Energy for Development

The Beijer Institute The Scandinavian Institute Thc Royat Swedish of A-ffican Studies Arrtdemy of Sciences UppsaEa, Sweden Stockholm, Sweden

ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA 11

ENERGY FOR DEVELOPMENT IN ZIMBABWE

Edited by Richard H. Hosier

Published by THE BEUER INSTITUTE and THE SCANDINAVIAN INSTITUTE The Royal Swedish OF AFRICAN STUDIES Academy of Sciences Uppsala, Sweden Stockholm, Sweden

The series "Energy, Environment and Development in Africa" is published jointly by the Beijer Institute and the Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, with financial support from the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) .

ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT I N AFRICA

Other titles in this series:

1. Energy and Development in Kenya: Opportunities and Constraints. P. 0' Keefe, P. Raskin and S. Bernow (Eds) .

2. SADCC: Energy and Development to the Year 2000. J.T.C Simoes (Ed) .

3. Energy and Development in Southern Africa: SADCC Country Studies, Part I. P. 0' Keefe and B. Munslow (Eds) .

4. Energy and Development in Southern Africa: SADCC Country Studies, Part 11. P. 0' Keefe and B. Munslow (Eds) .

5. Manufacturing Industry and Economic Development in the SADCC Countries. R. Peet.

6. Wood, Energy and Households: Perspectives on Rural Kenya. C. Barnes, J. Ensminger and P. 0' Keefe (Eds) .

7. Energy Use in Rural Kenya: Household Demands and Rural Transformation. R.H. Hosier.

8. LEAP: A Description of the LDC Energy Alternatives Planning System. Paul D. Raskin.

9. Zimbabwe: Energy Planning for National Development. R.H. Hosier (Ed) .

10. Zimbabwe: Industrial and Commercial Energy Use. R.H. Hosier (Ed) .

11. Energy for Rural Development in Zimbabwe. R.H. Hosier (Ed) .

ISSN 0281-8515 ISBN 91-7106-278-5

0 The Beijer Institute and the Scandinavian Institute of African Studies 1988

Printed in Sweden by Bohuslaningens AB, Uddevalla 1988

FOREWORD

The s t u d i e s presented i n t h i S Volume were o r i g i n a l l y c a r r i e d o u t as p a r t o f t he Zimbabwe Energy Account ing P r o j e c t (ZEAP). The ZEAP was a j o i n t unde r tak ing between t h e B e i j e r I n s t i t u t e o f t h e Royal Swedish Academy o f Sciences and t h e M i n i s t r y o f Water and Energy Resources and Development o f t h e Republ ic o f Zimbabwe. The o b j e c t i v e s o f t he P r o j e c t were f o u r f o l d , namely:

(1) To e s t a b l i s h a d e t a i l e d end-use energy account ing system f o r Zimbabwe;

( 2 ) To examine r u r a l energy problems i n general , and t h e woodfuel problem i n p a r t i c u l a r ;

( 3 ) To examine, i n d e t a i l , i n d u s t r i a l energy consumption and the commercial f u e l supply sec tors ;

and

( 4 ) To develop a s e t o f p r o j e c t s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e Government-S o v e r a l l p o l i c y d i r e c t i o n s t o address the energy problems i d e n t i f i e d .

The m a t e r i a l s i n t h i s Volume, which concen t ra te on t h e second o b j e c t i v e above, a re pub l i shed f o r two reasons: F i r s t , t h e r e i s g e n e r a l l y v e r y l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e on Zimbabwe energy i ssues . Second, t h e o v e r a l l conc lus ions o f t h e ZEAP p r o j e c t , summarized i n Volume 9 o f t h i s s e r i e s , was o n l y ab le t o r e f l e c t t h e " t i p o f t h e i cebe rg " o f work t h a t went i n t o t h e ZEAP e f f o r t .

I am most g r a t e f u l t o a l l ou r Zimbabwean and o t h e r co l leagues who c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h i s volume (see page 243). I am p a r t i c u l a r l y i ndeb ted t o D r R ichard Hos ier who has taken r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r up- da t i ng and e d i t i n g o f t h e ZEAP m a t e r i a l t h a t went i n t o t h i s Volume.

