Development of an instrument to measure technology studies teachers' attitudes to environmental and social issues

Research in Science Education, 1996, 26(1), 33-53

Development of an Instrument to Measure Technology StudiesTeachers' Attitudes to Environmental and Social Issues

Peter De La Rue Hawthorn Institute of Education

Paul L. Gardner Monash University

Abstract

An important issue in the development and implementation of technology education curricula in Victoria is the extent to which environmental and societal issues related to technology are being addressed in the teaching of technology studies. This paper reports on the preliminary phases of a study which is intended to evaluate these aspects of technology education and describes the development of an instrument for use with practising year 11 and 12 technology studies teachers. The instrument sets out to measure teachers' attitudes towards (1) environmental and societal issues and (2) whether such issues should be taught within technology studies, as well as to investigate the extent to which such issues are actually taught in practice. In order to develop the initial version of the ins~ment, twenty practising technology studies teachers in Victoria were interviewed in order to ascertain their ideas about environmental and societal issues as well as to gather some initial data on the major questions.

The Curriculum Context

Since 1989 in Australia, States, Territories and the Commonwealth have worked to produce, statements and profiles for eight broad areas of learning; technology is one of these areas. The development of technology education in Australian secondary schools is part of a world-wide trend away from the traditional manual trade-based subjects to more generalised and analytical studies of the processes of technology. The intention is that students will achieve a broader and deeper understanding of technology and thus be more flexible in coping with technological developments in the future.

While the designs of these technology studies still usually involve students in the practical production of artifacts, there is now significant emphasis on broader aspects such as problem solving, design processes and evaluation of products.

Societal and Environmental Impacts

Part of the new approach to studies in technology is the consideration of the effects of technology on society and on the environment. For example, in Australia at the national level, the introduction to Technology: A curricuIum profile for Australian schools (Curriculum Corporation, 1994) states:

Technology in the school curriculum combines theory and practice. It includes much that is scientific, ethical, mathematical, graphical, cultural, aesthetic and historical. It explores the synthesis of ideas and practices, and the effects of technology on societies and environments ....

34 DE LA RUE AND GARDNER

Technology contributes to changes in cultural, social, environmental and economic circumstances, as well as to changes in perceptions, attitudes and values...

Technology programs enable students to reflect on past practices and future opportunities and to understand the influence different groups can exert on how technologies are applied and developed. Students need to think critically about how technology affects them, their local community or region and the world, and to evaluate the positive and negative impacts of technology on societies and environments (pp. 2-3).

The technology studies curriculum developments in Australia are consistent with overseas developments. In the United Kingdom the introduction to a recent document on design and technology education Looking at values (Department for Education and Employment, 1995) makes the following point:

In addition to considering the effectiveness and impact of a product, pupils will need to think about the appropriateness of the underlying value judgements. The National curriculum for design and technology (1995) requires activities in which pupils investigate, dis-assemble and evaluate familiar products and applications. These investigations can clarify value judgements if they take account of the environmental, social and economic context in which the products are produced and used. (19. 1)

In Northem Ireland the proposed programme of study for Technology and Design (Northern Ireland Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment, 1995) includes the following requirements:

(For ages 11 to 14) Pupils should, where it is appropriate, be made aware of the social, economic and environmental implications of technology and design activities, particularly with regard to the manufacture of products. They should begin to recognise that technological developments may cause conflict because of differing needs and aspirations of individuals and society. (p. 29)

(For ages 14 to 16) Any course in technology and design should provide opportunities for pupils to: ... gain an appreciation of ... the positive and negative effects of technology and design activity on the environment. (p. 33)

In New Zealand, understanding and awareness of the relationship between technology and society is one of the three general aims of the national curriculum in technology. The curriculum document (Ministry of Education, 1995) states that students should:

1. develop awareness and understanding of the ways beliefs, values and ethics of individuals and groups: promote or constrain technological development; influence attitudes towards technological development;

2. develop awareness and understanding of the impacts of technology on society and the environment: in the past, present, and possible future; in local, national, and international settings.

In the United States Charles McLaughlin (1994), Associate Professor, Department of Industry and Technology, Ball State University argues:

ATTITUDES TO ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES 35

Students who are not educated about society's modem advances and their impacts will be ill- prepared for citizenship in the 21 st century... Environmental themes studied within technology education allow the student to apply integrated skills and knowledge to the solution of environmental problems associated with technology and industry. (p. 32)

Similar concerns about environmental education can be found in European documents. From 1986 to 1988, eleven European member countries of the OECD participated in an Environment and School Initiatives Project (ENSI) which sought to "help students develop an understanding of the complex relationships between human beings and their environment through interdisciplinary enquiry" and to foster a learning process which would encourage students to become actively involved in resolving "real environmental problems within their locality." The project regarded environmental education as a form of action research, and opposed "customary practice" in the curriculum which dissociated knowledge acquisition from practical usefulness, and which disconnected "the development of environmental awareness from the value issues which transactions between human beings and their natural, physical and social environment raise in societies" (Elliot-t, 1994, pp. 31-32).

