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From Cradle to Antipodean Grave: Reconstructing 19th Century Criminal Lives
Prof Hamish Maxwell-StewartUniversity College Dublin
With thanks to the Australian Research Council, the Australian National Data Service, the Institute for a Broadband Enabled Society and the Universities of Melbourne, Flinders, ANU, Oxford (UK) and Guelph (Canada)
1
The Voyage to Australia!
340 voyages from the British Isles to Van Diemen’s Land!
Cape !
Mauritius!
India!
Norfolk Island!
New Zealand!
830 convict voyages from the British Isles to Australia 1787-1868.
Carrying 160,000 prisoners
340 to VDL 1803-1853
67,000 prisoners
A further 5,500 locally convicted or arrived on intercolonial transports
2
1st assessment of the impact of transportation from conviction through to end of sentence
Look at long-run social and epidemiological impact.
1
2 3 and intergenerational
3
Hair Colour
Eye Colour
Weight
Expanded and Unexpanded Chest Measurement
WWI recruits 14,899 Born in Tasmania
Intergenerational height data
+ Year of birth and death + Socio-economic data + Some medical records
Height
HeightHair Colour
Eye Colour
Convicts 59,000 men 13,500 women transported 1803-1853
Civil, marriage, birth and death
records
4
What can we learn about the health transition from transportation?
What can we learn about the long-run effects of various life course events on health (including intergenerational effects)?
What can we learn about the efficacy of various penal policies?
Can we transmit useful information to the descendants of convicts?
Can we supply useful information to the heritage tourism industry?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Questions
5
0
1.60
3.20
4.80
6.40
8.00
In P
ort *
1st Q
uart
er
2nd
Qua
rter
3rd
Qua
rter
4th
Qua
rter 1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
12th
2.1 2.31.8
3.3
5.6
4.4
1.91.3
1.8
0.7 0.90.6
1.00.6
0.90.4
0.80.7
1.4 1.51.9
3.03.5 3.3
2.11.7 1.6 1.6
1.11.4
0.9 0.8
1.6
0.8
MalesFemales No of voyages = 81: Mean length of voyage = 118 days: No of convicts embarked = 12514
No of voyages = 208: Mean length of voyage = 116 days: No of convicts embarked = 48097
Voyage Van Diemen’s Land
Fig. 2 Death rates at sea and during the first year in the colony for male and female convicts arriving on voyages to VDL 1830-1853
Dea
ths
per
1000
per
mon
th
Months after landing
* For 59 male voyages and 36 female voyages the surgeon provides the date when convicts were first embarked and the date of sailing. The mean length of the embarkation process was slightly longer for male ships, 17 days, as opposed to 14 for female vessels. Deaths for the period in port and the four quartiles of the voyage have been weighted to 30 days.
6
Diarrhoea and dysentery
Diseases of the digestive system
Other fever
Diseases of the respiratory system
Respiratory tuberculosis
Diseases of the circulatory system
Sexually transmitted diseases
Nausea
Debility and marasmus
Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue
Mental and behavioral disorders
Pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium
Diseases of the eye and ear
Diseases of the genitourinary system
Diseases of the nervous system
Diseases of the blood and blood forming organs
Endocrine, deficiency and metabolic disorders
Neoplasm
Other infectious diseases
Unclassifiable
Accident
Convulsions and teething
Old age and decay
Other tuberculosis
Paralysis
Suicide
Unknown
Diseases of the musculoskeletal system
0 22.5 45.0 67.5 90.0
Diarrhoea and dysentery
Diseases of the digestive system
Fever
Diseases of the respiratory system
Respiratory tuberculosis
Diseases of the circulatory system
Sexually transmitted diseases
Nausea
Debility and marasmus
Diseases of the skin
Mental and behavioral disorders
Pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium
Diseases of the eye and ear
Diseases of the genitourinary system
Diseases of the nervous system
Diseases of the blood
Scurvy
0 1.75 3.50 5.25 7.00
Deaths per 1000 convicts Diagnoses per 1000 convicts
7
0
3.0
6.0
9.0
12.0
In port 0-910 - 1
920 - 2
930 - 3
940 - 4
950 - 5
960 - 6
970 - 7
980 - 8
990 + Voyage Percentile
Dia
gnos
is r
ate
per
1000
con
vict
s Diarrhoea and Dysentery Diagnoses per 1000 Convicts
Males
Females
8
Route of the Isabella Watson taken from the log of Captain J.A.McDonald, Mitchell Library Sydney MSS 1808 /2x Item 3
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
In Port 0-9
10-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60-69
70-79
80-89
90-99
0
0.23
0.45
0.68
0.90Seasickness and Accidents (cases per 1000 convicts)
Accidents Seasickness Percentage of Voyage Elapsed
Roaring 40s
Acc
iden
ts
Nau
sea
9
Indents
Native Place
Occupation
Age on arrival
Height
10
Marital Status
No Children
Religion
Literacy
Statement on family and circumstances
Offence transported for + priors
11
Father and Mother [Father] James native place 2 brothers Richard and William on board; 7 sisters Mary, Sarah, Lydia, Sophia, Eliza, Emma, Phoebe; Sarah London and Lydia
James Douce
? Douce
Sarah Douce
Lydia Douce
Mary Douce
Eliza Douce
Sophia Douce
Emma Douce
Phoebe Douce
James Douce
Richard Douce
William Douce
James Douce
SARAH Douce
Aged 40
Aged 45 Agricultural labourerSophia Douce
Lydia Douce
Richard Douce
Eliza Douce
Phoebe Douce
Flora Douce
17
11
14
8
2
4
Church St, Safron Walden
12
Native Place
Occupation
Age on arrival Height
Physical disabilities
Description Registers
13
14
Confession — marital status, transportable offence, prior offencesreligion and literacy(names of parents and siblings)
Each bench appearanceDateWhere employedChargeSentence (lashes, days irons, cells etc)Magistrate who heard case
Conduct Registers
15
!