Gordon T. Goodman Execut ive D i r e c t o r Bei j e r I n s t i t u t e

PREFACE

The papers published in this book represent the collec- tive and individual thoughts of the working group on rural energy development of the Zimbabwe Energy Accounting Project (ZEAP). The project was a joint undertaking between the Beijer Institute of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and the Ministry of Water and Energy Resources and Development of the Government of Zimbabwe.

The first paper was formulated by the entire rural energy working group. Originally written in late 1383, it was intended to formulate the major concepts and issues to inform the remainder of the work on rural energy. The papers then progressively focus on agriculture, households, and energy technology and the environment. The second paper provides a thorough look at energy use ~n Zimbabwe's agricultural sector. This is complemented by the third paper on land-use patterns and ecological potential. From the agricultural sector, the papers then turn to the household sector. The fourth paper analyses household energy consumption and uses a multinomial logit framework to analyze the determinants of fuel choice throughout Zimbabwe. The fifth paper focuses on the role of women in Zimbabwe's rural energy economy. The final four papers address issues of energy technology and the environment in rural Zimbabwe. The sixth paper focuses on the efficiency of domestic cookstoves and presents the results of a comprehensive stove-testing program carried out as part of the ZEAP. The seventh paper examines current tree-planting, and agroforestry practices in Zimbabwe. The eighth paper looks at the impact of fuelwood harvesting on soil erosion in Zimbabwe's communal areas. The final paper assesses the potential of renewable energy technologies for making a significant impact on the major problems in Zimbabwe's rural energy system.

I am greatly indebted to all the contributors to this volume, and I hope that the final product is worthy of their efforts. A special vote of thanks goes to Bonnie Ram who was the project administrator responsible for organizing most of the work. I would like to thank Lars Kristoferson and Gordon Goodman for their encouragement to organize and publlsh this material. Keith Adams spent endless hours deciphering notes, tracing references, editing drafts, and finally putting all of this into acceptable form. Priscilla Chinyangara, Solveig Nilsson, and Lori Cole all deserve thanks for having entered different versions of these papers onto word processors and then revised them. Any errors of omission or commission remaining at this point are solely the respons~bility of the editor.

Richard B. Hosier

August 1987 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

CONTENTS

I. Energy for Rural Development in Zimbabwe: Concepts 1 and Issues for Growth with Equity

1. Introduction 1 2. Energy for Rural Development in Zimbabwe 1 3. Approaches to Energy Planning in Developing 3

Countries 4. Zimbabwe's Rural Structure and Energy System 10 5. Zeap Rural Energy Studies 14 6. Rural Energy Policy Issues 16

11. Energy Use in Zimbabwe's Agricultural Sector 20

Introduction 20 Energy Use in Agriculture 2 1 Zimbabwe's Natural Resource Base 2 3 Zimbabwe's Agrarian Structure 2 5 Energy Use in Zimbabwe's Agricultural Sector 3 2 The Energetics of Agriculture in Zimbabwe 3 5 Key Issues for Agricultural Energy Development 45 Summary and Recommendations 5 2

111. Methodology for the Assessment of Land-Use in Zimbabwe

1. Introduction 60 2. Land Areas and Ecological Zones 60 3. Distribution of Cultivation 6 7 4. Indigenous Forest and Grazing Land and Non- 7 1

Utilizable land 5. Agricultural Productivity 7 3

Appendices: The distribution of Land by Natural 75 Region, 1982

Appendix 111-1: Communal Land 7 5 Appendix 111-2: LSCF and State Farms 7 7 Appendix 111-3: Resettled Areas 7 9 Appendix 111-4: SSCF

IV. Household Energy Use in Zimbabwe: An Analysis of Consumption Patterns and Fuel Choice

1. Introduction 2. Physical and Conceptual Background 3. Residential Energy Consumption in Zimbabwe 4. Household Fuel Choice 5. Conclusions

