DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROPONIC SYSTEM FOR

GREENHOUSE TOMATO

Thesis

Submitted to the Punjab Agricultural University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY in

SOIL AND WATER ENGINEERING (Minor Subject: Civil Engineering)

By

Harmanpreet Kaur

(L-2014-AE-184-M)

Department of Soil and Water Engineering College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology

© PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

LUDHIANA-141004

2016

CERTIFICATE-I

This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “Development of hydroponic system for

greenhouse tomato” submitted for the degree of M. Tech., in the subject of Soil and Water

Engineering (Minor subject: Civil Engineering) of the Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana, is a bonafide research work carried out by Harmanpreet Kaur (L-2014-AE-184-M)

under my supervision and no part of this thesis has been submitted for any other degree.

The assistance and help received during the course of investigations have been fully

acknowledged.

______________________

Dr. Rakesh Sharda

(Major Advisor) Senior Extension Specialist

Dept. Soil and Water Engineering,

Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana-141004.

CERTIFICATE-II

This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “Development of hydroponic system for

greenhouse tomato” submitted by Harmanpreet Kaur (L-2014-AE-184-M) to the Punjab

Agricultural University, Ludhiana in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

M. Tech, in the subject of Soil and Water Engineering (Minor subject: Civil Engineering)

has been approved by the Student‟s Advisory Committee along with Head of the Department

after an oral examination on the same.

______________________ ____________________

(Dr Rakesh Sharda) (Er A K Singh)

Major Advisor Principal Investigator, PFDC

SKRAU, Agriculture Research

Station, Beechwal, Bikaner-334002

_____________________

(Dr K G Singh)

Head of the Department

______________________

(Dr Neelam Grewal)

Dean, Postgraduate Studies

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity with much pleasure to thank all the people who have helped

me through the course of my journey towards producing this thesis. I sincerely thank my

advisor Dr. Rakesh Sharda, Senior Extension Specialist, Department of Soil and Water

Engineering, whose encouragement, introspective guidance, constructive suggestions, co-

operation and support from the initial to the final level enabled me, to develop an

understanding of the research work.

I lack words to express my cordial thanks to my Advisory Committee Dr. Sunil Garg,

Senior Research Engineer, Department of Soil and Water Engineering, Punjab Agricultural

University, Ludhiana, Dr. Arun Kaushal, Professor, Department of Soil and Water

Engineering and Dr. N.K. Khullar, Head cum Professor, Department. of Civil Engineering

,for their useful comments and constructive suggestions during all the phases of present

research.

I am very thankful to Dr. Rajan Aggarwal, Senior Research Engineer cum Head,

Department of Soil and Water Engineering, for providing encouragements and necessary

facilities in carrying out the research work. I am also thankful to Dean PGS, PAU, Ludhiana.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. K.G. Singh, Senior Research Engineer,

Department of Soil and Water Engineering, Ludhiana for his guidance.

I am highly thankful to Dr. O.P Chaudhary, Senior Soil Chemist, Department of Soil

Science and Dr. Neena Chawla, Senior biochemist Department of vegetable science.

I acknowledge the wonderful support and work of my friends Pankaj Sharma,

Balkaran Singh, Rohit Narang, Sandeep Kaur, Kulwant Singh and Sagar Chawla thank for

their help and guidance.

I express my respect, love and gratitude for parents. I owe so much to them and

acknowledge the gift of their guidance, kindness and support. Please know that I recognize

how much they both have done for me.

Lastly, I offer my regards and blessings to all of those who supported me in any

respect during the completion of the thesis.

(Harmanpreet Kaur)

Title of the Thesis : Development of hydroponic system for greenhouse

tomato

Name of the student and

Admission number

: Harmanpreet Kaur

(L-2014-AE-184-M)

Major Subject : Soil and Water Engineering

Minor Subject Civil Engineering

Name and Designation of

Major Advisor

: Dr. Rakesh Sharda

Senior Extension Specialist

Degree to be awarded : Master of Technology

Year of award of Degree : 2016

Total Pages in Thesis : 55+Vita

Name of University : Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004,

Punjab, India.

ABSTRACT

The field experiment was conducted in the year 2016 to study the development of hydroponic

system for greenhouse tomato in the Demonstration Farm of Department of Soil and Water

Engineering, PAU, Ludhiana. The experiment was laid out in completely randomized design

keeping three treatments (100%), (75%) and (50%) of Hoagland solution. The crop was

grown in PVC pipes under controlled conditions. In the greenhouse, the temperature and

relative humidity were maintained between 24 0C to 32

0C and 40 % to 65 % range

respectively. The pH and EC of the Hoagland solution were maintained in the range of 5.5 to

6.5 and 1.5 to 2.5 dS/m respectively in the tank. The yield was best in T1 (100%) i.e 72.57

ton / ha which was comparable with T2 (75%) i.e, 69.28 ton / ha. With respect to quality

parameters, there was non significant difference in moisture content, firmness and lycopene

and there was significant difference in titrable acidity and TSS. The maximum value of

titrable acidity and TSS were 0.16 and 7.37 respectively recorded for T1.

Keywords: Tomato, hydroponic system, greenhouse, plant, yield and quality parameters

________________________ _____________________

Signature of Major Advisor Signature of the Student

Koj gRMQ dw isrlyK : gRInhwaUs tmwtr leI hweIfRoPoink pRxwlI dw inrmwx

ividAwrQI dw nwm Aqy pRvyS nM.

: hrmnpRIq kOr (AYl-2014-ey eI-184-AYm)

pRmuK ivSw : BUmI Aqy jl ieMjIinAirMg

sihXogI ivSw : isvl ieMjIinAirMg

mu`K slwhkwr dw nwm Aqy Ahudw

: fw. rwkyS Swrdw au`c pswr mwihr

ifgrI : AYm.tY~k

ifgrI nwl snmwinq krn dw swl : 2016

Koj p`qr iv`c kul pMny : 55+vItw

XUnIvristI dw nwm : pMjwb KyqIbwVI XUnIvristI, luiDAwxw – 141004, pMjwb, Bwrq

swr-AMS

gRInhwaUs tmwtr leI hweIfRoPoink pRxwlI dw inrmwx krn leI sMn 2016 dOrwn pMjwb KyqIbwVI XUnIvristI, luiDAwxw dy BUmI Aqy jl ieMjnIAirMg ivBwv dy prdrSnI Pwrm ivKy Kyq qzrbw kIqw igAw[ ieh qzrbw rYNfm blwk fIzweIn ivDI qihq hoAYglYNf Gol dy iqMn aupcwrW 100%, 75% Aqy 50% nwl kIqw igAw[ pI.vI.sI. pweIpW iv`c inrMqrq hlwqW ADIn &sl augweI geI[ gRInhwaUs iv`c, qwpmwn Aqy nmI dI imkdwr nUM kRmvwr 240

C qoN 320C Aqy 40% qoN 65%

q`k r`iKAw igAw[ tYNk iv`c hoAYglYNf Gol dI pI.AYc. Aqy eI.sI. nUM kRmvwr 5.5 qoN 6.5 Aqy 1.5 qoN 2.5 dS/m q`k r`iKAw igAw[ tI1 (100%) aupcwr qihq sB qoN vDIAw JwV Bwv 72.57 tn/ hYktyAr pRwpq hoieAw joik tI2 (75%) aupcwr dy JwV Bwv 69.28 tn/hYktyAr dy qulnwqmk sI[ guxvqw mwpdMfW dy ilhwz nwl, nmI dI imkdwr, Tosqw Aqy lweIkopIn iv`c gYr-ArQpUrn Aqy Ktws Aqy tI.AYs.AYs. dI imkdwr iv`c ArQpUrn iviBMnqw pweI geI[ Ktws Aqy tI.AYs.AYs. dI sB qoN vDyry imkdwr kRmvwr 0.16 Aqy 7.37 sI joik aupcwr tI1 leI drj kIqI geI[

muK Sbd: tmwtr, hweIfRoPoink pRxwlI, gRInhwaUs, pOdw, JwV Aqy guxvqw mwpdMf

_________________ ________________ mu`K slwhkwr dy dsqKq ividAwrQI dy dsqKq

CONTENTS

CHAPTER TOPIC PAGE

NO.

I INTRODUCTION 1-3

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 4-21

2.1 Types of hydroponic system 4

2.2 Crops grown hydroponically in India and abroad 4

2.2.1 Nutrient solution 5-13

2.2.2 Nutrient film technique 13-16

2.2.3 Crops grown hydroponically in greenhouse 16-19

2.2.4 Growing media 19-20

2.2.5 Quality of fruits in greenhouse 20-21

III MATERIAL AND METHODS 22-38

3.1 Description of the study area 22

3.1.1 Location 22

3.2 Climate 22

3.3 Design and fabrication of Hydroponic system 22-29

3.3.1 Components of greenhouse 24

3.3.2 Components of Nutrient Film Technique 25

3.3.3 Design for size of pump 25-27

3.3.4 Preparation of Hoagland solution 27-29

3.4 Raising of crop 29-30

3.5 Crop parameters 31-37

3.5.1 Plant height 31

3.5.2 Stem diameter 31

3.5.3 Yield of tomato 32

3.5.4 Quality parameters 33-37

3.6 Statistical design 38

IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 39-48

4.1 Effect of nutrient solution on growth of tomato in

different treatments

39

4.1.1 Diameter of stem 39-40

4.1.2 Height of plants 40-41

4.2 pH and EC of nutrient solution 41-45

4.2.1 pH of Hoagland solution before and after the

consumption of nutrients from solution for

treatment 1, treatment 2 and treatment 3

41-43

4.2.2 EC of Hoagland solution before and after the

consumption of nutrients from solution for

treatment 1, treatment 2 and treatment 3

43-45

4.3 Interval of changing of Hoagland solution after

transplanting 45-46

4.4 Quality parameters 46-48

4.4.1 Moisture content 46

4.4.2 Titrable acidity 46

4.4.3 Lycopene 47

4.4.4 Firmness 47

4.4.5 Total soluble solids 47

4.5 Yield of tomato 48

V SUMMARY 49-50

REFERENCES 51-55

VITA

LIST OF TABLES

Table

No.

Title Page

No.

3.1 Power for pump 27

3.2 List of nutrients of Hoagland solution 28

3.3 Composition of nutrients of Hoagland solution in 1 L 29

4.1 Effect of Hoagland solution on diameter of stem of plants 15 DAT 39

4.2 Effect of Hoagland solution on diameter of stem of plants 30 DAT 39

4.3 Effect of Hoagland solution on diameter of stem of plants 45 DAT 40

4.4 Effect of Hoagland solution on height of plants 20 DAT 40

4.5 Effect of Hoagland solution on height of plants 30 DAT 40

4.6 Effect of Hoagland solution on height of plants 46 DAT 41

4.7 Effect of Hoagland solution on height of plants 76 DAT 41

4.8 pH of Hoagland solution before and after the changing nutrients solution

for T1, T2 and T3

42

4.9 EC of Hoagland solution before and after changing the nutrients solution

for T1, T2 and T3

44

4.10 The effect of concentration of Hoagland solution on the moisture content 46

4.11 The effect of concentration of Hoagland solution on the titrable acidity 47

4.12 The effect of concentration of Hoagland solution on the lycopene 47

4.13 The effect of concentration of Hoagland solution on the firmness 47

4.14 The effect of concentration of Hoagland solution on the total soluble

solids

48

4.15 The effect of concentration of Hoagland solution on the yield of tomato 48

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

No.

Title Page

No.

3.1 Transplanting of plants into net pots(80 mm × 70 mm) in mixture of

cocopeat, perlite and vermiculite in 3:1:1

23

3.2 PVC pipesof 4 inch diameter with 6 m length each was placed on 27

Iron angle rods

23

3.3 Transplanting of plants in PVC pipes 24

3.4 Cross sectional area of PVC pipe 25

3.5 Layout of hydroponic system 30

3.6 Plants were tied with threads and clips 30

3.7 Plants height after 46 days of transplanting 31

3.8 Plant diameter of stem after 30 days of transplanting 32

3.9 Plants with fruits 32

3.10 Digital refractometer 33

3.11 Spectrophotometer 34

3.12 Texture analyser 35

3.13 Juice extracted from different treatment of tomato 35

3.14 Determination of titrable acidity 36

3.15 Weighing of tomato 37

3.16 Drying of tomato at 60 °C 37

4.1 Variation of consumption of pH before and after changing the

nutrient solution in T1, T2 and T3 concentration

43

4.2 Variation of consumption of EC before and after changing the

nutrient solution in T1, T2 and T3 concentration

45

4.3 Interval during the process of changing the nutrient solution 46

ABBREVIATION AND SYMBOLS

M

%

0 C

T1

T2

T3

R1

R2

R3

NFT

DAT

PVC

CRD

C D

PAU

Meter

Percentage

Degree centigrade

Treatment 1

Treatment 2

Treatment 3

Replication 1

Replication 2

Replication 3

Nutrient film technique

Days after transplanting

Poly vinyl chloride

Completely randomised designs

Critical difference

Punjab Agric. Univ.

Mm3

Million cubic meter

Ha

ton

ton/ha

TSS

Hectare

Tonne

Tonne/hectare

Total soluble solids

sq. km Square kilometer

dS/m Deci Siemens per meter

EC Electrical Conductivity

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Soil cultivation is practiced since centuries as it contains nutrients formed during

natural decay of organic matter and also has sufficient porosity needed for oxygen supply to

the roots. However, soil tend to compact naturally over time, which is not good for proper

plant growth, as plants may have difficulty in growing and accessing nutrients. To achieve

year-round production of plants, plant production factories use series of plant growth facilities

through artificial regulation of indoor environment, such as lighting, temperature, CO2,

nutrient solution, etc (Li and Cheng 2014).Soil cultivation also includes adding soil nutrients

to the soil with the goal of improving the fertility level for many crop cycles. Other soil

amendments can include sand, for plants which like sandy soil, straw or moss to help the soil

hold moisture and fertilizers. It may take several years of building soil up with soil

amendments to obtain the desired texture and composition. It is important to make sure that

soil is aerated throughout the growing season and additives such as mulch can be used to

protect the soil while crops are growing, in addition to providing protection to the roots of

crops. Fertilizers may also be periodically added to the soil during the growing season at key

crop stages.

To enhance the productivity as compared to conventional soil cultivation, protected

cultivation was introduced during 1980 onwards. It includes greenhouse farming, greenhouse

farming means farming inside an enclosed space which produces greenhouse effect. The main

use of it is to protect the plants from extreme weather conditions during winter as well as

summer. It is also incorporated with various technologies like drip irrigation system,

automatic temperature control using evaporative cooling, light controlling systems etc to form

a complete artificial farming area which is isolated from outside climate (Castillo et al 2012).

