe necessary to strengthen thesemeasures and monitor theiroutcomes.

Teacher education

4.4.15. Initiatives to promotemulticulturalism in teachereducation have been limited intheir coverage, and requirestronger links to the curriculum.

Dharmadutha College, BadullaIn Dharmadutha College, Badulla, which is 85% Sinhalese, the Principal hasworked with his prefects and students to initiate activities with neighbouringTamil and Muslim schools. The school has established the 'Uva Students PeaceFoundation', which organises inter-school activities, and prints a newsletter.The Principal has promoted Tamil-medium instruction, and English-medium atjunior and senior secondary levels. Sinhalese students say that activities withneighbouring Tamil and Muslim students have increased levels of trust betweenthe groups and resulted in strong friendships.

17. In Northern Ireland, neither the British nor Irish national identity provides the basis for a 'patriotic' model of 'citizenship'that can be accepted in all schools. Smith (2003) concludes that citizenship education should be based on concepts of rightsand responsibilities, rather than national unity.

Perera notes: “Educatingteachers for a pluralist society, tomanage curriculum relatedteaching, learning and adoptinga multi-cultural perspectivewould require more concertedand systematic orientation ofteachers” [see Perera et. al.,2003, emphasis added]. Thechallenge, it seems, is mainly intwo areas: (i) strengthen theNCOE pre-service curriculum toenable teachers to handle peacebuilding and civics at primaryand secondary level; and (ii)invest in continuing teacherdevelopment programs. Suchprograms should be in step withcurriculum reforms, and shouldbuild upon work supported byUNICEF and GTZ. Tennekoon(2001) shows through actionresearch conducted at thePasdunrata NCOE thatstructured opportunities forinter-cultural collaboration canhelp reduce ethnocentricattitudes in student teachers, andalso help them to handleeffectively the concept of socialcohesion in the classroom -evidence of the value ofbreaking down institutionalsegregation in teacher training.Consideration may also be givento a more formal qualificationrelating to civics / citizenship.South Africa, for example, hasintroduced an 'AdvancedCertificate in CitizenshipEducation'.

School management, co-curricular activities & school-community links

4.4.16. The school ‘culture’ or‘hidden curriculum’ is key to thedevelopment of values, attitudesand behaviours in students.

4.4.17. Research currentlybeing conducted by the NIE,with UNICEF support, willdocument examples of goodpractice to promote socialcohesion in schools. Thisresearch could be used to informPrincipals training, and tosupport school-based strategiesfor peace building and civics,appropriate for each school'sparticular instructional andsocial context. This isparticularly relevant givenproposals to develop School-Based Management throughSchool Development Boards.Different approaches might beinvestigated through a pilotphase.

4.4.18. The following measurestherefore emerge as promisingareas for strengthening,consistent with current andproposed policy:

a. specifying broad learningcompetencies, andsupporting teachers todevelop and assess thesecompetencies in schools;

b. introducing an inclusive‘ c i v i c s / c i t i z e n s h i p ’curriculum that emphasize

activity based learningand links to the broaderworld outside the school;

c. strengthening the capacityof curriculum developers,teachers and managers toincorporate civic values asa cross-cutting concernacross subjects, gradelevels, and schoolpractices;

d. strengthening the teachingof the second nationallanguages and English;

e. continuing an equitablephased expansion ofE n g l i s h - m e d i u minstruction;

f. providing a choice oftextbooks and materials,inclusive and screened forbias;

g. investing in pre-serviceand continuing teacherdevelopment; and

h. incentivising andsupporting school-basedstrategies for peacebuilding and civics,through school-basedplanning andmanagement.

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