V. Women and the Rural Energy Economy of Zimbabwe: 110 Research Findings and Policy Issues

1. Introduction 2. Women and Rural Energy 3. Towards a 17omen-Oriented Rural Energy

Development Policy

VI. Performance Testing Domestic Cookstoves for Zimbabwe 142

1. Introduction 2. The Program 3. The Stoves 4. Results and Discussion 5. Conclusions

VII. Fuelwood Consumption and Supply Patterns, Tree- 160 Planting Practices, and Farm Forestry in Rural Zimbabwe

1. Introduction Part I. Fuelwood Consumption Patterns and Supply

in Rural Zimbabwe 2. Background 3. Fuel Types, Appliances and Preferred

Fuelwood Species 4. \?ood Storage 5. How Fuel is Obtained 6. Source of Fuelwood 7. Transport 8. Demand and Supply 9. Wood Resource Adequacy Part 11. Tree-Planting Practices and the Potential

Role of Farm Forestry in Zimbabwe's Rural Areas

10. Introduction 11. Results of the Tree-Planting Survey 12. Discussion 13. Farm Forestry 14. General Discussion 15. Conclusions

VIII.Woodfuel Harvesting and Soil Erosion in Zimbabwe 185

1. Introduction 185 2. Factors Influencing Soil Erosion and Erosion 186

Rates in Zimbabwe 3. Soil Erosion Hazard 190 4. Soil Erosion Observations 191 5. Erosion Classification Scheme 193 6. General Conclusions from Field Observations 194

IX. The Prospect for Application of Renewable Energy Technologies in Zimbabwe's Rural, Domestic and Agricultural Sectors

Introduction Demand Renewable Energy Resources Review of Applications and Technology Cooking and Heating Water Heating Traction and Transport Irrigation, Stock Watering and Domestic

\later Pumping Conclusions

List of Contributors

Index

LIST OF TABLES

Chapter I

1-1 Classification Matrix for Rural Energy Studies 8 1-2 Zeap Project Studies 15

Chapter I1

Land Areas by Natural Region 2 5 Distribution of Agricultural Land 2 6 Energy Consumption in the Agricultural Sector 3 2 Energy Consumption in the LSCF Sector 3 3 Energy Consumption in the LSCF Sector by Crop 34 Energy Consumption for the Major LSCF Crops 3 5 Energetic Efficiency of Maize Production in 36 Zimbabwe's LSCF Sector and the United States

Energetic Efficiency of Wheat Production in 3 7 Zimbabwe's LSCF Sector and the United States

Energetic Efficiency of Wheat Production on Two 38 Lowveld State Farms in Zimbabwe

Energy Intensity of Irrigated Cotton Production 39 Production Statistics: Communal Areas 40 Energy Inputs and Outputs: Communal Areas 4 1 Production Statistics: Resettlement Schemes (A) 43 Energy Inputs and 0utputs:Resettlement Schemes (A) 43

Chapter I11

Related Farming Systems Provincial Land-Use Totals by Natural Region 6 3 Land-Use Categories and Agro-Ecological Regions 65 Land-Use Categories in Zimbabwe 6 6 Forest Lands 6 7 Projection of Cropped Land 69 Projected Increases in Agricultural Production 7 0 Non-Utilizable Land in Zimbabwe 7 1 Indigenous ~orest/~razing Land in Zimbabwe 7 2 Distribution of Non-Utilizable Land 7 2

Chapter IV

IV- 1 IV- 2 IV-3 IV-4 IV- 5 IV-6 IV-7 IV-8 TV-9 IV-10 IV-11 IV-12

Fuel Consumption by Residential Subsector 8 8 Fuel Consumption by Income Category 89 Fuel Consumption by Natural Region 9 1 Definition of MNL Variables: National Level 9 5 Analysis of Individual Parameters: National Level 97 Sign Effects of Variables: National Level 98 Definition of MNL Variables: Urban Areas 100 Analysis of Individual Parameters: Urban Areas 101 Sign Effects of Variables: Urban Areas 102 Definition of MNL Variables: Rural Areas 103 Analysis of Individual Parameters 104 Sign Effects of Variables: Rural Areas 105

