Diagnosis, Parasitose Em Aves

8/13/2019 Diagnosis, Parasitose Em Aves

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D i agnos i s Trea tm ent and C ontro l o fC o m m o n P a ra site s in C o m p a n i o n a ndA viary BirdsVic toria L . C lyde DVM an d Sharon Pa t ton PhDT h i s a r t i c l e p r e s e n t s a b r i e f r e v i e w o f c l i n ic a l s y n -d r o m e s d i a g n o s t i c t e c h n i q u e s s u g g e s t e d t r e a t m e n t sa n d c o n t ro l m e a s u r e s f o r c o m m o n p a r a s i t e p r o b l e m s o fc o m p a n i o n a n d a v i a r y b i rd s .C o p y r i g h t 9 1 9 9 6 b y W . B . S a u n d er s C o m p a n y .

K e y w o r d s : A n t i p a r a s it i c s b i rd s e c t o p a r a s i te s e n d o -p a r a s i t e s .

a r a s it i c i n f e c t i o n s a r e i n f r e q u e n t l y d ia g -o s e d i n c a g e d b i r d s . C a p t i v e - b o r n b i r d s

m a i n t a i n e d i n r a i s e d - f l o o r c a g e s h a v e l it t le a c c e s st o m a n y p a r a s it e s . H o w e v e r , p a r a s i t is m m a y b eo v e r l o o k e d e v e n w h e n p r e s e n t b e c a u s e o f t h es i m i l a r i t y i n c l i n i c a l s i g n s t o d i s e a se s o f o t h e re t i o l o g y o r t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r ' s u n f a m i l i a r i t y w i t hp a r a s i t e s i n b i r d s . A l t h o u g h s e v e r a l c h a p t e r sh a v e b e e n d e v o t e d t o a v i a n p a r a s i t e s , x-3 t h i sr e p o r t h i g h l i g h t s t h e c l i n i c a l s y n d r o m e s o b -s e r v e d m o s t f r eq u e n t l y in c o m p a n i o n a n d a v ia ryb i r d s a n d s u g g es t s p r a c ti c a l m e t h o d s o f d i ag n o s i sf o r g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e .

T r e a t m e n t o f a vi a n p ar a s it is m r e m a i n s a n a r t .N o t a l l p a r a s i t i c i n f e c t i o n s r e su l t i n c l i n i c a ld i s e as e , a n d f e w a n t i p a r a s it i c a g e n t s h a v e b e e ne v a l u a t e d f o r s a f e t y a n d e f f i c a c y i n p s i t t a c i n e sa n d p a s s e r i n e s . T h e s e n s it iv i ty o f a v ia n p a r a s i t e st o a n t i p a r a s i t ic t r e a t m e n t i s v a r i a b l e , a n d i t isi m p e r a t i v e t h a t b ir d s b e r e t e s t e d a f t e r t r e a t m e n tt o a s se ss e f fi c ac y . B e c a u s e r e i n f e c t i o n c a n m i m i cr e s is t an c e , a p p r o p r i a t e h y g i e n e a n d c o n t r o l m e a -s u r es m u s t b e i n s t i t u t e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t hd r u g t h e ra p y . W h e n e v e r p o s s i b le , d i r e c t a d m i n i s-t r a ti o n o f t h e d r u g is s t r o n g ly p r e f e r r e d o v e rf o o d o r w a t e r tr e a t m e n t , w h i c h c a n r e s u l t i ne r r a t ic o r i n a p p r o p r i a t e d o s i n g o f b ir d s . D o s a g e si n t hi s r e p o r t h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e l i st e dr e f e r e n c e s a n d e m p h a s i z e r e a d i l y a v a il ab l e d r u g so f l o w e r to x i c it y . T h e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o ar e c e n t r e v i e w o f a v i a n a n t ip a r a s i t i c a g e n t s f o rm o r e d e t a il . 4

l a g e l l a t e d P r o t o z o ai a rd i a P s i t ta c i

G i a r d i a p s i t t a c i 2 ,5 s is a c o m m o n p r o t o z o a l p a r a -s i te o f s m a l l b i r d s s u c h a s b u d g e r i g a r s , l o v e b i r d s ,a n d c o c k a t ie l s . I t h a s a d i r e c t l i f e c y c le in w h i c ht h e i n f e c t i v e c y s t is s h e d i n f e c e s a n d r e m a i n sv i a b l e in o r g a n i c m a t t e r f o r s e v e r al w e e k s . A f t e ri n g e s t i o n a n d e x c y s t a t i o n , t h e p a r a s i t e s li v e i nt h e s m a l l i n t e s t in e a n d r e p r o d u c e b y b i n a r yf is s io n . I n h e a v y i n f e c t i o n s , t r o p h o z o i t e s m a yi n t e r f e r e w i th a b s o r p t i o n a n d f a t m e t a b o l i s m .

C l i n i c a l s y n d r o m e . A s y m p t o m a t i c c a r r i e r s a r ee x t r e m e l y c o m m o n . A f f e c te d b ir d s s h o w c h r o n i ct o i n t e r m i t t e n t d i a r r h e a w i th l oo s e , m a l o d o r o u s ,m u c o i d s t o o l s . O t h e r s i g n s s u c h a s l e t h a r g y ,a n o r e x i a , s t u n t in g , a n d m o r t a l i ty o c c u r m o r ef r e q u e n t l y i n j u v e n i l e s . D r y s k in , p r u r i t i s , a n df e a t h e r p i c k i n g m a y o c c u r s e c o n d a r y t o m a l a b -s o r p t i o n .

D i a g n o s i s . A s i n g l e n e g a t i v e s a m p l e d o e s n o tr u l e o u t i n f e c t i o n , a s c y st s a n d t r o p h o z o i t e s a r es h e d i r r e g u l a r l y i n f e c e s . A f r e s h f e c a l s a m p l e( l e ss t h a n 1 0 m i n u t e s o l d ) w i ll a s s is t i n d i a g n o s i s .M o t i l e t r o p h o z o i t e s h a v e a g l i d i n g m o t i o n o nd i r e c t s a li n e s m e a r e x a m i n a t i o n . T w o e y e s p o t so r n u c l e i c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d b y l i g h t m i c r o s c o p y .V i s u a li z at io n o f t ro p h o z o i t e s c a n b e i m p r o v e d b yi o d i n e s t a in i n g o f fr e s h f e c e s o r t r i c h r o m e s ta in -i n g o f f e c e s s t o r e d i n p o l y v i n y l a l c o h o l . O c c a s i o n -a lly , t r o p h o z o i t e s w il l b e i d e n t i f i e d o n a r o u t i n eG r a m ' s s t a i n o f f e c e s ( F i g 1 ). Z i n c su l f a t e f l o t a -t i o n c o n c e n t r a t e s c y st s. A n e n z y m e - l i n k e d i r n m u -n o s o r b e n t a ss ay te s t t h a t d e t e c t s G i a r d i a - s p e c i f i ca n t i g e n i n a q u e o u s e x t r a c t s o f h u m a n f e c e s is

