Quadrant-I E-Text Details of Module and its structure

Module Detail

Subject Name Education

Course Name Understanding the Learner

Course Code EDU502

Module Name/Title Facilitating Holistic Development of Learner: Self-regulated learning, meaning and importance of self-regulated learning., distinguish self-directed and self-regulated learning. Self-Efficacy, meaning, sources and theory of self-efficacy. Ways to improve self-efficacy.

Module Code UTL019

Pre-requisites ……………………..

Learning Outcome After going through this lesson, the learners will be able

To understand issues regarding the holistic development of the learner.

To know about the importance of self-regulated learner.

To study regarding the self-directed learner.

To understand the difference between self-

regulated and self-directed learning.

To know about the concept and meaning of

self- efficacy.

To understand Bandura’s theory of Self-

Efficacy

To understand how to improve the self-efficacy

among the students.

Keywords Self regulation, Self-directed learning, Self Efficacy .

Development Team

Role Name Affiliation

Principal Investigator

(PI) Dr S K Bawa

Central University of

Punjab, Bathinda

Subject Matter Expert (SME)

Dr. Agyajit Singh

Former Head (Retired)

Deptt. of Psychology, Punjabi University Patiala.

Table of Contents Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 2

Self-Regulated Learning ......................................................................................................... 2

Development of Self-Regulation skills among children ............................................... 6

Sources of Self-Efficacy........................................................................................................ 11

Role of teachers ...................................................................................................................... 19

Suggestions to improve self-efficacy for students ....................................................... 20

Introduction

For facilitating holistic and global development of the learner, it is necessary to

study the self-regulated and self directed learning. Self-regulated learning is the

behavior modification in self-regulation of the learner. Broadly speaking, it refers

to learning that is guided by metacognition (thinking about one's

thinking), strategic action (planning, monitoring, and evaluating personal

progress against a standard), and motivation to learn. "Self-regulated" describes

a process of taking control of and evaluating one's own learning and behavior. on

the other hand, in self-directed learning, the individual takes the initiative and

the responsibility for what occurs. Individuals select, manage, and assess their

own learning activities, which can be pursued at any time, in any place, through

any means. So we will have to study self-regulated learning and what self-

directed learning is. It is also necessary to know their relationship with the

concept of self-efficacy and theories of self-efficacy as given by a well known

psychologist Albert Bandura.

Self-Regulated Learning

Self-regulated learning emphasizes autonomy and control by the individual who

monitors, directs, and regulates actions toward goals of information acquisition,

expanding expertise, and self-improvement. In particular, self-regulated learners

are cognizant of their academic strengths and weaknesses, and they have a

repertoire of strategies they appropriately apply to tackle the day-to-day

challenges of academic tasks. These learners hold incremental beliefs about

intelligence and attribute their successes or failures to factors like effort

expended on a task, effective use of strategies within their control.

Moreover, students who are self-regulated learners believe that opportunities to

take on challenging tasks, practice their learning, develop a deep understanding

of subject matter, and exert effort will give rise to academic success. In part,

these characteristics may help to explain why self-regulated learners usually

exhibit a high sense of efficacy. The self-regulated students will take initiative in

every activity being undertaken by the teacher in the classroom. They will always

be active in the project method especially in the science subject and will lead

other students in all the assignments given by the science teacher. In the

remedial teaching also, they will be helpful to the teacher and will monitor the

class

Self-regulated learners/students are successful because they control their

learning environment. They exert this control by directing and regulating their

own actions toward their learning goals. Self regulated learning should be used

in three different phases of learning. The first phase is during the initial

learning, the second phase is when trouble-shooting a problem encountered

during learning and the third phase is when they are trying to teach others.

Meaning of Self-Regulation Self-regulation is the ability to monitor and control

our own behavior, emotions, or thoughts, altering them in accordance with the

demands of the situation. It includes the abilities to inhibit first responses, to

resist interference from irrelevant stimulation, and to persist on relevant tasks

even when we don't enjoy them. It is the fact of something such as an

organization regulating itself without intervention from external bodies. The

ability to self-regulate has been viewed as a desirable quality throughout history

because of its positive affects on behavior

Self-Regulation refers to our ability to direct our behavior and control our

impulses so that we meet certain standards, achieve certain goals, or reach

certain ideals. Self regulation involves being able to set goals, monitoring

one's behavior to ensure that it is in line with those goals, and having the

willpower to persist until goals are reached.

Research consistently shows that self-regulation skill is necessary for reliable

emotional well being. Behaviorally, self-regulation is the ability to act in your

long-term best interest, consistent with your deepest values. Self-regulation is

when a person or group governs or polices itself without outside assistance or

influence. An example of self-regulation is when you limit, of your own accord,

how much you will eat. Emotional and behavioral self-regulation contributes to

young children's growing independence. It is this growing ability to control their

own feelings.

Self-regulation can be defined as the processes by which people manage their

own behaviors that are directed toward specific goals. These processes include

goal-setting, planning, observing, and evaluating behaviors.

Self-regulation refers to the self exerting control over itself. In particular, self-

regulation consists of deliberate efforts by the self to alter its own states and

responses, including behavior, thoughts, impulses or appetites, emotions, and

task performance. The concept of self-regulation is close to the colloquial terms

self-control and self-discipline, and many social psychologists use the terms

inter-changeably.

The term self-regulation can signify emotional self-regulation. ·The ability to self-

regulate is the second of six core strengths that are an essential part of healthy

emotional development. It is clearly important to develop self-understanding and

healthy self-esteem. But one of the most important skills that we develop in

childhood is the ability to control aspects of the self. Without this ability we

would have great difficulty accomplishing anything, regardless of how good we

might feel about ourselves. Mature self-regulation requires several sophisticated

cognitive skills. These include awareness of the demands of any given situation;

consistent monitoring of our own behavior, thoughts, and strategies;

consideration of how successfully we are meeting the demands of the situation;

and the ability to change aspects of our current functioning as needed to fit the

situation or to accomplish a goal. Aspects of self-regulation correlate with

various positive outcomes for children and adolescents—including better

academic performance, problem-solving skills, and reading comprehension; more

satisfying interactions with peers; higher levels of intrinsic motivation, self-

worth, perceived competence, self-efficacy, moral cognition, and moral conduct;

fewer behavior problems; and lower levels of psychopathology.