Chapter V

v- l v- 2 v- 3 v-4 v- 5 V- 6 v- 7 V-8 v-9 v-10 v-l l v- 12 V-13 V-14 V-15 V-16

Population Pressures and Timber Shortages Heads of Households by Age and Sex Women's Labor Contribution per Task Karange TTL Labor Input in Agriculture Major Food Crop Cycles and Labor Input by Sex Labor Input In Rural Zimbabwe by Task Age and Gender Composition of Labor Tasks: Timing and Labor Input for Maize Labor Input by Task: Percentage of Working Hours Seasonal Schedule of Daily Activities for Women Length of Day for Men and Women Labor Intensity by Age and Gender Household Labor Times for Fuelwood Collection Family Decision-Making in Rural Zimbabwe Age and Gender Composition: Crop Production Peasant Crops Grown for Food or Cash

Chapter V11

Tree-Part Use as Fuel Distance to Fuel Source Forms of Transport National Fuelwood Supply and Demand Relationships Provincial Fuelwood Supply and Demand Fuelwood Supply and Demand for Three Provinces ~ype/Frequency of Trees Planted in Communal Areas Percentages of Seedling Sources Percentages of Tree-Planting Initiatives Percentages of Tree-Planting Purposes

Chapter V111

VIII-1 Soil Loss from Crops Having Varying Cover Values 188 V11I-2 The Categories of Erosion in Zimbabwe 189 VIII-3 Soil Erosion Hazard in Communal Areas 190 VIII-4 Erosion Observations in Makoni District 192 VIII-5 Erosion Observations in Marange District 193

Chapter IX

IX- 1 IX-2 IX-3 IX-4 IX-5 IX-6 IX-7 IX-8

Final Consumption by Sector Fuel Consumption by End-Use Fuel Consumption by End-Use Fuel Consumption by Epd-Use Average Monthly Rainfall by Catchment Area Technical Characteristics: Selected Applications Technical Characteristics: Selected Technologies Selected ~pplication/Technology Matches

LIST OF MAPS

Map 11-1 Distribution of Natural Regions by Province 2 4 Map 11-2 Distribution of Large-scale Commercial and 2 7

Communal Farm Areas by Natural Region Map 11-3 Distribution of Resettlement Schemes 30

by Natural Region Map 11-4 Tillage Zone Map of Mechanical Tillage Program 51

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 11-1 Effect of Fertilizer on Maize Yields 4 8 Figure V-l Age-Gender Pyramid in Communal Areas 113 Figure VI-1 Constant Power Tests: Efficiency v Output 155 Figure VII-1 Fuelwood Supply Balance: Base-Case Scenario 168 Figure IX-1 Typical Daily Rural CookingIHeating Schedule 220

I . ENERGY FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT I N ZIMBABiJE: COMCEPTS AND I S S U E S FOR GROWTH WITH EQUITY

D. Q. Chandiwana, T. Harris , R. Hosier, K. Johnson, S. Moyo and D. Tleiner

1. INTRODUCTION

This paper serves to set out the conceptual foundation of the rural energy studies carried out as part of the Zimbabwe Energy Accounting Project (ZEAP). This foundation was drawn from an understanding of energy planning models, the social-economic context of rural development in Zimbabwe, and a critical attitude towards much of the rural energy planning which had taken place to date. Our concern - hence the focus of this paper - was the cursory attention given to rural energy problems, in particular, the lack of an integrated conception of rural development and energy issues in most planning exercises. This paper also outlines ZEAP in broad strokes, and in more specific terms, details the issues to be addressed in the following chapters and the methodologies that should be used in any study dealing with energy for rural development in Zimbabwe. It is important to stress that this paper is not a summary of the rural studies actually carried out in ZEAP, but rather a presentation of the background, aims, methods and concepts of the issue, leaving discussion of the actual results obtained in the studies to the other chapters in this volume.

We begin with a brief discussion of the goals of rural development in Zimbabwe and the energy implications of these goals. We stress the need to supply energy for subsistence and development purposes. A presentation and critique of common energy planning approaches £01 lows. This sets the stage for a discussion of our approach to energy planning. The final section addresses several of the most relevant policy issues in rural energy.