From the Depar tment of C omparat ive Medicine, Col lege ofVeterinary Med icine, T he University of Tennessee, Knox ville, TN.Address repr int reques ts to Victor ia L. Clyde, DVM , PO Box1071, Knoxvi l le , TN37901-1071.Copyright 9 199 6 by W. B. Saund ers Company.1055-937X/96/0502-000455. 00/0

S e m i n a r s i n A v i a n a n d E x o t i c P e t M e d i c i n e , V o l 5 , N o 2 ( A p r i l ), 1 9 9 6 : p p 7 5 - 8 4 7 5


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Common Parasites of Companion Birds 77

Diagnosis M o t i le , p y r i f o r m t r o p h o z o i t e s s e e no n d i r e c t s a l i n e sm e a r o f o r a l l e s io n s h a v e o n en u c l e u s o r e y e s p o t , a p o l a r f l a g el l a , a n d a nu n d u l a t i n g m e m b r a n e . T h e j e r k y m o t i o n o ft r i c h o m o n a d s a r e m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h eg l id i ng m o v e m e n t s o f Giardia spp .

Treatment an d control A d m i n i s t e r o r a l m e t r o -n id a z o l e ( T a b le 1 ) . R e l a p se s a f t e r c e s sa t i o n o ft r e a t m e n t o c c u r m o r e c o m m o n l y i n p s i t t a c i n e st h a n c o l u m b i f o r m e s . C a r n i d a z o l e t a b l e t s ( S p a r -t ri x ; W i ld l i f e P h a r m a c e u t i c a l s , I n c , F o r t C o l l in s ,C O ) a r e a v a il a bl e f o r t r e a t m e n t o f a ff e c t e dp i g e o n s . S uc c es s fu l t r e a t m e n t h a s b e e n o b t a i n e dw i t h d i m e t r o n i d a z o l e , i p r o n i d a z o l e , a n d r o n i d a -z o l e, b u t t h e se d r u g s a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e i n t h eU n i t e d S t at es . C o n t r o l d i s ea s e b y t r e a t m e n t o re l i m i n a t i o n o f c a r r ie r s , p r o t e c t i o n o f w a t e rs o u r c es f r o m c o n t a m i n a t i o n b y w i ld b i rd s , a n da v o i d a n c e o f o v e r c r o w d i n g .

Clinical syndrome S u b c l in i c al i n f e c t i o n i s c o m -m o n , b u t s t r e ss e d , o v e r c r o w d e d y o u n g b i r d s m a yd e v e l o p a m u c o i d o r b l o o d y d i a r r h e a w i t h re s u l-t a n t d e h y d r a t i o n . I n s e v e r e c a se s , d e s t r u c t i o n o fi n t es t i n al e p i t h e l i u m m a y i n d u c e m a l a b s o r p t i o n ,a n e m i a , a n d h y p o p r o t e i n e m i a . A f ew sp e c ie s o fEimeria can pa ras i t ize the l ive r , k idney , and lungs .Diagnosis O o c y s t s c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d o n r o u -t ine feca l f lo ta t ion (F ig 2) . How ever , mos t in te s t i-n a l t r a c t d a m a g e o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e p r o d u c t i o no f o oc y s ts . A se x u a l s t a g e s ( m e r o z o i t e s ) c a n b eo b s e r v e d a t n e c r o p s y i n t h e i n t e s ti n a l m u c o s a .

Treatment and control A f f e c t e d b i r d s c a n b et r e a t e d w i t h t r i m e t h o p r i m / s u l f a m e t h o x a z o l e( T a b le 1 ) . C o n t r o l i n v o lv e s b r e a k in g t h e f e c al -o r a l c y c l e t h r o u g h r a i s e d - f l o o r c a g e s , d e c r e a se ds t o c k i n g d e n s i t y , a n d h y g i e n e . A m p r o l i u m m a yb e u se d a s a p r e v e n t a t i v e ( T a b le 1 ) , b u t r e s i s -t a n c e c a n d e v e lo p .

picomplexan Protozoa~TheCoccidial sospora s p p n d E ime r i a s p p

Isospora s p p a n d Eimeria s p p 2 c a n b e f o u n d i nb o t h p s i t t a c in e a n d p a s se r in e h o s t s , e sp e c ia l l y i na v i a r y - h o u se d c a n a r i e s , f i n c h e s , m y n a h s , t o u -c a n s , a n d l o r i e s . T h e se p a r a s i t e s a r e n o t c o m -m o n l y s e e n i n c a g e d b i r d s b e c a u s e t h e o o c y s tt h a t i s p a s se d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y i n t h e f e c e s m u s ts p o r u l a t e i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t t o b e c o m e i n f e c -t iv e. O n c e p r o d u c e d , t h e o o c y s t m a y r e m a i ni n fe c ti v e i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t f o r m o n t h s .

Cryptosporidium s p pI n c o n t r a s t t o o th e r c o c c id i a , Cryptosporidium

sp p 2a3 d e v e lo p i n t r a c e l l u l a r ly b u t e x t r a c y to p l a s -m i c a ll y j u s t u n d e r t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e h o s t c e llm e m b r a n e . I n fe c t iv e , s p o r u l a t e d o o c ys t s a r e s h e din t h e f e c e s, a n d t r a n sm is s io n o c c u r s b y d i r e c ti n g e s t i o n o r i n h a l a t i o n w i t h s u b s e q u e n t i n g e s -t i o n o f t h e o o cy s t. E n d o g e n o u s s p o r u l a t i o n o fth e o o c y s t i n t h e g u t c a n r e su l t in a u to in f e c t i o no f a p a r a s i t i z e d h o s t .Clinical syndrome C r y p t o s p o r i d i a l i n f e c t i o n sa r e u su a l ly s e l f - l im i t i n g . P r o lo n g e d o r s e v e r ec l i ni c a l d i s e a se is s e e n m o s t c o m m o n l y i n j u v e -

Figure 2. (A) Atoxoplasmaspp oocyst from a Bali My-nah, which appears similarto oocysts of Isospora sppand Eimeria spp (1000 X);(B) typical appearance ofan avian ascarid egg (400X); (C) typical spiruirid eggsurrou nded by several bipo-lar Capillariaspp eggs (200X); (D) egg of Syngamusspp , commonly ca l ledgape wo rm (200 X).


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7 8 Clyde and Patton

n i le c o c k a ti e ls a n d m a y b e s e c o n d a r y t o i m m u n o -s u p p r e s s i o n i n d u c e d b y o t h e r a g e n t s su c h a sp o l y o m a v ir u s o r p s i tt a c in e f e a t h e r a n d b e a kd is e as e . A f f e c t e d b i rd s s h o w r e g u r g i t a t i o n a n dw e i g h t l o s s s e c o n d a r y t o g a s t r o e n t e r i t i s . C r y p t o -sp o r i d i o s i s i s u su a l l y l i m i t e d t o t h e g a s t r o i n t e s t i -n a l t r a c t o f p s i t t a c i n e s b u t m a y a l so i n v o l v e t h er e s p i r a t o r y a n d u r i n a r y e p i t h el i a l s u rf a c es .