In Victoria, as part of the development of the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) for years 11 and 12, new technology curricula were formally introduced by the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Board (VCAB) in 1991. Three technology study designs (clusters of subjects) were produced: Systems and Technology, Technological Development and Design, and Materials and Technology. As with all VCE studies, there are four units in each, units 1 and 2 at year 11 level and units 3 and 4 at year 12. In each of these studies, teachers are required to give some attention to the societal and environmental impact of technology. For example, in Systems and Technology, (VCAB, 1991 a), one of the four essential features of the study is: "Appreciation of environmental, social and economic issues related to increasing use of technological systems in society." (p. 37. This study design requires students to investigate and report on social and environmental aspects of systems. Similarly, in Technological Design and Development (VCAB, 1991b), one of the five essential features of the study is: "Development of informed opinions about environmental, social and economic issues related to technology in society" (p. 3). In this study, one work requirement in unit 1 is that students investigate technological design in relation to the work environment. A work requirement in unit 4 is that students investigate and report on a topic related to environmental issues and the designer. In the V.C.E. study design, Materials and Technology, (VCAB, 1991c), one of the aims is: "to develop an awareness of the social and environmental implications of the production, use and disposal of materials" (p. 3). This aim is addressed as points in several work requirements but in particular in a work requirement in unit 3 where students are required to investigate the use of technology to control, reduce or eliminate waste and/or pollution associated with one of the materials selected for study.

In 1995 the Victorian Board of Studies (the successor to VCAB) published a Curriculum and Standards Framework for technology education from Preparatory to year 10 (Board of Studies, 1995). This draws extensively from the National Curriculum Profile mentioned above, and similarly includes substantial commitment to the societal and environmental impacts of technology. Thus the inclusion of environmental and societal impacts of technology is clearly specified in the curriculum guidelines.

Challenges for Teachers

It might be expected that a change in curriculum emphasis of this kind could cause some difficulties for teachers and students. Most technology studies teachers in Victoria were originally experienced trades people and then teachers of trade subjects, although a substantial minority were


originally home economics and textiles teachers. Very few of these teachers have had any formal education in the social sciences and even fewer have had formal education in environmental science.

Without being critical, it seems plausible that many of these teachers could feel ambivalent about teaching these new aspects of technology. Some may feel that the study of societal and environmental effects is inappropriate to technology education, and regard the hands-on practical work as all important. The relationship between attitudes and behaviour is complex; as Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) point out, actual behaviour is affected not only by attitude to the particular attitude object, but also by situation and the attitude to the behaviour. While a teacher's attitude toward an issue might be expected to have an effect on how (or whether) it is taught, other contingencies can intervene. Some teachers may display positive disposition to the issues but feel ill-equipped or under-resourced in these areas and thus be less likely to address the issues adequately in class, if at all.

Outline of the Study

Purpose

The fwst author of this paper is engaged in a larger project to determine attitudes of technology studies teachers to the environmental and societal impacts of technology and the extent to which they feel these should be addressed in VCE Technology Studies. This longer term study will also look at practice in this area and hopes to make worthwhile recommendations for future pre-service and in-service courses for technology studies teachers.

Fifteen research questions were proposed and it was decided that a small scale preliminary survey should be carried out involving about twenty VCE technology studies teachers as preparation for the larger study. The aims of this preliminary study were to investigate teachers' attitudes and practices in relation to environmental and societal issues, thus determining the appropriateness of the proposed research questions and then to use the findings to develop an effective attitude questionnaire for use in the larger project.

Accordingly, twenty practising VCE technology studies teachers were interviewed in May and June 1995. Background characteristics of the teachers were recorded and answers sought to the 15 questions shown in Table 1.

Interview Process

Once approval was gained from school principals and teachers willing to be interviewed were identified, an appointment was arranged with each for a 30 to 45 minute interview at a convenient time. To structure the interview, two forms were designed, one for personal background data to be recorded and another with fifteen questions to be asked at interview, these being designed to gather the data for the research questions listed in Table 1. The interview questions, as asked, are shown with each of the research questions in the section "Findings of the preliminary study."

At the interview the basic purpose of the preliminary study was explained and assurance given that responses would be anonymous. The teachers were also informed that results would not be interpreted as critical of teachers since the main purpose was to determine accurately what was occurring and to make recommendations regarding pre-service and in-service training in an attempt to improve the teaching of environmental and societal issues related to technology. To the


best o f the interviewer's ability to detect, all those interviewed seemed to be satisfied by this and most welcomed the opportunity to be involved. The interview then proceeded, using the two forms with the interviewer writing the answers verbatim as much as possible and seeking clarification where necessary. Frequently the interviewer stressed the need for the interviewee to give their own opinion and not to worry if this might differ fi'om others' opinions. Again, as far as the interviewer could see, all those interviewed seemed to be at ease and the responses very honest, often attended by diverse and interesting additional comments. At the end o f each interview, an offer was made to provide the interviewee with a copy o f the paper reporting the preliminary study; in all cases this was accepted (and duly carried out several months later).