2. ENERGY FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ZIMBABWE

The only major document to address both the energy and rural development questions, albeit in isolation, is the Transitional National Development Plan (Republic of Zimbabwe, 1982). The primary objective of the plan for rural development is to achieve growth and equity simultaneously. Central to the plan is the enhancement of rural incomes, level of education, agricultural productivity, and job creation. This strategy of spatial economic integration involves a land reform program (in the form of resettlement), the establishment of rural growth and service centers, as well as a general improvement in access to social and physical infrastructures.

If this rural development strategy is to succeed, the increase of rural energy supplies is crucial. Along with increased energy used for rural infrastructure and other large scale projects, equitable growth necessitates an increased flow of energy to the poorest of rural households. Presently there is a real danger that access to energy supplies for development purposes will be limited to the upper income groups in rural areas. This would intensify the process of agrarian differentiation and directly counter the growth with equity objective. Any attempt, therefore, to address this question requires a clear understanding of the energy processes within the Zimbabwean agrarian structure. In successful l y providing energy for rural development, there must also be provision of sufficient energy for purposes of subsistence. Rural development requires rural surplus generation with local reinvestment. This cannot occur if people are struggling to maintain a subsistence standard of living. Unfortunately, in many areas of Zimbabwe, the initial hurdle of providing energy for the acquisition of basic needs has not yet been completed. Therefore, certain subsectors within the Zimbabwean agrarian structure require special attention before their development needs for energy can be considered.

It is therefore the task of the Department of Energy to ensure that the broad policy objective of growth with equity in the energy sector is implemented. To this end, the Department's central guiding principles are as follows:-

(1) To ensure a balanced and equitable development and expansion of energy supplies to meet the energy needs of all sectors of the economy, paying particular attention to the energy needs of communal areas, and seeking tobring this sector into the mainstream of economic development.

(2) To conserve the country's scarce foreign exchange by developing to the fullest extent the indigenous energy resources, particularly new and renewable energy sources.

(3) To achieve security of local energy supplies and thus reduce dependence on imported energy resources.

The Government's emphasis on the provision of energy for rural areas is evident in the variety of projects undertaken towards research and development of new and renewable energy resources; particularly in the fields of biogas, solar energy and rural afforestation. These efforts are complemented by energy conservation measures geared towards the household. Rural electrification is also being considered at the national level, focusing initially on growth and service centers.

With respect to biogas, seventeen demonstration plants have been set up at various schools and business centers in

t h e c o u n t r y t o promote p u b l i c awarenes s o f b i o g a s a s an a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e of ene rgy . I n t h e a r e a of s o l a r ene rgy , water h e a t e r s , pumps and s o l a r c l i n i c s have been i n s t a l l e d a t v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s on a n e x p e r i m e n t a l b a s i s . A r u r a l a f f o r e s t a t i o n p r o j e c t i s a l s o underway t o improve woodfue l s u p p l i e s i n communal a r e a s . T h i s i s complemented by a woodstove demonstrat ion p r o j e c t which i s aimed a t promoting woodfuel conserva t ion . A t t h e time t h e p r o j e c t began, about e i g h t such f u e l - e f f i c i e n t woodstoves had been cons t ruc ted a t va r ious d i s t r i c t s e r v i c e c e n t e r s i n t h e country.

Although r u r a l energy p r o j e c t s have been undertaken t o a l l e v i a t e t he s o- c a l l e d "energy c r i s i s " , such p r o j e c t s do not a l o n e c o n s t i t u t e an energy po l i cy . The program has o f t e n l a c k e d cohe rence due t o an i n a d e q u a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c r e a l i t i e s i n r u r a l Zimbabwe, a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t r o l e o f e n e r g y f o r r u r a l s u b s i s t e n c e and development. As a r e s u l t , p r o j e c t s have been o f t e n piecemeal and h a v e focused s o l e l y on one t e c h n i c a l d imens ion of a p rob l em w h i l e i g n o r i n g t h e l a r g e r s o c i a l c o n t e x t i n which t h a t problem has occured. Furthermore, c e r t a i n major energy needs h a v e o f t e n been n e g l e c t e d , w h i l e o t h e r minor ones r ece ived a g r e a t d e a l of a t t e n t i o n .

