Development of MIS - Implementation

MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM

MIS

ImplementationOnce the design of MIS is complete, it is ready for implementation. Implementation is process of coding, testing, installation, documentation, training and support. In other words, during implementation phase, physical system specifications are converted into working and reliable software and hardware and the system is installed at the user’s premises so as to continuously getting the output it was designed to generate. The thus implemented system may be a replacement for a manual system or a major modification to an already existing computer – based information system. Thus, in brief, implementation means constructing and putting the new system into operation

Development of MIS - Implementation

Implementation processPlanning the ImplementationIt is obvious that the first step in the implementation of an MIS is to plan it. For proper implementation, the plan is a pre- requisite and is known as pre- implementation activity. It is in this step that various activities, which are required for implementing a system, are identified and their sequence and relation to each other is decided. In this step, various other estimates like time required for each activity and cost estimates are also obtained. To better describe the plan and implementation schedule, a system analyst should make use of various tools like Gantt Charts, Network Diagrams, etc.


Implementation processPlanning the ImplementationEspecially in large projects, where many concurrent and sequential activities are interrelated, such diagrams are valuable in providing a clear picture of the total plan. An example of Gantt chart and a Network Diagram is given in the following slides.


Implementation process



Implementation processAcquisition of Facilities and Space Planning The information system to be implemented may be for a new organization, where no old system is in existence or for an existing organization, where the information system has been modified to a great extent or altogether a new one has been developed. This requires acquisition of facilities like office, computer room, computer library, etc.


Implementation processAcquisition of Facilities and Space Planning For proper implementation of the system, the MIS manager is required to prepare estimates of floor space requirements and also rough layouts. Space planning should take into account the space occupied by computers, terminals, printers, etc., as also by people and their movement. The number and types of exits, storage areas, air- conditioning, location of utilities safely and security factors also affect the layout and location of the computer room.


Implementation processMIS Organization and Procedure Development It is also important that a manager be given the responsibility of guiding the task of implementation. The so- appointed MIS manager must make the role of line managers and ensure their involvement in the system to the maximum extent possible. In other words, the users should develop a feeling as if the system is their own system. It will help manage user’s resistance to change and increase their acceptance. It is the right time here that the MIS manager starts recruiting/ hiring other required personnel.


Implementation processAcquisition of Hardware and Software The process of acquiring the necessary hardware and software should, in fact, start immediately after the design specifications of the system are over, as selecting hardware and software may be quite complex and time – consuming It should be ensured that the facilities which are required for installing the hardware, such as, site preparation work, computer room layout, air conditioning, electric connections, communications lines, etc., should be complete to avoid loss of time in making also be acquired or operational. At this stage, consumables, like ribbons, paper, floppies, taps, compact disks also be acquired or orders placed as required.


Implementation processCoding During coding stage, the physical design specifications created by the system designer team are turned into working computer code by the programming team. Depending on the size and complexity of the system, coding can be an involved, intensive activity. Immediately after the coding has started, the testing process can begin and proceed in parallel. As each programme module is produced, it needs to be tested individually, then part of a larger programme and the again as part of a larger system.


Implementation processTesting Tests should be performed in accordance with the test specifications at each every phase. However, it is more important at implementation because, testing at this stage is done under real operating conditions with factual data. Testing an be done with only a small representative data but it should be done at various levels, starting from element to sub – systems and finally to the system as a whole. The elements may include equipment, forms, programs, work procedures and formats, etc., and may be tested relatively independently of the system to which they belong. These tests are performed mainly for accuracy, range of inputs, frequency of inputs, operating conditions and reliability etc.