Table 1 Proposed Research Questions

1. To what extent do technology studies teachers agree about what constitutes technology? That is, what is encompassed by the term technology?

2. To what extent do technology studies teachers agree about what the major environmental issues are?

3. To what extent do technology studies teachers agree about the impacts which technology has had on the environment?

4. What levels of concern do technology studies teachers have for environmental issues related to technology?

5. To what extent do technology studies teachers agree about what the major societal issues are?

6.. To what extent do technology studies teachers agree about the impacts which technology has had on society?

7. What levels of concern do technology studies teachers have for societal issues related to technology?

8. To what extent do technology studies teachers feel that environmental issues should be taught about in school?

9. To what extent do technology studies teachers feel that societal issues should be taught about in school?

10. To what extent do technology studies teachers feel that environmental issues related to technology should be taught about in technology studies?

11. To what extent do technology studies teachers feel that societal issues related to technology should be taught about in technology studies?

12. How do teachers feel about the quality and availability of resources for the teaching of environmental and societal issues in Technology Studies.

13. How confident are teachers about the teaching of environmental and societal issues in Technology Studies.

14. (a) To what extent are technology studies teachers incorporating relevant environmental issues in their courses?

(b) What reasons are cited by those teachers not incorporating such topics?

15. (a) To what extent are technology studies teachers incorporating relevant societal issues in their courses?

(b) What reasons are cited by those teachers not incorporating such topics?


Sample for the Preliminary Study

The twenty practising year I 1 and 12 technology studies teachers were drawn from fourteen secondary schools, both state and independent. Six schools provided two teachers and eight provided one each. All schools were in the Melbourne metropolitan area and an attempt was made to spread the selection geographically, five northern schools (6 teachers), two western schools (3 teachers), three southern schools (4 teachers), two eastern schools (3 teachers) and two south- eastern schools (4 teachers). There were three independent schools included, which roughly represents their overall proportion. The choice of schools was not random, as all were schools which Hawthorn Institute of Education was using, or had used, for student teacher placement. Usually the principal was contacted by phone, a fax was then sent, containing a copy of the interview questions for perusal and a brief explanation of the purpose of the interviews including a request for one or two VCE technology studies teachers to be approached to be interview subjects. It was pointed out in this letter that any teacher of VCE technology studies would be suitable, that is, it was desirable to have a cross section of teachers, not necessarily those with the most experience or highest profile. In all but one case, the principals and heads of Technology Departments were very co-operative. However, after the results of a number of interviews had been obtained it was suspected that the teachers being interviewed may not have been a representative sample of the state's technology studies teachers. Many had been involved in piloting the new courses and some were actively involved in curriculum development and in- service provision for these courses. Thus it was considered possible that the results of this preliminary survey might imply a better situation than the one that really existed.

There were sixteen male teachers and four female teachers; their ages ranged from 31 to 60 years (mean 46). They ranged in teaching experience from 6 to 37 years (mean 17); all except three had been teaching technology studies since it was fast introduced. Fifteen had trade backgrounds (5 wood trades, 8 metal trades and 2 electrical trades); of the other five, two were from foods and nutrition background, two fashion and design and one art-craft. Each of the trade background teachers had around 10 years of industrial experience prior to teaching. The other teachers had from zero to five years of industrial experience.

Of the fifteen trade-background teachers, eight had the minimum level of teaching qualifications i.e. suitable trade qualifications and basic teacher training course, while seven had upgraded to additional qualifications, one to a BA. Each of the five non trade-background teachers had a degree, or equivalent, and a basic teacher training course. Only about half regarded their course work as relevant to teaching the new technology studies subjects and less than half felt that their course work had addressed environmental or social context in any way.

Findings of the Preliminary Study

(Note: To keep the discussion of findings regarding environmental issues in one sequence and similarly for societal issues, the discussion of responses does not precisely follow the interview order.)

Research question 1 To what extent do technology studies teachers agree about what constitutes technology? That is, what is encompassed by the term technology?


Interview question We often hear the term technology, but what does this refer to? We hear every day about the technological society, technological revolutions and advances in modern technology; what words come into your mind when you hear the word technology? (or; what do you feel are the most striking examples of technology?)

The main point of this question was to determine whether teachers had a broad or narrow view of technology. It was expected that teachers would initially respond according to their speciality; this did happen but a number of teachers also responded in terms of general definitions of technology, for example: "... using scientific principles to make a product." %. changes, in general, to meet man's needs." Where the responses did not make it obvious how broad a view was held, teachers were prompted with other examples and asked whether they felt these should be regarded as within technology. Responses showed that all teachers in this study accepted the broad view of technology, that is, none focused on just one or two areas and all agreed that technology applies to a wide range of materials and human activities (one teacher did show reluctance to accept food as an area of technology).

Research question 2 To what extent do technology studies teachers agree about what the major environmental issues are?

Interview question Nowadays there is constant reference to the state of the environment and concerns expressed about the natural environment. What do you feel are the major environmental issues facing us today?