I n o rde r t o r e c o n c i l e t h e Government's energy and r u r a l development g o a l s , a comprehensive understanding of t h e r u r a l socio-economic system was requi red t o d i r e c t and p r i o r i t i z e p lanning e f f o r t s . Unfor tuna te ly , t h e problem was exacerbated by t h e p lanning approaches commonly u t i l i z e d i n deve loping c o u n t r i e s . Here , we w i l l b r i e f l y examine t h e s e b e f o r e presen t ing our a l t e r n a t i v e approach f o r r u r a l energy a n a l y s i s i n Zimbabwe.

3 . APPROACHES TO ENERGY PLANNING I N DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

In r ecen t yea r s , s e v e r a l approaches t o energy p lanning i n deve loping c o u n t r i e s have emerged. There a r e two common t y p e s o f models which a r e a p p l i e d t o ene rgy p l a n n i n g a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l : reduced-form model S and end-use models. Each of t h e s e h a s i t s s t r e n g t h s and weaknesses when a p p l i e d t o d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e two g e n e r i c models, a l a r g e number of s t u d i e s have been undertaken of t he r u r a l e n e r g y problem. I n i t i a l l y , t h e s e a r o s e s o l e 1 y w i t h r e f e r ence t o fuelwood requirements , b u t have r e c e n t l y become more complex and i nvo lved . These approaches a r e f r e q u e n t l y l i nked t o energy p o l i c y i n i t i a t i v e s .

I n t h i s s e c t i o n , we b r i e f l y de sc r ibe t he se approaches t o t h e e n e r g y q u e s t i o n i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . IJe w i l l move from a d i s c u s s i o n of reduced form models t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n ofend-use models, paying p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e end-use model used i n t h e ZEAP p r o j e c t . However, it i s our argument t h a t no m a t t e r how r e f i n e d one of t h e s e models i s , i t s t i l l f a 1 1s s h o r t of p rovid ing s u f f i c i e n t information t o o u t l i n e a s e t o f p o l i c i e s and p r o j e c t s t h a t can a d e q u a t e l y a d d r e s s c r u c i a l r u r a l energy problems. Therefore, we s h a l l b r i e f l y

review some of the better studies of the rural energy question, with an emphasis on the link between these studies and policy interventions. This will set the stage for a presentation of the comprehensive approach used by the ZEAP team to tackle the rural energy problem in Zimbabwe.

ENERGY PLANNING MODELS

Most energy planning in developing countries has been based on models directly transplanted from those used in L7estern industrialized countries. L7hile this seems understandable to a point, it has tended to focus planning efforts almost entirely on defining strategies to synchronize the growth of commercial fuel supplies to growth in consumption requirements. Planning for commercial fuel supplies in most developing countries is far more advanced than even planning for agriculture, let alone overall rural energy requirements. Since data for these studies is easily accessible, they are relatively simple to undertake and usually focus on the supply of a single fuel, say electricity or coal. There are few if any attempts, however, to examine the technical substitution possibilities between fuel sources, so that the picture obtained is often static and simplistic. Planning and research tend to focus on large capital-intensive projects, as it is much simpler to deal with projects having a financial l y recoverable output than with projects addressing the broad and complex questions raised by an examination of rural energy development and subsistence requirements. When rural development is seen, as it is in the Zimbabwean case, in the context of growth with equity, the level and scope of analysis must focus on the local or micro-level. So far, Zimbabwe has planned for energy at the more macro level suggested above. For example, studies have been undertaken for coal (Montan Consultants, 1983), liquid fuels (Snamprogetti, 1983), and electricity supply re-quirements (Merz-McClellan, 1981). Each has been undertaken in isolation not only from the other, but also from any coherent development context.

In general, energy planning makes use of one of types of models: reduced-form models and end-use models h37 While the Zimbabwean coal, liquid fuel, and electricity studies a1 l make use of rudimentary reduced-form models in the projections of fuel consumption, no end-use models had been applied (prior to 1982) in Zimbabwe. Both approaches have strengths and weaknesses, particularly when applied to rural energy issues. Here, we shall briefly discuss each as a backdrop to the outline of the work undertaken by the ZEAP team.