Implementation processTesting of information systems, nowadays, can be undertaken with the help of Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools. These tools provide for online debugging for correcting program and data errors. On the basis of the tests performed, a number of difficulties may arise. These may lead to changes in the design of the elements/ subsystems or even in the system


Implementation processCreation of Forms and DatabaseForms are very important for transmitting data. They are also required for input to the system and output from the system. For implementation of MIS, the required forms should be generated, but care must be taken that these are generated in the context of the entire MIS. Moreover, forms being the key user interfaces, become all the more important in the general acceptance of the system. Similarly, in the implementation stage, the actual data should be obtained and the database created, which is used, in the first instance, for initial testing and then for the actual operation of the information system.


Example forms and tables

Implementation processDocumentation Broadly speaking, documentation can be understood as of two types, namely, system documentation and user documentation. System documentation, which is intended primarily for maintenance programmes or technical persons, records detailed information about a system’s design specifications, its internal working, and its functionality. For example, system requirements specification, resource requirement specification, management plan, engineering change proposal, architecture design document, prototype design document, detailed design document, test specifications, and test reports, etc. User documentation, as the name implies, in intended primarily for users, and consists of written or other visual information about an application system, how it works and how to use it. .


Implementation processUser TrainingAdequate user training is very important for successfully implementing an information system. The users may be identified and classified differently on the basis of the operations/ functions performed by them. For example, clerical or managerial, frequent users versus occasional users. These classes are not necessarily exclusive, as they quite often overlap. The MIS manager must design training programmes as per the needs of these users. Clerical users must be trained in the processing of transactions and managers must be informed as to the format and content of reports and terminal displays, as well as how to make online inquiries. Proper user training is an important factor in promoting the required culture and thus ensuring the acceptance of the new system, which is necessary for successful implementation.


Implementation processInstallation Installation or changeover is the event of switch – over from the old system to the new system, which takes place after the system is tested and found reliable. The existing system is replaced is the new system in the phase. Conversion from the old system to the new system may be accomplished by selecting one or a combination of various conversation approaches. A brief description of conversion approaches is given below


Implementation processFor New Organization / Operation If the organization is a new one or when the old system does not exist, there is only one method for implementing the newly developed system, i.e. install the system. The newly developed system is implemented as there is no old system in operation and thus no question of replacement of the old or existing system arises.


Implementation processFor Existing Organization/ Operation When the old system is in existence, there may be four different strategies, namely: Direct ApproachParallel ApproachModular ApproachPhase – in Implementation


Implementation processDirect Approach A direct implementation is the installation of the new system and the immediate discontinue of the old system, sometimes called cut – off. This is the ‘Cold Turnkey’ approach. This approach produces a time gap when no system is working. Thus, this approach is meaningful when: The system is not replacing any other system,The old system is judged absolutely worthless,The new system is either very small or simple, andThe design of the new system is drastically different from that of the old system and comparisons between systems would be meaningless


Implementation processDirect ApproachHowever, this approach may be used in organizations having seasonal operations like sugarcane processing or during the shut down of a plant. The main advantage of this approach is that it is relatively inexpensive. On the other hand, the disadvantage of this approach is that it involves a high risk of failure. The figure below is a graphic representation of this approach.


Implementation processParallel Approach In this approach, the new system is installed and operated in parallel with the current system until it has been tested thoroughly; then the current system is cut-out. This is the opposite of the direct implementation approach. In a parallel implementation approach, the outputs from each system are compared and differences reconciled. This method is expensive because of duplicating facilities and personnel to maintain the dual systems. However, it is required in certain essential systems, such as payroll, examination and defence systems.


Implementation processParallel Approach Its main advantage is that the accuracy of the system is properly checked before it is accepted as an information system of the organisation. In this approach, a target date should be set to indicate when parallel operation will cease and the new system will operate on its own. If possible, the target date should be set at the end of the longest processing cycle (e.g. at the end of the fiscal period and after year-end closings). A graphic representation of this approach has been depicted below


Implementation processParallel Approach


Implementation processModular Approach Modular approach, sometimes termed the 'pilot approach', refers to the implementation of a system in the organisation on a module (piecemeal) basis. For example, an inventory system might be implemented with only a selected product grouping or with all products in one location of a multiple-location organisation. This approach has the following advantages. The risk of a system's failure is localised.The problems identified in the system can be corrected before further implementation.Other operating personnel can be trained in a 'live' environment before the system is implemented at their location. This approach has been illustrated below