For this open ended question the responses were recorded and the respondents were not prompted with any suggested environmental issues. Responses were classified and results are summarised in Table 2. Although the agreement is not high, the results indicate that teachers have a reasonable level of concern across the major issues. Perhaps the interview question was inappropriate in that they were asked to indicate what they felt were the major environmental issues without any prompt list. All teachers responded with at least two recognisable issues although these authors would have expected higher scores for ozone depletion, greenhouse effect and energy depletion.

Research question 3 To what extent do technology studies teachers agree about the impacts which technology has had on the environment?

Interview question In what significant ways do you feel that technology has affected the environment?

Again, teachers were not prompted with suggestions beyond their replies. Responses were varied and difficult to classify although they tended to relate to their answer to the previous question. The underlying pessimism or optimism of teachers in relation to this question was easy to gauge from their responses. One teacher stated: "(Technology) is making it easier for the world to self destruct" while another commented: "(Technology) is finding ways of overcoming potential catastrophes." The attitudes expressed in the replies are summarised in Table 3.

Research question 4 What levels of concern do technology studies teachers have for environmental issues related to technology?


Table 2 Frequency of Identification of Environmental Issues.

Environmental issue Frequency

Deforestation 11

Waste disposal 10

Air pollution 10

Water pollution 9

Ozone depletion 4

Mining 4

Greenhouse effect 3

Resource depletion 3

Soil degradation 3

Energy usage 1

Loss of species I

Nuclear testing 1

Transport problems 1

Table 3 Comments on the Environmental Effects of Technology

Mentioned only More negative Equally positive More positive Mentioned only negative effects than positive, and negative, than negative positive effects

5 4 6 3 2

Interview item How concerned are you about these environmental issues?

Teachers were asked to indicate whether they were very concerned, mildly concerned or not at all concerned. Fifteen said they were very concerned and five said they were mildly concerned. Given some uncertainty of interpretation of very concerned compared with mildly concerned, these results indicate that these technology studies teachers have a significant level of concern for environmental issues related to technology.

Research question 8 To what extent do technology studies teachers feel that environmental issues should be taught about in school?

Interview item Do you feet that environmental issues should be taught about in school?

All twenty teachers replied Yes.


Research question 10 To what extent do technology studies teachers feel that environmental issues related to technology should be taught about in technology studies?

Interview item Do you feel that environmental issues related to technology should be taught about in technology studies?

Once again all twenty teachers replied Yes. The responses for interview questions 8 and 10 are both unequivocal and encouraging.

Research question 14 (a) To what extent are technology studies teachers incorporating relevant environmental issues

in their courses? (b) What reasons are cited by those teachers not incorporating such topics?

Interview question Given that these topics are not always easy to deal with, have you been able to incorporate any environmental issues in your technology studies course(s)? If not, what are the main reasons for this?

All teachers stated that they did address environmental issues although this varied from an active formal presentation to simply responding to students who asked for help with this area. Most teachers pointed out that the study guides (syllabuses) for each of the three technology studies required students to address environmental issues. Of the seventeen teachers who stated that they provided active teaching input on environmental issues, nine volunteered details. One of these developed a resource unit for the students on environmental impact, another involved students in emission testing of car engines. Three teachers stated that they covered the issues only informally in response to student queries. One teacher who did actively cover the issues commented that it was not well accepted by his students.

Research question 5 To what extent do technology studies teachers agree about what the major societal issues are?

Interview question We often hear people talk about the problems in modem society. What do you feel are the major societal issues facing us today?

For this open ended question the responses were recorded and the respondents were not prompted with any suggested societal issues. Agreement was not high and the pattern of responses was not as clear as that for question 2; three teachers mentioned environmental issues indicating that some people regard environmental issues as a subset of societal issues. A few responses were difficult to classify, for example: "Aboriginal land rights" and "The United States wanting to set rules for the world." Most other responses were readily classified and are summarised in Table 4. As in the case of question 2, it may be that the interview question was inappropriate in that teachers were asked to state what they felt were major societal issues without recourse to any list.


Table 4 Frequency of Identification of Societal Issues

Societal issue Frequency

Unemployment 8

Family stability 6

Unfair distribution of wealth 4

Apathy 4

People's lack of responsibility for their actions 3

Lack of confidence of youth in society 3

Crime rates 2

Poverty 2

Feelings of powerlessness 2

Pressures caused by demands of equal opportunity 2

Wars 2

Violence in the community 1

Drug abuse I

Lack of concem for others 1

Research question 6 To what extent do technology studies teachers agree about the impacts which technology has had on society?

Interview question In what significant ways do you feel that technology has affected society?

As for question 5, teachers were not prompted with suggestions beyond their replies. Responses were varied with some particularly interesting observations, for example: "Technology creates jobs but only for the educated." "People's ability to adapt to change; those who resist are in trouble." "School leavers now will have several different jobs; may finish up in a job unheard of today." "(Technology has) made jobs easier, made information more accessible and created more leisure time." As for question 3, the underlying pessimism or optimism of teachers in relation to this question was the most interesting outcome. The attitudes of teachers as determined from responses are shown in Table 5.