Self-regulation has come to be more emphasized in social learning theory. Self-

regulation is when the individual has his own ideas about what is appropriate or

inappropriate behavior and chooses actions accordingly. There are several

aspects of self-regulation:

i. Setting standards and goals

ii. Self-observation

iii. Self-judge

iv. Self-reaction

Promoting self-regulation can be an important technique. This is usually done by

teaching the individual to reward himself after doing the needed behavior. For

example, a graduate student will tell himself to complete a certain chapter before

taking a break and relaxing.

Self-Directed Learning

Self-directed learning is a process in which individuals take the initiative without

the help of others in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating goals,

identifying human and material resources, and evaluating learning outcomes.

Learning independently can be challenging, even for the brightest and most

motivated students. This learning outlines four key stages to independent

learning, known as self-directed learning: being ready to learn, setting learning

goals, engaging in the learning process, and evaluating learning.

Step 1: Assess readiness to learn: - Students need various skills and attitudes

towards learning for successful independent study. This step involves students

conducting a self-evaluation of their current situation, study habits, family

situation, and support network both at school and at home and also involves

evaluating past experiences with independent learning.

Step 2: Set learning goals: -Communication of learning goals between a

student and the teacher is critical. There is a set of questions for students to

consider as they map out their learning goals: and which are critical in

developing a clear understanding of learning goals between students and

teachers.

Step 3: Engage in the learning process: -Students need to understand

themselves as learners in order to understand their needs as self-directed

learning student. Earlier academic work may have encouraged a surface or

strategic approach to studying.

Step 4: Evaluate learning: - For students to be successful in self-directed

learning, they must be able to engage in self-reflection and self-evaluation of

their learning goals and progress in a unit of study.

Self-directed learning is an instructional strategy where the students, with

guidance from the teacher, decide what and how they will learn. It can be done

individually or with group learning, but the overall concept is that students take

ownership of their learning. By allowing students to choose

different learning objectives and outcomes, it allows students to choose based on

their personal interests and strengths.

Self-directed learners are aware of their own learning desires and interests,

confident of their learning abilities based on previous learning experiences,

capable of setting their own goals in learning, are able to choose strategies for

learning are capable of being self-motivated and self-disciplined, understand the

material themselves.

Development of Self-Regulation skills among children

It is clearly important to develop self-understanding and healthy self-esteem. But

one of the most important skills that we develop in childhood is the ability to

control aspects of the self. Without this ability we would have great difficulty

accomplishing anything, regardless of how good we might feel about ourselves.

As part of life, children are exposed to new events and experiences such as their

first day at childcare, moving house or the birth of a sibling. Babies and young

children may be frightened and upset by these new experiences and express

their distress in a number of ways such as crying, withdrawing, bedwetting or

clingy behavior.

When parents respond in a caring way, for example, with a calm tone of voice,

holding, rocking and gentle touch, children learn they can feel comfortable and

safe again. They learn others will be available to help them notice and

understand their feelings and behaviors and provide comfort when needed.

Parents act like an ‘emotion coach’ and with their help; children can learn to

regulate their feelings and behaviors. Being able to manage feelings and

behaviors is called self-regulation.

Emotional and behavioral self-regulation contributes to young children’s growing

independence. It is this growing ability to control their own feelings and behavior

that eventually allows a child to become more skilled in their relationships with

children and adults, for example, when playing together or making decisions

together. In the preschool years, children’s self-regulation skills are still

developing and can often go up and down. Being able to consistently regulate

their own feelings and behavior is a major task for a young child.

Sensitive and comforting care from warm, supportive and trusted adults helps

children develop self-regulation. Just like newborn babies need help regulating

basic needs like body temperature, heart rate and sleeping, they also need help

regulating their emotions. Babies have simple ways to manage their emotional

experiences, for example, looking away when they need a break or sucking their

thumb after hearing a loud sound. By the end of the second year most toddlers

have learnt some self-regulation skills, such as being able to wait a short time

for something they want and paying attention when someone is talking to them.

All children learn to regulate their emotions through watching the adults in their

life (like parents) manage their own feelings and behavior. Parents are therefore

important models for their children in their day to day life. When children see

parents and effectively regulate their own emotions and actions, it helps them to

learn how to manage their own feelings and behaviors.

Children learn over time how to self-regulate without the presence of a parent.

For example, a three-year-old may be able to share a toy for a short time when a

parent is present but find it more difficult when the parent is away from them.

However, by the time children are about four, they are abler to understand and

manage their emotions, slow down their behavior and focus attention on tasks.

Also at this age child can manage two or three feelings, thoughts or tasks at the

same time. All of these new skills help children to self-regulate more effectively

when their parent is not with them.

"Children learn to regulate thoughts, feelings, behaviours and emotion by

watching and responding to adults’ self-regulation.” By school age, children

become more flexible and are better at regulating their own emotions and

actions. When children learn to self-regulate they have stronger friendships and

relationships with others, are abler to pay attention and learn new things and

deal better with the normal stresses and disappointments of daily life. Parents

contribute in many ways to children’s ability to regulate emotions.

At 12 to 18 months, children show awareness of social demands in their

environment. They can voluntarily initiate, maintain, and stop behaviors,

particularly when they are interacting with someone they know well. By age 2

years, children are able to show aspects of self-control. From 3 to 11 years,

children grow steadily in their ability to inhibit first responses, with particularly

rapid improvements from age 3 to 5.