Diagnosis T h e o o c y s t c a n b e o v e r l o o k e d e a s-i ly b e c a u s e i t is v e r y sm a l l ( 4 t o 6 t x m ) a n d f l o a t si n a h i g h e r p l a n e t h a n o t h e r p a r a s i t e p r o d u c t s .H o w e v e r , i t i s r e a d i l y c o n c e n t r a t e d b y s u g a rf l o t a t i o n , a f t e r w h i c h t h e o o c y s t a n d i ts s p o r o z o -i te s h a v e a p i n k g l o w w h e n v i e w e d w i t h t h em i c r o s c o p e. A l t h o u g h n u m e r o u s o t h e r s t ai nsh a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d t o f a c il i ta t e c ys t i d e n t i f i c a -t i o n , s u g a r f l o t a t i o n i s t h e p r e f e r r e d m e t h o d i ng e n e r a l p r a c t i c e .

Treatment a n d c o n t r o l S u p p o r t i v e c a r e a n dl i m i ti n g r e e x p o s u r e m a y b e t h e o n l y a v a il a b let r e a t m e n t s . R e c e nt ly , p a r o m o m y c i n h a s b e e nr e p o r t e d a s a n e f f e c t iv e tr e a t m e n t f o r c r y p t o s p o -r i d io s i s in a c a t w h e n g i v e n o r a l ly a t 1 6 5 m g / k ge v e r y 1 2 h o u r s f o r 5 d a y s . 14 T h i s a m i n o g l y c o s i d eh a s l o w t o xi c it y , i s p o o r l y a b s o r b e d f r o m t h eg a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l t r a c t , a n d s h o w s p r o m i s e i n t h et r e a t m e n t o f th i s d i s e a s e. C o n t r o l i s d i f f i c u l t a so o c y s t s a r e i n f e c t i v e w h e n s h e d a n d a r e r e s i s t a n tt o m a n y d i s i n f e c t a n t s . S o m e a v i a r i e s p r e f e r t oc u l l p e r s i s t e n t l y i n f e c t e d b i r d s t o l i m i t s p r e a d .Zoonotic A v i a n Cryptosporidium s p p a p p e a r t ob e t e m p e r a t u r e - a n d s p e c i e s- a d a p te d , a n d d o n o tp r e s e n t a r is k t o h u m a n s . B u t Cryptosporidium s p pi n f e c t i n g m a m m a l s a r e z o o n o t i c .toxoplasma s

Atoxoplasma sp p 2,15 a r e sm a l l c o c c i d i a n p a r a -s it es o f c an a r i e s a n d o t h e r p a s s e r i f o r m e s s u c h a sf i n c h e s a n d m y n a h s . E a c h b i r d s p e c ie s is i n f e c t e db y a d i f f e r e n t Atoxoplasma sp p , a n d c r o s s - i n f e c -t i o n s h o u l d n o t o c c u r . A s e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n o ft h e o r g a n i s m i n v i ta l o r g a n s s u c h a s t h e l u n g ,l iv e r, s p l e e n , a n d i n t e s t i n e i n c i te s a m o n o n u c l e a ri n f l a m m a t o r y r e s p o n s e . S e x u a l st ag e s in t h ei n t e s t i n e r e s u l t in t h e p a s s a g e o f o o c y s ts t h a ts p o r u l a t e i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t .Clinical syndrome C l i n ic a l s i g ns a n d m o r t a l i t ya r e g r e a t e s t i n j u v e n i l e s , w h i c h c a n s h o w d i a r -r h e a , a n o r e x i a , w e i g h t l o ss , i l l- t h r if t , r u f f l e d f e a t h -e rs , a b d o m i n a l d i s t e n t i o n c a u s e d b y h e p a t o -m e g a l y , a n d a c u t e d e a t h . A d u l t s a r e o f t e na s y m p t o m a t i c s h e d d e r s .

Diagnosis D i a g n o s i s i s r a r e l y m a d e b y f e c a le x a m i n a t i o n b e c a u s e m o r t a l it y u su a ll y o c c u r sb e f o r e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f o o c ys ts . A s e x u a l s ta g e sm a y b e i d e n t i f i e d i n b u f f y c o a t s m e a r s , l i v e rb i o p s i e s , o r p o s t m o r t e m t i s s u e s a m p l e s . T h es m a l l o o c y s ts ( 2 0 ~ z m ) m a y b e i n t e r m i t t e n t l ys h e d i n t h e f e c e s b y a s y m p t o m a t i c c a r r i e r s b u ta r e d i f f ic u l t t o d i s ti n g u i s h f r o m m a n y Isosporas p p o f b i rd s ( F ig 2 ) .

Treatment an d con tro l N o c o n s i s t e n t l y e f f e c -t i v e t r e a t m e n t i s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . P r i m a q u i n em a y s u p p r e s s t h e t i s s u e f o r m s , a n d s u l f a c h l o r p y r -a z i n e m a y s u p p r e s s f e c a l s h e d d i n g ( T a b l e 1 ) .S u l f a c h l o r p y r a z i n e i s n o t a v a i l a b l e i n t h e U n i t e dS ta t e s .T o x o p l a s ma Go n d i i

Toxoplasma gondii1~19i s a u b i q u i t o u s c o c c i d i a np a r a s i t e w it h b o t h a d i r e c t a n d a n i n d i r e c t li f ec y c le . O o c y s t s a r e p r o d u c e d o n l y i n t h e e n t e r o e p i -t h e l i a l c yc l e o f fe l id s . B i r d s b e c o m e i n f e c t e d b yt h e i n g e s t i o n o f in f e c t i v e oo c y s t s f r o m t h e e n v i -r o n m e n t o r t is s ue c ys ts i n r aw o r u n d e r c o o k e dm e a t . T h e p a r a s i t e s m u l t i p l y a s e x u a l ly in c e l l s ast a c h y zo i t es b e f o r e b e c o m i n g q u i e s c e n t i n t i s su ec y s ts a s b r a d y z o i t e s .Clinical syndrome T gond ii i s a n u n c o m m o np a r a s it e o f c a g e d b i r d s . S o m e e a r l y r e p o r t s o fa v ia n t o x o p l a sm o s i s m a y h a v e b e e n a t o x o p l a s m o -s is . A c u t e o n s e t o f g e n e r a l i z e d s i c k b i r d s y n -d r o m e w i th p o s s i bl e n e u r o l o g i c a l si gn s o r a c u t ed e a t h is th e c o m m o n p r e s e n t a t i o n . S p e c if ic si gn sa r e h i g h l y v a r i a b le b e c a u s e o f t h e w i d e v a r i e t y o fb o d y s y st e m s th a t c a n b e i n f e c t e d . A t n e c r o p s y ,l e si o n s i n c lu d e m u s c u l a r a t r o p h y a n d m y o s it is ,f i b r i n o u s s er o si ti s, p u l m o n a r y c o n g e s t i o n , a i r s a c :c u l i t i s , m y o c a r d i t i s , h e p a t o s p l e n o m e g a l y , e n t e r i -tis , o p h t h a l m i t is , a n d m e n i n g o e n c e p h a l i t i s .Diagnosis B i r ds a re a n i n t e r m e d i a t e h o s t a n dd o n o t p r o d u c e o o c y s ts . T a c h y z o i t e s t r a v e lt h r o u g h t h e v a sc u l ar s ys t em a n d s p r e a d t o o t h e ro r g a n s y s te m s . T i s s u e c y st s c o n t a i n i n g b r a d y z o i t e sa r e e n c y s t e d i n m u l t i p l e t is s u es . D i a g n o s i s i so b t a i n e d t h r o u g h s e r o l o g ic a l t es ts o r h i s t o l o g ic a le x a m i n a t i o n o f t is su e s. I m m u n o p e r o x i d a s e s t a in -i n g i s h e l p f u l i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f ti s s u es t ages .