Implementation processModular Approach


Implementation processPhase-in Implementation This method is also referred to as 'cut over by segments' approach, which is similar to the modular approach. However, it differs in that the system itself is segmented and not the organisation. For example, the new data collection activities are implemented and an interface mechanism with the old system is developed. This interface allows the old system to operate with the new-.input data. Later, the new database access, storage, and retrieval activities are implemented.


Implementation processPhase-in Implementation The disadvantages to this approach include the costs incurred to develop temporary interfaces with old systems, limited applicability and a feeling of 'pendency' m the organisation. This approach suggests that sub-systems are substituted for the old system. However, new systems, most of the times, are not substitutable piece by piece for the old systems. This approach is represented in slide below.


Implementation processPhase-in Implementation


Implementation processPhase-in Implementation No doubt, before changeover is affected, careful testing at each and every phase as well as at the implementation stage is undertaken; still there are chances of errors in the system when it becomes fully operational. Such errors may occur because of the failure to anticipate the volume and variability of data and unforeseen conditions under which the system actually operates. The process of overcoming such errors (debugging) associated with the changeover to the new system may continue for several days to several months, depending upon the size and complexity of the system


Implementation processPhase-in Implementation After the system becomes operational, the system analyst should not feel that his/her job is over; rather the system has to be maintained within cost constraints at an efficient and effective level. Proper feedback is required to be received continuously for doing corrective adaptive and perfective, maintenance. Evaluation of the newly-developed and implemented system is required to be made to know the quality of the system developed and to get a continuous feedback on the performance of the information system.


Implementation processORGANISATIONAL CHANGE The implementation of information systems may result in many changes in the organisations. It may affect the organisational structure, goals, work-design, values, competition between interest groups, decision-making and day-to-day behaviour. Some of the major potential areas of impact are discussed in the following paragraphs.


Implementation processOrganisational Structure As an information system enables a manager to increase his or her span of control, it will lead to fewer managerial levels in the organisation, resulting in a 'shrinking size of the middle management'. Flatter organisational hierarchies may also result from reduction in the total number of employees as a result of increased productivity. Behind the downsizing of many organisations is the increased use of computer-based information systems. Another change is the creation of IS department in the organisation, which can lead to a change in the overall organisational structure


Implementation processCentralisation of Authority The information systems affect the degree of centralisation of authority in the organisation. Job Content Many changes in job content take place when work is redesigned, especially in business process re-engineering (BPR). Job content is very important, not only because it is related to organisational structure but also because it is interrelated with employee satisfaction, status, productivity, etc. These changes sometimes create problems of role conflict and role ambiguity. Also, there may be resistance to change from the employees of an organisation.


Implementation processRelationships Because of information systems, relationships among employees also undergo a change. For example, with the introduction of computer-based information systems, face to face interaction between the supervisor and subordinate will be reduced. Similarly, information systems also change the relationship patterns among peers. With new information systems, some people in the organisation may start suffering a loss of identity and start feeling like 'just another number' because these systems dehumanise and depersonalise activities. Former informal work groups and working relationships may breakup.


Implementation processRelationshipsNo doubt, an information system affects the organisational structure, goals, work design, values, competition, decision-making and day-to-day behaviour, yet it must be understood by the organisations that information technology exists for the sake of people and not vice versa. Moreover, information technology is just an organisational function and not the other way round. Therefore relationships among people or their behavioural aspects must be considered while designing information systems in the organisation. Basic premise of system development should be the recognition that all work processes be designed because of people and for people. It is also apparent that organisational change takes place because of the information system implementation.