Older children and adolescents are increasingly able to self-regulate not only

their behavior but also their emotions and problem-solving strategies. For

example, across the elementary and middle school years’ children become much

more accurate in monitoring how well they understand what they read, and they

gradually learn to modify their study strategies to improve their comprehension.

Older children and adolescents are also much more likely to use strategies to

manage negative emotions appropriately. If they are angry, they may take a walk

or throw a tennis ball against a wall; if they're sad, they may engage in a

distracting activity.

Self-regulation is not simply an internal characteristic. Researchers often use

compliance as a measure of early self-regulation because it requires children to

change their behavior in response to a caregiver's request. One reason may be

that parents tend to focus on what young children should not do rather than

encouraging them to continue an activity It could also be that continuing an

undesired activity requires ongoing effort and persistence, whereas a child can

inhibit a response more easily-for example, by focusing on a different activity.

The lesson here is that self-regulation comes both from internal sources, such as

children's developing ability to modify behavior and their opinion of a request,

and from external factors, such as the type of self-regulation being requested.

The fact that children can self-regulate does not necessarily mean that they will,

even on easier tasks. It is helpful to encourage children to see the

reasonableness of requests—to understand that the change in behavior makes

sense. It's also important to know what level of self-regulation we can reasonably

expect at different ages.

Self-regulation of feelings can be the most challenging part of emotional

development. A child must be able to self-regulate many different feelings in

‘real-life’ situations. Children will experience difficulties in regulating their

feelings and behaviors as they are still developing these skills. An older child

may find it difficult to wait their turn or calm down after becoming upset. One

way of understanding self-regulation difficulties in babies, toddlers and

preschool children is to look at their behavior.

Self-Efficacy: Concept and Meaning

Self efficacy is the perceived ability to carry out a desired action (Bandura 1982).

The higher a person's feelings of self-efficacy, the better that person tend to be at

a wide range of tasks. And such success, of course can ultimately lead to more

generalized positive feelings about oneself. Self-efficacy is the individuals'

expectations concerning their ability to perform various tasks. The important

role of self efficacy is the individual’s beliefs about their ability to perform at

given levels. If people conclude that no matter what they do, they lack the

capacity to reach a certain goal, then effort and performance will decrease. In

contrast, if they conclude that they can reach the goal, motivation and

performance will be strongly enhanced.

The most important aspect of Bandura’s theory that has received most attention

in recent years is his concept of self-efficacy. This theory emphasizes that an

individual’s belief that he or she can perform some behaviour or task

successfully. If a person can expect to do well in some task, his self-efficacy is

high, but if he has some doubts about his performance, then his self-efficacy is

lower. Self-efficacy has been found to play a role in success on many tasks and

in personal happiness and life satisfaction.

Bandura (1977) coined the word” self-efficacy” to represent the individual’s belief

as to how successfully he or she can perform a course of behaviour needed to

produce certain results. Although self-efficacy as described by Bandura was

related to performance of specific tasks and is not an aspect of personality,

recent findings indicate that people form general expectations about their

abilities to succeed at many tasks or to exert control over the events in their

lives. Such generalized beliefs about their task-related capabilities are stable

over time, and these can be viewed as an important aspect of personality.

Self-efficacy is a term used corresponding to a person's belief in their own

competence. It has been defined as the belief that one is capable of performing in

a certain manner to attain certain goals. It is believed that our personalized

ideas of self-efficacy affect our social interactions in almost every way.

Understanding how to foster the development of self-efficacy is a vitally

important goal for positive psychology because it can lead to living a more

productive and happy life.

Bandura also named the level at which an individual becomes aware of their

acquired self-efficacy as “perceived self-efficacy.” In short, perceived self-efficacy

means the sense of possible accomplishment perceived by an individual before

he or she initiates certain behaviour. It is a sense of expectation felt by an

individual about attaining certain results. It is also a kind of confidence, which

develops when an individual becomes aware of such an expectation. It is said

that high self-efficacy promotes appropriate behaviour for maintaining and

improving an individual’s health. There are also reports that in the stress

management process, high self-efficacy promotes active coping behaviour and

eases the responses to stress.

Perceived self-efficacy can influence thought patterns, persistence and

performance. Performance potential is more nearly realized when there is a

personal belief of capability. If an individual believes in himself, then effort will

be increased and achievement will follow. Most people willingly undertake those

activities in which they judge themselves capable of managing. The degree of

self-efficacy influences the desire to initiate an activity and how often.

According to Albert Bandura (1995), self-efficacy is “the belief in one’s

capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage

prospective situations”. In other words, self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or

her ability to succeed in a particular situation. Bandura described these beliefs

as determinants of how people think, behave, and feel. He has defined self-

efficacy as our belief in our ability to succeed in specific situations. Your sense of

self-efficacy can play a major role in how you approach goals, tasks, and

challenges. According to Bandura's theory, people with high self-efficacy, i.e.;

those who believe they can perform well- are more likely to view difficult tasks as

something to be mastered rather than something to be avoided.

Sources of Self-Efficacy

How does self-efficacy develop? These beliefs begin to form in early childhood as

children deal with a wide variety of experiences, tasks, and situations. However,

the growth of self-efficacy does not end during youth, but continues to evolve

throughout life as people acquire new skills, experiences, and understanding

(Bandura, 1992). According to Bandura, there are four major sources of self-

efficacy. Hence, people’s beliefs about their efficacy can be developed by four

main sources of influence.

1. Mastery Experiences: - The most effective way of developing a strong sense of

efficacy is through mastery experiences," Bandura explained (1994),” Performing

a task successfully strengthens our sense of self-efficacy. However, failing to

adequately deal with a task or challenge can undermine and weaken self-

efficacy.” Successes build a strong belief in one's personal efficacy. Failures

undermine it, especially if failures occur before a sense of efficacy is firmly

established. If people experience only easy successes, they come to expect quick

results and are easily discouraged by failure. A resilient sense of efficacy requires

experience in overcoming obstacles through perseverant effort. Some setbacks

and difficulties in human pursuits serve a useful purpose in teaching that

success usually requires sustained effort.