Treatment a n d c o n t r o l T r e a t m e n t c a n b e a t -t e m p t e d w i t h t r i m e t h o p r i m - s u t f a m e t h o x a z o l ea n d p y r i m e t h a m i n e ( T a b l e 1 ).Zoonotic S o u r c es o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n f o r b i rd s( c a t f e c es , u n c o o k e d m e a t p r o d u c t s ) c a n a l so b e


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Comm on Parasites of C ompanion Birds 7 9

s o u r ce s o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n f o r p e o p l e . B i r ds d on o t p r o d u c e i n f e ct i v e o o c y st s, th e r e f o r e , p e tb i r d s a r e n o t c o n t a g i o u s t o p e o p l e .Sarcocys ti s fa lca tu la

Sarcocystis fal ca tul a 2,2~ i s a c o c c i d i a n p a r a s i t et h a t u n d e r g o e s s e x u a l m u l t i p l i c a t i o n i n t h e i n t es -t in e o f th e o p o s s u m Didelphis v irginiana) inN o r t h A m e r i c a . I n f e c t i v e s p o r o c y s t s a r e s h e d i no p o s s u m f e c e s t h a t m a y b e d e p o s i t e d i n t o a v ia r-i es d i re c t l y o r t r a n s p o r t e d b y c o c k r o a c h e s .A s e x u a l re p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e p a r a s i te i n t h ep s i t t a c i n e i n t e r m e d i a t e h o s t r e s u l t s i n a s e v e r ev a s cu l it is a n d p n e u m o n i t i s .Clinical syndrome. P e r a c u t e d e a t h i s c o m m o n .M a r k e d d y s p n e a a n d y e ll o w u r a t e s m a y b e o b -s e r v e d b e f o r e d e a t h . O l d W o r l d P s i t ta c i n e s a rev e r y s u s c e p t i b l e t o c l i n i c a l d i s e a s e . A d u l t N e wW o r l d P s i tt a c in e s h a v e m o r e r e s i s t an c e , b u t n e o -n a t e s c a n b e f a ta ll y i n f ec t e d . P u l m o n a r y e d e m aa n d h e m o r r h a g e is a c o n s is t e n t n e c r o p s y fi n d -i n g .Diagnosis. P o s t m o r t e m e v a l u a ti o n i s r e q u i r e df o r th e i d e n t i f i c a t io n o f s c h i z o n t s o r m e r o z o i t e si n p u l m o n a r y t is su e . T h e s e t is s u e st a g e s m a y b eo v e r l o o k e d b y i n e x p e r i e n c e d p a t h ol o g is t s.

r e a t m e n t and control. T r e a t m e n t c a n b e a t -t e m p t e d w i th t r i m e t h o p r i m - s u l f a m e t h o x a z o l ea n d p y r i m e t h a m i n e ( T a b l e 1 ). C o n t r o l d is e a s eb y l i m i t in g a c c e ss o f o p o s s u m s t o a v i ar ie s , re m o v -i n g fo o d f r o m c a g es o v e rn i g h t , a n d c o c k r o a c hc o n t r o l .

HemoparasitesA v i an h e m o p a r a s i t e s i n c l u d e Hemoproteus s p p ,Plasmodium s p p , Leukocytozoon s p p , a s w e l l a s

f l a g e l l a t e d t r y p a n o s o m e s . T h e s e p a r a s i t e s a r ec o m m o n l y o b s e r v e d i n w i l d -c a u g h t b ir d s b u t a r eo f t e n n o n p a t h o g e n i c . A v i an h e m o p a r a s i t e s a rer a r e i n c a p t i v e - b o r n c a g e d b i r d s . T h e r e a d e r i sd i r e c t e d t o o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s f o r r e v i e w o f th e s eparasites.l-3,93

HelminthsM a n y h e l m i n t h p a r a s i te s h a v e a n i n d i r e c t li fe

c y cl e r e q u i r i n g a n i n t e r m e d i a t e h o s t . T h e s ep a r a s i te s a r e o f l it tl e i m p o r t a n c e t o b i r d s t h a t a r ec a g e d w i t h l im i t e d e x p o s u r e t o fe c e s o r i n t e r m e -d i a t e h o st s . I n d e e d , m a n y c a p t i v e - b o r n b i r d s a r e

r e la t iv e l y e n d o p a r a s i t e f r e e a n d w i ll r e m a i n t h a tw a y t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r liv es. O f m o r e c o n c e r n a r ew i l d - c a u g h t i n d i v id u a l s t h a t m a y h a v e b e e n i n -f e c t e d b e f o r e c a p t u r e o r a v i a ry b i r d s t h a t a r ek e p t o u t s i d e i n d i r t o r g r a s s e n c l o s u r e s .

estodesC e s t o d e s o c c u r o c c a s i o n a l l y i n p a r r o t s . T h e y

a r e d i a g n o s e d m o s t f re q u e n t l y in w i l d - c a u g h tc o c k a t o o s , A f r i c a n G r e y P a r r o t s, o r b i r d s k e p t i nd i r t e n c l o s u r e s . F e c a l f l o t a t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y n e g a -t iv e f o r e g g s , w h i c h a r e t r a p p e d i n p r o g l o t t i d sa n d n o t c o m m o n l y d is tr ib u t ed t h r o u g h o u t t h ef e c es ( F i g 3 ) . P r o g l o t t i d s a r e s h e d . i n f r e q u e n t l yb u t m a y b e o b s e r v e d b y o w n e rs . S t r a in i n g o ru n t h r if t in e s s m a y a ls o b e n o t e d . T a p e w o r m s c a nb e t r e a t e d e f fe c t iv e l y w i t h p r a z i q u a n t e l ( T a b l e 1 ) .