Recently, in western countries, a new technique called soil-less culture commonly

referred to as „hydroponics‟ has been developed to further improve the crop productivity in

lesser space and time by controlling the supply of water and nutrient. The term hydroponic

was derived from the Greek words „hydro‟ means water and „ponos‟ means labour (Beibel

1960). Hydroponic is being used in developed countries in a view to see advancement in

technology. Researchers discovered that plants absorb essential mineral nutrients as inorganic

ions in water. In natural conditions, soil acts as a mineral nutrient reservoir but the soil itself

is not essential to plant growth. When the mineral nutrients in soil dissolve in water, plant

roots are able to absorb them. When the required mineral nutrients are introduced into a plants

through water supply artificially, soil is no longer required for the plants to grow. Almost any

terrestrial plant can be grown with hydroponic. This has added advantages also. In the case of

hydroponic there are no weeds as well as relief from soil borne diseases. This helps in

2

reduction of production costs as compared to soil cultivation which is host to number of insect

pests and plant parasites. The hydroponic also helps in saving of water as the same water can

be recycled again. The pH of the root zone affects the availability of nutrients taken up by

plants (Dysko et al 2008). The other advantages that hydroponic offer is low labour

requirement, highly productive, conserve land, protects the environment and complete control

over nutrient balance. The only disadvantage of this system is higher initial setup costs. But

this can be offset by the high returns from the crops grown under poly house.

There are number of hydroponic techniques which are being used such as Ebb and

Flow System, Drip System, Wick System, Deep Water Culture System and Nutrient Film

Technique (NFT). Nutrient Film Technique is a hydroponic technique wherein a very shallow

stream of water containing all the dissolved nutrients required for plant growth is re-circulated

past the bare roots of plants in a watertight gully known as channels (Brun 2001). In an ideal

system, the depth of the re-circulating stream should be very shallow, little more than a film

of water hence the name „nutrient film‟.

Hydroponic and NFT culture involves no use of soil. Both the culture require

sufficient supply of nutrients and suitable conditions like high oxygen levels for root uptake

and optimum pH levels for increased nutrient and water uptake and also high grade nutrient

solutions ( Ghazvini et al 2007). In this system, it is possible to control the pH and electrical

conductivity (EC) of the nutrient solution.

Hydroponically, tomatoes were commercially grown in Southern Florida and on some

Carribean island, however these ventures didn‟t succeed financially and disappeared.

Hydroponic began to be used for production of tomatoes and for other crops also in enclosed

green house and shelters (Rodriguez et al 2001). The objective was to produce tomatoes in off

season when the field grown fruit was unavailable. The initial hydroponic greenhouses

devoted to the production of off-season tomatoes were in the Netherlands, followed by similar

types of greenhouses in England. Today, hydroponic tomato greenhouses are in many

countries, the largest number in Canada, the United States, Mexico and Spain.

In the mid-1970s, Allan Cooper introduced his nutrient film technique (NFT) that

substantially changed the basic concept of hydroponic growing. The system is relatively

inexpensive to install, maintain and is quite precise in its control of the nutrient-root environment

(Jones 1999b). The placement of water and or a nutrient solution at the base of the tomato plant on

a regulated basis became possible. With this type of nutrient solution delivery system, rockwool

slabs and perlite in either bags or buckets as the rooting media has come into wide use.

All the commonly used hydroponic techniques have flaws that have to be dealt with.

The “ideal” hydroponic growing system has yet to be developed, although initially the NFT

method was thought to be the one that would come closest to being ”ideal”.

3

Keeping in view of above the hydroponic system for growing vegetables was

developed, tested and evaluated for growing tomatoes.

Objectives

i. To develop and standardize hydroponic system

ii. To evaluate the developed hydroponic system for growing tomato

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A substantial amount of literature at national and international level. The present

methods used for the hydroponic system are described below.

2.1 Types of hydroponic system: Hydroponic system not used by farmers at commercial

level. Farmers are not using Hydroponic system because of expensive installation of

hydroponic system, skilled labour is required to controlled the conditions inside the

Greenhouse. There are ways by which one can use this system.

a) Ebb and Flow system

b) Wick system

c) Nutrient Film Technique (NFT)

a) Ebb and flow system

The ebb and flow system consists of water-tight growing bed and tank of nutrient

solution. The growing bed consists of either gravel or gravel and sand both. The nutrient

solution present in the tank is pumped for fixed interval of time into the growing bed for a

short duration (5 -10 min). The tank of nutrient solution is placed below the growing bed so

that nutrient solution can easily re-circulate in the system. This system was widely used by

U.S. Army during the World War 2nd

to produce vegetables specially tomato and lettuce.

The nutrient solution used in this system need to be replace within fixed interval of time

otherwise the repeated use of this nutrient solution lead to disease and nutrient element

imbalances (Anon 2016).

b) Wick system

In this system, nutrient solution was absorbed by the medium from the reservoir with

the help of a wick. The wick system consists of a rectangular iron frame plastic pot, soil-less

growing medium i.e. cocopeat: perlite: vermiculture, cotton wicks, reservoir (Anon 2016).

c)Nutrient Film Technique (NFT)

Nutrient Film Technique is a hydroponic technique wherein a very shallow stream of

water containing all the dissolved nutrients required for plant growth is re-circulated past the

bare roots of plants in a watertight gully knowns as channels. In an ideal system, the depth of

the re-circulating stream should be very shallow, little more than a film of water hence the

name „nutrient film‟(Anon 2016).

2.2Crops grown hydroponically in India and abroad

Tomatoes, lettuce, capsicum, endive, chinese cabbage, cucumbers, zucchini and

courgettes, beans, sweet peppers, sweet potato, egg plants, chillies, parsley and other herbs,

silver beet, strawberries.

5

The relevant literature related to the research topic has been discussed under the

following heads:

The hydroponics is growing of plants without soil in any organic media or in direct

contact with water i.e. Nutrient Film Technique. Soil-less culture means growing of plants in

proper media mixture strictly without soil. This method utilizes a limited supply of water

efficiently. Soilless culture offers earlier growth and higher yield as in this culture attack of

insect-pest decreases. The pot along with the media mixture should be light in weight as to

hold it easily. The author conducted certain additional investigations and prepared a

manuscript for a popular circular on the general subject of growing plants in nutrient

solutuions.

2.2.1 Nutrient solution

Hoagland and Arnon (1950) investigated the problems with the use of water-culture

technique for growing plants without soil as one important method of experimentation. The

objective was to gain a better understanding of fundamental factors which govern plant

growth in order to deal more effectively with the many complex questions of soil and plant

interrelations arising in the field. The purpose of the experiment was to available such

technical information about the water-culture method. They prepared nutrient solution which

was later named as Hoagland solution helps in providing nutrients to the plants so that the

plants could be grown without soil.

Gallegly et al (1949) studied about the bonny best tomato plants were grown in

constant – drip sand cultures with concentration 0.1. 0.5, 1, 2 and 8 times that of basal salt

solution (Hoagland and Snyder) in cultures with the basal solution low and high in nitrogen,

phosphorus and potassium respectively and in cultures with the low phosphorus solution

adjusted to low, medium and high pH. The plants were inoculated after approximately 25

days growth by dipping the washed roots in a concentrated suspension of the bacterial wilt

organism (Pseudomonas solanacearum E. F. Sm.). During summer months disease

development in nutrient concentrations was greatest at 0.1H and decreased with an increase in

salt concentration, during early spring and late autumn disease development increased with an

increase in salt concentration up to 0.5H and 1H but decreased sharply with further increase in

nutrient concentration. During summer the winter-type results were reproduced when day

length was maintained at 12 hr. while the summer-type results were reproduced at an 18-hr.

day length. Variation in light intensity and sand culture temperature failed to alter the long-

day disease curve. The two sand temperatures had no effect on disease development in the

low K solution. At low light intensity disease development was reduced in the low K solution.

Controlled 12-hr. and 18-hr. No correlation was found between plant growth or bacterial

growth in unbalanced solutions and disease development. There were indications that low pH

salt solution reduced disease development.

6

Macfarlane (1958) studied about the primary infections were obtained by growing

cabbage seedlings in a modified Hoagland‟s solution in which resting spores Plasmodiophora

brassicae Woron. were suspended. Seeds were germinated on filter paper wet with tap water

and after 2 days the plants were transferred to small glass tubes bent in the form of a shallow

U or to small vials containing solution and spores. Zoosporangia were formed after several

days growth at 250 in the dark. They were stained in aceto-car-mine. A roughly linear

relationship was found between the logarithm of number of infections/root and the logarithm

of spore concentration in the medium. Numbers of infections were usually greater at 1/5 or

1/25 dilution of the culture solution than at the standard concentration, but were very much

fewer or none in more dilute l/125 or more concentrated (x5) solutions. The concentration

which permitted maximal infection tended to vary from one experiment to another. Infection

was not affected by changing from pH 5 to 6 but was greatly decreased at pH 8.

Park et al (1995) determined the most suitable nutrient solution among Cooper‟s,

Hoagland and Arnon and Yamazaki‟s solution. Six kinds of cultivars from Italy were used.

Characteristics of cultivars grown in solutions were differently. The yield, root weight and

mineral content were best in the plot of Yamazaki‟s solution. In order to investigate the ionic

strength of suitable level of chicory, second experiment was conducted with Yamazaki‟s

solution which was treated to EC of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 mS/cm. High yield and mineral

contents were found in 1.5 mS/cm treatment. In different ionic strength, changes in vitamin C

and mineral content were determined.

Paiva et al (1998a) conducted the experiment in greenhouse under hydroponic

conditions using a modified Hoagland solution containing different Ca concentrations (0.2,

2.5, 5.0, 10.0, 15.0, and 20.0 mm L-1

) which represented the different treatments. The

experiments was conducted in a fully randomized design with three replications. More Ca

accumulation was observed in fruits submitted to low RH with this accumulation occurring at

all Ca levels in the solution. Results showed that fruit kept at low RH had higher Ca

accumulation although the excessive water loss from tissues may lead to blossom-end rot

when low Ca doses were supplied to the plants.

Paiva et al (1998 b) conducted the experiment in a greenhouse hydroponically using a

modified Hoagland solution containing different Ca concentrations (0.2, 2.5, 5.0, 10.0, 15.0,

and 20.0 mmol L-1

). The experiment was conducted in a fully randomized design with three

replications. The fruits of the second and third replications were picked after full ripening and

analyzed for their Ca, magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), lycopene, and total carotene levels.

The total lycopene and carotene levels decreased with increasing Ca concentration in the

nutrient solution, possibly due to the reduction in K absorption with minimum levels of 21.50

μg g-1 at the Ca concentration of 13.66 mmol L-1 in the nutrient solution.

7

Teragishi et al (2000) studied the effects of foliar application of choline chloride on

the quality of winter-cropped Masui-Dauphine were imbedded into rockwool cube on

May30 and rooted in Hoagland II solution of EC 2.4 dS·m-1

.The rooted cuttings were

transplanted onto a non-circulating closed hydro-culture system in the greenhouse on July 13.

The trees formed the first fruit at the 11th nodeon August 11 and bore 16 fruits per plant.

Trees were sprayed with 1500ppmcholine chloride solution or water (control) on October 9,

November 6and 27. Offruits harvested from October 27 to December 27, the sprayed fruits

were heavier than those of control until November 16, but subsequently, no difference in fresh

weight was detected between the treatment and the control fruits. The total fruit weights per

tree were 910g and 790 g in the sprayed and control respectively. The photosynthetic rate

decreased with the decline in photosynthetic photon flux density; it was temporarily increased

with choline chloride treatment on October 9 and November 6.

Brun et al (2001) reported that recycling of drainage in rose grown in soilless culture

enables saving of inputs, flower yield while quality was not affected by recycling. Losses

were about 44% for leachate solution and 56% for nutrients. Savings by recycling were about

42% for leachate solution and 55% for nutrients. There was good relationships between EC

and ions concentrations for supplied solutions and leachate solutions recycled and not

recycled. Drainage recycling was efficient by using a management based on EC.

Maia et al (2001) studied about the production and quality of Menthaarvensis L.

essential oil grown in pots irrigated with eleven nutrient solutions were evaluated. The

objective of this work was to determined the components of a nutrient solution for

commercial use which would allow maximum oil yield and high menthol content. An

automatic solution dispenser system was specially developed. The system consisted of a

group of reservoirs equipped with individual pumps and electric buoys. A modified Hoagland

1 solution was the starting point for the formulation of testing solutions and was also used as

control. Ten solutions were prepared from the basic solution. Double and half strength

solutions for N, P, K, Ca and Mg were prepared in such a way that the plants were grown in

solutions containing three concentrations of each nutrient focused in this study. Growth,

nutrient content and essential oil of the plants were evaluated. High levels of N promoted

increase in leaves weight, but less oil content (0,97%) with low menthol content. Higher

levels of Ca and Mg, and low level of P enhanced the leaves oil content (1,37; 1,52 and 1,41

respectively), without significant alterations in quality. N and Mg important interactions were

observed, affecting menthol content in the oil. As the N levels rise, the menthol response to

Mg contents in the solution was positive. In solutions with low concentrations of N, the

menthol content in the essential oil increased as the Mg concentration decreased.

Karimaei et al (2004) reported the application of Massantini solution was applied in

two concentrations (complete 100 % and half 50 % strength). Plants were harvested before

8

heading and their growth characters. N, P and K concentrations with their ratios were

determined. Hoagland nutrient solution had the strongest effect, followed by Massantini 50%.

N and P concentrations in lettuce plants grown on Hoagland solution, were closer to DRIS

(Diagnosis Recommendation Integrated System) norms of lettuce. Growth rate, most of

growth characters and N, P and K concentrations were negatively correlated with the solution

pH in most cultivars. Solutions EC showed negative correlation with some growth characters

such as leaf number, leaf dry weight and K concentration. pH and EC of Hoagland solution

were closer to those which have been suggested for soilless culture of lettuce. The black

seeded cultivar had more leaf number than the others on all nutrient solutions, especially in

Massantini 50%. The highest total dry weight of leaves referred to the black seeded cultivar

on Massantini 50% solution but there was no significant difference between this treatment

and Olimpo cultivar on Hoagland nutrient solution.

Silva et al (2005) evaluated the effect of nutrient solutions with or without Tris-HCl

buffer, on sporulation of AMF. The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse using a

substrate with sand and vermiculite (1:1 v/v). Fifty spores of Gigaspora margarita,

Scutellospora heterogama, and Glomusetunicatum were inoculated in Sorghum vulgare

(sorghum) or Panicummiliaceum (fodder millet). The substrate received the following

nutrient solutions: Hoagland with 3 μM P (S1); Long Ashton II with 15.9 μM P (S2) and

Hoagland with 20 μM P (S3), with or without 50 mM of Tris-HCl buffer (pH 6.5); the control

treatment, consisting of a soil + sand + vermiculite (2:1:1 v/v) substrate was irrigated with

deionized water. Ten weeks after the beginning of the experiment sporulation did not differ in

treatments with sorghum. Panicummiliaceum promoted higher sporulation of the AMF than

sorghum, and differences among treatments with nutrient solutions were observed. Production

of spores of G. margarita and S. heterogama increased significantly after addition of buffer in

S1 and S2, while that of G. etunicatum was improved when the substrate was irrigated with

S1 + buffer and S3 solutions. Solution S1 + buffer benefited sporulation of the three fungi.

However, as observed, each AMF, host, and substrate system may be studied separately for

establishment of the most favorable conditions for inoculum production.