2. Social Modeling: - Witnessing other people successfully completing a task is

another important source of self-efficacy. According to Bandura, “Seeing people

similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers' beliefs that they

too possess the capabilities master comparable activities to succeed” (1994). The

impact of modeling on perceived self-efficacy is strongly influenced by perceived

similarity to the models. The greater the assumed similarity the more persuasive

is the models' successes and failures. If people, see the models as very different

from themselves their perceived self-efficacy is not much influenced by the

models' behavior and the results its produces.

The second way of creating and strengthening self-beliefs of efficacy is through

the vicarious experiences provided by social models. Seeing people similar to

oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers' beliefs that they too possess

the capabilities to master comparable activities required to succeed. By the same

way, observing others' fail despite high effort lowers observers' judgments of their

own efficacy and undermines their efforts.

3. Social Persuasion: - Social persuasion is another way of strengthening

people's beliefs that they have what it takes to succeed. People who are

persuaded verbally that they possess the capabilities to master given activities

are likely to mobilize greater effort and sustain it than if they harbor self-doubts

and dwell on personal deficiencies when problems arise. To the extent that

persuasive boosts in perceived self-efficacy lead people to try hard enough to

succeed, they promote development of skills and a sense of personal efficacy.

Bandura also asserted that people could be persuaded to belief that they have

the skills and capabilities to succeed. Consider a time when someone said

something positive and encouraging that helped you achieve a goal. Getting

verbal encouragement from others helps people overcome self-doubt and instead

focus on giving their best effort to the task at hand.

4. Psychological Responses: - Our own responses and emotional reactions to

situations also play an important role in self-efficacy. Moods, emotional states,

physical reactions, and stress levels can all impact how a person feels about

their personal abilities in a particular situation. A person who becomes

extremely nervous before speaking in public may develop a weak sense of self-

efficacy in these situations. However, Bandura also notes "it is not the sheer

intensity of emotional and physical reactions that is important but rather how

they are perceived and interpreted" (1994). By learning how to minimize stress

and elevate mood when facing difficult or challenging tasks, people can improve

their sense of self-efficacy.

It is not the sheer intensity of emotional and physical reactions that is important

but rather how they are perceived and interpreted. People who have a high sense

of efficacy are likely to view their state of affective arousal as an energizing

facilitator of performance, whereas those who are beset by self- doubts regard

their arousal as a debilitator. Physiological indicators of efficacy play an

especially influential role in health functioning and in athletic and other physical

activities.

Bandura’s Theory of Self-Efficiency

The concept of self-efficacy lies at the centre of psychologist Albert Bandura’s

social cognitive theory. Bandura’s theory emphasizes the role of observational

learning, social experience, and reciprocal determinism in the development of

personality. According to Bandura, a person’s attitudes, abilities, and cognitive

skills comprise what is known as the self-system. This system plays a major role

in how we perceive situations and how we behave in response to different

situations. Self-efficacy plays an essential part in this self-system.

Self-efficacy theory is a social cognitive approach to behavioural causation in

which behavioural, physiological, and cognitive factors and environmental

influences all operate as interacting determinants of each other

(Bandura,1986,1997). This interactive process, referred to as reciprocal

determinism, posits that behaviour and human functioning are determined by

the interrelated influences of individuals’ physiological states, behaviour,

cognition, and the environment.

Social Cognitive Theory: - Psychologist Albert Bandura has defined self-efficacy

as one's belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations. One's sense of

self-efficacy can play a major role in how one approaches goals, tasks, and

challenges. The main concept in social cognitive theory is that an individual’s

actions and reaction in almost every situation is influenced by the actions which

that individual has observed in others.

Bandura, in his explanation of social learning, has developed his own theory

which is called as Social Cognition theory. It is the theory of behavior suggesting

that human behavior is influenced by many cognitive factors as well as by

reinforcement contingencies, and that human beings have an impressive

capacity to regulate their own action. In this theory, he places much

emphasis on what he terms the “self-system” which is the set of cognitive

processes by which a person perceives, evaluates and regulates his or her own

behavior so that it is appropriate in a given situation. Bandura suggests that

people don’t simply respond to reinforcements, rather they think about the

consequences of their actions, anticipate future events, and establish goals and

plans. In addition, they engage in ‘self-reinforcement’, patting themselves on the

back when they attain their goals. It is the process in which individuals reward

themselves for reaching their own goals.

People observe others acting within an environment whether natural or social.

These observations are remembered by an individual and help shape social

behaviors and cognitive processes. This theoretical approach proposes the idea

that by changing how an individual learns their behaviors in the early stages of

mental development could have a large impact on their mental processes in later

stages of development. Since Self-efficacy is developed from external experiences

and self-perception and is influential in determining the outcome of many

events, it is an important aspect of social cognitive theory. Self-efficacy

represents the personal perception of external social factors.

Social cognitive theory prescribes mastery experiences as the principal means of

personality change. Guided mastery is a powerful vehicle for instilling a robust

sense of coping efficacy in people whose functioning is seriously impaired by

intense apprehension and phobic self-protective reactions. Mastery experiences

are structured in ways to build coping skills and instill beliefs that one can

exercise control over potential threats.

Bandura offered a social human functioning that accords a central role to

cognitive, vicarious, self-regulatory and self-reflective processes in human

adaptation and change. This theory has its roots in an agentic perspective that

views people as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting and self-regulating, not

just as reactive organisms shaped by environmental forces or driven by inner

impulses. Although someone may believe that how some future event turns out

is under their control, they may or may not believe that they are capable of

behaving in a way that will produce the desired result.

