CONTEXTUAL FRAMEWORK OF A CURRICULUM Ideological ContextEpistemological ContextPsychological ContextSociological ContextManagement ContextEvaluative Context

COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM PLANNING Macro contexts and constraintsNature of InfluenceDimensions of the curriculumCurriculum OutcomePoliticalPower and control of the curriculum and educatorsValues and beliefsIdeologicalEconomicEducation and economy, control and relationship prioritiesEpistemologicalNature, content and structure of knowledgeCulturalCultural representation on the curriculum: cultural reproduction and productionSosiologicalEquality, access to knowledge, relationship of education and societyTechnologicalEffects of technology on the curriculumPsychologicalNature of learning and learning environmentsHistoricalCauses, antecedents and legacies of the curriculumPhilosophicalJustifications and aimsMicro contexts and constraintsInstitutionalNature, structure, values and traditions, ethos of the institutionResourcesAmount and organizationStudentsNeeds, interests, abilitiesEducatorsNeeds, interests, abilities

Aims

Content Pedagogy

Resources

Evaluation

ChangeAreas of learning and experienceElements of learningEssential issuesCharacteristics the curriculumLevels of planningManagement and evaluation filter

Figure: A prescriptive model of curriculum planning

LEVELS OF CURRICULUM PLANNING MODELS TheoryPracticeLevel 1: Contextual Philosophical, ideological, epistemological, sociological, cultural, psychological contexts of curriculum decisionsLevel 2: Managerial Substantive issues discussing the management of curriculum planning Level 3: Conceptual Rationales for describing and typifying the curriculumLevel 4: Strategic Policy making, staffing and resourcing of the curriculum, role relationsLevel 5: Tactical Planning curriculum implementationGeneralSpecific

Level And Stages Of Curriculum Evaluation

General SpecificTheory PraticeLevels of Planning Stages of PlanningSituational AnaysisManagment Goal FormationProgramme BuildingResources Interpretation and Implementation

Outcomes

Monitoring Assessment, Feedback, EvaluationContextual Managerial Conceptual Strategic Tactical

IDEOLOGICAL CONTEXTIdeology, as the belief system of a group, is a potent force in shaping social consciousness, attitudes and values. Although operative within the total society, ideology has a particular impact on education and schooling.It functions in formal educational agencies to shape social outlooks and expectations,In schools, ideological factors shape the school milieu and the hidden curriculum as well as the formal curriculum (Gutek, 1997)

IDEOLOGICAL CONTEXTMeighan (1981) contends that an ideology addresses seven components which concern curriculum:

A theory of knowledge : its context and structure what is considered worythwhile or important, how it is organized and who will have access to it. A theory of learning and the learners role an active or a passive style, doing or listening, co-operative or competitive learning, producing or reproducing know;ledge , problem solving or receiving facts.A theory of teaching and the teachers role formal or informal, authoritarian or democratic, interest in outcomes or processes, narrow or wide.

IDEOLOGICAL CONTEXT- A theory of resources appropriate for learning primary or secondary- A theory of organization of learning situations criteria for grouping pupils.- A theory of assessment that learning has taken place diagnostic or attainment testing,written or observational assessment, defining what is to be assessed - A theory of aims, objectives and outcomes a view of what is desirable for society, the child and knowledge.

IDEOLOGICAL CONTEXT - Ideologies Emphasizing The Individual LearnerIdeologies Emphasizing KnowledgeIdeologies Emphasizing Society

IDEOLOGIES EMPHASIZING THE INDIVIDUAL LEARNERTransmission of knowledge is secondary to discovery and to following the learners impulses, needs and interests.

Stress is laid on learning by doing, spontaneity, free expression and developing the learners own nature spontaneously,

Emphasis is placed on originality and authenticity of the learners experience and awareness , on diversity of response and provision, on creativity, enjoyment and the development of emotional of the learners personality.

The process of learning is as important as the outcomes of learning. (intrinsic worth of education)

IDEOLOGIES EMPHASIZING KNOWLEDGE A strong sympathy with conservative notions of protecting and perpetuating the best of the past as experienced in the present.The curriculum is academic and intellectual, non-vocational.Children have to be initiated into the received wisdoms of their forbears, the initiation rites of passage often being formal examinations.Subject loyalty is strong, disci[line oriented and reliant on instruction rather than experiential learning (Lawton, 1973).