Table 5 Comments on the Societal Effects of Technology

Mentioned only ~ More negative Equally positive More positive Mentioned only negative effects than positive, and negative, than negative positive effects

7 3 4 4 2


Research question 7 What levels of concern do technology studies teachers have for societal issues related to technology?

Interview question How concerned are you about these societal issues?

Teachers were asked to indicate whether they were very concerned, mildly concerned or not at all concerned. Thirteen said they.were very concerned, five said they were mildly concerned and two said they were not at all concerned. As a group these teachers show a fairly high level of concern. For the two teachers in the not at all concerned category, one stated these things didn't affect him, the other stated that he was concerned about the major societal issues he listed for question 5 but not about the ones he listed as affected by technology.

Research question 9 To what extent do technology studies teachers feel that societal issues should be taught about in school?

Interview question Do you feel that societal issues should be taught about in school?

All twenty teachers replied Yes.

Research question 11 To what extent do technology studies teachers feel that societal issues related to technology should be taught about in technology studies?

Interview question Do you feel that societal issues related to technology should be taught about in technology studies?

Again all twenty teachers said Yes. Although these teachers clearly support the teaching of the impacts of technology on society as part of technology studies, six teachers qualified their answers to this question with comments such as, "I don't feel as strongly about this as for environmental issues." ... "Yes, but only if relevant to the unit." ... "OK but it should not dominate ..." and "Curriculum developers must allocate time for this."

Research question 15 (a) To what extent are technology studies teachers incorporating relevant societal issues in their

courses? (b) What reasons are cited by those teachers not incorporating such topics?

Interview question Given that these topics are not always easy to deal with, have you been able to incorporate any societal issues in your technology studies course(s)? If not, what are the main reasons for this?

Seventeen teachers stated that they did cover societal impact in their teaching although seven of these admitted that they covered it only informally or when asked about it by students. Of the three teachers who said they did not cover it, one said that he felt other areas in the school, like social studies, should deal with these issues, another said it was not well specified in the study design but students did address it, while the third said that it was not really required in the units he taught and besides he didn't have time.


Research question 12 How do teachers feel about the quality and availability of resources for the teaching of environmental and societal issues in technology studies?

Interview question What comments do you have about the materials and resources available to assist the teaching of topics related to technology such as environmental and societal issues?

Nine teachers gave responses which indicated a strong dissatisfaction with the resources available, three teachers were well satisfied with the resources available and the remaining eight teachers' responses graded from mild dissatisfaction to almost satisfied. A few teachers mentioned some specific resources they found useful but the general feeling was that there was a great need for more good quality, accessible and up-to-date resources. Seven teachers praised the Victorian Home Economics and Textiles Teachers Association conferences and publications and one teacher mentioned the use of CD-Roms.

Research question 13 How confident are teachers about the teaching of environmental and societal issues in technology studies?

Interview question How confident do you feel about teaching these related topics in technology studies?

Twelve teachers gave responses which indicated they were confident without any reservations; five said they were confident but qualified this in some way, for example: "... it would be good if there was effective personal development in these areas." and "... would feel better i f I had some more direct experience." Three teachers stated that they did not feel confident in teaching these a r e a s .

Development of the Instrument

The findings from the survey of the twenty technology studies teachers were fundamentally of value in deciding whether this line of research was likely to be worth pursuing. The researchers felt that the results did indicate that a more extensive survey would be worth conducting. The findings above were used to review the original research questions and to assist in the design of a questionnaire for use in the proposed larger study. A major consideration in the design of the questionnaire was that it would be completed individually, not by interview and therefore items would need to be designed to gather effectively data without recourse to exploratory questions or prompting. Also, it was felt that a lengthy questionnaire should be avoided. Modifications to the research questions and discussion of the design of the items for the questionnaire are given below.

Research Questions

The findings showed that research question (RQ) 2, (to what extent do technology studies teachers agree about what the major environmental issues are?) did not add much to the overall study given that RQ 3 (to what extent do technology studies teachers agree about the impacts which technology has had on the environment?) covered similar ground and was more relevant as it focused on impacts of technology. RQ 2 was therefore deleted. Exactly the same comments applied to RQ 5, on societal issues, where RQ 6 is sufficient, thus RQ 5 was also deleted.


RQ 8 and RQ 9, which ask in turn whether teachers think that environmental and societal issues should be taught in schools, were ~'elt to be unnecessary since RQ 10 and RQ 11 have similar content and are focused on technology studies, the main area of interest in this study.

RQ 13 (how confident are teachers about the teaching of environmental and societal issues in Technology Studies?) is represented by two items one for environmental and one for societal issues thus allowing teachers to give different responses for each area. RQ 14(b) and 15(b) were also slightly changed, to "what reasons are given by teachers for lack of confidence in dealing with such topics?" and now effectively follow-up RQ 13.

The revised research questions are shown in Table 6.