Orsini and Pascale (2007) studied the effects of cultivar, nutrient solution strength

and light intensity on daily variation of nitrate content in basil (Ocimum basilicum

L.) leaves. A glasshouse experiment was carried out in Naples (Portici, Italy) from the 26th of

May to the 5th of July 2005.Plants of two basil cultivars („Napoletano‟ and „Genovese‟) were

cultivated on floating system with aerated nutrient solution replaced every week. Two

nutrient solutions were compared: single strength Hoagland (H) and double strength

Hoagland (2H). Thirty days after transplanting (DAT), the plants grown in the 2Hsolution

were divided into two different shading treatments: 0% (control) and50% shading obtained by

using a 50% cut-off screen. On 29th of June (34 DAT), leaf nitrate content was measured five

9

times during the day (at 6:30am, 10:30am, 1:00pm, 4:00pm and 6:30pm) on „Genovese‟ and

„Napoletano‟ plants grown in H and 2H solution. On the 5th of July (40DAT), the leaf nitrate

content was measured on plants grown at full sun light and 50%shading, only in 2H solution.

Nutrient solution strength affected leaf nitrate content, which was higher in leaves of plants

grown in the 2H solution. Plants at 50% shading showed higher leaf nitrate content compared

to the control. Leaf nitrate content decreased during the day in response to light intensity.

Plants of the cultivar „Napoletano‟ showed the largest leaf area and the lowest leaf dry matter

percentage, nevertheless no significant differences were observed in terms of nitrate contents

between the two cultivars.

Hochmuth and Hochmuth (2008) formulated the nutrient solution for hydroponic

tomatoes. Plants require 16 elements for growth, which they get from air, water and

fertilizers. Author focused on all nutrients without C,H and O as these nutrients are available

in desired quantity from air and water. Different level of nutrients are required at different

stages of tomatoes. In the starting small amount was required after that need for nutrition

increases. Due to excessive amount of N bullish growth distorts the leaves and stems causing

cracks and groves from where decay causing organisms can enter. Higher amount of K don‟t

allow Ca and Mg to be absorbed by plant so accurate and controlled nutrition level was

required for the proper growth and yield of tomato plant. The first step was to analyze the

well water which was having pH of 6.5. Ca and small amount of Mg was also present which

was helpful for plants. The formulation was done by two methods 1) The premixed products,

2) Grower formulated solution. Premixed products were fairly close to provide the nutrients

but some products were having high amount of K and N which restricts the absorption of Ca

so either high Ca must be used but it was better if less K and N was used. In the second

method 4 different formulas were formulated in which different chemicals were used to

provide different nutrients to the tomatoes.

Natarajan et al (2008) investigated the effects of plant density and nutrient levels

onarsenic (As) removal by the As-hyper accumulator Pterisvittata L. (Chinese brake fern). All

ferns were grown in plastic tanks containing 30 L of As-contaminated groundwater

(130μg·L−1

As) collected from South Florida. The treatments consisted of four plant densities

(zero, one, two, or four plants per 30 L), two nitrogen (N) concentrations (50% or 100% of0.25-

strength Hoagland solution [HS]), and two phosphorous (P) concentrations (15% and 30% of

0.25 strength HS). At 15% P, it took 3 week for the ferns at a plant density of four to reduce As

to less than 10 μg L−1

(USEPA and WHO standard), whereas it took 4–6 week at plant densities

of one or two. For reused ferns, established plants with more extensive roots than “first-time”

ferns, a low plant density of one plant/30 L was more effective, reducing As in water to less

than 10 μg L−1 in 8 h. This translated to an As removal rate of 400 μgh−1plant−1, which was the

highest rate reported to date. Arsenic-concentration in tanks with no plants as a control remained

10

high throughout the experiment. Using more established ferns supplemented with dilute nutrients

(0.25 HS with 25% N and 15% P) with optimized plant density (one plant per 30 L) reduced

interplant competition and secondary contamination from nutrients, and could be recommended

for phyto filtration of As-contaminated ground water. They demonstrated that P. vittata was

effective in remediating As-contaminated groundwater to meet recommended standards.

Ashari and Gholami (2009) studied the effect of the chloride ion in nutrient solution

on yield and fruit quality of two strawberry cultivars: „Selva‟ and „Camarosa‟ grown in

hydroponic culture. Three kinds of nutrient solutions were used: 1) Hoagland-Arnon solution

as control; 2) Hoagland-Arnon in which potassium nitrate was replaced with potassium

chloride and ammonium nitrate was added as a nitrogen source and 3) the previous medium

supplemented with 1.5 mmol l-1 magnesium chloride. In second solution, Plant growth, total

fruit yield, fruit firmness and leaf chlorophyll content were higher than the others two

solution. There was no significant difference between three solutions in case of single fruit

weight, soluble solids content and fruit dry weight. The results showed that adding the

chloride ion to the nutrient solution had no negative effects on fruit quality and leaf

chlorophyll content.

Avalhaes et al (2009) evaluated the effect of emission of macronutrients in the

growth and the nutritional state of elephant-grass plants in Brazil. The design was randomized

blocks with seven treatments in which the solution was proposed by Hoagland and Arnon.

The individual omission of N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S from those solution in three repetitions. the

height of the plants, the leaf number, apex diameter and number of tillers were evaluated as

well as plant nutritional state. The omission of N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S limited the production

of dry weight of shoot of the elephant grass, compared to the full treatment.

Roosta and Hamidpur (2011) studied the effect of foliar application of nutrients in

aquaponic and hydroponic system. The systems were compared in aquaponic system nutrients

which were excreted directly by the fish by the microbial breakdown of organic wastes were

absorbed by plants cultured hydroponically. Common carp, grass carp and silver carp were

stocked in the rearing tanks at 15, 20 and 15 fish m-3

. This water was circulated and was

source of nutrients for aquaponic system in addition to that Fe was also added due to

deficiency of Fe .Tap water was used for compensating water loses. Fishes were given pallet

diet, having 46% protein. Foliar application started after 30 days containing K2SO4,

MgSO4·7H2O, FeEDDHA, MnSO4·H2O, H3BO3, ZnCl2 and CuSO4.5H2O. Biomass gains of

tomatoes were higher in hydroponics as compared to aquaponic. Foliar application of K, Mg,

Fe, Mn and B increased vegetative growth of plants in the aquaponic. In the hydroponic, only

Fe and B had positive effects on plant growth. The foliar application was significant on both

the systems except by element Cu. The effect of different elements was in order of K > Fe

>Mn> Zn > Mg > B.

11

Shah et al (2011) studied the effect of different nutrient solutions for growing

tomatoes in non circulating hydroponic system. „Rio-Grande‟ variety of tomatoes was grown

in 13 litre plastic trash bin using cooper‟s 1988 and Imai‟s 1987 solutions in greenhouse. Half

and full strength of these solutions was also analyzed. Cooper‟s nutrient solution at full

strength consisted of (mg L-1

) N-236, P 60, K 300, Ca 185, Mg 50, S 68, FE (EDTA) 12, Mn

2.0, Zn 0.1 , Cu 0.1 , B 0.3, Mo 0.2. At half strength Cooper‟s solution consisted of (mg L-1

)

N 118, P 30, K 150, Ca 92.5, Mg 25, S 34, Fe 6, Mn 1.0, Zn 0.1 , Cu 0.1 , B 0.15, Mo 0.2.

Imai‟s solution at full strength consisted of (mg L-1

) NO3-N 140.0, P 35.05, K 360.22, Ca

160.16, Mg 48.60, Fe (EDTA) 3.0, Mn 0.5, Cu 0.02, Zn 0.05, B 0.5, Mo 0.01. The ½ strength

solution consisted of (mg L-1

) NO3-N 70.0, P 17.52, K 180.06, Ca 80.08, Mg 24.1 8, Fe

(EDTA) 3.0, Mn 0.5, Cu 0.02, Zn 0.05, B 0.5 and Mo 0.01.Data of Number of days to first

flowering, number of days to first harvest fruit weight (g), fruit diameter (cm), fruit yield,

plant height /stem length (m), number of leaves, amount of nutrients solution consumed

(Liters), Crop revenues obtained (Rs), Cost-benefit-ratio (in Rs) was collected and analyzed.

The tomato grown in Cooper‟s 1988 recipe Half and full strength solutions produced flowers

earlier, fruits also harvested earlier, plants developed more flower clusters, more fruits, The

average fruit weight was higher, the fruit diameter was also more and excessive yield than

those grown in Imai‟s solution. The cost benefit ratio (CBR) values on total cost container

basis were also better but on solution chemical cost basis it was not good.

Bamsey et al (2012) reported development of a potassium-selective optode for

hydroponic nutrient solution monitoring. The developed sensors had been shown to exhibit a

potassium activity measuring range from 0.134 to 117 mM at pH 6.0. These bulk optodes

showed full scale response on the order of several minutes. They showed minimal

interference to other cations and meet worst-case selectivity requirements for potassium

monitoring in the considered half strength Hoagland solution. When continuously immersed

in nutrient solution, these sensors demonstrated predicable lifetimes on the order of 50 hour.

The low-cost and technology transfer potential suggested that it could provide terrestrial

growers a new and reliable mechanism to obtain ion-selective knowledge of their nutrient

solution, improving yields, reducing costs and aiding in compliance to continually more

stringent environmental regulation.

Matsuda et al (2012) suggested that using greenhouse tomato as a model system to

produce pharmaceutical proteins, electrical conductivity (EC) of hydroponic nutrient solution

was examined as a possible factor that effects the protein concentration in fruit. Transgenic

tomato plants, expressing F1-V protein, a plant-made candidate subunit vaccine against

plague (Yersinia pestis), were grown hydroponically at high (5.4 dS·m−1

) or conventional EC

[2.7 dS·m−1(control)] with a high-wire system in a temperature-controlled greenhouse. There

was no significant difference in plant growth and development including final shoot dry

12

weight (DW), leaf area, stem elongation rate, or leaf development rate between high EC and

control. Net photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, and stomatal conductance (gS) of leaves

were also not significantly different between EC treatments. For both EC treatments,

immature green fruit accumulated DW at a similar rate, but dynamics observed in fruit total

soluble protein (TSP) and F1-V during the fruit growth were different between the two ECs.

Fruit TSP concentration per unit DW decreased while TSP content per whole fruit increased

as fruit grew, regardless of EC. However, TSPs were significantly lower in high EC than in

control. Fruit F1-V concentration per unit DW and F1-V content per whole fruit were also

lower in high EC than in control. They found in their results that increasing EC of nutrient

solution decreased TSP including the vaccine protein in fruit, suggesting that adjusting

nutrient solution EC at an appropriate level is necessary to avoid salinity stress in this

transgenic tomato.

Johnson et al (2013) developed a method that was consistent and effective, and

demonstrates dramatic differences among formulations. It involved peach (Prunuspersica

„Nemaguard‟) seedlings grown in washed sand and fertilized with 10% Hoagland solution

minus zinc. Once the seedlings were about 30 to 40 cm in height, began to show typical zinc

deficiency symptoms of narrow, pointed, chlorotic leaves at the shoot tip. Plants were then

sprayed with different zinc formulations and fertilizer strength was increased to 40%

Hoagland solution to help promote vigorous growth and stimulate lateral shoots. There was

also an increase in individual leaf area on the primary shoot and in zinc concentration of the

new growth. By completion of the fourth and last experiment it was concluded that

effectiveness of zinc formulations was related to solubility and size of the accompanying

anion.

Pezzarossa et al (2013) studied the effects of selenium on tomato plants grown in

hydroponics. Se added to the nutrient solution was absorbed by roots and accumulated both in

the leaves and fruits. The rate of adding Sodium selenate in nutrient solution was 0 mg Se L-1

and 1 mg Se L-1

. It was reported that addition of Se did not influence the cumulative yield of

tomato plants. However the harvesting of control plants began earlier than Se treated plants.

Addition of Se affects the carotene content which was lower in red ripe fruit. Lower amount

of carotene content in fruit would lead to delay in ripening of fruit. Ripening - related

process, such as the degradation of chlorophyll and the synthesis of carotenoids were affected

by Se. 100 g of tomato hydroponically grown with a nutrient solution supplemented with Se

provide a total of 58 µg Se. Daily consumption of 100g enriched tomato does not have

toxicity rather it had nutritive advantage to the human.

Li and Cheng (2014) showed that Light-emitting diode (LED), as an efficient, energy-

saving light source, had been widely used in artificial light plant production systems. It was

confirmed that the combination of red and blue LED lights shows good performance on plant

13

growth and development. Based on the hydroponic culture system in plant production factory,

selection of a suitable nutrient solution for specific crop would be very important. In this

study, it was reported that the four different widely used nutrient solutions (Hoagland,

Garden-style, Yamasaki, and SCAU) were used and were tested in perlite culture cucumber

seedlings during 40-day growth under 2:1 ratio of LED lights with 12 h photoperiod at 100 ±

5 μmol m−2

s−1

irradiance. The plant growth, morphology, pigments, biomass, photosynthetic

characteristics, and nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) content were measured.

Cucumber seedlings treated with formula SCAU showed weak appearance, less biomass, and

reduced photosynthetic activity compared with those supplied with Hoagland. However, the

differences between formulae Garden-style and Yamasaki were not obvious, but both of them

showed significantly higher plant height, leaf area, total leaf number, and shoot N content

compared to SCAU. It was concluded that formula Hoagland showed better performance

regarding cucumber seedling growth under LED light.

Niu et al (2015)conducted a study to evaluated the feasibility of producing eucalyptus

seedlings hydroponically, and investigate if the seedling growth and morphology could be

manipulated through regulated hydroponic nutrient supply in Georgia. The study focused on

phosphorus nutrition since it was one of the commonly growth limiting plant nutrient

element. Two important eucalypts species Eucalyptus dunnii and Corymbiacitriodora were

grown hydroponically in a greenhouse at six P concentrations (0, 0.01, 0.1, 0.5, 1 and 2 mM)

for two months with 1/4 strength modified (different P concentrations) Hoagland solution in a

glass greenhouse. Phosphorus nutrition significantly affected seedlings‟ leaf area, height, stem

diameter and biomass (p < 0.0001). Seedlings of both species had optimal growth between 0.1

mM and 1 mM P concentrations, while the lowest (0 and 0.01 mM P) and highest (2 mM P) P

concentrations resulted in stunted seedlings. The reduction in growth at the highest P

concentration (2mM) was possibly caused by inorganic phosphorus (Pi) toxicity,

micronutrient unavailability and uptake antagonism due to excessive P. There was a close

relationship between the Hoagland solution P concentration, plant tissue P and nitrogen (N)

concentration. Phosphorus use efficiency (PUE) was highest at lower (0.01 mM) P

concentrations (13 g mM−1 for C. citriodora and 19 g mM−1 for E. dunniii). Low P

concentration (0.1 mM) was sufficient to produce good quality seedlings in both species. The

studied confirmed that hydroponic system could be used successfully to produce high vigor

woody plants seedlings.