IDEOLOGIES EMPHASIZING KNOWLEDGE Standards are clear, excellence of academic achievement is emphasized, and stress is laid on the development of rationality through a curriculum marked by uniformity rather than diversity (Jenkins, 1975).This curriculum runs counter to social justice and equity of opportunity (Lawton, 1983).For the masses who cannot aspire to this, a folk curriculum (Bantock, 1975;1976) is offered whose resukt is to effectively debar them from entering the corridors of privilege, providing what is often regarded as low status, practical, vocational and everyday knowledge. Ideologies in this area, then, emphasize a dual curriculum (Scrinshaw, 1976).

IDEOLOGIES EMPHASIZING KNOWLEDGE Alternative Ideology: A knowledge-based curriculum whose emphasis is less on a stratified than on a unified society, with egalitarian principles at its core. In liberal humanism high culture is to be accessible to all through a common curriculum.For curriculum planners the significance of debates, about knowledge is to clarify which knowledge should be in the curriculum, how it should be organized and who should have access to it.

IDEOLOGIES EMPHASIZING SOCIETYInstrumental Ideologies instrumentalism, revisionism, and those stressing economic renewal emphasize the need for education to fit learners to society, particularly in economic terms.Education thus exists to provide a skilled workforce to expand the nations economic strength. Weight is laid on the relevance and utility aspects of education.The intentions of education are not to alter radically existing society, rather to improve the efficiency of existing organizations, isnstitutions and economic structures.

IDEOLOGIES EMPHASIZING KNOWLEDGE Radical society-oriented educational ideologies aiming at social rebuilding or social upheaval.Reconstruction planned change rather than stability. what society ought to be rather than what it is.Theory of knowledge is revolutionary, problem-solving, active, socially relevant

EPISTEMOLOGICAL CONTEXTIt is concerned with knowledge its form and structure.

What do we mean by knowledge?

What are the sources of knowledge?

How can we achieve knowledge?

What are the means and activities that we can offer that so that the students can achieve knowledge ?

How can we ascertain that our students have acquired and mastered

1. What do we mean by knowing ?

Ryle (1949) : Knowing that and knowing

Knowing that is concerned with what can be stated in propositions and facts.

The weakness of knowing that is its lack of utility: we may know the theory of something but not the why or how of it.

knowing how: understanding, possessing capacity to perform in practical situations.

2. Dichotomy: Knowledge reached through reasoning or senses? While rationality might be one way of achieving knowledge, there are some types of knowledge which are not available through rationality alone sensory knowledge.

CONTENTContent is the essential concepts and topics covered during a month.

Content is written beginning with a noun.

CONTENTEXAMPLESCultural diversity Water cycleBridge to TerabithiaLocal Government SystemsFire Safety

SKILLSSkills are key abilities and processes students will develop related to specific content.

Skills are written beginning with a verb.

SKILLS EXAMPLESReading a mapWriting a playAnalyzing non-fiction textWriting persuasive essaysMatching words and pictures

EMPIRICIST VIEW OF KNOWLEDGEEmpiricism is premised on the notion that knowledge is only acquired through the sensory experience and reflection on perceptions.For the empiricist knowledge must correspond to the observed facts of the case. Implications?i. Objectivity or universal validity of knowledge is is replaced by a version of knowledge which sees it as unique, tied to specific contexts; a far more tentative, hypothetical and evolutionary version. Knowledge is subject to constant modification and obsolesence.

EMPIRICIST VIEW OF KNOWLEDGEii. Knowledge becomes equated with experince.

iii. Teaching styles will have to be revised to reflect the tentative view of knowledge, to resist the imposition of knowledge in favour of the creation and discovery of knowledge a more problem-solving, discovery approach,iv. Teaching will have to move to a process rather than a product view of knowledge, concentrating on skills of acquiring knowledge rather than outcomes. Knowledge is to be tested rather than passively accepted (Brumer, 1970)

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTEXTNecessary to have a clear understanding of howlearning takes placed and how it can be bestpromoted through teaching and learning styles/The foci of psychological theory comprehend:

1. The nature of the learner

a. cognitive and affective aspectsb. Individual differences c. Individual needs

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTEXT2. The nature of the learning process a. learning theories - behaviorist theories - cognitive theories - constructivist theories - humanistic theories b. motivation c. active learning d. reinforcement and feedback, etc.