Implementation processResistance to Change There may be resistance to change because of new information systems in the organisation. Organisations, thus, must prepare themselves to manage this resistance to change for the successful implementation of information systems. It is said that people do not resist technological change of a new information system, but they resist the social change. This requires that organisations should avoid resistance to the new information system rather than defeating the resistance by shear power. Let us understand, how to manage this resistance to change.


Implementation processManagement of Change The following three steps may be useful in managing the resistance to change. . Create a climate for change Develop effective agents of change Modify the 'required' organisational system


Implementation processCreate a climate for change First of all, organisations should create a suitable climate for change. Such a culture may be created by getting the employees to feel dissatisfied with the present system. Employees may be exposed to a series of seminars and conferences with the main focus on the shortcomings of the present systems and ways to overcome those shortcomings. In this process, a thinking would be developed that some change is required in their organisation.


Implementation processDevelop effective agents of change To win the support of the employees, organisations should identify their informal leaders and they should be sent to workshops or seminars. This will stimulate new ideas in the minds of the leaders. This in turn will help gain the support of other employees.


Implementation processModify the 'required' organization A technically ideal organisation is termed as the 'required' organisation. However, for achieving better working relationships of the users, rearrangements of the organisation should be made to fit the anticipated emergent organisation behaviour.


Implementation processOrganizational Learning Organisational learning, which exhibits adaptive behaviour, is the process by which an organisation identifies action-outcome relationships, identifies and corrects errors, stores the experience in organisational personnel who teach the other employees of the organisation, and stores the experience in procedures, systems, rules, computer programs and other forms for transferring experience. For


Implementation processOrganizational Learning For example, a user of an information system is imparted training on how to use the new system by information system specialists. Existing literature, manuals, etc., through previous organisational experience can educate users on how to use the system. The learning of the users is further enhanced when they informally exchange related stories on the system. These related stories may consist of unwritten rules, tips, and guidelines or learning experiences of other employees in the organisation.


Implementation processOrganizational Learning For example, a user of an information system is imparted training on how to use the new system by information system specialists. Existing literature, manuals, etc., through previous organisational experience can educate users on how to use the system. The learning of the users is further enhanced when they informally exchange related stories on the system. These related stories may consist of unwritten rules, tips, and guidelines or learning experiences of other employees in the organisation.


Implementation processStimulus-Response Theory of Learning Information and information systems can aid organisational learning. According to stimulus-response theory, the learning process consists of four main elements. Drive, Cue, Response, and Reinforcement.


Implementation processStimulus-Response Theory of Learning Drive is denned as any strong stimulus that impels action. It arouses an individual and keeps him prepared to respond. The drive to learn beyond innate curiosity is acquired. Cue or stimulus may be denned as any object in the environment perceived by the individual, which guides and determines response.Reinforcement or reward means reduction in drive and stimulus that follows a response. The reinforcement causes responses to be 'learned'. These elements of the learning process are exhibited below


Implementation processStimulus-Response Theory of Learning


Implementation processSome responses, at a higher level of mental processes are actions; others produce cues. Information systems aid in the learning process by providing cues and responses in the following ways. Interaction with Other Users Information systems enable a user to interact with a wide variety of inter organisational and intra-organisational users and thus a user may share his or her experiences with others and vice versa. This sharing of experience promotes education of the organisational employees.


Implementation process Interactive Systems and Databases Nowadays, user-friendly interactive information systems also enable a user to learn about new products, advancements, etc., by providing a free access to the exhaustive databases.

Up gradation of Skills As the new information systems are implemented in an organisation, the employees are trained in using them, which leads to the Up gradation of their skills. This Up gradation of employees' skills is a result of the learning activity.


Implementation process Interactive Systems and Databases Nowadays, user-friendly interactive information systems also enable a user to learn about new products, advancements, etc., by providing a free access to the exhaustive databases.

Up gradation of Skills As the new information systems are implemented in an organisation, the employees are trained in using them, which leads to the Up gradation of their skills. This Up gradation of employees' skills is a result of the learning activity.


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Development of MIS - Implementation