!
Assigned or Public Works
Road Parties
Ticket of Leave
Full Pardon
Cond. Pardon
Chain Gangs
Penal Stations
Gallows
Assigned to Private Settlers
Ticket of Leave
Full Pardon
Cond. Pardon
Factory 1st Class
Factory 2nd Class
Factory Crime Class
Gallows
Males
Females
1816-1839
1816-1843
1844-1853
1840-1853
16
Distribution of Male Convicts 1st January 1839
Road Gangs11%
Public Works9%
Constables2%
Artificers on loan to settlers2%
Assigned34%
Port Arthur9%
Confined in Gaols1%
Hospital & Invalid Establishment
2%Missing & absconded
Ticket of Leave25%
Chain Gangs
Distribution of Female Convicts 1st January 1839
Invalid Establishment2%
Female Factories18%
Assigned56%
Ticket of Leave24%
!
Assigned or Public Works
Road Parties
Ticket of Leave
Full Pardon
Cond. Pardon
Chain Gangs
Penal Stations
Gallows
Males
17
18
Transp[orte]d for theft. Goal report ‘Bad character and connections’. Hulk report ‘orderly single’. Stated this offence Housebreaking been 9 or 10 times before the Magistrates but cannot tell what for.
May 16 1832, Murray, Gross insolence, 25 lashes & returned to his master, J. Simpson.
Augt 6 1832, Murray, Disobed[ien]ce of orders, 2 months impris[onmen]t & hard labor & ret[urne]d to his service, J. Simpson.
Octr 6 1832, Murray, Insolence, Rep[rimande]d, J. Leake.
Octr 221832, Murray, Insolence, Ret[urne]d to P[ublic] W[orks], J England.
Feby 18 1833, R[oa]d Party, Absco[ndin]g, 50 lashes, W[illiam] L. [yttleton]
March 7 1833, Road Party, Abscond[in]g, 70 lashes, WL & WK
May 4 1833, R[oa]d P[ar]ty, Having in his possession a quantity of potatoes for which he cannot account, Placed on No. 3 ration one month, W Lyttleton.
Septr 17 1833, R[oa]d P[arty], Abscond[in]g, 3 mo[nth]s imprison[men]t & hard labor, Notman’s gang recomm[ende]d, WL.
Septr 27 1833, Notmans ch[ain] g[ang], Inciting his fellow prisoners to insubord[inatio]n & refusing to work, 50 lashes, WL.
Jan 2 1834, R[oa]d P[ar]ty, Absconding, 6 months imprisonment & hard labor, Notman’s gang recomm[ende]d, RCG.
Octr 29 1834, Brand, Inducing Mr. Warne’s serv[an]t to leave his masters premises, 7 days Bread and Water and Sol[itar]y Conf[inemen]t, WL.
Jany 28 1835, Brand, Neglect of duty and making use of profane language, 3 months hard labor Westbury Road Party recomm[ende]d, RCG — Long meadows R[oa]d P[ar]ty Launceston vide L[ieutenan]t Gov[ernor’]s Decis[io]n 5 Feby 1835
Decr 1835, Newland, Disorderly conduct & violently assaulting Geo[rge] Williams, 6 mo[nth]s hard labour in ch[ain]s, RCG — At Laun[cesto]n vide L[ieutenan]t Gov[ernor’]s Decis[io]n 24 Decr 1835
Septr 30 1837, Newland, Larceny, Disch[arge]d, WF
The Lieutenant Governor has been pleased to grant this man a free pardon and 50 sovereigns for his praiseworthy conduct in apprehending Benjamin Ball, a bushranger of desperate character. Vide Gov[ernment]t. Notice 157.
