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Development of the concept

Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the "Six Ages" or the "Four Empires", and considered their time to bethe last before the end of the world.

[3]When referring to their 

own times, they spoke of them as being "modern".[4] In the

1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua (or "ancient") and to the Christianperiod as nova (or "new").[5] Leonardo Bruni was the firsthistorian to use tripartite periodization in his History of theFlorentine People (1442).[6] Bruni and later historians arguedthat Italy had recovered since Petrarch's time, and thereforeadded a third period to Petrarch's two. The "Middle Ages" firstappears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or "middle

season".[7]

 In early usage, there were many variants,including medium aevum, or "middle age", first recorded in1604,[8] and media saecula, or "middle ages", first recorded in1625.[9] The alternative term "medieval" (or occasionally"mediaeval") derives from medium aevum.[10] Tripartiteperiodization became standard after the Germanhistorian Christoph Cellarius (1638 –1707) divided history intothree periods: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern.[9] English is the

only major language that retains a plural form of the term.[11]

 In European history, the Middle Ages, or Medieval period,lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began withthe collapse of the Western Roman Empire, and wasfollowed by the Renaissance and the  Age of Discovery. The Middle Ages is the middle period of the traditionaldivision of Western history into Antiquity, Medieval, andModern periods. The period is subdivided into the Early, the High, and the Late Middle Ages. 

Depopulation, deurbanization, and barbarian invasions,which had begun in Late Antiquity, continued in the EarlyMiddle Ages. The barbarian invaders formed newkingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire.

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In the 7th century, North Africa and the Middle East, oncepart of the Eastern Roman Empire (the Byzantine Empire),became an Islamic Empire after conquest by Muhammad'ssuccessors. Although there were substantial changes insociety and political structures, the break with Antiquity wasnot complete. The still sizeable Byzantine Empire survived

and remained a major power. The empire's law code,the Code of Justinian, was widely admired later in theMiddle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporatedextant Roman institutions, while monasteries were foundedas Christianity expanded in Western Europe. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, established an empirecovering much of Western Europe; the CarolingianEmpire endured until the 9th century, when it succumbed tothe pressures of internal civil wars combined with externalinvasions—Vikings from the north, Magyars from the east,and Saracens from the south.

Temples

The Kandariyâ Mahâdeva Temple (Devanagari:    

 , IAST: Kandariyā Mahādeva) is the largest and most

ornate Hindu temple in the medieval temple group foundat Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, India. It is consideredone of the best examples of temples preserved from themedieval period in India.[1]Khajuraho was once the religiouscapital of the Chandela Rajputs and today is one of themost popular  tourist destinations in India. The KandariyaMahadeva temple is the largest of the Western group of temples and was built by Vidyadhara[citation needed ], arguablyone of the greatest Chandela kings. The temple was builtaround 1050 on Hindu beliefs dating back to 1000 BC; Themain spire or  sikhara rises 31 m to depict Mount Kailash,the Himalayan mountain abode of Shiva and is surroundedby 84 miniature spires (or  Urushringas). Inside the sanctum

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is a marble linga representing Shiva.[2] The  ArchaeologicalSurvey of Indiaprotects the temple, which is part of the UNESCO World Heritage site at Khajuraho.

Monuments

Monuments of India's Medieval Period1

The Taj Mahal is a stunning example of India's Mughal-eraarchitectureIndia's Medieval period is generally known as the MughalEmpire, a period that lasted from 1525 to 1860 A.D. Duringthis era, India became united as a single nation and began toflourish economically and culturally. Builders and craftsmen,

working on orders from the emperors of the era, expanded ontraditional Persian styles to create palaces, mausoleums andfortresses made from gleaming white marble and and redsandstone. Today, these architectural masterpieces still havethe power to leave visitors in awe of their  beauty and design.

Including

Synonyms: include, comprise, comprehend, embrace,

involve These verbs mean to take in or contain as part of somethinglarger. Include often implies an incomplete listing: "Throughthe process of amendment, interpretation and court decision I have finally been included in 'We, the people'" (Barbara C.Jordan).Comprise usually implies that all of the components arestated: The book comprises 15 chapters. 

Comprehend and embrace usually refer to the taking in of subordinate elements: My field of study comprehends several disciplines. This theory embraces many facets of humanbehavior. Involve usually suggests inclusion as a logical consequence

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or necessary condition: "Every argument involves someassumptions" (Brooke F. Westcott).