2.2.2 Nutrient Film Technique

Sherif et al (1995) studied the use of Nutrient film technique (NFT) and deep water

culture (DWC) hydroponic systems in a split-root to study the effect of four treatments on

sweet potato yield, the translocation of assimilates, deionized water and a modified half-

Hoagland (MHH) solution. After 30 days, the plants were removed and the roots of each were

14

cleaned and split evenly between two sides of a channel, four plants per channel. Replicated

treatments were: MHH/MHH; MHH/Air, MHH/deoinized water (DIW); and

monovalent/divalent anions and cations (Mono/Dival). The entire experiment was repeated.

Plants were harvested after growing for 120 days in a glasshouse. Storage roots, when

produced were similar in nutritive components. However, no storage roots were produced in

air or mono channels and only a few in DIW suggesting inhibition of assimilate translocation.

Fresh and dry weights for storage roots and foliage were highest in MHH/MHH in both NFT

and DWC in both experiments. Solution samples were collected at 14-day intervals for

microbial population profiling. Microbial counts were highest in Dival channels. The counts

indicated that solution composition influenced population size and they were relatively high

in both systems.

Mortley et al (1996) evaluated Nutrient film technique (NFT) under controlled

environment conditions. Growth chamber conditions included photosynthesis photon flux

(PPF) of 600 µmol m-2

s-1

, 14/10 light/dark period and 70%+5% RH. Plants were grown using

a modified half- Hoagland nutrient solution with a pH range of 5.5-6.0 and an electrical

conductivity of 0.12 Sm-1

. Gas exchange measurements were made using infrared gas

analysis, an open-flow gas exchange system, and a controlled-climate cuvette. Photosynthetic

measurements were made at CO2 ranges of 50 to 1000 µmol mol-1

. Storage root dry

yield/plant increased with CO2 up to 750 but declined at 1000 µmol mol-1

. Storage root dry

matter and foliage dry weight increased with increasing CO2. Harvest index for both cultivars

was highest at 750 µmol mol-1

. The PPF vs Pn curves were typical for C3 plants with

saturation occurring at 600µmol m-2

s-1

. CO2 concentration did not significantly influence net

Pn, transpiration, water-use efficiency (WUE) and stomatal conductance. As measurement

CO2 concentration increased, net Pn and WUE increased while transpiration and stomatal

conductance decreased.

Mortley et al (1998) determined whether growth and subsequent yield would be

affected by intercropping. Treatments were sweet potato monoculture (SP), peanut

monoculture (PN) and sweet potato and peanut grown in separate NFT channels but sharing a

common nutrient solution (SP- PN). Greenhouse conditions ranged from 24 to 330

C, 60% to

90% relative humidity and photosynthesis photon flux of 200-1700µmol m-2

s-1

. Sweet potato

cuttings and 14 day old seedlings of peanuts were planted into growth channels. Plants were

spaced 25 cm apart within and 25 cm apart between growing channels. A modified half -

Hoagland solution with a 1N : 2,4 K ratio was used. Solution pH was maintained between 5.5

and 6.0 for treatments involving SP and 6.4 and 6.7 for PN. Electrical conductivity (EC)

ranged between 1100 and 1200 µScm-1

. The number of storage roots per sweet potato plant

was similar for both SP and SP-PN. Storage root fresh and dry mass were 29% and 36%

greater, respectively for plants in the storage roots were similar for SP and SP-PN sweet

15

potato plants. Likewise, foliage fresh and dry mass and harvest index were not significantly

influenced by treatment. Total dry mass was 37 % greater for PN than for SP-PN peanut

plants, and pod dry mass was 82% higher. Mature and total seed dry mass and fibrous root

dry mass were significantly greater for PN than for SP-PN plants. Harvest index was similar

for both treatments. Root length tended to be lower for seedlings grown in the nutrient

solution from the SP-PN treatment.

Jones (1999a) studied a new hydroponic growing system i.e. aqua nutrient growing

system. The system was based on the concept that constant supply of water and a low

constant supply of nutrients were sufficient to sustain plant growth. In the aqua nutrient

growing system, plants were grown in a confined vessel with the constant maintenance of a

Hoagland based nutrient solution at the bottom of the growing vessel. The container restricted

root growth which may had contributed to increase top growth and fruit yield.

Bharathy et al (2003) studied to find a suitable media for rooting of carnation cuttings

under poly house conditions. The media used were sand, cocopeat, vermicompost, perlite,

sand + cocopeat, sand + vermicompost, perlite + cocopeat and perlite + vermicompost.

Cuttings set in vermicompost rooted earliest (9.78 days) followed by perlite + cocopeat and

sand + vermicompost. The percentage of root number, rooted cuttings, mean root length, dry

and fresh weight of roots was highest in vermicompost followed by perlite + cocopeat.

Cuttings rooted in perlite + cocopeat sprouted earliest (30.3 days).

Bugbee (2004) studied the nutrient management in recirculating hydroponic culture.

To recirculate and reuse of nutrient solutions in order to reduce environmental and economic

costs. The weakest points in hydroponic was the lack of information on managing the nutrient

solution. Many growers and research scientists dump out nutrient solutions and refill at

weekly intervals. Other authors had recommended measuring the concentrations of individual

nutrients in solution as a key to nutrient control and maintenance. Dumping and replacing

solution was unnecessary. Monitoring ions in solution was not always necessary. The rapid

depletion of some nutrients often causes people to add toxic amounts of nutrients to the

solution. Monitoring ions in solution was interesting, but it was not the key to effective

maintenance.

Signore et al (2008) reported that in closed soilless systems, the nutrient solutions

must have a high electric conductivity (EC). Comparison was done by two different ways of

increasing EC for tomatoes grown by nutrient film technique (NFT) The initial EC of the

nutrient solution was increased by doubling the concentration of macro nutrients or adding

NaCl in order to maintain EC above 3.5 dS m -1

.It was concluded that the addition of NaCl

allowed a meaningful reduction in the quantities of nutrients utilized with inclusive savings of

11 % for S and 20 % for P without any meaning decrease in marketable yield.

16

Parks et al (2009) reported use of composted pine bark and coir as substrate in soilless

growing of cucumber and tomatoes in Australia. There was a great potential to improve water

and nutrient use efficiencies. The greenhouses had low-cost simple structures, commonly

covered with polyethylene plastic. Design of the structure for hydroponics depend upon the

system like soilless culture or Nutrient Film Technique and the substrate must be carefully

chosen.

Smolen et al (2013) studied the possibility of simultaneous bio-fortification of crop

lettuce with iodine and selenium through the nutrient medium in the hydroponic system of

nutrient film technique (NFT). It was observed that there was high efficiency of iodine and

selenium bio-fortification of lattuce plants after foliar application than through its introduction

into the nutrient medium. Studies were conducted according to a two- factor experiment with

greenhouse cultivation of lettuce in which five sub –blocks (units) with the introduction of

selenium and iodine into the nutrient medium were distinguished: (1) control, (2) 0.5 mg Se

dm-3

, (3) 1 mg I dm-3

, (4) 0.5 mg Se dm-3

+ 1 mg I dm-3

, (5) 1.5 mg Se dm-3

+ 1mg I dm-3

the

respective molar concentration were as (2) 6.33µM Se, (3)7.88 µM I, (4) 6.33 µM Se +

7.88µM I, (5) 19µM Se + 7.88µM I. Each sub-block included four combinations with five –

time foliar treatment with: (A) distilled water, (B) 0.005% Se (0.633 mM Se), (C) 0.05% I

(3.94mM I), (D) 0.005% Se + 0.05% (0.633mM Se + 3.94mM I). Iodine and selenium were

applied in the form of KIO3 and Na2SeO4 respectively. It was concluded that the foliar

spaying with IO3-

and SeO42was not having affect on root uptake of iodine and selenium

present in the nutrient medium. Foliar application of iodine together with selenium improved

SeO42absorption by leaves when compared to plant sprayed only with Se.

Asker (2015) studied the potential of nutrient film technique (NFT) hydroponic

system for flowers and bulbs production of the Asiatic hybrid lily cv. “Blackout” using

rainwater and nutrient solutions (Hoagland No. 2 Basal Salt Mixture, Murashige and Skoog

Basal Salt Mixture and White‟s Basal Salt) with rock wool cubes as medium with or without

removal of flower buds and mother bulb scales in university of Baghdad. The NFT

hydroponic system was an excellent method to produce lily flowers in 55 days. The rainwater

contained some amounts of macro and micro elements in forms that plants can absorb. The

rainwater had a pH value 6.20 which was suitable for plant growth. The NFT hydroponic

system was shown to be the most effective for bulblets and daughters production, but

different solutions showed different results and the Hoagland solution and Murashige and

Skoog solution gave the best results related to the production of these propagated storage

organs.

2.2.3 Crops grown hydroponically in greenhouse

Bradley and Marulanda (2000) reported the use of simplified hydroponic technology

which reduces the land requirement for crops by 75% or more and water used by 90%.

17

Residual effect of chemicals to the environment was negligible. No residual salts were

released to environment as nutrients were recycled in the system.

Moraru et al (2004) identified the most appropriate cultivar for direct consumption

and processing for NASA‟s Advanced Life Support (ALS) program. Ten hydroponically

grown processing tomatoes cultivars were grown under semi-controlled environment

conditions at a Rugers University greenhouse. Evaluation of cultivars on the basis of

performance using growth and yield indicators, physical / chemical indexes and sensory

testing. The values of indexes remained in the typical ranges for processing tomatoes but most

quality indexes showed significant difference between cultivars. SUN 6177 was the best

cultivar in growth, yield and physical / chemical characteristics. They had compared the

hydroponically grown fresh consumption, processing tomatoes and as well as for evaluating

the effects of hydroponic growth on processing tomatoes on the basis of data generated.

Carmassi et al (2005) concluded that tomato crop in closed hydroponics systems can

help in reducing the pollution of water resources, because of reduction in water and fertilizer

consumption in this type of system.

Millan et al (2008) studied the effects of Cd in tomato that was grown in controlled

environment in hydroponics. Cd concentration of 10 and 100µM were used in this

experiment. Cd treatment led to major effects in shoots and roots of tomato. Plant growth was

reduced in both treatments. Leaves showed chlorosis symptoms when grown at 10µM Cd and

necrotic spots when grown at 100 µM Cd but roots browning was observed in both

treatments. Cd excess caused several alterations on photosynthetic rates, photosynthetic

pigments and chlorophyll fluorescence as well as in nutrient homeostasis. Cd helps in

increases in the activities of several enzymes from the krebs cycle were measured in roots

extracts of tomato plants grown. In leaf extracts, significant increases in citrate synthase,

isocitrate dehydrogenase and malate dehydrogenase activities were also found in 100µM Cd

whereas fumarase activity decreased. In this, author observed that low Cd supply (10µM)

tomato plants accumulated Cd in roots and this mechanism may be associated to an increased

activity in the PEPC-MDH-CS metabolic pathway involved in citric acid synthesis in roots.

At low Cd supply author observed moderate Fe deficiency whereas high Cd supply (100μM)

effects the growth caused by excess Cd.

Steidle et al (2009) reported that automatic control system provided irrigation and

nutrients without affecting crop production and conventional control system. It applied excess

irrigation, mainly during the initial crop development period and during cloudy conditions

throughout the crop cycle. The amount of irrigation requirement and nutrient requirement was

increased from optimal level in conventional control system.

Varlagas et al (2010) investigated to simulated the uptake concentrations of Na+ and Cl-

in hydroponic tomato crops in the root zone. Three experiments were conducted in which one

18

was carried out to calibrate the model using irrigation water with NaCl concentration ranging

from 0- 14.7 mol m-3

and other two were conducted to validate the model within either low 0.5–

2 mol m-3

or high 1.2- 12 mol m-3

concentration range. Uptake concentration of Na+ was predict

easily but of Cl-

not less than 10 mol m-3

.The Na+

concentration in the root environment

increased due to the efficient exclusion of Na+

by tomato although Na+

concentration in the

irrigation was low. The results indicated that tomato genotypes characterized by high salt-

exclusion efficiency, to maintain Na+

at levels lower than 19 mol m3 in the root zone of the

tomato hybrid.

Meric et al (2011) studied the effects of nutrition systems and irrigation programs on

soilless grown tomato plants under polyethylene covered unheated greenhouse conditions.

Two nutrition systems one open and other one closed were taken and also three irrigation

programs (i) high, (ii) medium, (iii) low based on integrated indoor solar radiations triggering

thresholds (1 MJm-2

[0.4mm], 2 MJm-2

[0.8mm] and 4 MJm-2

[1.6mm]) in both nutrition

systems were been tested. In this they have calculated water use efficiency, evapo-

transpiration, applied and discharged nutrient solution and total marketable yield. Result

showed, the highest total yield had been obtained from the open system with 11 % and 7.2%

increase in autumn and spring season. Water use efficiency (WUE) of treatment varied

between 33-55kg/m3 in autumn and 26-35 kg/m

3 spring. They noticed the highest WUE

values in 4 MJ m-2

and in the closed system in both growing season. It was concluded that the

closed system and infrequent irrigations increased water use efficiency while decrease in yield

and discharged nutrient solution.

Castillo et al (2014) reported the water use efficiency and nutrients as well as the

yield in growing tomato in open and closed hydroponic systems. The experimental design

was randomized blocks with five replications and five treatments. 1) beds without

recirculation of drainage (open bed); 2) beds with recirculation of drainage (closed bed); 3)

bags without recirculation of drainage (open bag); 4) bags with recirculation of drains (closed

bag), 5) deep hydroponics. With the data an ANOVA was performed and means were

compared using the Tukey test (p≤0.05). Morphological traits, yield, water use and fertilizers

were measured. The highest yields were obtained with deep hydroponics (16.7 kg m-2

) and

with closed bags (15.3 kg m-2

) in a crop cycle of four months. The fertilizer savings (K, Ca,

N and P) in recirculation systems with substrate was 41 % and 35 % of water in relation to the

systems without recirculation.

Galvez et al (2014) studied the impact of reclaimed and surface water on the

microbiological safety of hydroponic tomatoes. Tomatoes were grown in greenhouse on two

hydroponic substrates i.e. coconut fiber and rock wool and they were irrigated with reclaimed

and surface water. Water samples were taken from irrigation water with or without the

addition of fertilizers and drainage water and hydroponic tomatoes. In irrigation water,

19

generic E.coli counts were higher in reclaimed than in surface water whereas Listeria spp.

Numbers increased after adding the fertilizers in both water sources. In drainage water, no

clear differences in E.coli and Listeria numbers were observed between reclaimed and surface

water. Presumptive positives for salmonella spp. were found in 7.7% of the water samples and

62.5% of these samples were reclaimed water. Concentration of E.coli was high when it was

associated with Salmonella presumptive positive samples. Tomato samples were negative for

bacterial pathogens, while generic E. coli and Listeria spp. counts were below the detection

limit. They concluded that the absence of pathogens on greenhouse hydroponic tomatoes

indicates good agricultural practices in which the microbial contamination were avoided.