Design of ltems for the Questionnaire

The complete instrument is made up of 72 objective items including 32 Likert scale items designed to measure attitudes on four dimensions (eight items each). The relationship between the items and the research questions is shown in Table 6 and the complete instrument is shown in Appendix 1.

To gather data for RQ 1, dealing with what constitutes technology, teachers are presented with a list of twelve areas or industries and asked to indicate whether each is "def'mitely included in technology," "marginal to technology" or "not part of technology" (items 33 to 44). The twelve areas are based on the replies from the interviews and typical specialisations of technology studies teachers.

For RQ 3, relating to the environmental impacts of technology, teachers are presented with a list of eight major environmental issues, consistent with those identified in the interviews, and asked to indicate whether "technology has made this worse," "technology has not affected this" or "technology has improved this" thus picking up the interview observation that teachers tended to respond with an assessment of positive or negative effects (items 46 to 53). RQ 6 is similar to RQ 3 but deals with societal issues and a similar set of items, with issues based on answers given in the interviews, is presented (items 58 to 67).

For RQ 4, which deals with the levels of concern of teachers about environmental impacts of technology, it was felt that a set of Likert scale items would be most appropriate; eight items relevant to this question were produced (items 1,5,9,13,17,21,25 and 29). Similarly for RQ 7, a set of Likert scale items was produced to measure teachers' level of concern about societal impacts (items 3,7, I 1,15,19,23,27,31).

RQ 10 seeks to measure teachers' attitudes about teaching about environmental issues in technology studies and here again Likert items were thought to be the most appropriate (items 2,6,10,14,18,22,26,30). RQ 11 is similar but relates to teaching about societal issues. A set of Likert items was also produced to measure this (items 4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32).

RQ 12 deals with teachers' views on the adequacy of resources for teaching environmental and societal issues. One multiple-choice item with just three options was felt sufficient to assess this given the types of responses experienced in the interviews (item 72). RQ 13 dealing with the important issue of teachers' confidence in environmental and societal issues is assessed by two multiple-choice items, item 56 for environmental issues and item 70 for societal issues.

RQ 14(b) and RQ 15(b) seek the reasons for any expressed lack of confidence and follow on from RQ 13. Teachers who express lack of confidence in dealing with environmental issues and/or societal issues at items 56 and 70, are asked to indicate reasons why. Items 57 and 71 are multiple- choice items where teachers can choose one or more commonly expressed reasons; there is also a space to express other reasons.

46

Table 6 Revised Research Questions

DE LA RUE AND GARDNER

Question Related items

I. To what extent do technology studies teachers agree about what constitutes 33 to 44 technology? That is, what is encompassed by the term technology?

3. To what extent do technology-studies teachers agree about the impacts 46 to 53 which technology has had on the environment?

4 What levels of concern do technology studies teachers have for 1,5,9,13, environmental issues related to technology? 17,21,25,29

6. To what extent do technology studies teachers agree about the impacts 58 to 67 which technology has had on society?

7. What levels of concern do technology studies teachers have for societal 3,7,11,15, issues related to technology? 19,23,27,31

10 To what extent do technology studies teachers feel that environmental 2,6,10,14, issues related to technology should be taught about in technology studies? 18,22,26,30

I 1. To what extent do technology studies teachers feel that societal issues 4,8,12,16, related to technology should be taught about in technology studies? 20,24,28,32

12. How do teachers feel about the quality and availability of resources for the 72 teaching of environmental and societal issues in Technology Studies.

13. How confident are teachers about the teaching of environmental and 56, 70 societal issues in Technology Studies.

14. (a) To what extent are technology studies teachers incorporating relevant 54, 55 environmental issues in their courses?

(b) What reasons are cited by those teachers for lack of confidence in 57 dealing with such topics?

15. (a) To what extent are technology studies teachers incorporating relevant 68,69 societal issues in their courses?

(b) What reasons are cited by those teachers for lack of confidence in 71 dealing with such topics?

RQ 14(a) which asks about teachers' practice in relation to the teaching of environmental issues is covered by two multiple-choice questions: item 54 deals with how environmental issues are taught and item 55 which deals with the expectations placed on students' work regarding environmental issues. RQ 15(a) is the societal issue analogue and is similarly treated (items 68 and 69).

Sample for the Larger Study Using the Questionnaire

The sample for the larger study will be a random cluster sampling of VCE technology studies teachers from Melbourne metropolitan schools. Schools will be selected randomly and every technology studies teacher in each selected school will be invited to contribute to the survey.


Conclusion

This preliminary study involving twenty teachers indicates that VCE technology studies teachers are concerned about the environmental and societal issues related to technology, in each case about two thirds of the group indicating a high level of concern, the rest (bar one) indicating mild concern. The fact that all the teachers agreed that these issues should be taught in school and be included in technology studies is an encouraging finding.

The responses regarding practice were not quite so reassuring. At least three teachers out of twenty indicated that they did not spend much time on environmental issues, while at least ten teachers out of the twenty indicated that they did not spend much time on societal issues. Lack of accessible resources appears to be a possible reason; another could be a lack of time to gather the resources.