REDUCED FORPI MODELS

Reduced-form models are designed to forecast the demand for a specific energy source. The demand forecast Is then compared with existing energy supplies to determine future

supply requirements. The reduced-form approach, which has been promulgated by the World Bank, is essentially a supply- focused planning methodology. As such, the models contain few details of the structural determinants of energy use. They are based on economic principles and utilize econometric

hods to explain the growth in demand for a particular fuel Income and price elasticities play a central role, as

historically observed trends are used as independent variables to explain consumption by making use of regression analysis. As a result, growth in fuel consumption is seen to be a function of the growth in income, price, or possibly both. Growth parameters remain constant or change according to historically observed patterns.

The advantage of this approach is its simplicity: it is possible to obtain a forecast of future energy supply requirements by applying simple statistics to readily available data. For certain purposes, this form of analysis is sufficient. However, two major limitations to gaining a thorough understanding of a national energy system can be identified. First, although reduced-form model S can provide adequate forecasts in cases of discontinuities or weak historical trends, they can seriously over- or underestimate future energy consumption because they fail to allow for structural change. Sensitivity analysis of key parameters has been applied to go part way towards solving this problem, but the fundamental flaw remains. Second, reduced-form models, as applied by most consultants, do not account for the substitution of alternative fuels. Substitution possibilities can be included using regression analysis, but the ability to refine the sophisticated trans-log models required is not found in most consultancy groups. Frequently, weak historical trends are used to project demand for a single fuel. An example of these shortcomings can be found in the Zimbabwe Power Sector Development Plan (Merz- McClellan, 1981). The lowest of the electricity consumption scenarios provided overestimated by nearly one hundred percent the actual consumption from 1980 to 1983. The techniques used did not account for both the severity of the world recession and the level of interfuel substitution and conservation that has occurred.

END-USE DEMAND MODELS

End-use model S, in contrast with reduced-form models, derive from an engineering approach to energy issues. In the specification of the models, an attempt is made to explicitly incorporate a11 the major structural and physical determinants of energy use. Energy users are aggregated into sectors which are then subdivided into those employing a specific end-use, that is a qualitatively discreet category of energy utilization, such as cooking, heating or lighting. Technical coefficients, frequently derived from laboratory experiments, then represent the quantity of energy consumed for a specific purpose within each sector and subsector.

Projections are made based on assumptions about end-use or appliance dissemination, technical efficiencies, economic or demographic growth, and fuel substitutions. Different scenarios incorporating these assumptions are used to project future supply requirements and thus to examine the impact of different policy interventions.

The real strength of the end-use approach is its ability to marshal together the detailed technical dimensions of the energy problem into a projection of supply requirements which allows planners to probe deeply into the operation of the energy system. It is able to account for substitution of different fuels as well as changes in the consumption of any particular fuel. The model, therefore, is not as likely to be used to examine trends within the market for one particular commercial fuel. It is also capable of including non-commercial fuels such as wood-fuels, which may not be bought and sold in a formal market. By adopting a comprehensive approach to fuel consumption, the end-use approach is better able to deal with the complexities of the energy system in developing countries.

The ZEAP team used an end-use model for the projection of future energy needs in Zimbabwe. It is called the LDC Energy Alternative Planning Program (LEAP) and was developed specifically for use as an energy planning tool for developing countries. At the core of the LEAP system is an end-use based program designed to keep account of all the energy used in the economy. The economy is first broken down into sectors and subsectors (e.g. rural household, low income). Then the energy used in the subsectors is divided into specific end-uses (e.g. cooking) and end-use devices (e.g. wood stoves or paraffin stoves). Using this system, it is possibleto follownotonlyhow energyis used,butalso, who within the economy uses it. The demand module, driven by demographic, economic, and agricultural models, then provides a forecast of future consumption requirements. These estimates are then routed through programs tracing fuel supplies back to their initial source: hydro-electricity or barrels of crude oil in the case of commercial fuels, or wood and biomass resources in the case of traditional fuels. For the latter, LEAP contains a detailed land-use model designed to keep track of the basic resources necessary to meet woodfuel requirements. Both of the programs are then tied into a costing subprogram designed to keep track of the costs and benefits of meeting future energy requirements in local and foreign exchange terms. The result is a detailed projection of future energy requirements which takes into account different supply options and policy alternatives and calculates their costs.