Usage Note: Some writers insist that include be used onlywhen it is followed by a partial list of the contents of thereferent of the subject. Therefore, one may write New 

England includes Connecticut and Rhode Island, but onemust use comprise or consist of to provide fullenumeration: New England comprises (not includes) Connecticut, Rhode Island,Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. Thisrestriction is too strong. Include does not rule out thepossibility of a complete listing. Thus the sentence Thebibliography should include all the journal articles you have

used does not entail that the bibliography must containsomething other than journal articles, though it does leavethat possibility open. The use of comprise or consist of, however, will avoid ambiguity when a listing is meant to beexhaustive. Thus the sentence The task force includes all of the Navy units on active duty in the region allows for thepossibility that Marine and Army units are also taking part,where the same sentence with comprisewould entail that the

task force contained only Navy forces. See Usage Noteat comprise. 

medieval period stupas

goes up in shelves with Stupa 2 situated on a lower shelf,

Stupa 1, Stupa 3, the 5th century Gupta Temple No.17 and

the 7th century temple No. 18 are on the intermediate shelf 

and a later monastery is on the crowning shelf. Thebalustrade surrounding Stupa 2, carved with aniconic

representations of the Buddha, was added in the late 2nd

century BC under the Satavahanas.

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The adjacent Gupta temple no.17 was hailed by Sir John

Marshall as one of the most rationally organized structures in

Indian architecture. Though small, it was a herald of all the

principles which went into the engineering of an Indian temple

in the early medieval period. The Buddhas in the

perambulatory surrounding Stupa 1 are not contemporary with

the Stupa but belong to the Gupta period in the mid-5th

century AD. The monastery and the temple with the tall pillars

adjacent to Stupa 1 and the temple near the monastery on the

crowning shelf illustrate the evolution of the architectural form

after the 5th century Gupta temple.

Facts / Did you know? 

 A Chunar sandstone pillar fragment, shining with the

proverbial Mauryan polish, lies near Stupa I and carries the

famous edict of Ashoka warning against schism in the

Buddhist community. Stupa 1 was found empty, while relics of 

the two disciples of Buddha enshrined in the adjacent Stupa 3were carried away to England. The nearby modern temple

has a reliquary containing the remains of a Buddhist teacher 

from another Stupa outside Sanchi.

Forts

The capital of each raja or chieftain was a fort around which atownship grew and developed; this pattern can be seen in

many South Asian cities suchas Delhi,  Agra, Rajasthan,Lahore, Pune, Calcutta and Mumbai. Two forts in India are UNESCO world heritage sitesthe  Agra fort and the Red fort. The oldest surviving fort inIndia is the Qila Mubarak atBathinda which had it origins in

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100 AD during the Kushan empire, The KangraFort in Kangra believed to have been built by the stillsurviving Katoch dynasty after the battle of Mahabharta. Thefort was written about by the scribes of Alexander the Great,thus making it the oldest fort in India .

Medieval Delhi developed around Chandni Chowk, thetownship adjoining the Red Fort while and Kolkata cameabout around Fort William built by the British. Many smalltowns ranging from Jhansi to Chandragiri grew around forts.Some towns even acquired the names from the forts. Durg isfort in Hindi. Satara was so named because of the seventeenwalls of the fort. Then there are famous monuments in certaincities and towns that overshadow the importance of the

forts.  Agra Fort pales into comparative insignificance againstthe glory of the Taj Mahal. Khajuraho temples overshadowRajgarh Fort.

The conquest of, or battles for the forts of India have beensignificant occasions in Indian history. The capture of QilaMubarak (Bathinda) in 1004 AD by Mahmud of Ghazniheralded the advent of Islamic rule in India. Thestruggle of  Shivaji against the Mughals in the seventeenth

century and his reign occur against the backdrop of forts inthe Deccan. The capture of  Seringapatam and death of  TippuSultan in 1799 cemented British rule in South India. Thecapture of Gawilghur  by Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington, ended the Maratha threat to British rule in CentralIndia at the time of the Second Anglo-Maratha War .

Prime Minister of India hoists the Indian flag on the rampartsof the historical site, Red Fort, Delhi, On August 15th.

The flag of  independent India was first unfurled from theramparts of the Red Fort by none other than Jawahar Lal

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Nehru, first Prime Minister of India on the morning of 15 August 1947. This practice of unfurling of flag followed by aspeech by the Prime Minister continues each year onIndependence Day. Just after  World War II, the Red Fort hadbeen the scene of the famous trial of the Indian National

 Army. 

remains of buildings

What has archaeology got to do with buildings?

Archaeology is the study of the material remains andenvironmental effects of human behaviour: evidence

can range from landscapes to microscopic organisms

and covers all periods from the origins of human life

to the remains of 20th-century industry and warfare.Standing buildings, as much as the remains of theirburied counterparts, are witnesses to that past andcan tell us much about the technology, social

organisations, aspirations and everyday life of theirinhabitants.

Historic buildings are also essential components of our

everyday surroundings. They are part of the familiarand cherished local scene and, together with streetpatterns and open space, define both the historic

development of a settlement and the way we livetoday.