There is always some uncertainty in a survey of this sort as explained earlier. The sample may have been biased toward positive responses and further, there is the problem that the interviewer and the interviewee may not always have the same opinion about what constitutes adequate coverage. For these reasons it would seem worthwhile to conduct a more thorough follow-up study on a larger and representative sample. It is felt that the random cluster sampling procedure described above and the method of personally introducing the questionnaire should result in reliable measurement and provide useful data on which to base recommendations regarding in- service and pre-service course development and selection criteria for technology studies teachers.

Correspondence: Dr Paul L. Gardner, Reader in Education, Monash University, Faculty of Education, Clayton, Victoria, 3168, Australia. Internet email: [email protected]

References

Board of Studies. (1995). Curriculum and standards framework: Technology. Carlton, Vic: Board of Studies.

Curriculum Corporation. (1994). Technology- A curriculum profile for Australian schools. Carlton, Vic: Curriculum Corporation.

Department for Education and Employment. (1995). Looking at values through products and applications. London: Department for Education and Employment.

Elliott, J. (1994). Developing community-focussed environmental education through action research. In OECD, Evaluating innovation in environmental education (Ch. 2). Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude intention and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

McLaughlin, C.H. (Jr). (1994). Developing environmental literacy through technology education. The Technology Teacher, 54(3), 30-34.

Ministry of Education. (1995). Technology in the New Zealand curriculum. Wellington: Learning Media.

Northern Ireland Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment. (1995). Proposals for revised subject requirements: Technology and Design. Dundonald: NICCEA.

Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Board. (1991 a). Systems and technology: Study design. Carlton, Vic: Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Board.


Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Board. (1991 b). Technological design and development: Study design. Carlton. Vie: Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Board.

Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Board. (1991 c). Materials and technology: Study design. Carlton, Vic: Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Board.

Appendix

Questionnaire

Part A

�9 The instructions and responses have been omitted here. Each item in part A is followed by the response mode SA A D SD NS.

1. We should do more to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to avoid global warming. 2. Environmental issues related to technology should be regarded as an essential part of a

Technology Studies course. 3. One serious societal problem is the way technological development puts many people out of

work. 4. It helps students' understanding of technology when they are required to study how

technology affects people's lives. 5. The earth's atmosphere and seas are not being seriously damaged by pollution from human

activity. 6. It is not appropriate to cover the environmental effects of technology in a Technology Studies

COurSe .

7. Industries must be free to install high level technology without having to worry about the social effects.

8. Students should not have to worry about social issues in their studies of technology. 9. People make too much fuss over the damage to the environment caused by technology. 10. The prescribed amount of work on environmental issues in the Technology study desig-ns

should be reduced. 11. The unemployed are largely responsible for their own problems. 12. Some Technology Studies work requirements are too much like Social Studies assignments. 13. The timber industries' harvesting of our old growth forests is not in Australia's best interest. 14. Students will not gain the complete picture of a particular technology study unless they look

at the related environmental effects. 15. Whether computer games are supposed to be good or bad for kids, the social effects must be

carefully considered. 16. Communities and Technology are dependent on one another; this interdependence needs to

be addressed in some of the work requirements for Technology Studies. 17. Many environmentalists greatly exaggerate the seriousness of human impact on the

environment. 18. Students don't gain very much from investigating environmental issues in their Technology

Studies work requirements. 19. The so-called problems of today's young people are not things on which we should spend a

lot of resources.


20. Technology Studies students would be better to focus on pure technology rather than side issues like the ways technology affects society

21. Pollution in Australia is a big problem which needs a big effort to solve.. 22. The V.C.E. Technology subjects benefit fi-om the inclusion of the environmental context of

technology. 23. We need to carefully consider all social effects when installing any new technologies. 24. Technology Studies should not give students a narrow view, it should show the links between

applications of technology and the functioning of communities. 25. Ozone depletion has been made out to be a bigger threat than it really is. 26. It is a good thing that today's students are required to consider environmental factors in work

requirements for Technology Studies. 27. The problems of unemployment are not as serious as people make out. 28. The curriculum writers for Technology Studies have burdened the course with too much

discussion of how technology affects people. 29. Industries need stricter environmental regulation to prevent further damage to the natural

environment. 30. Technology Studies should focus on pure technology, rather than side issues like

environmental effects. 31. If a newly recommended technological system was clearly going to interfere with the well-

being of the community, then it would be better not to implement it. 32. Technology Studies courses must include the social effects of technology.

Part B

The following 40 short items, in most cases, simply require a tick. We often hear the term technology, but what does this refer to? We hear every day about the

technological society, technological revolutions and advances in modem technology, but what do you feel really belongs to the realm of technology

For each of the human industries listed below, indicate how it fits into your view of technology, by placing a tick in the appropriate column.