Self-efficacy theory focuses on the role of self-referent thought and provides a

common mechanism through which people demonstrate control over their own

motivation and behaviour. Self-efficacy cognitions have been consistently shown

to be important determinants of sports (Feltz, 1992) and exercise behaviour

(McCauley, 1992; McAuley & Jerome, 2001) as well as social, clinical and health-

related behaviours (Bandura, 1997). It is important to realize that self-efficacy is

not concerned with the skills an individual has but rather with judgments of

what an individual can do with the skills he or she possesses (Bandura, 1986,

1997).

Efficacy expectations are the individual’s beliefs in his or her capabilities to

execute necessary courses of action to satisfy situational demands and are

theorized to influence the activities that individuals choose to approach, the

effort expended on such activities, and the degree of persistence demonstrated in

the face of failure or aversive stimuli (Bandura, 1986).More recently, Bandura

(1995,1997) refined the definition of self-efficacy to encompass those beliefs

regarding individuals’ capabilities to produce performances that will lead to

anticipated outcomes. The term self-regulatory efficacy is now used, and both

the term and definition encompass a social cognitive stance that represents the

role that cognitive skills play in behavioural performance above and beyond

simply behavioural or skill beliefs.

Social Learning Theory This psychological theory describes the acquisition of

socially valuable skills that are developed exclusively or primarily in a social

group. Social learning depends on group dynamics and how individuals either

succeed or fail at dynamic interactions. Social learning promotes the

development of individual emotional and practical skills as well as the perception

of oneself and the acceptance of others with their individual competencies and

limitations. It considers that people learn from one another, including such

concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling. Self-efficacy levels

reflect a persons’ understanding of what skills they can offer in a group setting.

Another important feature of Bandura’s theory is its emphasis on observational

learning, which is a form of learning in which individuals acquire both

information and new forms of behavior through observing others. Such learning

plays a role in a very wide range of human activities i.e.; everything from

learning how to dress and groom in the style of one’ own society through

learning how to perform new and difficult tasks. In essence, any time that

human beings observe others, they can learn from this experience; and such

learning can then play an important part in their own behavior. Such models

don’t have to be present personally for observational learning to occur. Human

beings can also acquire new information and new ways of behaving from

exposure to models which are presented symbolically, in films, on television and

so on.

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing

and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.

Bandura (1977) states: "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention

hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to

inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned

observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of

how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions, this coded

information serves as a guide for action."

Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous

reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influence.

The component processes underlying observational learning are Attention,

including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity,

prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities,

arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement), Retention, including symbolic

coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal), Motor

Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction,

accuracy of feedback, and Motivation, including external, vicarious and self

reinforcement. Because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation, social

learning theory spans both cognitive and behavioral frameworks. Bandura's

theory improves upon the strictly behavioral interpretation of modeling provided

by Miller & Dollard (1941). Bandura’s work is related to the theories of

Vygotsky and Lave which also emphasize the central role of social learning.

Role of Self-Efficacy

This subject has become one of the most studied topics in psychology. Why has

self-efficacy become such an important topic among psychologists and

educators? As Bandura and other researchers have demonstrated, self-efficacy

can have an impact on everything from psychological states to behavior to

motivation. Virtually all people can identify goals they want to accomplish,

things they would like to change, and things they would like to achieve.

However, most people also realize that putting these plans into action is not

quite so simple. Bandura and others have found that an individual’s self-efficacy

plays a major role in how goals, tasks, and challenges are approached.

People with a strong sense of self-efficacy:

View challenging problems as tasks to be mastered.

Develop deeper interest in the activities in which they participate.

Form a stronger sense of commitment to their interests and activities.

Recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments.

People with a weak sense of self-efficacy:

Avoid challenging tasks.

Believe that difficult tasks and situations are beyond their capabilities.

Focus on personal failings and negative outcomes.

Quickly lose confidence in personal abilities (Bandura, 1994).

A strong sense of efficacy enhances human accomplishment and personal well-

being in many ways. People with high assurance in their capabilities approach

difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered rather than as threats to be avoided.

Such an efficacious outlook fosters intrinsic interest and deep engrossment in

activities. They set themselves challenging goals and maintain strong

commitment to them. They heighten and sustain their efforts in the face of

failure. They quickly recover their sense of efficacy after failures or setbacks.

They attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge and skills

which are acquirable. They approach threatening situations with assurance that

they can exercise control over them. Such an efficacious outlook produces

personal accomplishments, reduces stress and lowers vulnerability to

depression.

In contrast, people who doubt their capabilities shy away from difficult tasks

which they view as personal threats. They have low aspirations and weak

commitment to the goals they choose to pursue. When faced with difficult tasks,

they dwell on their personal deficiencies, on the obstacles they will encounter,

and all kinds of adverse outcomes rather than concentrate on how to perform

successfully. They slacken their efforts and give up quickly in the face of

difficulties. They are slow to recover their sense of efficacy following failure or

setbacks. Because they view insufficient performance as deficient aptitude it

does not require much failure for them to lose faith in their capabilities. They fall

easy victim to stress and depression.

Ways to improve Self-Efficacy

In considering the need and importance of self-efficacy, it has to be developed

among the students. There are various techniques which have to be applied for

improving the self-efficacy. So the challenge is to increase student self-efficacy.

There are many factors which affect self efficacy.

An effective strategy is to teach learners to give themselves instructions that

guide their behavior. There are five steps to achieve this goal:

(i) Cognitive modeling: (ii) Overt external guidance (iii) Overt self guidance

(iv) Faded, overt self guidance (v) covert self instruction

These are two ways that people can control their own behavior. First they

monitor and observe their own behavior, sometimes even scoring behavior.

Secondly, people are also able to change their behavior by reinforcing

themselves, by giving are withholding reinforcement.

The applications of self-efficacy in modern society are enormous. We are

searching for ways to make our children learn more effectively and be more

productive, but we are also learning that adults are affected by perceived self-

efficacy as well. By understanding how to help influence one to develop a positive

mental assessment of their abilities, it is possible for us to design learning and

work environments that provide the necessary feedback and support for

individuals. This will allow more people to develop high levels of self-efficacy that

will translate into increased productivity in their environments. Also, the stress

of life can be at times intolerable, but those with high self-efficacy seem to be

abler to live stress-free lives that are rewarding and happy.