Rosberg et al (2014) studied the closed hydroponic growing systems that has been

commonly used for greenhouse production of vegetables. One of the main problems

associated with these systems was the potential spread of plant root pathogens. The purpose

of this study was to investigate whether Community Level Physiological Profiling (CLPP)

could be used as a method to monitor changes in the rhizosphere microbial communities

inflicted by a pathogen. It was studied the microbial communities of the roots from three

different physiological stages of Pythiumultimum inoculated and non-inoculated tomato

plants, with culture-dependent (CLPP and viable counts) and culture-independent methods

(PCR–DGGE). The results showed that the presence of P. ultimum changed the utilization of

carbon sources by the root microbiota, and significant differences were found between

inoculated and non-inoculated plants. However, the differences in utilization patterns were

larger between plant physiological stages than between treatments. Also with the results from

PCR–DGGE it was confirmed that plant age was a stronger driver of the community structure

than the introduction of a pathogen. CLPP was hence a good method for examining changes

in microbial communities related to plant development, but regarding changes caused by the

presence of a pathogen the method shows less potential.

2.2.4 Growing media

Tsakaldimi (2006) studied the aeration and water retention of cocopeat varying from

11-53 and 50-81 percent respectively. Incorporation of coarser materials into cocopeat

resulted in improved aeration status of the media. Materials such as burnt rice husk, FYM,

CSS, LM and perlite could be used to improve the air –water relationship of cocopeat. Rice

hull obtained after shelling of rice had been reported to have low WHC and high pore space.

Raw rice hull had been used as a substitute for organic or inorganic components to replace

vermiculite and perlite and was reported to be effective in improving drainage or aeration of

growing media.

Ghazvini et al (2007) reported that in soilless media where perlite and zeolite was

used, plants grow up to two times faster with higher yields than with conventional soil

farming methods due to high oxygen levels to the root system, optimum pH levels for

20

increased nutrient and water uptake and optimum balanced and high grade nutrient solutions.

It was suggested to add zeolite if perlite is not available or if cost efficiency is taken into

account.

Clematis et al (2008) reported the occurrence of suppressiveness to Fusarium

oxysporum f. sp. Radicislycoperisici (FORL) on recycled perlite and perlite-peatmix from

closed and open soilless systems. They took nine soilless samples from three different areas in

Northern and Southern Italy. They considered different parameters like sampling site,

growing period before sampling, electric conductivity of the nutrient solution, tomato

cultivator and irrigation system. They found significant drop in disease for an average decline

in 44.4% - 61.9% in new perlite to 2.5%- 36.3% in recycle one. In new perlite peat mix the

decreased disease average ranging from 35.9% - 75.2% to 0.4%-26.4% in recycled perlite

peat mix.

Pardossi et al (2009) reported that in tomato plants grown in closed-loop substrate

(rockwool) culture using irrigation water with a NaCl concentration of approx. 9.5 mmol L -1

there was no important effects of the fertigation strategies on crop water uptake, total and

commercial yield and the quality of marketable fruits. The management strategy which aims

to maintain a constant nutrient concentration in the root zone is option I and a parallel

depletion of nutrients, if the nutrient replenishment was based on a feedback control of EC

was option II. The frequency of flushing was similar in all semi-closed systems and there

were no important differences in water drainage and use.

Joseph and Muthuchamy (2014) observed that there was a need for low cost, readily

available, simple, attractive technologies which could utilize space and water efficiently to

increase the productivity in agriculture. The experiment was laid out in a factorial randomized

block design replicated thrice. Three different hydroponic systems, i.e., tray, trough & pot and

three different media combinations, i.e., cocopeat + gravel + silex stone, cocopeat + pebble +

silex stone and cocopeat + perlite + silex stone, constituted the factors of the treatments. The

maximum yield (4.9 kg/plant) was observed for the treatment trough with cocopeat + gravel +

silex stone followed by trough with cocopeat + perlite + silex stone and trough with cocopeat

+ pebble + silex stone with values 4.2 and 3.9 kg/ plant respectively. The treatment T2 (tray

with cocopeat + pebble + silex stone) yielded least (2.8kg/plant) with a productivity of 138.3

t/ha. Regarding productivity, quality and economics, the treatment T4 trough with cocopeat +

gravel + silex stone (in the ratio 2:1:1v / v) performed best and could be adopted for

commercial production of tomato.

2.2.5 Quality of fruits in greenhouse

Jovicich et al (2007) reported that in greenhouse cucumber crop required one third of

the amount of water, 28% less nitrogen and 23% less potassium per kilogram of fruit

21

compared to field grown cucumber crop. In greenhouse there was greater fruit yield, fruit

quality and more crop water and nutrient used efficiency than open field

Nadica et al (2007) reported the internal quality parameters of tomato like dry matter

and soluble dry matter (°Bx), total acidity (% citric acid), pH, % NaCl and L-ascorbic acid of

the hydroponically grown tomatoes in rock wool slabs . The dry matter content was 4.29 % to

6.21 % , and content of soluble dry matter was 3.0% to 4.5% . Total acidity amounted from

0.19% to 0.45% , and pH values ranged from 4.20 to 4.68 . Salt content ranged from 0.08%

to 0.13% , and L-ascorbic acid content ranged from 260.40 to 458.30 mg/dry matter

accounted for satisfactory fruit quality.

Maboko et al (2011) studied the effect of plant population, fruit and stem pruning on

quality and yield of hydroponically grown tomato by using an open bag hydroponic system

containing sawdust as a growing medium. Results showed that fruit pruning was not

necessary for tomatoes grown hydroponically in a shade net structure, while allowing plants

to had two stems at a plant population of 3 plants per m2 which resulted in increased quality

and yield of tomatoes.

Ehret et al (2013) reported that oxygen radical absorbance capacity, lutein, β-

carotene, lycopene, and vitamin C concentrations increased with EC. β-Carotene, lycopene,

lutein, and vitamin C concentration have no effect of light but there concentration changes

with the change in temperature. Antioxidants responded more strongly to light and

temperature than to EC.

The above review of literature reveals that sufficient research work on the

development of hydroponic system for greenhouse for tomato including its plant parameters,

yield parameters and quality parameters had not been undertaken in Punjab, India. So the

present study on the development of hydroponic system for greenhouse tomato has been

planned.

CHAPTER III

MATERIAL AND METHODS

To meet the objectives experiment was carried out at Demonstration Farm of

Department of Soil and Water Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. The

chapter is divided into following sections:

3.1 Description of study area

3.2 Climate

3.3 Design and fabrication of hydroponic system

3.3.1 Components of greenhouse

3.3.2 Components of Nutrient Film Technique (NFT)

3.3.3 Design for size of pump

3.3.4 Preparation of Hoagland solution

3.4 Raising of crop

3.5 Observations

3.5.1 Yield parameters

3.5.2 Quality parameters

3.6 Statistical design

3.1 Description of study area

3.1.1 Location

Ludhiana district is situated in the central part of Punjab state and come under Malwa

region. It is located between 30 55‟ N and 75 54‟ E and elevation is 247 m above the sea

level.

3.2 Climate

The climatic zone of Ludhiana being subtropical experiences a very extreme type of

climate which is very hot in the summer (April to June) followed by a hot and humid

monsoon period (July-September) and very cold during winter (December-January).The

average rainfall of this area is 726 mm.

3.3 Design and fabrication of Hydroponic system

The hydroponic system using NFT (Nutrient Film Technique) was established under

the fan pad cooled poly house to study the effect of different concentrations of nutrient

solution on yield parameters and quality parameters. The treatments comprised of three

different nutrient solution concentrations. The soil less media mixture of cocopeat, perlite and

vermiculite (3:1:1) was used for the nursery establishment in the net pot. The seedlings of

tomato (PAU 211) were transplanted in the net pots as shown in Fig. 3.1 and thereafter placed

in the hydroponic system in the last week of March 2016. The indigenous hydroponic system

23

was designed and developed. The system was made up of PVC pipes of 4 inch diameter

placed on angle iron frame. The angle iron frame is at 75cm height from the ground surface.

The holes were drilled in the pipe of the size of net pots at spacing of 30cm as shown in Fig

3.2. The plants were transplanted in hydroponic system as shown in Fig 3.3.

Fig. 3.1 Transplanting of plants into net pots (80 mm × 70 mm) in mixture of cocopeat,

perlite and vermiculite in 3:1:1

Fig. 3.2 PVC pipes of 4 inch diameter with 6 m length each

was placed on 27 Iron angle rods

24

Fig.3.3 Transplantation of plants in PVC pipe

3.3.1 Components of greenhouse

1) Polythene: The greenhouse was made in 1008 square meter area. The greenhouse is

covered with UV stabilized poly film of 200 micron thickness.

2) Cooling pads: Cooling pads of thickness 6” were used for cooling the whole

greenhouse through which air passes and causes cooling effect. It also help in

maintaining the humidity and temperature of the greenhouse.

3) Fans: There were 8 fans in the greenhouse each size 53” 53” which help

maintaining optimum temperature and humidity inside the greenhouse.

4) Foggers: The foggers break the water into droplets of the size 90 micron and the

water is sprayed in the air in the form of fog, this also helps in maintaining the

temperature and humidity inside the greenhouse.

5) Electrical motors: There were two motors of 2 hp and 1.5 KW each. One motor was

used for wetting of cooling pads so that water could circulate in cooling pads and

another motor was used for operating foggers.

6) Thermal net: Thermal net or aluminum net is used instead of normal PVC shade net

as it helps in better maintain ace of the temperature inside the green house.

25

3.3.2Components of Nutrient Film Technique (NFT)

1. Angle Iron: A stand was prepared for supporting PVC pipe with upper V shaped

structure. Length of each stand was 6.2 m. There were 27 stand in the greenhouse.

2. PVC pipe: PVC pipe of 6 m length and 110 mm diameter were taken. Number of

pipes were 27 for in hydroponic system. 20 holes were made with the help of drill

machine on each pipe. Plant to plant spacing was 30 cm and row to row spacing was

90 cm.

3. Plant holder (Net Pots):The size of net pot was 80 mm × 70 mm.

4. Tank: The 9 tanks of capacity 100 L each were used in the system in which nutrient

solution was put. One tank for one treatment was used. The nutrient solution was re-

circulated in the same tank with the help of blind pipes of the size 16mm.

5. Pump: A low capacity submersible pump was placed in each tank to supply nutrient

solution. There were 9 submersible for the experiment. Each pump was of 20 W.

6. End caps for closing both the ends of PVC pipes: To prevent the leakage from

PVC pipes end caps were fixed on both the ends of PVC pipe.

3.3.3 Design for size of pump

The design of the pump is based on the requirement that 4mm depth of nutrient solution has

to be maintained in the 110 mm PVC pipe.

Depth of nutrient film technique, y = 4mm = 0.004 m

Internal diameter of PVC pipe, D = 0.11

Radius of pipe , r = 0.055 m

Length of PVC pipe = 6 m

Vertical distance between PVC pipe and Iron angle = 0.049m

Slope at which PVC pipes were installed 0.00816m

m0.049

Fig. 3.4 Cross sectional

area of PVC pipe

Cross section area of the pipe = 4

πd

4

π 2 (0.11)

2 = 9.5033 × 10

- 3 m

2 = 95.033 cm

2

1. =2 cos-1

d

y21

= The angle in the radians subtended by the water surface at the centre

y = depth of nutrient film technique

D = diameter of pipe

= 2 cos-1

11.0

004.021

= 2 (21.98)

= 43.970

26

2. Required cross section area of pipe, A =( ) ( – sin )

=( ) ( – sin (43.97) )

A = 1.106 × 10-4

m2

Volume required = A × length of pipe

Volume required for 1 pipe, V = 1.106 × 10-4

× 6 = 6.636 × 10-4

m3

Volume required for 3 pipes, V = 6.636 × 10-4

× 3 =1.990 × 10-3

m3

3. Wetted perimeter, P = r

= 0.055 × 43.97 × = 0.0422 m

4. Hydraulic radius, R =

= = 0.0026 m

5. Velocity, V =

Mannings coefficient, n = 0.11

slope of pipe = 24/6000 = 0.004

V =

= 0.1082 m3/s

6. Discharge, Q = ( ) A

Q = V A

Q = 0.1082 × 1.106 × 10(-4)

Discharge from 1 PVC pipe = 0.1082 × 1.106 × 10-4

= 1.196 × 10-5

m3/s = 0.0119 l/s

Discharge from 3 PVC pipe = 1.196 × 10(-5)

× 3 = 3.588 × 10-5

m3/s = 0.0358 l/s

7. Time for replacement of nutrient solution from pipe = = = 55.74 seconds

8. Discharge for given pump was 700 l/hr = 0.7 m3/hr = 1.944 × 10

-4 m

3/s = 0.194 l/s

Pressure head loss

1. Horizontal head loss

2. Vertical head loss

BC = length of pipe = 6 m

AB = Vertical height between PVC pipe from pump = 0.46 m

Total Head loss (H) = horizontal head loss (hh) + vertical head loss (hv)

1. Horizontal head loss

v1 = v2 and Z1 = Z2

Head loss (hh) = f.

f = friction losses

l = length of PVC pipe (m)

vc = critical velocity (m /s)

d = diameter of PVC pipe (m)

27

g = acceleration due to gravity (m /s2)

f = function of reynolds number

Re = for smooth pipe, Re = 2320

f = = = = 0.045

f = 0.045

g = 9.81 m/s2

hh = f. = (0.045) = 1.33 × 10-3

m

Horizontal head loss = 3.43 × 10-3

m

2. Vertical head loss

v1 = v2 and Z2> Z1

Head loss (hv) = (Z2 – Z1) + f. Z1 = 0 , Z2 = 0.46 (from datum)

hv = 0.46 + (0.045) = 0.46 + 1.33 × 10-3

= 0.461 m

Total Head loss (H) = horizontal head loss (hh) + vertical head loss (hv)

= 1.33 × 10-3

+ 0.461 = 0.462 m

Power requirement to drive the pump (P) = = =4.420 ×10-7

hp

Power requirement to drive the pump = 3.30 × 10-4

W

Table 3.1 Power of Pump

Diameter (m) 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11

Length (m) 6 18 28 50 100 150 200

Power 10-4

(W) 3.30 3.34 3.37 3.44 3.60 3.76 3.92

As the length of pipe increases, power of pump also increases if the diameter of the

PVC pipe remains constant as shown in Table 3.1.

3.3.4 Preparation of Hoagland solution

The standard composition of Hoagland solution is shown in Table. 3.2. The Hoagland

nutrient solution was prepared in laboratory. Hoagland solution consists of calcium nitrate

tetra hydrate, potassium nitrate, mono potassium phosphate, magnesium sulphate hepta

hydrate, trace elements and iron chelates. To make 1 L solution of calcium nitrate tetra

hydrate, potassium nitrate, mono potassium phosphate and magnesium sulphate hepta hydrate

28

of quantity 236.1 g, 101.1 g, 136.1g and 246.5 g respectively were mixed with distilled water

in the four beaker separately then finally each nutrient was poured in the 1 L of flask. To

make 1 L solution of trace elements, boric acid, manganese chloride tetra hydrate, zinc

sulphate hepta hydrate, copper sulphate penta hydrate and sodium molibdate of quantity 2.8

g, 1.8 g, 0.2 g, 0.1 g and 0.025 g respectively were mixed with distilled water. To make 1 L of

iron chelate, firstly 56.1 g of potassium hydroxide were taken then mixed with distilled water

to make volume of 900 ml and pH of potassium hydroxide was adjusted to 5.5 using sulphuric

acid(H2SO4). Then ethylene dia amine tetra acetic acid and iron sulphate hepta hydrate were

added in the solution of potassium hydroxide. Standard composition to make 1L Hoagland

solution consisting of quantity 7 ml , 5 ml, 2 ml, 2 ml, 1 ml, and 1 ml of calcium nitrate tetra

hydrate, potassium nitrate, mono potassium phosphate, magnesium sulphate hepta hydrate,

trace elements and iron chelates were used and mixed with distilled water as listed in Table

3.3. To make 100 L of Hoagland solution, composition of various nutrients is listed in Table

3.4.The nutrient solutions were changed after 15 days of interval in the starting age of crop

after transplanting in NFT system. The pH of the nutrient solutions were maintained in the

range of 5.5 - 6.5 for optimum growth of plants. The EC of the nutrient solutions were

maintained in the range of 1.5 – 2.5 dS/m. The time interval for changing nutrient solution

was changed according to the days after transplanting of plants. The time interval of changing

the nutrient solution is discussed in chapter 4.