19
Wicked GoodG
ALL
OW
S
PEN
AL
STA
TIO
N
CHA
ING
AN
G
ROA
DPA
RTY
ASS
IGN
EDA
ND
PU
BLIC
WO
RKS
TICK
ET O
FLE
AV
E
CON
DIT
ION
AL
PARD
ON
ABS
OLU
TEPA
RDO
N
AssignedRoad PartyChain Gang AssignedRoad PartyRoad PartyChain Gang AssignedRoad PartyChain Gang Assigned
Captures Bushranger — Free
David Gow’s Progress through the Convict System
Wicked GoodG
ALL
OW
S
PEN
AL
STA
TIO
N
CHA
ING
AN
G
ROA
DPA
RTY
ASS
IGN
EDA
ND
PU
BLIC
WO
RKS
TICK
ET O
FLE
AV
E
CON
DIT
ION
AL
PARD
ON
ABS
OLU
TEPA
RDO
N
20
December 1832 — Assigned to Mr Thomas Parker
26 July 1833 — Parker — Gross in subordination also assaulting his master and violently beating and assaulting his fellow servant. Original sentence extended two years and recommended to be sent to a penal settlement. MLS and JW. — Con 31/26
December 1833, Public Works
17 February 1834 — Road Party — Absent from the huts at an improper hour — 6 Mos Hard Labour Grass Tree Hill Recommended. WJP. — Con 31/26
19 March 1835 — Mack — Insolence and violent conduct in Mr Muir’s Public House — 36 Lashes and returned to his service. CPM. — Con 31/26
23 Sept 1835 — Transferred from J. D. Mack, Macquarie District to Alexander Downie, <[Norton Mandiville]> — Hobart Town Gazette, 24 Sept 1835.
December 1835, Assigned to Mr A Drought
18 April 1839 — The remaining part of his extended sentence remitted by order of His Excellency, vide memo of P. Supt. — Con 31/26
367 John Andrews1106 William Courtney1338 William Counsel1392 George Cornish274 William Elliot404 John French723 Daniel Groves504 James Leverett595 Charles Lane728 Charles Pizzie1377 Andrew West1379 John Wilson
211 Jane Boulter
347 Thomas FisherREV A. DROUGHTChurch of England Rector Green Ponds
EDWARD KENNEDY per ELIZABETH
MR THOMAS PARKER
J. D. MACKMacquarie District
ALEXANDER DOWNIENorton MandevilleHamilton
GRASS TREE HILL
ROAD PARTY
Employment History Fellow Workers
21
Bench
Property A
Property B
Property C
22
3. Penal policy shiftsa) Premodern - modern. Foucaultian shift punishments that focus on the body to punishments that focus on the mind.
0
2.50
5.00
7.50
10.00
1819
1821
1823
1825
1827
1829
1831
1833
1835
1837
1839
1841
1843
1845
1847
1849
1851
1853
1855
1857
0
0.8
1.5
2.3
3.0
Number of lashes and days cells per man (5 year moving average)
Lashes Cells
Day
s so
litar
y co
nfine
men
t pe
r m
an p
er y
ear
Num
ber
of la
shes
per
man
per
yea
r
Election of Whig Government
Introduction of probation system
23
White collar
Wood
Agricultural
Food and drink
Metal
Construction
land transport
Unskilled
Maritime transport
Domestic service
Clothing
Textile
0 15 30 45 60
Number of lashes received by convict over the course of their sentence
Weavers twice as likely to be flogged as agricultural labourers
24
0
0.225
0.450
0.675
0.900
1818
1820
1822
1824
1826
1828
1830
1832
1834
1836
1838
1840
1842
1844
1846
1848
1850
1852
1854
1856
1858
3.00
5.25
7.50
9.75
12.00
Charges brought against male convicts per man on strength (5 year moving average) and mechanics wages
Cha
rges
per
man
on
stre
ngth
Wag
es o
f mec
hani
cs (
shill
ings
per
day
)
Introduction of probation
25
0
15
30
45
60
18161818
18201822
18241826
18281830
18321834
18361838
18401842
18441846
18481850
18521854
18561858
Road party (days per man) Chain gang (days per man)
4
14
9
7.5
12.5
Male convict deaths per 1000 per year
(a)
(a)
£
(b)
(b) Cost of rationing a convicts for one year
£0
£40
£30
£20
£10
9Days spent in road parties or chain gang per year per man on strength (3 year moving average).D
ays
labo
ur p
er m
an o
n st
reng
th p
er y
ear
26
PANOPTICON
Vs
TRANSPORTATION
27
0
17.5
35.0
52.5
70.0
1 YEAR 2 YEARS 3 YEARS 4/5 YEARS
Assignment System, VDL, 1830-39Probation System, VDL, 1840-53Millbank Penitentiary, LondonEastern Penitentiary, Philadelphia
Dea
ths
per
1000
per
yea
r
Death rates male convicts and prisoners, Van Diemen’s Land, Millbank and Eastern State Penitentiary.
28
Marriage
Departure
Death
Perm
issi
on t
o m
arry
Certificate of FreedomConditional PardonFull Pardon
26.8
yea
rs o
ld
10.5 years (counting life as 30 yrs)
8.7 years
Escape
Rearrested
Pauper
1 in 25 sampleCon 40
Male convicts arriving Probation Era 1840-1853
Sampling Strategy
29
30
31
32
A Machine that Ground Some Rogues Dishonest?
33
34
Can we transmit useful information to the descendants of convicts? 4.
25% Link to marriage 90%
Con
vict
Free
Generation 2
Generation 1
Disproportionate number of descendants from a few fertile couples
50% childless Age at marriage + high rate of STDs amongst women (?)
Short sentenceSkilled
Long sentenceUnskilled
35