TrematodesI n f e c t i o n o f b i r d s w it h d i g e n e t ic t r e m a t o d e s

r e q u i re s t h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f a n i n t e r m e d i a t eh o s t a n d t h u s i s r a r e l y s e e n i n c o m p a n i o n b i r d s .C a s e s u s u a l ly i n v o l v e i m p o r t e d , w i l d -c a u g h t , O l dW o r l d P s i tt ac in e s. T r e a t m e n t c a n b e a t t e m p t e dw i t h p r a z i q u a n t e l o r c h l o r s u l o n ( T a b l e 1 ).

NematodesN e m a t o d e s a r e o c c a si o n a ll y s e e n i n c o m p a n -

i o n a n d a v i a r y b i r d s. B e c a u s e m o s t i n f e c t i o n sr e q u i r e a c c e s s t o l a r v a t e d e g g s , i n t e r m e d i a t eh o s ts , o r fe c e s o f o t h e r s p e c i e s, n e m a t o d e p r o b -l e m s o c c u r m o s t f r e q u e n t l y i n b i rd s k e p t i nd i r t - fl o o r e d e n c l o s u r e s . W h e n p r e s e n t , i n f e c -t i o n s u s u a l ly r e s p o n d t o t r e a t m e n t w i t h a n t h e l -m i n t ic s s u c h a s p y r a n t e l p a m o a t e , f e n b e n d a z o l e ,o r i v e r m e c t i n ( T a b l e 1 ).A s c a r i d s

E g g s a r e n o t i n f e c t i v e u n t i l t h e y l a r v a t e 2 t o 3w e e k s a f t e r p a s s a g e i n f e c e s , b u t t h e y c a n p e r s i s ti n m o i s t e n v i r o n m e n t s f o r p r o l o n g e d p e r io d s .

s c a r i d i n f e c t i o n s 2 24'25 a r e m o s t c o m m o n l y s e e ni n p s i t t a c in e s w i t h a c c e s s t o t h e g r o u n d .Clinical syndrome. I n t e s t i n a l a s c a r i d i a s i s c a nc a u s e a n o r e x i a a n d d i a r r h e a w i t h r e s u l ta n t m a l -a b s o r p t i o n , w e i g h t l o s s , a n d s t u n t i n g . H e a v yi n f e c t i o n s c a n r e s u l t i n g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l o b s t r u c -t i o n a n d d e a t h ( F ig 4 ) . C e r e b r o s p i n a l n e m a t o d i a -


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8 Clyde and Patton

s i s i s c a use d by a be r r a n t l a r va l m ig r a t i on o f t her a cc o o n r o u n d w o r m Baylisascarisprocyonis). C e n-t r a l ne r vous sy s t e m m ig r a t i on i n a f f e c t e d b i r d swi l l r e su l t in a tax ia , tor t ico l l i s , and dea th .Diagnosis. I n t e s t i na l a sc a r id i a s i s i s c on f i r m e dby f i nd ing t yp i c a l a sc a r id e ggs on a r ou t i nef lo t a t i on o f f e c e s ( F ig 2 ). N o e ggs a r e pa s se d i nc e r e b r o s p i n a l n e m a t o d i a s i s ; t h e r e f o r e , d i a g n o s i si s ba se d on c l i n ic a l s i gns w i th c on f i r m a t ion byp o s t m o r t e m e x a m i n a t i o n o f n e u r a l t i ss u e.Treatment and control. In tes t ina l a sca r id ias is i st r e a t e d w i th r ou t ine a n t ipa r a s i t i c a ge n t s . I n t e s t i -

Figure 4. Gastrointestinal obstruction secondary tointestinal ascaridiasis was the cause of death in thisparrot .

F igure 3 . App earance ofavian tapeworm eggs af terflotation. (A) Pulluterinaspp; (B) Raillietia spp. Notethe presence of hookle tswithin embry os (200 X).h a l b l o c k a g e a n d d e a t h m a y o c c u r a f t e r t re a t -m e n t o f h e av i ly p a r a s i t iz e d b i r d s . C e r e b r o s p i n a ln e m a t o d i a s i s i s u n t r e a t a b l e . O w n e r s s h o u l d l i m i ta c c es s o f b i r d s t o f e c es , ke e p b i r d s i n r a i s e d - f loo rc a ge s w he ne ve r f e a s ib l e , p r ov ide a d r y e nv i r on -m e n t , a n d p r e v e n t a c ce s s o f r a c c o o n s a n d o t h e rm a m m a l s t o t he a v i a r y .CapiUaria spp

apillaria spp 2 '26 a re t iny, t hrea dl ik e ne ma -tode s . M os t CapiUaria s p p o f c a g e d b i r d s h a v e adi rec t l i f e cyc le , Spec ies wi th an in di re c t l i f e cyc lec o m m o n l y r e q u i re e a r t h w o r m s a s a n i n t e rm e d i -a t e hos t . E ggs l a r va t e i n 2 w e e ks a nd r e m a ini n f ec t i ve i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t f o r p r o l o n g e d p e r i -ods.

Clinical syndrome. A d u l t s b u r r o w i n t o t h e m u -c osa o f t he i n t e s t i na l t r a c t , c a us ing a n o r e x i a ,r e g u r g i t a t io n , d i a r r h e a , a n d w e i g h t lo ss . H e a v yin f e c t i ons c a n r e su l t i n u l c e r a t i on , a ne m ia , a ndd e a t h . I n f e c t i o n s o f t h e e s o p h a g u s c a n c a u s ega p i ng a nd d i f f ic u l t y in sw a l low ing .Diagnosis. B i p o l a r e g g s a r e s e e n o n r o u t i n efeca l f lo ta t ion (F ig 2) .Control. P r e v e n t a c c e ss t o g r o u n d .Spiruroidea

Spiru r ids 2,3,27 a re a d iv e r se gr ou p of ne ma -t o d e s u s ua l ly r e q u i r i n g a n i n v e r t e b r a t e i n t e r m e -d i a t e hos t f o r c om ple t i o n o f t he i r l if e c yc le .