Table 3.2 List of nutrients in Hoagland solution

1. Calcium nitrate tetra hydrate (Ca(NO3)2.4H2O) 236.1 g/l

2. Potassium nitrate (KNO3) 101.1 g/l

3. Mono potassium phosphate (KH2PO4) 136.1 g/l

4. Magnesium sulphate hepta hydrate (MgSO4.7H2O) 246.5 g/l

5. Trace elements (made up to 1 L)

(a) Boric acid (H3BO3) 2.8 g

(b) Manganese chloride tetra hydrate (MnCl2.4H2O) 1.8g

(c) Zinc sulphate hepta hydrate (ZnSO4.7H2O) 0.2 g

(d) Copper sulphate penta hydrate (CuSO4.5H2O) 0.1 g

(e) Sodium molibdate (NaMoO4) 0.025 g

6. Iron Chelate (FeEDTA)

(a) Ethylene dia amine tetra acetic acid (EDTA. 2Na) 10.4 g

(b) Iron sulphate hepta hydrate(FeSO4.7H2O) 7.8 g

(c) Potassium hydroxide (KOH) 56.1 g

29

Table 3.3 Composition of nutrients of Hoagland solution in 1L

1. Ca(NO3)2.4H2O 7 ml

2. KNO3 5 ml

3. KH2PO4 2 ml

4 MgSO4.7H2O 2ml

5. Trace elements 1 ml

6. FeEDTA 1 ml

Table 3.4 Concentration of Hoagland nutrients in 100L of tank

Name of nutrients 100 % 75 % 50 %

Ca(NO3)2.4H2O 700 ml 525 ml 350 ml

KNO3 500 ml 375 ml 250 ml

KH2PO4 200 ml 150ml 100 ml

MgSO4.7H2O 200 ml 150 ml 100 ml

Trace elements 100 ml 75 ml 50 ml

FeEDTA 100 ml 75 ml 50 ml

3.4 Raising of crop

The layout of the experiment is as shown in the Fig 3.5. The tomato crop was raised

on the installed hydroponics system. The trellising system was established to support the

plants. The plant were tied to trellising system with the help of threads as shown in Fig. 3.6.

The crop pruning was carried out as per the established procedures. The standard package of

practices were followed for raising the crop as per recommendations of the Punjab

Agricultural University. In the Nutrient film technique the system was run throughout the day

without any break. 4 mm depth of nutrient solution was maintained. The ripened tomatoes

were harvested and yield was recorded time to time.

30

Fig 3.5 Layout of hydroponic system

Fig 3.6 Plants were tied with threads and clips

31

3.5 Crop parameters

3.5.1 Plant height

Five plants were selected at random from each treatment to measure their height 20

days after transplanting, 30 days after transplanting, 46 days after transplanting and 76 days

after transplanting. It was measured from the base of plant to the tip of the plant point with the

help of measuring tape. Plants height after 46 days of transplanting is shown in Fig 3.7.

Fig 3.7 Plants height after 46 days of transplanting

3.5.2 Stem diameter

Stem diameter was measured with Vernier calipers at 15, 30 and 45 days after

transplanting. Diameter of stem of plants after 30 days of transplanting is shown in Fig 3.8.

32

Fig 3.8 Plant diameter of stem after 30 days of transplanting

3.5.3 Yield of tomato

Tomato was harvested as per the standard harvest indices and the yield was recorded

on the treatment basis and then converted into tons/acre. Plants showing the fruits after

changing the color of fruits in Fig 3.9

Fig 3.9 Plants with fruits

33

3.5.4 Quality parameters

After picking, we checked the quality of fruit. Following are the quality parameters

which were measured during experiment.

1. Total soluble solids (TSS)

2. Lycopene content

3. Firmness

4. Titrable acidity

5. Moisture content

1. Total soluble solids (TSS)

TSS of tomato fruit was measured using a digital refractometer as shown in Fig 3.10.

The units of TSS is 0brix. The range of instrument was 0-85

0brix. The juice (>2 drops) of

tomato fruit of every treatment was poured in space provided in the instrument one by one.

The reading was recorded.

Fig 3.10 Digital refractometer

2. Lycopene content

Lycopene is a pigment responsible for the colour of the tomato. It was determined

and quantified using the procedure proposed by Nagata and Yamashita (1992). A known

weight of tomato was crushed in pestle and mortar and the pigment i.e. lycopene were

extracted using 10ml of acetone and n-hexane (4:6). The homogenized solution was allowed

to settle down. Then, 1 mL of the supernatant was taken and was diluted with 9 mL of acetone

and n-hexane (4:6). The resulting solution was analyzed spectro-photometrically with the help

of an UV 2601 spectrophotometer Fig. 3.11. The extract was covered with aluminium foil to

34

prevent photo-bleaching. Lycopene content was estimated by taking absorbance at 663, 645,

505 and 453 nm using acetone and n-hexane (4:6) as a blank.

Lycopene (%)= -0.0458 A663 + 0.204 A645 + 0.372 A505 – 0.0806 A453

Where,

A663 , A645, A505, A453 are the absorbances at 663, 645, 505 and 453 nm respectively.

Fig 3.11 Spectrophotometer

3. Firmness

The textural characteristics of tomato were studied using texture analyser (Make:

Stable Micro Systems, Model: TA.TXT. Plus). This texture analyser consist of basic two

components namely hardware (load cell of 250 kg with platform to hold the sample and

moving head for holding probe) and software (texture expert) for recording and calculating

the results of the text.

Before performing the tests, the machine was calibrated for load and distance. The

load calibration was done to check whether the load cell was accurately sensing the forces

imposed over the sample of fruit. Calibrated weight of 250 kg was suspended on the cross

head and the desired option was selected under TA settings. Similarly, the movement of the

cross head was calibrated to ensure the compliance of the set deformation (5mm) of the

sample. This was done by allowing the selected problem (P75 Compression plane in case of

compression and P/2N needle in case of puncture test) to move downwards towards the empty

platform and then upwards to a preselected distance. After calibrating the texture analyser, a

sample of fruit was placed on the platform and run a test commandenergized. The probe

compressed, punctured or ruptured the sample as per settings to generate the force-distance

curve. The textural measuring puncture test conducted as shown in Fig 3.12.

35

Fig 3.12 Texture analyser

4. Titratable acidity

A representative sample of 3 tomatoes from each sample was taken and juice

extracted as shown in Fig 3.13. About 2 ml of this juice was taken and titrated against N/10

NaOH solution with phenolphthalein as indicator and pink color as end point as given by

Rangana (1986) as shown in Fig 3.14. The volume of NaOH used was recorded and acidity

was computed as follows:

Total Acid =

Fig 3.13 Juice extracted from different treatments of tomato

36

Fig 3.14 Detrermination of titrable acidity

5. Moisture content (%)

The moisture content was determined by standard oven method (AOAC 2000).The

weight of tomato and petri dishes were taken individually as shown in Fig 3.15. Sample was

weighed and dried at 60°C for 4 days in uncovered pre-weighted Petri dishes in forced air

oven as shown in Fig 3.16.The moisture content was calculated on wet basis, using the

relationship:

1 2

1

W -WM.C.(% wb)= x100

W

Where,

W1 = initial weight of the sample (g)

W2 = final weight of the sample after drying (g)

37

Fig 3.15 Weighing of tomato

Fig 3.16 Drying of tomato at 600C

Oven was used for the drying of tomato for finding the presence of moisture content

in the tomato. The temperature of the oven was set at 600C. The sample from each

treatments were kept in the oven for drying for 4 days after taking the initial weight of the

tomato from each sample. The oven was working 24 × 7. After four days, final weight was

measured. By using the formula given above, moisture content found out. This whole

process was repeat after every picking of the fruits to find out the quality parameters of the

tomato.

38

3.6 Statistical Analysis

The data collected from the present field experiment were subjected to the statistical

analysis using completely randomised designs (CRD) and using analysis CPCS1, software

developed by Department of Mathematics and Statistics, PAU, Ludhiana. Data was

statistically analysed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques. The significance of

differences was tested at 5 per cent level.

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results obtained from the experimental set up in greenhouse entitled „Development of

hydroponic system for greenhouse Tomato‟ are discussed below:

4.1Effect of nutrient solution on growth of tomato in different treatments

4.1.1 Diameter of stem

The result obtained from Table 4.1 shows the variation in stem of different plants

according to the treatments. These values were taken on 14th May 2016 after 15 days of

transplanting (15 DAT) with the help of vernier caliper. The T2 shows more diameter of stem

of plants i.e. 9.40 mm followed by T1 and T3 showing 9.25 mm and 8.76 mm respectively.

The variation was due to light effect. The Table 4.2 shows the variation in stem of different

plants according to the t reatments. These values were taken on 31st May 2016 i.e. 30 DAT with

the help of vernier caliper. The T2 shows more diameter of stem of plant i.e. 11.65 mm followed

by T1and T3 showing 11.32 mm and 10.99 mm respectively. This Variation was due to light

effect. The treatments showing the more diameter of stem were more expose to sunlight. The

Table 4.3 shows the variation in stem of different plants according to the treatments. These values

were taken on14th June 2016 i.e. 45 DAT with the help of vernier caliper. The T2 shows more

diameter of stem of plant i.e. 13.34 mm followed by T1and T3 showing 12.69 mm and 12.55 mm

respectively. This variation was due to light effect. The treatments showing the more diameter of

stem were more exposed to sunlight.

Statistical analysis for different treatments are given in Table 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 revealed

that there was non significant effect of Hoagland solution on diameter of stem up to 45 DAT.

Table 4.1 Effect of Hoagland solution on diameter of stem of plants 15 DAT

Treatments T1 (100%) T2 (75%) T3 (50%)

Diameter of plants (mm) 9.25 9.40 8.76

CD = NS

Table 4.2 Effect of Hoagland solution on diameter of stem of plants 30 DAT

Treatments T1 (100%) T2 (75%) T3 (50%)

Diameter of plants (mm) 11.32 11.65 10.99

CD = NS

Table 4.3 Effect of Hoagland solution on diameter of stem of plants 45 DAT

Treatments T1 (100%) T2 (75%) T3 (50%)

Diameter of plants (mm) 12.69 13.34 12.55

CD = NS

40

4.1.2 Height of plants

The results obtained for plant height under different treatments are presented

discussed in Table 4.4, 4.5, 4.6 and 4.7 where the height of plants after 20 days of

transplanting (DAT), 30 DAT, 46 DAT, 72 DAT respectively is discussed.

Plant height was recorded after 20 days of transplanting as shown in Table 4.4. The

average height of plant in T1 was more i.e. 56.02 cm than other two treatments T2 and T3

showing 52.17 cm and 49.91 cm respectively. Position of the treatments effect the height of the

plants. Plants height was recorded after 30 days of transplanting as shown in Table 4.5. The

average height of plants in T1 was more i.e. 76.42 cm than other two treatments T2 and T3

showing 74.01 cm and 73.35 respectively. Position of the treatments effect the height of the

plants. Plants height was recorded after 46 days of transplanting as shown in Table 4.6. The

average height of plants in T1 was more i.e. 134.15cm than other two treatments T2 and T3

showing 121.59 cm and 105.19 cm respectively. The variation was due to the concentration of

nutrient solution. Plants height was recorded after 72 days of transplanting as shown in Table

4.7. The average height of plants in T1 was more i.e. 185.98 cm than other two treatments T2

and T3 showing 170.50 cm and 166.53 cm respectively. The variation was due to the

concentration of nutrient solution.

Statistical analysis for different treatments are given in Table 4.4, 4.5, 4.6 and 4.7

revealed that there was non significant effect of Hoagland solution on plant height up to 30 DAT.

The effect of Hoagland solution from 46 DAT to and 72 DAT was found to be significant.

Table 4.4 Effect of Hoagland solution on height of plants 20 DAT

Treatments T1 (100%) T2 (75%) T3 (50%)

Height after 20 days(cm) 56.02 52.17 49.91

CD = NS

Table 4.5 Effect of Hoagland solution on height of plants 30 DAT

Treatments T1 (100%) T2 (75%) T3 (50%)

Height after 30 days (cm) 76.42 74.01 73.35

CD = NS

Table 4.6 Effect of Hoagland solution on height of plants 46 DAT

Treatments T1 (100%) T2 (75%) T3 (50%)

Height after 46 days

(cm)

134.15 121.59 105.19

CD = 11.05 at 5 %

41

Table 4.7 Effect of Hoagland solution on height of plants 76 DAT

Treatments T1 (100%) T2 (75%) T3 (50%)

Height after 76 days

(cm)

185.98 170.50 166.53

CD = 12.03 at 5 %

4.2 pH and EC of nutrient solution

The pH and EC of Hoagland solution in the hydroponic system was to be maintained

for the growth of crop. The optimum nutrient solution pH ranges between 5.5 to 6.5, a range

in which the maximum number of elements are at their highest availability for plants (Taiz

and Zeiger 2002). The pH value of nutrient solution must not increase above 6.5 because iron,

copper, zinc, boron and manganese are unavailable above 6.5. When pH rises above 6.5 some

of the nutrients and micro-nutrients begin to precipitate out of the solution and can stick to the

walls of the reservoir and growing chambers. But if it increased then nutrient solution i.e.

Hoagland solution have to be changed.

EC is an index of salt concentration that indicates the total amount of salts in a

solution. EC of the nutrient solution is a good indicator of the amount of nutrients to the

plants in the root zone (Nemali and Van 2004). EC range from 1.5 dS/m to 2.5 dS/m to obtain

proper results (Greenway and Munns 1980). The EC of nutrient solution must not decrease

but if decreases then nutrient solution have to be changed. The EC of nutrient solution

decreases due to consumption of nutrients from the nutrient solution. In general, EC>2.5

dS/m may lead to salinity problems while EC<1.5 dS/m may lead to nutrient deficiencies. In

greenhouse, the high input of fertilizers is the main cause of the salinity problems (Li 2000).

Higher EC reduces the nutrient uptake by increasing osmotic pressure, whereas the lower EC

may affect the plant health and yield (Samarakoon et al 2006).