*Computationalism Information processing, organizing and managing well-informed flow of information. Culturalism Hermeneutic meaning making, how human beings in cultural communities create and transform meanings.Bruner (1996)

Overview of Theories Affecting Curriculum Field

THEORYAUTHOR(S)TYPE OF THEORYCLASSIC CASEFUNCTIONCurriculum as systematic activity, as managementBobbitt, ChartersCurriculum theoryScientificTo explain, describeCurriculum as reflecting the stages of human developmentDeweyCurriculum theoryScientificTo explain, prescribeCurriculum as praxisMacciaCurriculum theoryScientificTo guide, prescribeCurriculum as unintended series of learning outcomeJohnsonCurriculum theoryScientificTo describeCurriculum as interacting systemMacDonaldCurriculum theoryScientificTo describe, explainCurriculum as metaphorKliebard, FreireCurriculum theoryHumanisticTo prescribeCurriculum as experience for social purposePinarCurriculum theoryHumanisticTo prescribeEducation as process, as structuring knowledgeBrunerInstructional theoryScientificTo explain, prescribeEducation as implementing the curriculumOliviaInstructional theoryScientificTo explainTeaching as transformationGirouxInstructional theoryHumanistic (critical theory)To prescribe, describe

*Learning TheoriesBehaviourismPavlov, Thorndike,Skinner Humanism(Carl Rogers)

Constructivism

Cognitive (Piaget, Bruner) Social (Vygotsky)

*Critical thinkingCreative thinkingSumber: Lipman M. (2003). Thinking In Education)Multi-Dimensional thinkingCaring thinkingSensitivity to ContextReliance on criteriaSelf-correctionImaginativeHolisticInventive GenerativeAppreciativeActiveNormative EffectiveEmpathic

Implications of Learning Theories for the EducatorsA. Preparation

BehavioralCognitiveHumanisticTrainers Philosophy on LearningLearners can be shaped to the trainers desired objectivesBehavior change is the outcome or learners intrinsic choice under specific environmentLearning is self-directed with the trainer as a facilitator in the learning processLearning NeedsThe learning process is trainer-centered matching stimulus and response Training is a joint-venture between trainer and learnerTraining is learner-centered with little trainer dominanceObjectivesTrainer determines the learning needs-knowledge, skill and behaviorTrainer assesses the needs of the learner for his total development, logic as well as creativityThe trainer helps the learner determine his/her learning needs for self-actualization and sensitivity towards othersContentThe content must leads to competency, mastery of skills in relation to the objectives definedThe integration of concept and principles to provide logical/creative problem solving and expansion of knowledgeExperiences relating to learners needs for self-directed motives in his/her and development in the life space

B. Presentation

BehavioralCognitiveHumanisticMETHODi. Learner activityPassive follower subjected to trainer manipulated activities, eg. lectureThinking through mental activities:self-discoveryConceptualizationcreativityExperiencing the environment Observing and modellingPlay and funReflecting on experiencesIi. Trainer activitySystematically programmed learning activities to meet the objectives of skills and attitudes developmentWhat is presented in the spoken word or visuals should aim at providing the correct perceptionProvided opportunities for actualization in the social settingProvide appropriate rewards and reinforcementProvide exercises for logical and creative problem-solvingArrange resources to enable learners to work on their own to meet individual needs and develop their self-concept

Continuation

BehavioralCognitiveHumanisticRepetition, practice, rehearsal or role-play to develop desired behavior and prevent extinctionProceed fromKnown > unknownGeneral > specificSimple > abstractGroup assignment/projects to provide a social settingBreakdown skill process into incremental units of learningProvide food for thoughtSufficient flexibility in choice of individual learning needsEnsure prerequisites for new learningProvide linkage from one learning to the next in a logical sequenceClear objective of individual learning contractAllow opportunities to learn through trial and errorFacilitate transfer of learning through concept-maps / mind-mapsProvide opportunity for learning from each otherProvide good models for limitationCategorize and code information for ease of understanding, memory and recallAdopt a non-directive approach