Industry Definitely included Marginal to Not part of in technology technology technology

33. Automotive engineering

34. Manufacturing in wood

35. Foods and nutrition

36. Plumbing and sheetmetal work

37. Plastics industry

3 8. Electronics

39. Computers

40. Textiles and fashion

41. Electrical engineering

42. Horticulture

43. Fitting and machining

44. Graphic design


45. Indicate with a tick which one of the following statements best describes your view:

(a) Overall, the battle between technology and the environment is being lost. The damage to the environment, caused by the application of technologies throughout the world, is growing faster than remedies are being found. I feel that the natural environment will become steadily worse. [ ]

Co) The natural environment has suffered because of our industries and technological developments and although we are trying to repair and prevent further damage, I feel that we will probably hold the damage at its current level, no better, no worse: [ ]

(c) Technology has caused damage to the environment, but I feel we are more enlightened now and we will solve the environmental problems caused by technology without slowing technological advances. [ ]

(d) I feel that our technology has done very little real damage to the environment and with the current environmental controls and safeguards, we will maintain and improve our natural environment for the future. [ ]

While some environmental effects can be clearly linked to a particular technology, there is often disagreement about the way in which technology has affected a given environmental factor. For each of the environmental factors listed below, tick one of the columns to indicate how you feel the factor has been affected by technology.

Technology has Technology has Technology has Factor made this worse not significantly improved this

affected this

46. Water quality in rivers, lakes and seas

47. Global temperature stability (Greenhouse gas emissions)

48. The condition of the ozone layer

49. The condition of forests

50. The viability of our non- renewable resources

51. Soil quality

52. Production and disposal of waste.

53. Air quality


54. Which of the following statements best describes the way you address environmental issues when teaching the V.C.E. Technology units?

(i) I spend substantial time seeking out information and resources to assist my teachingof environmental issues. [ ]

(ii) I recommend to students that it is an area they should cover, suggest some references and largely leave them to follow it up. [ ]

(iii) I discuss this area with students when they raise it or ask for assistance. [ ] (iv) I tend not to address it at all. [ ]

55. Which of the following statements best describes your response to students' work requirements, where some environmental component is specified by the study design?

(i) I demand a very thorough coverage of the environmental issues. (ii) I demand a reasonable coverage of the environmental issues. (iii) I require them to mention some of the environmental issues. (iv) I tend not to worry very much about whether my students have

covered the environmental issues.

[ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ]

56. How confident do you feel about dealing with environmental issues in the Technology Studies work requirements?

(a) Confident. [ ] (b) Only partially confident. [ ] (c) Not confident. [ ]

57. If you answered (b) or (c) for question 56, indicate with a tick any of the following reasons which contribute to your apparent lack of confidence in dealing with the environmental area. (You may indicate any number.)

(a) Lack of worthwhile resources. (b) Insufficient expertise or education in the environmental area. (c) Students often do not respond favourably to environmental issues. (d) Other reason. (specify):

[ ] [ ] [ ]

While some societal effects can be clearly linked to a particular technology, there is often disagreement about the way in which technology has affected a given social problem.

For each of the social issues listed below, tick one of the columns to indicate how you feel the issue has been affected by technology.


Social problem Technology

has made this W o r s e

Technology has not significantly

affected this

Technology has improved this

58. Family stability

59. Crime rates

60. Unfair distribution of wealth

61. Unemployment

62. People's lack of responsibility for their actions

63. Lack of confidence of youth in society

64. Poverty

65. Lack of concern for others in the community

66. Apathy

67. Violence in communities

68. Which of the following statements best describes the way you address issues when teaching the V.C.E. Technology units?

(i) I spend substantial time seeking out information and resources to assist my teaching of societal issues. [ ]

(ii) I recommend to students that it is an area they should cover, suggest some references and largely leave them to follow it up. [ ]

(iii) I discuss this area with students when they raise it or ask for assistance. [ ] (iv) I tend not to address it at all. [ ]

69. Which of the following statements best describes your response to students' work requirements, where some societal component is specified by the study desig-a?

(i) I demand a very thorough coverage of the societal issues. [ ] (ii) I demand a reasonable coverage of the societal issues. [ ] (iii) I require them to mention some of the societal issues. [ ] (iv) I tend not to worry very much about whether my students have covered the societal

issues. [ ]

70. How confident do you feel about dealing with societal issues in the Technology Studies work requirements?

(a) Confident. [ ] (b) Only partially confident. [ ] (c) Not confident. [ ]


71. If you answered (b) or (c) for question 70, indicate with a tick any of the following reasons which contribute to your apparent lack of confidence in dealing with the societal area. (You may indicate any number.)

(a) Lack of worthwhile resources. (b) Insufficient expertise or education in the societal area. (c) Students often do not respond favourably to societal issues. (d) Other reason. (specify):

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

72. How would you describe the resources available for the teaching of environmental and societal issues in Technology studies?

(a) Excellent, there is a good range of relevant materials to choose from. (b) Reasonable but could be better. (e) Very inadequate; it is very hard to find much that is appropriate.

[ ] [ ] [ ]

Documents

Development of an instrument to measure technology studies teachers' attitudes to environmental and social issues