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Common Parasi tes of Companion Birds 8

S e v e r a l s y n d r o m e s r e f l e c t i n g i n f e c t i o n b y s p i r u -r i d s a r e n o t e d i n f r e q u e n t l y i n p s i t t a c in e s ( F ig 2 ).P r o v e n t r i c u l a r a n d v e n t r i c u l a r ( g iz z a rd ) w o r m s ,s u c h a s Spiroptera s p p a n d Dispharynx s p p , i n f e c tt h e u p p e r g a s t r o in t e s ti n a l t r a c t i n d u c i n g e p i t h e -l ia l h y p e r p l a si a . P e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e m u c o s a c a nl e a d t o c o e l o m i t i s . C o n j u n c t i v a l n e m a t o d i a s i sr e s u lt s f r o m i n f e c t i o n s w i th a d u l t s p i r u r i d s i n c l u d -i n g Oxyspirura s p p , Thelazia sp p , Caratospira s p p ,a n d A n n u l o s p i r a s p p . T h e s e p a r a s i t e s c a n b ek i l le d b y t r e a t i n g t h e i n f e c t e d b i r d w i t h i v e r m e c -t in ( T a b l e 1 ) . M a n u a l r e m o v a l o f k i l l e d p a ra s i t e sr e q u i r e s a n e s t h e s i a a n d c o n j u n c t i v a l fl u s h e s .yngamus Trachea

Clinical syndrome. Syngamus trachea1 ( g a p e -w o r m ) i n f e c t i o n s a r e r a r e i n p s i t t a c i n e b i rd s .W h e n p r e s e n t , y o u n g b i r d s a r e m o s t o f t e n af -f e c t e d a n d c a n d i sp l ay v oi c e c h a n g e s , c o u g h i n g ,m a r k e d d y s p n e a , a n d b l o o d y t r ac h e a l s e c r e ti o n s .

Diagnos is . T r a c h e a l t r a n s i l l u m i n a t i o n c a nd e m o n s t r a t e l a r g e , b r i g h t r e d w o r m s t h a t a p p e a rY s h a p e d b e c a u s e o f p e r m a n e n t c o it u s o f t h es m a l l m a l e w i t h t h e l a r g e r f e m a l e . D i r e c t e v a lu a -t i o n o f t r a c h e a l s e c r e t i o n s o r f l o t a ti o n o f f e ce sw il l s h o w c h a r a c t e r is t i c d o u b l e o p e r c u l a t e d e g g s(F ig 2) .Fi lari idea

T h e f i l a r i d n e m a t o d e s 2,21,2s,z9 h a v e a m i g r a t i n gm i c r o f i l a r i a l s t a g e w i th a d u l t s l o c a t e d s u b c u t a n e -o u s l y o r i n t h e b o d y c a vi ty , o c u l a r c h a m b e r s ,h e a r t , o r a i r s a c s . A n t e m o r t e m d i a g n o s i s i s u s u -a ll y l i m i t e d t o s u b c u t a n e o u s f il a ri a si s b y Pelecituss p p i n w h i c h a s p i r a t i o n o r s u r g i ca l e x p l o r a t i o n o fn o d u l e s o n t h e f e e t a n d l eg s o f b i r d s s h ow sm i c r o f i l a r i a e o r a d u l t f i l a r i d s . T r e a t m e n t r e -q u i r e s s u rg i c al r e m o v a l o f a du l ts a n d i v e r m e c t i nt o k i ll m i c r o f i l a r i a l s t a g e s ( T a b l e 1 ) .

rthropodsTra chea l M i te s

Sternostoma tracheacolum1,2 i n f e c t s t h e t r a c h e ao f c a n a r ie s , f i n c h e s , p a r a k e e t s , a n d c o c k a t ie l s .L a d y G o u l d i a n F i n c h e s a r e c o m m o n l y i n f ec t e d .Clinical syndrome. D y s p n e a , c o u g h i n g , a n ds n e e z i n g m a y o c c u r . S i g n s a r e m o s t s e v e r e i nn e o n a t e s a n d j u v e n il e s .Diagnosis. T i n y b l a c k m i t e s c a n b e v i s u a l iz e d

b y t ra n s i l l u m i n a t i o n o f th e t r a c h e a. E g g s c a ns o m e t i m e s b e i d e n t i f ie d i n f e ce s o r s p u t u m .

Treatment and control. I v e r m e c t i n i s a n e f f e c -t iv e t r e a t m e n t ( s ee I v e r m e c t i n T h e r a p y ) . E g g sf r o m i n f e c t e d L a d y G o u l d i a n F i n c h e s c a n b er a i s e d b y m i t e - f r e e S o c i e t y F i n c h e s .K n e m i d o k o p t ic M i t es

Clinical syndrome. T h e s c a ly l e g a n d f a c em i t e Knemidokoptes sp p ) 1 - 3 s e e n i n b u d g e r i g a r s ,c a n a r i e s , a n d o t h e r s m a l l b i r d s i n d u c e s p r o l i f e r a -t iv e, h o n e y - c o m b e d m a s s es o f th e n o n f e a t h e r e ds k in , e s p e c i al l y a r o u n d t h e b e a k a n d o n t h e l e g s.

Diagnosis. T h e c l i n i c a l a p p e a r a r ~ c e i n c o m -m o n l y a f f e c te d sp e c ie s is p a t h o g n o m o n i c ( Fi g5 ) . K n e m i d o k o p t i c m i t e s i n o t h e r s p e c i e s o fb i r d s m a y i n c i t e o n l y p r u ri t is a n d f e a t h e r l o ssa r o u n d t h e h e a d a n d n e c k w i t h o u t th e c h a r a c te r -i s t i c p r o l i f e r a t i v e l e s i o n s . I n t h e se c a se s , d i a g n o -s is c a n a l so b e m a d e b y v i s u a li z in g m i t e s i n s k i ns c r a p i n g s , b y b i o p sy , o r b y c li n i ca l r e s p o n s e t ot r e a t m e n t .

Treatment and control . T r e a t a ll e x p o s e d b i r d sw i th i v e r m e c t i n ( s ee I v e r m e c t i n T h e r a p y ) .

O ther External ParasitesO t h e r t h a n k n e m i d o k o p t i c m i t e s , e x t e r n a l

p a r a s i t e s a r e r a r e i n c a p t i v e - b o r n p e t b i r d s . 2 T h em i t e p r o t e c t o r s a n d s p ra y s s o l d i n p e t s t o r es a r eu n n e c e s s a r y a n d m a y i n d u c e h e p a t ic d a m a g e .C l i e n t s s h o u l d b e c o u n s e l e d t o r e m o v e t h e s ep r o d u c t s f r o m t h e i r b i r d ' s e n v i r o n m e n t . I n t h eu n u s u a l i n s t a n c e o f i n f e s ta t io n w i t h o t h e r m i t es ,i v e r m e c t i n t r e a t m e n t s h o u l d b e a d m i n i s t e r e d a so u t l i n e d n e x t . L e s s c o m m o n m i t e s , s u c h a s r e dm i t e s Dermanyssus s p p ) , s p e n d t i m e i n t h e en v i -r o n m e n t a n d m a y b e b e t t e r t re a t e d b y l ig h td u s t in g s o f t h e b i r d w i th p y r e t h r i n p o w d e r c o m -b i n e d w i t h p r e m i s e t r e a t m e n t s . B i r d s a r e v e r ys e n s i t i v e t o o r g a n o p h o s p h a t e s a n d a e r o s o l i s e dt o xi n s a n d m u s t b e r e m o v e d b e f o r e p r e m i s et r e a t m e n t .