Continuation

BehavioralCognitiveHumanisticProgrammed and computer-based learning activities for self-paced learningUse building-blocks or advance organizer for subsuming new learning with oldUse of group-dynamites, projects and casesActivities should be related to learners capability and readiness to learnProvide appropriate arousal for guide to discovery-learningCreate an environment of trustUse demonstration, simulations (identical work place) for ease of transfer of learningLearning activities must be expectancy-based and purposeful to the learnerProvide good models and examples for learners to follow

C. FEEDBACK

BehavioralCognitiveHumanisticAssessment / EvaluationConstant monitoring and feedback to check on progressMonitoring and feedback on learning processSelf-evaluationRemedial action through examination reward or punishmentRemedial action through examination repeats and reinforcement Feedback through informal interactionFormal objective-test, practical examinations to test competency levels.Formal examinations, assignments, projects, etc.Remedial action is onus of learner

SITUATING THE CURRICULUM: FIVE PERSPECTIVES (POSNER, 2004)

TraditionalWhat are the most important aspects of our cultural heritage that should be preserved?ExperientialWhat experiences will lead to the healthy growth of the individual?Structure of the disciplineWhat is the structure of the disciplines of knowledge?BehavioralAt the completion of curriculum , what should the learners be able to do?ConstructivistHow can people learn to make sense of the world and to think more productively and creatively?

CURRICULUM AS A SYLLABUS TO BE TRANSMITTED This conception is primarily concerned with the content, which is a body of knowledge to be transmitted. In this sense, education involves transmitting or delivering the knowledge-content to students by the most effective methods possible. The majority of teachers, if not most of them hold this conception of curriculum.

CURRICULUM AS A PRODUCTPopularised by Ralph Tyler (1949), this approach sees curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends specified in behavioural and measurable terms in students. This ensures a less open, more structured, atomic approach to teaching, learning and assessment.

CURRICULUM AS PROCESS This approach of which Lawrence Stenhouse (1975) is its main advocate views the curriculum as not a physical thing, but rather the interaction of teachers, students and knowledge, that is curriculum is what happens in the classroom. It takes the view that a curriculum is a set of proposals to be experimented and tested by teachers and thus invites the notion of the classroom as laboratory. Teachers have greater freedom thus ensuring a more open, less structured approach to teaching, learning and assessment.

CURRICULUM AS PRAXIS This approach incorporates much of the view of a curriculum as process, but in addition gives prominence to making explicit the interests served by the curriculum. This approach thus brings to the centre of the process the commitment to emancipation.

ALIGNMENT BETWEEN LEARNING, ASSESSMENT AND LEARNING OUTCOMESLearning and Teaching Activities

Designed to meet learning outcomesIntended Learning OutcomesAssessment methods

Designed to assess learning outcomesAdapted from BiGGs, 1999, Pg 27.

5 MINDS FOR THE FUTUREThe Disciplined MindThe Synthesizing MindThe Creating Mind The Respectful MindThe Ethical Mind (Howard Gardner: 2006, 2008)

TAXONOMY OF SIGNIFICANT LEARNING

TAXONOMY OF SIGNIFICANT LEARNING

In a course with significant learning, students will:Understand and remember the key concepts, terms, relationship, etc.Know how to use the content.Be able to relate this subject to other subjects.Understand the personal and social implications of knowing about this subject.Value this subject and further learning about it.Know how to keep on learning about this subject, after the course is over.

INTEGRATED COURSE DESIGNLearning GoalsStart by thinking about your end-of-course learning goals NOT the learning activities.Teaching/Learning ActivitiesFeedback & AssessmentIntegration

Write Out:What are the 2-3 most important kinds of learning that you want students to get from your Applied Learning course?

S i t u a t i o n a l F a c t o r sINTERACTIVE COURSE DESIGN:Key ComponentsLearning GoalsTeaching &LearningActivities

CRITERIA OF GOOD COURSE DESIGNS I T U A T I O N A L F A C T O R SIn-Depth Situational AnalysisSignificantLearningEducativeAssessmentActive LearningTeaching Strategy

Dewan Pujangga UKM Modul training of trainers27 September, 2004********