Helping students to increase their self-efficacy; - Self efficacy is commonly

defined as the belief in one's capabilities to achieve a goal or an outcome.

Students with a strong sense of efficacy are more likely to challenge themselves

with difficult tasks and be intrinsically motivated. These students will put forth a

high degree of effort in order to meet their commitments, and attribute failure to

things which are in their control, rather than blaming external factors. Self-

efficacious students also recover quickly from setbacks, and ultimately are likely

to achieve their personal goals. Students with low self-efficacy, on the other

hand, believe they cannot be successful and thus are less likely to make a

concerted, extended effort and may consider challenging tasks as threats that

are to be avoided. Thus, students with poor self-efficacy have low aspirations

which may result in disappointing academic performances becoming part of a

self-fulfilling feedback cycle.

Role of teachers

. Teachers can use the following strategies to build self-efficacy in various ways.

1. Mastery experiences - Students' successful experiences boost self-

efficacy, while failures erode it. This is the most robust source of self-

efficacy.

2. Vicarious experience - Observing a peer succeed at a task can strengthen

beliefs in one's own abilities.

3. Verbal persuasion - Teachers can boost self-efficacy with credible

communication and feedback to guide the student through the task or

motivate them to make their best effort.

4. Emotional state -A positive mood can boost one's beliefs in self-efficacy,

while anxiety can undermine it. A certain level of emotional stimulation

can create an energizing feeling that can contribute to strong

performances. Teachers can help by reducing stressful situations and

lowering anxiety surrounding events like exams or presentations.

Pedagogic strategies that develop self-efficacy: - It is particularly exciting to

note that teaching strategies used in the classroom can and do make a difference

to students' self-efficacy.

Research shows that the type of learning environment and teaching method can

improve self efficacy in the classroom. Bandura concludes that cooperative

learning strategies have the dual outcome of improving both self-efficacy and

academic achievement. "Cooperative learning structures, in which students work

together and help one another also tend to promote more positive self-

evaluations of capability and higher academic attainments than do

individualistic or competitive ones."

In addition to those pedagogies, collaborative learning and the use of electronic

applications showed a positive correlation with increased self-efficacy in their

student sample. Fencl and Scheel (2005) point out that the teaching methods

that showed a measurable positive effect share the common feature of engaging

students in a comfortable or creative manner. Moreover, pedagogies such as

collaborative learning and inquiry-based activities have also been shown to have

a strong correlation with how well students learn physics.

Other pedagogies for improving self-efficacy include:

Establish specific, short-term goals that will challenge the students, yet are

still viewed as attainable. [Schunk and Pajares, 2002]

Help students lay out a specific learning strategy and have them verbalize their

plan. As students proceed through the task, ask students to note their

progress and verbalize the next steps. [Schunk and Pajares, 2002]

Compare student performance to the goals set for that student, rather than

comparing one student against another or comparing one student to the rest of

the class(Bandura)

Suggestions to improve self-efficacy for students

Use moderately–difficult tasks If the task is too easy will be boring or

embarrassing and may communicate the feeling that the teacher doubts their

abilities; a too-difficult task will re-enforce low self-efficacy. The target for

difficulty is slightly above the students' current ability level.

Use peer models: -Students can learn by watching a peer succeed at a task.

Peers may be drawn from groups as defined by gender, ethnicity, social circles,

interests, achievement level, clothing, or age.

Teach specific learning strategies: -Give students a concrete plan of attack

for working on an assignment, rather than simply turning them loose. This may

apply to overall study skills, such as preparing for an examination, or to a

specific assignment or project.

Capitalize on students' interests: -Tie the course material or concepts to

student interests such as sports, pop culture, movies or technology.

Allow students to make their own choices: -Set up some areas of the course

that allows students to make their own decisions, such as with flexible grading,

assignment options or self-determined due dates.

Encourage students to try: -Give them consistent, credible and specific

encouragement, such as, "You can do this. We've set up an outline for how to

write a lab report and a schedule for what to do each week - now follow the plan

and you will be successful."

Give frequent, focused feedback: -Giving praise and encouragement is very

important, however it must be credible. Use praise when earned and avoid

hyperbole. When giving feedback on student performance, compare to past

performances by the same student, don't make comparisons between students.

Encourage accurate attributions: -Help students understand that they don't

fail because they're dumb; they fail because they didn't follow instructions, they

didn't spend enough time on the task, or they didn't follow through on the

learning strategy.

Summary

Self-regulation is the ability to monitor and control our own behavior, emotions,

or thoughts, altering them in accordance with the demands of the situation. Self

regulation refers to our ability to direct our behavior and control our impulses so

that we meet certain standards, achieve certain goals, or reach certain ideals. It

involves being able to set goals, monitoring one's behavior to ensure that it is in

line with those goals, and having the willpower to persist until goals are

reached. On the other hand, self-directed learning is a process in which

individuals take the initiative without the help of others in diagnosing

their learning needs, formulating goals, identifying human and material

resources, and evaluating learning outcomes It is clearly important to develop

self-understanding and healthy self-esteem. But one of the most important skills

that we develop in childhood is the ability to control aspects of the self. Without

this ability we would have great difficulty accomplishing anything, regardless of

how good we might feel about ourselves.

Self-regulation can be applied to many aspects of every day life, including social

situations, personal health management, impulse control, and more. Self-

efficacy is a concept, introduced by Bandura. Although someone may believe

that how some future event turns out is under their control, they may or may

not believe that they are capable of behaving in a way that will produce the

desired result. Self efficacy is the perceived ability to carry out a desired action.

The higher a person's feelings of self-efficacy, the better that person tend to be at

a wide range of tasks.