Iverm ectin TherapyI v e r m e c t in a t 0. 2 m g / k g c a n b e a d m i n i s t e re d

o r a ll y , t o p ic a l ly , o r p a r e n t e r a l l y 3 ~ T r e a t m e n t o fs m a l l b i r d s o f t e n r e q u i r e s d i l u t i o n . P r o p y l e n eg l yc o l is t h e r e c o m m e n d e d d i l u e n t b e c a u s e i ve r-m e c t i n is n o t s o l u b l e i n w a t e r o r s a l in e . H o w e v e r ,


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8 lyde and Patton

Figure 5 . Knemidokopt icm i t e s i nduc e pa thogno -monic proliferative masseson the non fea the red sk in ofthe face and legs of budgeri-gars and other small birds.

m a ny c l i n ic i a ns d i l u t e i ve r m e c t in i n s a l i ne f o ri m m e d i a t e u s e a f t e r m i x i n g a n d h a v e n o t r e -p o r t e d a d v e r s e e ff e ct s . I f p r o p y l e n e g l y c o l i s u s e da s t he d i l ue n t , i t c a n be s t e r il i z e d by pa s s ing i tt h r o u g h a m i c r o p o r e f i l t e r . D i l u t e d p r o d u c ts h o u l d b e u s e d i m m e d i a t e l y b e c a u s e s t ab i li t y o ft h e d i l u t e d f o r m h a s n o t b e e n p r o v e n .

T o x i ci t y h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d i n s m a l l b i rd st r e a t e d w i th i ve r m e c t in i n t r a m usc u la r ly , a nd t h i sr o u t e i s n o t r e c o m m e n d e d f o r b i rd s w e i gh i n gl e s s t ha n 500 g . T op ic a l t r e a tm e n t i n sm a l l b i r d s

< 1 0 0 g ) is a c c o m p l i s h e d b y p l a c i n g o n e d r o p o fd i l u t e d i v e r m e c t i n 1 m g / m L ) o n th e f e a t h e r le s st r a c t o f ce r v i c a l sk in , a nd i t a pp e a r s t o bec l in ica l ly e f fec t ive .

H i g h e r d o s e s u p t o 0 .4 m g / k g m a y b e r e -qu i r e d i f a l ow e r dose i s no t e f f ic a c ious . W he nt r e a t i n g la r g e n u m b e r s o f b i r d s o r a n i n b r e ds t r ain , i t i s a dv i sa b l e t o t e s t a t r e a t m e n t r e g im e no n a s m a l l n u m b e r o f i n d iv i d u al s t o c h e c k f o rsigns o f toxicity.

ummaryP r o t o z o a l p ar a s i te s ar e m o r e c o m m o n i n c o m -

p a n i o n a n d a v i ar y b i r d s t h a n h e l m i n t h s . G i a r d i a-s i s i n pe t b i r d s m a y be a s soc i a t e d w i th f e a the r -p i c k ing a nd s e l f - m u t i l at i on , a s w e l l as c a us ing

d ia r r he a , w e igh t l o s s , a nd s tun t ing . S c r e e n ingf o r G psittaci i s r e c o m m e n d e d i n a l l f e a t h e r -p i c k i n g b ir d s , a n d e m p i r i c a l t r e a t m e n t w i t h m e t -r o n i d a z o l e o r f e n b e n d a z o l e is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d .R e s i st a n c e t o m e t r o n i d a z o l e a n d t h e c o m m e r c i a li na va il a b i l it y o f o th e r n i t r o im id i z o l e s ha v e m a d ee f fe c ti v e t r e a t m e n t m o r e c h a l l e n g i n g f o r t h ec l in ic ian .

I n m os t in s t a nc e s , p r o toz o a l i n f e c t i ons on lyb e c o m e r e c o g n i z e d a s a cl i ni c al p r o b l e m w h e ni n c r e a s e d m o r t a l i t i e s i n a n a v i a ry p r o m p t ac l in i ca l w o r k u p . C o n t r o l a n d p r e v e n t i o n t h r o u g f ii m p r o v e d h y g i e n e a n d h u s b a n d r y p r a c t i c e s a r eo f t e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t i n d i s e a s e m o d u l a t i o nt h a n a c t u a l t r e a t m e n t . T r e a t i n g l a r g e n u m b e r s o fb i rds in av ia r ie s i s of ten d i f f icu l t . Drugs a ref r e q u e n t l y a d m i n i s t e r e d t h r o u g h t h e f o o d o rw a te r , bu t t he se r ou t e s a r e l e s s e f f e c t i ve t ha nd i r e c t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f m e d i c a t i o n .

H e l m i n t h p a r a s i t e s a r e n o t c o m m o n i n c o m -p a n i o n b i r d s , a l t h o u g h t h e y m a y b e s e e n i nw i l d - c a u g h t s p e c i m e n s o r i n a n i m a l s k e p t i nou td oo r c a ge s w i th d i r t subs t r a t e . A ll ne w b i r d ss h o u l d b e s c r e e n e d w i t h f e ca l e x a m i n a t i o n s , b u ta n n u a l r e e x a m i n a t i o n o f h e a l t h y b ir d s m a y n o tb e n e c e s s a r y f o r i n d o o r p e t s o r a n i m a l s k e p t i nr a i s e d - f loo r c a ge s . C e s tode i n f e c t i ons a r e ove r -l o o k e d f r e q u e n t l y i n w i l d - ca u g h t p a r r o ts . P r o p h y -


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C o m m o n P a r a s it e s o f C o m p a n i o n B i r d s 8lact ic t rea tmen t wi th broad spec t rum anth elmi n-t ics such as ivermect in and praziquantel shouldbe considered in par rots wi th an unknown envi-ron men tal h istory.

Compa nion b i rds a r e f r equen t ly p r esen ted tothe veter inar ia n for t rea tment of external para-sites when feather loss becomes apparent. Exter-nal parasites are rarely the cause of feathe r lossin compan ion b i rds , excep t fo r knemodikop t i cmites. Clinical worku p of feat her loss in birdsshould i ncorpora te scr eening tests for both in ter -nal and external parasi tes . Response to prophy-lactic tre atm ent ca n also be a diagnos tic tool.

l ve rmec t in t r ea t men t shou ld e l imina te exte r-nal parasites that com plet e the ir l ife cycle on thepet. The standar d dose of 0 .2 mg/kg appearssafe, althou gh birds are freq uent ly dose d at 0.4mg/kg. Simul taneous t reatment of a l l suscep-tible animals is imperative.

Eetoparasites tha t com plet e the ir l ife cycle offthe hos t can be harbored in the env i ronment .These parasi tes must be t reated by combinat iontherapy o f the an imal and the env i ronment .Pyrethr in or carbaryl products approved forkit tens can ofte n be used safely in birds, but theavian thre shol d for toxicity is lower and caut ionmust be exercised. Organophosphates wi th in-sect growth inhibi tors can be us ed as premisesprays, as long as all pets, cages, and food areremoved as di rected. Vent i la te the environmentwell before re tur nin g the bi rds and do not a l lowdirect access to tre ated surfaces for 48 hours.