4.2.1 pH of Hoagland solution before and after the consumption of nutrients from

solution for treatment 1, treatment 2 and treatment 3

The result obtained by noting the value pH of Hoagland solution before and after the

consumption of nutrients by the plants as shown in Table 4.8 after a interval of days for

treatment 1 (100%), treatment 2 (75 %) and treatment 3 (50 %). The Table 4.8 shows suitable

range of pH of the nutrient solution. At this range of pH i.e. 5.5-6.5, the plants easily absorbed

nutrients from the nutrient solution. The interval of changing of nutrient solution depends

upon pH range and the age of crop after transplanting. pH will increase because some of the

nutrients and micro-nutrients began to precipitate out of the solution and can stick to the walls

of the tank (reservoir) and pipes (growing chambers).The variation of consumption of pH

before and after changing the nutrient solution in T1, T2 and T3 concentration is shown is

Fig. 4.1. This variation is due to the precipitation of nutrients and micro-nutrients in the tank.

42

Table 4.8 pH of Hoagland solution before and after changing the nutrient solution for

T1, T2 and T3

S.No Intervals in days in

(2016)

Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3

pH

before

pH

after

pH

before

pH

after

pH

before

pH

after

1. 31 March -12 April 6.47 6.94 6.47 6.8 6.50 6.86

2. 12April- 26 April 6.11 6.96 6.17 6.79 6.22 6.85

3. 26 April - 5 May 6.36 6.97 6.27 6.75 6.21 6.81

4. 5 May – 13 May 5.57 6.78 5.91 6.54 5.58 6.53

5. 13 May – 18 May 5.91 6.89 6.18 6.84 6.35 6.80

6. 18 May – 23 May 6.40 6.94 6.15 6.85 6.21 6.77

7. 23 May – 28 May 6.38 6.90 6.18 6.87 6.08 6.74

8. 28 May – 1 June 6.40 6.97 6.15 6.86 6.40 6.79

9. 1 June – 6 June 6.32 6.93 6.27 6.77 6.04 6.73

10. 6 June – 11 June 6.34 6.93 6.25 6.84 6.04 6.69

11. 11 June – 16 June 6.47 6.96 6.18 6.85 6.00 6.66

12. 16 June – 19 June 6.34 6.98 6.29 6.84 6.09 6.73

13. 19 June – 22 June 6.43 6.93 6.24 6.88 6.03 6.72

14. 22 June – 27 June 6.32 6.92 6.18 6.84 5.94 6.64

15. 27 June – 30 June 6.31 6.95 6.26 6.83 6.02 6.7

16. 30 June – 4 July 6.36 7.00 6.12 6.88 6.12 6.75

17. 4 July – 9 July 6.28 6.94 6.24 6.83 6.07 6.66

18. 9 July – 13 July 6.41 6.97 6.29 6.8 6.01 6.76

19. 13 July – 16 July 6.44 7.05 6.35 6.89 6.12 6.83

20. 16 July – 19 July 6.45 6.99 6.28 6.91 6.10 6.75

21. 19 July – 23 July 6.39 6.85 6.3 6.84 6.14 6.7

22. 23 July – 27 July 6.42 6.94 6.32 6.77 6.07 6.65

23. 27 July – 2 August 6.35 6.90 6.28 6.84 6.15 6.73

24. 2 August – 6 August 6.34 6.86 6.24 6.74 6.05 6.61

43

Fig 4.1 Variation of consumption of pH before and after changing the nutrient

solution inT1, T2 and T3 concentration

4.2.2 EC of Hoagland solution before and after the consumption of nutrients from

solution for treatment 1, treatment 2 and treatment 3

The result obtained by noting the value EC of Hoagland solution before and after

the consumption of nutrients by the plants is shown Table 4.9 after a interval of days of

treatment 1 (100 %), treatment 2 (75 %) and treatment 3 (50 %). The Table 4.9 shows

suitable range of EC of the nutrient solution. The interval of changing of nutrient solution

depends upon EC range and the age of crop after transplanting The EC will decrease due to

consumption of nutrients from the solution. The variation of consumption of pH before and

after changing the nutrient solution inT1, T2 and T3 concentration is shown in Fig 4.2. The

EC in all the three treatments is decrease due the consumption of nutrients by the plants in

the given treatment. The decrease in all the three treatments is comparable with each other

as shown in Fig. 4.2.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

31 M

arch

-12 A

pri

l

12 A

pri

l -

26 A

pri

l

26 A

pri

l -

5 M

ay

5 M

ay –

13 M

ay

13 M

ay –

18 M

ay

18 M

ay –

23 M

ay

23 M

ay –

28 M

ay

28 M

ay –

1 J

une

1 J

une

–6

June

6 J

une

–11

June

11 J

une

–16

June

16 J

une

–19

June

19 J

une

–22

June

22 J

une

–27

June

27 J

une

–30

June

30 J

une

–4 J

uly

4 J

uly

–9 J

uly

9 J

uly

–13 J

uly

13 J

uly

–16 J

uly

16 J

uly

–19 J

uly

19 J

uly

–23 J

uly

23 J

uly

–27 J

uly

27 J

uly

–2 A

ugust

2 A

ugust

–6 A

ugust

pH

ran

ge

for

nu

trei

nt

solu

tion

Interval for changing nutrient solution (days)

T 1 pH before T 1 pH after T 2 pH before

T 2 pH after T 3 pH before T 3 pH after

44

Table 4.9 EC of Hoagland solution before and after changing the nutrient solution for

T1, T2 and T3

S.

No

Intervals in days in

(2016)

Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3

EC

before

EC

after

EC

before

EC

after

EC

before

EC after

1. 31 March -12 April 2.18 0.92 2.07 0.66 1.85 0.53

2. 12 April - 26 April 2.18 0.91 2.07 0.89 1.85 0.45

3. 26 April - 5 May 2.16 0.87 1.91 0.72 1.76 0.46

4. 5 May – 13 May 2.09 0.86 1.87 0.61 1.76 0.51

5. 13 May – 18 May 2.18 0.91 1.96 0.64 1.76 0.48

6. 18 May – 23 May 2.14 0.96 1.92 0.66 1.76 0.49

7. 23 May – 28 May 2.17 0.88 1.93 0.71 1.77 0.51

8. 28 May – 1 June 2.15 0.86 1.98 0.73 1.77 0.47

9. 1 June – 6 June 2.17 0.88 1.97 0.64 1.78 0.47

10. 6 June – 11 June 2.21 0.85 1.92 0.68 1.77 0.47

11. 11 June – 16 June 2.17 0.83 1.91 0.64 1.76 0.46

12. 16 June – 19 June 2.14 0.85 1.92 0.64 1.77 0.49

13. 19 June – 22 June 2.13 0.83 1.68 0.56 1.78 0.39

14. 22 June – 27 June 2.15 0.79 1.9 0.59 1.75 0.36

15. 27 June – 30 June 2.16 0.87 1.91 0.65 1.72 0.49

16. 30 June – 4 July 2.36 0.92 1.85 0.66 1.61 0.48

17. 4 July – 9 July 2.18 0.84 1.94 0.63 1.72 0.39

18. 9 July – 13 July 2.18 0.87 1.53 0.76 1.77 0.54

19. 13 July – 16 July 2.19 0.87 1.97 0.63 1.73 0.55

20. 16 July – 19 July 2.19 0.84 1.96 0.66 1.79 0.51

21. 19 July – 23 July 2.14 0.88 1.94 0.66 1.67 0.48

22. 23 July – 27 July 2.18 0.84 1.94 0.72 1.76 0.46

23. 27 July – 2 August 2.17 0.85 1.92 0.66 1.78 0.47

24. 2 August – 6 August 2.13 0.88 1.95 0.65 1.78 0.5

45

Fig 4.2 Variation of consumption of EC before and after changing the nutrient

solution in T1 (100 %) concentration

4.3 Interval of changing of Hoagland solution after transplanting

The result obtained by changing the nutrient solution after interval of time was

shown in Fig 4.3. The solution was changed 24 times during the whole experiment as

shown in Fig 4.3.The solution was changed for 5 months. The consumption of nutrient

solution depends upon the age of tomato crop. That is why with the increase in number of

days of plants in PVC pipes, there is increase in the consumption of nutrient solution.

Firstly, after 15 days, the nutrient solution was changed but with passing of days the

consumption of tomato crop increases. Solution had been changed after 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 10

days depending on the age of crop. The increase in height of plants leads to increase in the

consumption of nutrient solution. As the consumption rate of plants increases, the quantity

of nutrient solution in the tank decreases so there was a need to change the nutrient

solution. The main reason of changing of nutrient solution was increase in pH value and

decrease in EC value. The value of pH should not increase 6.5 and value of EC should not

decrease to 1.5dS/m.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

31 M

arch

-12 A

pri

l

12 A

pri

l -

26 A

pri

l

26

Ap

ril

-5 M

ay

5 M

ay –

13 M

ay

13 M

ay –

18 M

ay

18 M

ay –

23 M

ay

23 M

ay –

28 M

ay

28 M

ay –

1 J

une

1 J

une

–6 J

une

6 J

une

–11 J

une

11 J

une

–16 J

une

16 J

une

–19 J

une

19 J

une

–22 J

une

22 J

une

–27 J

une

27 J

une

–30 J

une

30

June

–4 J

uly

4 J

uly

–9 J

uly

9 J

uly

–13 J

uly

13

July

–16 J

uly

16

July

–19 J

uly

19

July

–23 J

uly

23 J

uly

–27 J

uly

27 J

uly

–2 A

ugust

2 A

ugust

–6 A

ugustE

C ra

nge

for

nu

trie

nt

solu

tion

Interval for changing nutrient solution (days)

T 1 EC before T 1 EC after T 2 EC before

T 2 EC after T 3 EC before T 3 EC after

46

Fig. 4.3 Interval during the process of changing the nutrient solution

4.4 Quality parameters

The various quality parameters were evaluated during experimentation was moisture

content, titrable acidity, lycopene, firmness and total soluble solids are described below.

4.4.1 Moisture content

The result obtained for moisture content under different treatments are presented in

Table 4.10. It can be seen from the data that the maximum moisture was found in treatment 1

followed by treatment 2 and treatment 3 as shown in Table 4.10. Statistical analysis for different

treatments is given in Table 4.10 and revealed that there was no significant effect between

T1,T2 and T3 concentration of Hoagland concentration on moisture content of tomato.

Table 4.10 The effect of concentration of Hoagland solution on the moisture content

Treatments T1 (100%) T2(75%) T3(50%)

Moiture content(%) 59.220 56.757 50.990

CD at 5% = NS

4.4.2 Titrable acidity

The result obtained for titrable acidity under different treatments are presented in

Table 4.11. It can be seen from the data that the maximum titrable acidity was found in

treatment 1 and treatment 2 followed by treatment 3 as in Table 4.11. The TSS in tomato

decreases with decrease in concentration of Hoagland solution. Statistical analysis for

different treatments is given in Table 4.11 and revealed that there was significant effect

between T1 and T3 and T2 and T3 at 5% level on titrable acidity of tomato.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

31/3

/2016

12/4

/2016

26/4

/2016

5/5

/2016

13/5

/2016

18/5

/2016

23/5

/2016

28/5

/2016

1/6

/2016

6/6

/2016

11/6

/2016

16/6

/2016

19/6

/2016

22/6

/2016

27/6

/2016

30/6

/2016

4/7

/2016

9/7

/2016

13/7

/2016

16/7

/2016

19/7

/2016

23/7

/2016

27/7

/2016

2/8

/2016

Inte

rvals

(d

ays)

Days after transplanting

Duration

47

Table 4.11The effect of concentration of Hoagland solution on the titrable acidity

Treatments T1 (100%) T2(75%) T3(50%)

Titrableacidity(%) 0.16 0.16 0.10

CD at 5% = 0.01

4.4.3 Lycopene

The result obtained for lycopene under different treatments are presented in Table

4.12. It can be seen from the data that the maximum lycopene content was found in treatment

1 followed by treatment 2 and treatment 3 as shown in Table 4.12. Statistical analysis for

different treatments is given in Table 4.12 and revealed that there was no significant effect

between T1 and T2 concentration of Hoagland concentration on lycopene of tomato.

Table 4.12 The effect of concentration of Hoagland solution on the lycopene

Treatments T1 (100%) T2(75%) T3(50%)

Lycopene (%) 3.0 2.98 2.75

CD at 5% = NS

4.4.4 Firmness

The result obtained for firmness under different treatments are presented in Table

4.13. It can be seen from the data that the maximum firmness was found in treatment 1

followed by treatment 2 and treatment 3 as shown in Table 4.13. Statistical analysis for

different treatments is given in Table 4.13 and revealed that there was no significant effect

between T1,T2 and concentration of Hoagland concentration on firmness of tomato.

Table 4.13 The effect of concentration of Hoagland solution on the firmness

Treatments T1 (100%) T2(75%) T3(50%)

Firmness (KgF) 0.643 0.573 0.557

CD at 5% = NS

4.4.5 Total soluble solids (TSS)

The result obtained for TSS under different treatments are presented in Table 4.14. It

can be seen from the data that the maximum TSS was found in treatment 1 followed by

treatment 2 and treatment 3 as in Table 4.14. The TSS in tomato decreases with decrease in

concentration of Hoagland solution. Statistical analysis for different treatments is given in

Table 4.14 and revealed that there was significant effect between T1 and T3 at 5% level on

TSS of tomato.

48

Table 4.14 The effect of concentration of Hoagland solution on the total soluble solids

Treatments T1 (100%) T2(75%) T3(50%)

TSS (0brix) 7.37 6.60 5.20

CD at 5% = 1.17

4.5 Yield of tomato

The Total yield of tomato was higher in T1 (100%) as compared with T3 (50%)

treatments as shown in Table 4.16. It can be seen from the data that the maximum yield was

found withT1 (100%) followed by T2 (75%) and T3 (50%). Higher yield was due to 100%

concentration of Hoagland solution. This may be attributed to higher concentration of

nutrients or better availability of nutrients which enhances the cell metabolisms resulting in

better yield.

Statistical analysis for different treatments is given in table 4.15 and revealed that

there was a significant effect of concentrations of Hoagland solution on tomato.

Table 4.15 The effect of concentration of Hoagland solution on the yield of tomato

Treatments T1 (100%) T2(75%) T3(50%)

Yield ton/ha 72.57 69.28 50.76

CD at 5% = 5.75

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY

Field experiment was conducted at the Demonstration Farm of the Department of Soil

and Water Engineering, PAU, Ludhiana for study on the development of hydroponic system

for greenhouse tomato. Hydroponic seems to be a promising technique to grow ornamentals

using soil-less growing media to avoid soil-borne pests and diseases as well as scarcity of

space. The different components of the hydroponic system were designed for the nutrient film

technique (NFT). In NFT the basic principal is the maintenance of the thin film of nutrient

around the roots. The depth of water is not more than 4mm. To maintain this depth of water

there is a need to calculate the size of the pump required. The nutrient solution is circulated 24

x 7 schedule. This was designed based upon the volume of the water in the given length of the

pipe. After optimizing the different design components, the system was installed in the fan

pad cooled greenhouse of the size 1008 m2.