The most important aspect of Bandura’s theory that has received most attention

in recent years is his concept of self-efficacy. This theory emphasizes that an

individual’s belief that he or she can perform some behaviour or task

successfully. If a person can expect to do well in some task, his self-efficacy is

high, but if he has some doubts about his performance, then his self-efficacy is

lower. Self-efficacy has been found to play a role in success on many tasks and

in personal happiness and life satisfaction.

According to Bandura, there are four major sources of self-efficacy. Hence,

people’s beliefs about their efficacy can be developed by four main sources of

influence, i.e.; (i) mastery experiences, (ii) social modeling, (iii) social persuasion

and (iv) psychological responses. In considering the need and importance of self-

efficacy, it has to be developed among the students. There are various

techniques which have to be applied for improving the self-efficacy. So the

challenge is to increase student self-efficacy. There are many factors which affect

self efficacy, (i) Cognitive modeling: (ii) overt external guidance (iii) overt self

guidance (iv) Faded, overt self guidance (v) covert self instruction

EDU502 Understanding the Learner Module: UTL0019

Quadrant-III Learn More/Web Resources/Supplementary

Materials

Bandura, A., & Walters. Richard H. (1959). Adolescent aggression; a study of the influence of child-training practices and family interrelationships. New York: Ronald Press.

Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1963). Social learning and personality development. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of Behavior Modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Bandura, A. (1971). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press. Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs,

NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social

Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-815614-X Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of Child

Development, 6. Six theories of child development (pp. 1–60). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Bandura, Albert (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. p. 604. ISBN 978-0-7167-2626-5. http://books.google.com/?id=eJ-

PN9g_o-EC Bandura, Albert (1999). "Moral disengagement in the perpetratio

inhumanities". Personality & Social Psychology Review 3 (3): 193–209.

doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0303_3 PMID 15661671. http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/Bandura1999PSPR.pdf

Bandura, A. (2006). "Toward a Psychology of Human Agency" Perspectives on Psychological Science, Volume 1 Issue 2.

Evans, R. I. (1989). Albert Bandura: The man and his ideas: A dialogue. New

York: Praeger. Haggbloom, S. J., Warnick, R., et al. (2002). The 100 most eminent

psychologists of the 20th century. Review of General Psychology, 6(2), 139–152. Miller, N. & Dollard, J. (1941). Social Learning and Imitation. New Haven, NJ:

ale University Press. Zimmerman, Barry J., & Schunk, Dale H. (Eds.)(2003). Educational psychology:

A century of contributions. Mahwah, NJ, US: Erlbaum. ISBN 0-8058-3681-0

^ Luszczynska, A., & Schwarzer, R. (2005). Social cognitive theory. In M. Conner & P. Norman (Eds.), Predicting health behaviour (2nd ed. rev., pp. 127-

169). Buckingham, England: Open University Press.

1. ^ name="Bandura, A. 1977">Bandura, A. , Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change, Psychological Review 1977, Vol. 84, No. 2, 191-215

2. ^ Miller, N. E., & Dollard, J. (1941). Social Learning and Imitation. New Haven: Yale University Press

3. ^ Bandura, A. (1988). Organizational Application of Social Cognitive Theory. Australian Journal of Management, 13(2), 275-302

4. ^ Mischel, W. & Shoda, Y. (1995). A cognitive-affective system theory of

personality: Reconceptualizing situations, dispositions, dynamics, and invariance in personality structure. Psychological Review, 102, 246-268

5. ^ Ormrod, J.E. (1999). Human learning (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall

6. ^ McAdam, E. K. (1986). Cognitive behavior therapy and its application with

adolescents 7. ^ Heider, Fritz. (1958). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. New York:

John Wiley & Sons 8. ^ Csikszentmihalyi, M., Finding Flow, 1997 9. ^ Goal Setting and Self-Efficacy During Self-Regulated Learning.

10. ^ Bandura, Albert (1977), Social Learning Theory, Alexandria, VA: Prentice Hall, pp. 247, ISBN 0138167443,

http://books.google.com/?id=19I7AAAACAAJ[dead link] 11. ^ Self-efficacy defined

12. ^ Schwarzer, R., Richert, J., Kreausukon, P., Remme, L., Wiedemann, A. U., & Reuter, T. (2010). Translating intentions into nutrition behaviors via planning requires self-efficacy: Evidence from Thailand and Germany.

International Journal of Psychology, 45, 260-268. doi: 10.1080/00207591003674479

13. ^ Vialle Wilma. Graduate School of Education, University of Wollongong,

Australia, http://www.aare.edu.au/98pap/and98319.htm 14. ^ Karyn Ainsworth, Fall Quarter Seminar Paper: What is Teaching? / What is

Learning? 15. ^ Diffusion of the Internet within a Graduate School of Education, 2.

Conceptual Framework 2.3.3.2 Bandura: Efficacy x Value

16. ^ Albert Bandura, Gian Vittorio Caprara, Claudio Barbaranelli, and Concetta Pastorelli, "Sociocognitive Self-Regulatory Mechanisms Governing

Transgressive Behavior" [PDF] 17. ^ Albert Bandura, Gian Vittorio Caprara, Claudio Barbaranelli3, Maria

Gerbino, and ConcettaPastorelli, "Role of Affective Self-Regulatory Efficacy in

Diverse Spheres of Psychosocial Functioning" 18. ^ Kwak, K., & Bandura, A. (1998). Role of perceived self-efficacy and moral

disengagement in antisocial conduct. Manuscript, Osan College, Seoul, Korea.

19. ^ Christine Galbreath Jernigan, What do Students Expect to Learn? The Role of Learner Expectancies, Beliefs, and Attributions for Success and Failure in

Student Motivation. 20. ^ Schwarzer, R. (2008). Modeling health behavior change: How to predict and

modify the adoption and maintenance of health behaviors. Applied Psychology:

An International Review, 57(1), 1-29. 21. ^ Gutiérrez-Doña, B., Lippke, S., Renner, B., Kwon, S., & Schwarzer, R.