As a f inal note, no antiparasit ics are approvedfor use in companion avian species. As is fre-quent ly the case in avian and exotic anim almedicine, ef fective therapy requires judic iousextralabel usage of drugs. A good client-patient-veter inar ia n relat ionship and ef fective com mun i-cat ion must be establ ished before the administ ra-t ion of these drugs.

A c k n o w l e d gm e n tThe authors thank Chuck Faulkner , Kreis

Weigel, and Phil Snow for their assistance inpho tograph ic p r epara t ion .

Re f e r en c e s1. Barnes HJ: Parasites, in Harrison GJ, Harrison LR (eds) :Clinical Avian Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia, PA,Saunders, 1986, pp 472-485

2. Greiner EC, Ritchie BW: Parasites, in Ritchie BW, Harri-son GJ, Harrison LR (eds): Avian Medicine: Principalsand Application. Lake Worth, FL, Wingers Publishing,1994, pp 110 1029

3. Keymer IF: Parasitic Diseases, in Petrak ML (ed): Dis-eases of Cage and Aviary Birds (ed 2). Philadelphia, PA,Lea and Febiger, 1982, pp 535-5984. Marshall R: Avian anthelmintics and antiprotozoals.Semin Avian Exot Pet Med 2:33-41, 19935. Erlandsen LS, Bemrick WJ: SEM evidence for a newspecies, Giard ia psittaci.J Parasito173:623-629, 19876. Fudge AM, McEntee L: Avian giardiasis: Syndromes,diagnosis, and therapy. Proc Assoc Avian Vet: 155-164,19867. Scholtens RG, New JC, Johnson S: The nature andtreatment of giardiasis in parakeets. J Amer Vet Med

Assoc 180:170-173, 19828. Zimmer JE Miller JJ, Lindmark DG: Evaluation of theefficacy of selected commercial disinfectants in inactivat-ing Giardia muris cysts. J Am Anita Hosp Assoc 24:379-385, 19889. Barr SC, Bowman DD, Heller RL: Efficacy of fenbenda-zole against giardiasis in dogs. Am J Vet Res 55:988-990,199410. Garner MM, Sturtevant FC: Trichomoniasis in a blue-fronted amazon parrot Amazona aest iva) .J Assoc AvianVet 6:17-20, 199211. Murphy J: Psittacine trichomoniasis. Proc Assoc AvianVet: 21-24, 199212. Ramsay EC, Drew ML, Johnson B: Trichomoniasis in a

flock of budgerigars. Proc Assoc AvianVet: 309-311, 199013. Ley DH: Avian cryptosporidiosis. Proceedings of the FirstInternationalConference on Zoological and Avian Medi-cine, 1987, pp 299-30314. Barr SC, Jamrosz GF, Hornbuckle WE, et al: Use ofparomomycin for treatment of cryptosporidiosis in a cat.J Am Vet Med Assoc 205:1742-1743, 199415. Flammer K: Clinical aspects of atoxoplasmosis in canar-ies. Proceedings of the First InternationalConference onZoological and Avian Medicine: 1987, pp 33-3516. Dhillon AS, Thacker HL, Winterfield, RW: Toxoplasmo-sis in mynahs. Avian Dis 26:445-449, 198217. Howerth EW, Rich G, DubeyJE et al: Fatal toxoplasmosisin a red lory Eos bornea) .Avian Dis 35:642-646, 199118. Parenti E, Cerruti-Sola S, Turilli C, et ah Spontaneoustoxoplasmosis in canaries Serinus canaria) and othersmall passerine cage birds. AvianPatho115:183-197, 198619. Vickers MC, Hartley WJ,. Mason RW, et al: Blindnessassociated with toxoplasmosis in canaries. J Amer VetMed Assoc 200:1723-1725, 199220. Clubb SL, FrenkelJH, Gardiner CH, et a l An acute fatalillness in old world psittacine birds associated withSarcocystis falcatu la of opossums. Proc Assoc Avian Vet:139-149, 198621. Hillyer EV, Anderson ME Greiner EC, et al: An outbreakof Sarcocystis in a collection of psittacines. J Zoo WildlMed 22:434-445, 199122. Page CD, Schmidt RE, English JH, et al: Antemorten

diagnosis and treatment of sarcocystosis in two species ofpsittacines.J Zoo Wildl Med 23:77-85, 199223. VanDerHeyden N: Identification, pathogenicity and treat-


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8 C l y d e a n d P a t t o n

m e n t o f a v i a n h e m a t o z o a . P r o c A s s o c A v i an V e t: 1 6 3 - 1 74 ,1985

2 4 . A r m s t r o n g D L , M o n t a l i R J , K a z a c o s K R , e t al : C e r e b r o s p i -n a l n e m a t o d i a s i s i n b l u e a n d g o l d m a c a w s a n d s c a r l e tm a c a w s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Baylisascaris procyonis. P r o c e e d -i n g s o f t h e F ir s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n Z o o l o g i c a la n d A v i a n M e d i c i n e 1 9 8 7, p p 4 8 9 -4 9 0

2 5 . M y e r s R K , M o n r o e W E , G r e v e J H : C e r e b r o s p i n a l n e m a t o -d i a s i s i n a c o c k a t i e l . J A m V e t M e d A s s o c 1 8 3 : 1 0 8 9 - 1 0 9 0,1 9 8 3

2 6 . H e l m b o l d t C F , E c k e r l i n R P , P e n n e r L R , e t a h T h ep a t h o l o g y o f c a p i l l a r i as i s i n t h e b l u e j ay . J W i l d l D i s7:157-161, 1971

2 7 . B r o o k s D E , G r e i n e r E C , W a l s h M T : C o n j u n c ti v i t is c a u s e d

b y Thelazia s p i n a S e n e g a l p a r r o t . J A m V e t M e d A s s o c183 :1305-1306 , 1983

2 8 . A l l e n J L , K o l l i a s G V , G r e i n e r E C , e t a l : S u b c u t a n e o u sf i l a r ia s i s Peleci tus s p ) i n a y e l l o w - c o l l a r e d m a c a w A r aauricoUis). Avia n Dis 29 :891-894 , 1985

2 9 . G r e e n a c r e C B , M a n n K A , L a t i m e r K S , e t a l: A d u l tf i l a r i o i d n e m a t o d e s Ch a n d le reUa s p ) f r o m t h e r i g h ta t r i u m a n d m a j o r v e in s o f a D u c o r p s c o c k a t o o . J A s s o cAvia n Ve t 7 :135-137 , 1993

3 0. S i k a r sk i e J G : T h e u s e o f i v e r m e c t i n i n b i r d s, r e p ti l e s , a n ds m a l l m a m m a l s , i n K i r k R W ( e d ) : C u r r e n t V e t e r i n a r yT h e r a p y I X - - - S m a l l A n i m a l P r a c ti c e . P h i l a d e l p h i a , P A ,S a u n d e r s , 1 9 8 6 , p p 7 4 3 - 7 4 5

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