The experiment was laid out completely randomized designs keeping three treatments

as T1 (100%), T2 (75%) and T3 (50%) of Hoagland solution. The tomato crop was raised in the

said hydroponics system. Studies on the effect of different concentrations of the Hoagland

solution on the tomato crop for crop and quality parameters was carried out.

Plant height, diameter of stem of plants, Total soluble solids (TSS), Lycopene content,

Firmness, Titrable acidity, Moisture content, Total soluble solids were observed and analysed.

The statistical analysis was carried out by using CPCS1 software. Data was statistically

analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques. The significance of differences

was tested at 5 per cent level.

The following conclusions are drawn from the present study:

1. The hydroponics system was designed and installed in the demonstration farm of the

Department of Soil and Water Engineering, and performed satisfactorily.

2. The stem diameter of the tomato does not show any significant difference between

the treatments.

3. The plant height of the tomato crop does not show any significant difference for the

initial days but after 46 days there was significant difference in the height of the

plants. Higher concentration (100%) gave significantly better results as compared to

lower concentration.

4. The average variation in pH of nutrient solution in T1 was 6.54 to7.05, in T2 was

6.27 to 6.86 and in T3 was 5.99 to 6.70.

5. The average variation in EC of nutrient solution in T1 was 2.15 dS/m, in T2 was 1.90

dS/m and in T3 1.77dS/m.

50

6. The range of temperature and relative humidity maintained in the greenhouse for T1,

T2 and T3 was 250C to 32

0C and 45% to 60% respectively.

7. It was found that quality of fruits of treatment 1 (100%) was better than other two

treatments i.e. treatment 2 (75%) and treatment 3 (50%). The TSS, firmness, titrable

acidity, moisture content and lycopene were better in treatment 1 (100%) than other

two treatments i.e. treatment 2 (75%) and treatment 3 (50%).

8. It was observed that there was no significant difference in yield levels at

concentration of 100% of Hoagland solution and 75% level. But it differed

significantly as compared to yield at 50% concentration of the Hoagland solution.

9. Based on the above it can be summarized that hydroponic system can be effectively

used commercially for raising tomato crops and is feasible under Indian conditions.

RFERENCES

AOAC (2000) Official methods of analysis. Association of official analytical chemists.

Washington DC,USA.

Anonymous (2016) http://www.growtomatoes.com/hydroponic-tomato-growing/Date of

access (22-05-2016)

Ashari M E and Gholami M (2009) The effect of increased chloride content in nutrient

solution on yield and quality of strawberry fruits. J Fru Orna Plant Res 18:37-44.

Asker H S (2015) Hydroponic technology for lily flowers and bulbs production using

rainwaterandsome common nutrient solutions. Afr J Biotechnol 14:2307-13.

Avalhaes C C, Prado R M, Rozane D E, Romualdo L M and Correia M R (2009)

Macronutrients omission and the growth and nutritional status of elephant grass (cv.

Mott) growing in nutrient solution. Sci Agrar 10:215-22.

Bamsey M, Berinstain A and Dixon M (2012) Development of a potassium-selective optode

for hydroponic nutrient solution monitoring. Anal Chem Acta 737:72-82.

Beibel, J P (1960) Hydroponics -The Science of Growing Crops Without Soil. Florida

Department of Agric. Bull. Pp180.

Bharathy P V, Sonawane P C and Sasnur A (2003) Effect of different planting media on

rooting of cutting in carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L). J Maharashtra Agri Uni

28:343-44.

Bradley P and Marulanda C (2000) Simplified hydroponics to reduce global hunger. Acta

Hort 554:289-95.

Brun R, Settembrino A, Couve C (2001) Recycling of nutrient solutions for rose (Rosa

hybrida) in soilless culture. Acta Hort 554:183–91.

Bugbee, B (2004) Nutrient management in recirculating hydroponic culture. Acta Hort 648:

99–112.

Carmassi G, Incrocci L, Maggini R, Malorgio F, Tognoni F and Pardossi A (2005) Modeling

salinity build-up in recirculating nutrient solution culture. J Plant Nutr 28:431-45.

Castillo F S, Perez E C and Magaa E C (2012) Development of alternative crop systems for

production of vegetables in hydroponics. Acta Hort 947:399- 408.

Castillo F S, Perez E C, Pineda P J, Osuna J M, Perez J R and Encino T O (2014) Hydroponic

tomato production with and without recirculation of nutrient solution. Agrociencia

48:185-97.

Clematis F, Minuto A, Gullino M L and Garibaldi A (2008) Suppressive to

fusariumoxysporumf. sp. Radicislycopersici in re-used perlite and perlite-peat

substrates in soilless tomatoes. Biol Cont 48:108-14.

52

Dysko J, Kaniszewski S and Kowalczyk W (2008) The effect of nutrient solution pH on

phosphorus availability in soilless culture of tomato. J Elementol 13:189-196.

Ehret D L, Usher K, Helmer T, Block G, Steinke D, Frey B, KuangT, and DiarraM (2013)

Tomato fruit antioxidants in relation to salinity and greenhouse climate. J Agric Food

Chem 61:1138- 45.

Gallergly M E, Jr and Walker J C (1949) Plant nutrition in relation to disease development V.

bacterial wilt of tomato. Am J Bot 8: 613-23.

Galvez F L, Allende , Salcedo F P, Alarcon J J and Gil M I(2014) Safety assessment of

greenhouse hydroponic tomatoes irrigated with reclaimed and surface water. Int J

Food Microbiol 191:97-102.

Ghazvini R F, Payvast G and Azarian H (2007) Effect of clinoptilolitic-zeolite and

perlitemixtures on the yield and quality of strawberry in soil-less culture. Int J

Agric Biol 9:885-88.

Greenway H and Munns R (1980) Mechanisms of salt tolerance in non halophytes. Annu Rev

Plant Physio and Plant Molecu Biol 31:149-90.

Hoagland D R and Arnon D I (1950) The water-culture method for growing plants without

soil. Vol 347, pp 1-32. University of California, Berkeley.

Hochmuth G J and Hochmuth R C (2008) Nutrient solution formulation for hydroponic

(NFT) tomatoes in Florida – Hort Sci Depart University of Florida, Gainesville,

Florida 796-806.

Johnson R S, Saa S and Brown (2013) Testing the effectiveness of zinc formulations using

peach seedling. Acta Hort 884:1087-96.

Jones J B (1999a) Advantages gained by controlling root growth in a newly- developed

hydroponic growing system. Acta Hort 481:221-30.

Jones J B (1999b) Tomato plant culture in the field, greenhouse and home garden. Pp. 105.

CRC Press Boca Raton Florida.

Joseph A and Muthuchamy I (2014) Productivity, quality and economics of tomato

(Lycopersicon sculentum Mill.) cultivation in aggregate hydroponics. Indian J Sci

Technol 7:1078–86.

Jovicich E, Cantliffe D J, Simonne E H and Stoffela P J (2007) Comparative water and

fertilizeruse efficiencies of two production systems for cucumbers. I: Mc Conchie R

and Rogers G (ed) Proc 3rdActa Hort Vol 731, pp235-41, University of Florida, USA.

Karimaei M S, Massiha S and Mogaddam M (2004) Comparison of two nutrient solutions

effect on growth and nutrient levels of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) cultivars. Acta Hort

644:69-76.

Li H and Cheng Z (2014) Hoagland nutrient solution promotes the growth of cucumber

seedlings under light-emitting diode light. Acta Agri Scandina 65:74-82.

53

Li Y L (2000) Analysis of greenhouse tomato production in relation to salinity and shoot

environment. PhD dissertation. Wageningen University, The Netherlands.

Maboko M M, Plooy C D and Chiloane S (2011) Effect of plant population, fruit and stem

pruning on yield and quality of hydroponically grown tomato. J Agric Res 6:5144-48.

Macfarlane I (1958) A solution-culture technique for obtaining root hair or primary, infection

by Plasmodiophora brassicae. J Gen Microbiol 18: 720-32.

Maia N B, Bovi O A, Marques M M and Granja N P (2001) Essential oil production and

quality of menthaarvensis L. grown in nutrient solutions. Acta Hort 58:181-87.

Matsuda R, Kubota C, Alvarez M L and Cardineau G A (2012) Effect of high electrical

conductivity of hydroponic nutrient solution on vaccine protein content in transgenic

tomato. Hort Technol 22:362-67.

Meric M K, Tuzel I H, Tuzel Y and Oztekin G B (2011) Effects of nutrition systems and

irrigation programs on tomatoes in soilless culture. Agric Water Manage 99:19-25.

Millan A F, Sagaroy R, Solanas M, Abadia A and Abadia J (2008) Cadmium toxicity in

tomato plants grown in hydroponics. Environ Exp Bot 65:376-85.

Moraru C, Logendra L, Lee T C and Janes H (2004) Characteristics of 10 processing tomato

cultivars grown hydroponically for the NASA Advanced Life Support (ALS)

program. J Food Comp Anal 17:141-54.

Mortley D G, Loretan P A , Hill W A, Bonsi C K, Morris C E, Hall R and Sullen D (1998)

Biocompatibility of sweet potato and peanut in a hydroponic System. Hort Sci 7:1147-49.

Mortley D, Hill J, Loretan P, Bonsi C and Hill W (1996) Elevated carbondoixide influences

yield and photosynthetic responses of hydroponically-glown sweet potato. Acta Hort

440:31-36.

Nadica D, Sandra V, Bozidar B and Stjepan P (2007) The quality of fresh tomato fruit

produced by hydroponic. Agric Cons Sci 72:351-55.

Nagata M and Yamashita I (1992) Simple method for simultaneous deteination of chlorophyll

and carotenoid in tomato fruits. J Jap Food Sci Technol 39:925-28.

Natarajan S, Stamps R H, Saha U K and Ma L Q (2008) Effect of plant density and nitrogen

and phosphorus levels. Int J Phytoremediat 10:222-35.

Nemali K S and Van I W (2004) Light intensity and fertilizer concentration: i. estimating

optimal fertilizer concentration from water-use efficiency of wax begonia. Hort Sci

39:1287-92.

Niu F, Zhang D, Li Z, Iersel M V and Alem P (2015) Morphological response of eucalypts

seedlings to phosphorus supply through hydroponic system. Sci Hort 194: 295-303.

Orsini F and Pascale S D (2007) Daily variation in leaf nitrate content of two cultivars

of hydroponically grown basil. Acta Hort 74:1023-29.

54

Paiva E S, Martinez H P, Casali V D and Padilha L (1998a) Occurrence of blossom-endrot

intomato as a function of calcium dose in the nutrient solution and air relative

humidity. J Plant Nutr 21: 2663-70.

Paiva E S, Sampaio R A and Martinez H M (1998b) Composition and quality of tomato fruit

cultivated in nutrient solution containing different calcium concentration. J Plant

Nutr21:2653-61.

Pardossi A, Incrocci L, Massa D, Carmassi G and Maggini R (2009) The influence of

fertigation strategies on water and nutrient efficiency of tomato grown in closed

soilless culture with saline water. Acta Hort 807:445–50.

Park K W, Won J H and Chiang M H(1995) Effects of nutrient solution and ionic strength on

the growth in some chicory. Acta Hort 396:187-94.

Park S E, Worrall R J, Low C T and Jarvis J A (2009) Initial efforts to improve the

management of substrates in greenhouse vegetable production in Australia. Acta Hort

819:331-36.

Pezzarossa B, Rosellini I, Borghesi E, Tonutti P and Malorgio F (2013) Effect of Se-

enrichment on yield, fruit composition and ripening of tomato plants grown in

hydroponics. Sci Hort 165:106-10.

Rangana S (1986) Handbook of analysis and quality control of fruits and vegetable products

2nd

Ed. Tata McGraw Hill Publication New Delhi.

Rodriguez J C, Cantliffe D J and Shaw N (2001) Performance of greenhouse tomato cultivars

grown in soilless culture in north central florida. Proc Fla State Hort Soc 114:303-06.

Roosta H R and Hamidpour M (2011) Effects of foliar application of some macro and

micronutrients on tomato plants in aquaponic and hydroponic systems. Sci Hort

129:396-402.

Rosberg A K, Gruyer N, Hultberg M, Wohanka W and Alsanius B W (2014) Monitoring

rhizosphere microbial communities in healthy and pythiumultimum inoculated tomato

plants in soilless growing systems. Sci Hort 173:106–13.

Samarakon U C, Weeransinghe P A and Weerakkody A P (2006) Effect of electrical

conductivity (EC) of the nutrient solution on nutrient uptake, growth and yield of leaf

lettuce in stationary culture. Trop Agric Res 18:13-21.

Shah A H, Munir S L, Amin N L and Shah S H (2011) Evaluation of two nutrient solution for

growing tomatoes in a non- circulating hydroponics system. Sarhad J Agric 27:557-

67.

Sherif M A, Loretan P A, Trotman A A, Mortley D G, Lu J Y and Garner L C (1995) Split-

root nutrition of sweet potato in hydroponic systems. Acta Hort 401:121-30.

Signore A, Santamaria P, Serio F (2008) Influence of salinity source on production, quality

and environment impact of tomato grown in a soilless closed system. J Food Agric

Environ 6:357-61.

55

Silva F B, Melo A Y, Brandao J C and Maia L C (2005) Sporulation of arbus

cularmycorrhizal fungi using tris-HCl buffer in addition to nutrient solutions. J

Microl 36:327-32.

Smolen S, Kowalska I and Sady W (2013) Assessment of biofortification with iodine and

selenium of lettuce cultivated in the NFT hydroponic system. Sci Hort 166:9-16.

Steidle N J, Zolnier S, Marouelli W A, Martinez H P (2009) Performance evaluation of an

automatic system for tomato fertigation control in substrate. Engen Agri 29:380-89.

Taiz L and Zeiger E (2002) Plant Physiology (3rd.ed.) Sinauer Associates, ISBN :

0878938230, Massachusetts, USA.

Teragishi A, Kanbara Y and Ono H (2000) Effects of foliar application of choline chloride on

the quality of winter-cropped Fig cv. Masui-Dauphine grown in hydroponics. Hort

Sci 69:390-95.

Tsakaldimi M (2006) Core and Rice hulls as components of container media for growing

Pinushalepensis M. seedlings. Bio Res Technol 97:1631-39.

Varlagas H, Savvas D, Mouzakis G, Liotsos C, Karapanos I and Sigrimis N (2010) Modelling

uptake of Na+ and Cl

- by tomato in closed-cycle cultivation systems as influenced by

irrigation water salinity. Agric Water Manage 97:1242-50.

VITA

Name of the student Ms. Harmanpreet Kaur

Father’s name Mr. Harpreet Singh

Mother’s name Mrs. Kamaljeet Kaur

Nationality Indian

Date of Birth 22-8-1991

Permanent address Preet medicals near new bus stand Mudki, distt.

Ferozepur

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION

Bachelor’s Degree B. Tech. (Agricultural Engineering)

University and Year of award Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana

2014

OCPA 6.50

Master’s Degree M. Tech. (Soil and Water Engineering)

University and Year of award Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana

2016

OCPA 7.35

Title of the Master Thesis Development of hydroponic system for

greenhouse tomato