Legislation, archaeology and buildings

A small percentage of buildings is protected by listingbecause of special architectural or historic interest,

while some unoccupied buildings are scheduled asancient monuments (under the Planning (ListedBuildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 and theAncient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act

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1979 respectively). Currently about 500,000individual buildings are listed – a tiny numbercompared to the total stock. Buildings can be listed atGrade I (of exceptional interest: about 2%); II* (of more than special interest: about 4%) and II (of 

special interest: 94%). The protection offered by listing is universal and covers the whole building,including the interior  – it does not differ with thelisting grade. 

Listing a building does not prohibit change. Instead it

seeks to manage change by requiring owners to applyfor listed building consent for demolition or for works

of alteration or extension which would affect thebuilding’s character. Unlike planning permission nofee is payable, and the process of making a listedbuilding consent application gives an owner ordeveloper access to expert conservation advice fromthe local authority, national and local expert societies

and English Heritage.

The local planning authority is required to notify thenational amenity

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The structure of the human alimentary canal  

The alimentary canal is a long hollow tube which runs from the mouth to

the anus .Together with several other organs, including the liver and the

pancreas, it makes up the digestive system.

The total length of the human alimentary canal is between 5 and 6 m, fromanus to mouth. To fit this considerable length into body, parts of the canal

are folded and coiled inside the abdomen .The mucus is a substance

secreted along the tube by cells lining its walls .Mucus helps food to slide

through the canal without doing too much damage to the lining. It also

forms a protective covering which keeps the digestive juices, which are

inside the lumen of the canal, from coming into contact with the living cells

of the walls. Along the whole length of the alimentary canal there are

muscles in the walls. These produce waves, of 

Contraction and relaxation called peristaltic waves, which move food along

the alimentary canal and help to mix the contents. Each region of the

alimentary canal has it own function and different structure. There are 4

basic layers in the wall of the alimentary canal. Working from the inside

these are: a) the mucosa b) the submucosa c) the muscularis externa d)

the serosa. Many of this names came from Latin origin.

The mucosa is made up of 3 layers. The innermost layer is the epithelium.

The structure of the epithelium varies in different parts of 

the alimentary canal, but it always contains cells which secrete mucus.42833iem24lnq9k

Beneath it is a layer of connective tissue called lamina propria, which

means 'closest layer'. And beneath that is a layer of smooth muscle called

the muscular is mucosa.

The sub mucosa is made up of areole connective tissue. This is an open-

textured stretchy tissue, containing many elastic fibred and collagen fibres.

Running through it are numerous blood vessels and nerves.

The muscularis externa ia made of two layers of muscle. The innermost

layer has fibres running around the tube, and is called circular muscle. The

outermost layer has fibres running along the tube and it is called

longitudinal muscle.

The serosa is a very thin layer, made up of connective tissue covered with

a single layer of thin, smooth closely fitting cells. en833i2424lnnq

We can observe in detail each part of the human alimentary canal structure

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in this diagram.

The mouth: 

Taking food into the mouth is called ingestion. We use lips, tongue and

teeth. The tongue is also important in tasting food, to tell you whether it is

good to eat; if not it will be ejected from the mouth rather than swallowed.

The main purpose of the human teeth is to break up large pieces of food,

thus beginning the process of the mechanical digestion. This is done bychewing, or mastication. Strong muscle is the jaws move the lower jaw up

and down from side to side, grinding the teeth in the lower jaw against

those in the upper jaw.

The premolar and molar teeth have ridges and grooves, which trap food

between them and crush it as chew. Mastication greatly increases the

surface area of the food, bringing more of it into direct contact with

enzymes in the digestive juice and so speeding up chemical digestion.

Three pairs of salivary glands secrete watery liquid saliva, which pours

along ducts into the mouth. Like all secretions along the alimentary canal,

saliva is mostly water. It contains mucus, which mixes with the food as it is

chewed, helping to glue it loosely together into a ball called a bolus. The

mucus also makes the bolus slippery, so that is easier to swallow.

Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, which catalyses the hydrolysis of 

starch. .

Thus, digestion by amylase produces maltose and small chain made up of 

three, four or more glucose molecules on the end of a chain . Thus ,

digestion by amylase produces maltose and small chains made up three,four or more glucose molecules linked together, but it does not produce

individual glucose molecules.

Saliva also contains an enzyme called lysozyme. This enzyme, which is

also found in tears, can destroy several types of bacteria which can cause

infection in the mouth and throat, including Staphylococcus and

Streptococcus. The lysozyme,

together with a general 'washing' action of saliva, and a small amount of 

hydrogen carbonate ions in it ( which partly neutralizes acids on teeth )

appear to

help reduce the incidence of tooth decay.