(2009). How self-efficacy and planning predict dietary behaviors in Costa Rican

and South Korean women: A moderated mediation analysis. Applied Psychology: Health & Well-Being, 1, 91–104. doi: 10.1111/j.1758-0854.2008.

01001.x 22. ^ Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy scale. In J.

Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in health psychology: A user’s

portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp. 35-37). Windsor, UK: NFER-NELSON. 23. ^ Smith, H. M. & Betz, N. E. (2000). Development and validation of a scale of

perceived social self-efficacy. Journal of Career Assessment, 8(3), p. 286.

24. ^ Matsushima, R., & Shiomi, K., (2003). Social self-efficacy and interpersonal

stress in adolescence. Social Behavior and Personality. 25. ^ Schwarzer, R., & Knoll, N. (2007). Functional roles of social support within

the stress and coping process: A theoretical and empirical overview. International Journal of Psychology, 42, 243-252.

26. ^ Jimenez Soffa, S. (2006). Inspiring academic confidence in the classroom: An investigation of features of the classroom experience that contribute to the academic self-efficacy of undergraduate women enrolled in gateway courses.

Dissertation completed at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. 27. ^ Bong, M. (1997). Congruence of measurement specificity on relations

between academic self-efficacy, effort, and achievement indexes. Paper

presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Chicago, IL, March 24–28, 1997).

28. ^ Rushi, P. J. (2007). Questioning the utility of self-efficacy measurements for Indians. The entity from which ERIC acquires the content, including journal, organization, and conference names, or by means of online submission from the author. International Journal of Research & Method in Education, 30(2), 193-206.

29. ^ Academic self-concept: models, measurement, influences and enhancements.

30. ^ Schwarzer, R., & Hallum, S. (2008). Perceived teacher self-efficacy as a

predictor of job stress and burnout: Mediation analyses. Applied Psychology: An International Review. Special Issue: Health and Well-Being, 57, 152-171.

31. ^ Thomas L. Rodebaugh. Behaviour Research and Therapy Volume 44, Issue 12, December 2006, Pages 1831-1838

Books for Supplementary Readings

1. A Textbook of Educational Psychology. (2010) Dr.Agyajit Singh & Dr. S.Virk, Twenty-first century Publication, Patiala.

2. Learner, Learning and Cognition (2010) Dr.Agyajit Singh, Twenty-first century Publication, Patiala.

3. Development of the Learner and Teaching Learning Process. (2012) Dr.Agyajit Singh, Twenty-first century Publication, Patiala.

4. The Learner: Nature and Development (2013) Dr.Agyajit Singh, Twenty-first

century Publication, Patiala

5. Understanding the Learner and Teaching-learning Process (2014), Twenty-first century Publication, Patiala.

6. ̀ Understanding the Learner (2015) Dr.Agyajit Singh, Twenty-first century

Publication, Patiala.

7. Childhood and Growing Up. (2015) Dr.Agyajit Singh, Twenty-first century Publication, Patiala.

8. Psychology of Learning and Development (2016) Dr.Agyajit Singh, Pepsu Publication, Patiala.

9. Understanding the Learning Process (2016) Dr.Agyajit Singh, Pepsu

Publication, Patiala.

10. Advance Educational Psychology (2016) Dr.Agyajit Singh, Pepsu Publication, Patiala.

11. Educational Psychology: Current Research Trends (2017) Dr.Agyajit Singh, National Psychological Corporation Agra.

12. Psychology of Learning and Development (2018) Dr.Agyajit Singh, Twenty first

Century publications, Patiala.

13. Growth and Development of the Learner (2018) Dr.Agyajit Singh, Twenty first Century publications, Patiala.

14. Understanding the Learners (2018) Dr.Agyajit Singh, Twenty first Century publications, Patiala

EDU502 Understanding the Learner Module: UTL0019

Quadrant IV (Self-Assessment) Description: In self-assessment Question No. 1 to 05 are Essay Type Questions. Question No.06 to 15 give answer in 6 to 8 lines and Question No. 16 to 25 consist

of multiple choice questions in which learners are required to select the correct one out of the four alternatives

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. The self-regulated theory is related with the theory of:

a. Conditioning

b. Cognition c. Social Cognitive d. Social Learning

2. The meaning of self-regulation is:

a. Self-regulation is the modification of our behaviour.

b. Self-regulation is the ability to monitor and control our own behavior, c. Self-regulation refers the ability to channelizing emotions. d. Self-regulation is the ability to manage our behavior.

18. Self-directed learning is an instructional strategy

a. where the students decide what and how they will learn.

b. where the teacher’s guide the students to learn c. where the parents help them in their instructional work

d. It is an informal kind of learning.

19.Social cognition theory was devised by

a. Piaget

b. Rogers c. Rotter

d. Bandura

20.Social learning is concerned with:

a. Social Modeling

b. Self-Efficacy c. Locus of Control

d. Self-Esteem

21.Which is not the source of self-efficacy?

a. Mastery experiences

b. Social modeling c. Social effectiveness d. Psychological responses

22.The role of self-efficacy is:

a. To develop deeper interest in the activities in which they participate. b. To avoid challenging tasks.

c. To believe that difficult tasks and situations are beyond their capabilities. d. To focus on personal failings and negative outcomes.

23.Which strategy teacher should not use to increase self-efficacy among students?

a. Mastery experiences

b. Vicarious experiences c. Verbal persuasion d. Non-verbal communication

24.Self-efficacy theory was developed from the concept of;

a. Locus of Control b. Need Hierarchy

c. Self-Concept d. Self-Prestige

25.Self-efficacy can be improved by:

a. Teachers

b. Parents c. Peer Group d. All of them

Answer Key

1. C 2. B 3. A. 4. D. 5. B. 6. C.

7. A. 8. D 9. A. 10. D.