LEAP is an end-use model designed specifically to fit the unique energy problems encountered in developing countries. As such, it has several advantages. First, it can trace requirements for all fuels, both commercial and non-commercial. In countries like Zimbabwe where nearly forty percent of all energy comes from wood, this is crucial.

Second, its disaggregated approach makes it able to trace specific target groups of particular interest for equitable development. It is possible to identify not only who uses the energy in the economy but also what they use it for. This is especially important for working within a growth- with-equity framework. Third, since it is an end-use model, it can be used to identify specific energy needs for rural development. The user can test the impact of new energy sources and identify the level of fuel shortages in critical sectors. Finally, the LEAP system provides a clear forum for investigation of the impacts of different energy policy interventions. For any fuel substitution, conservation, or supply-enhancement program, LEAP can trace its likely impacts on the national energy balance, measured in both energy and monetary terms.

The L E A P system's real strength lies in the fact that because it is a specialized end-use model, it places the emphasis squarely on understanding the workings of the demand-side of the energy system. It forces the question of why energy-use patterns are the way they are. The ZEAP team adopted this approach for the work in Zimbabwe. To understand what present and future energy requirements are, it is necessary to understand energy demand, since demand, not supply, is the driving force. However, having said this, we must acknowledge that at this stage we encounter the major weakness of the L E A P system, or rather the weakness of all broad modelling approaches to energy planning. Energy models built to represent a national energy system cannot contain sufficient detail to sufficiently explain all of the problems in a national energy system. No national-level model, for instance, can explain the reproduction of the rural economy and the rural household. The LEAP system also assumes that all energy demand is currently being met. This is an assumption which has to be scrutinized. There are likely to be certain basic energy needs which are, at present, going unsatisfied. For this reason, we attempted to distinguish between "unmet" demand, current "effective" demand, and "desirable" demand.

Furthermore, while LEAP can describe the impact of a rural energy program such as a stove-dissemination project, it cannot indicate either which stove conforms to the preferences of the fuel user or what is the best way to disseminate those stoves. To plan successfully for this and other rural energy interventions requires a detailed understanding of labor budgets, household preferences, access to capital and other important aspects of rural life. While LEAP can provide an analysis of the national implications of rural energy-use patterns, it must be complemented by a comprehensive investigation into the rural household and its decision-making framework. For this reason, we now turn to a discussion of rural energy studies that have been undertaken to date.

RURAL ENERGY STUDIES

At their best, rural energy studies seek tounderstand the underlying processes determining rural energy consumption patterns. At their worst, they represent a half-hearted attempt to begin doing something about the oft-neglected rural energy system. Clearly, in order to understand the workings of the rural energy system well enough to make energy plans for growth with equity, a detailed, comprehensive study of energy use in rural Zimbabwe was necessary. In this section, we briefly review a few of the rural energy studies which have been undertaken to date. We will be paying special attention to the link between these studies and the formulation of plans, projects, and policies, since this is the aim of ZEAP: to gain sufficient understanding of Zimbabwe's energy system to be able to plan effectively for energy initiatives. This leads to a more detailed presentation of the efforts undertaken by the ZEAP team in coming to grips with Zimbabwe's rural energy problems.

Most rural energy studies can be classified according to the matrix in Table I-l. The three most commonly used substantive frameworks are portrayed along the horizontal axis. Rural energy studies have tended to evolve from one of these three perspectives: wood/supply demand studies; energy supply/demand studies: and energy ecosystem studies. Simply stated, wood supply/demand studies focus on the supply of and demand for fuelwood and poles. These are the most limited of the studies as they concentrate on a single fuel. Energy supply/demand studies enlarge the scope of investigation to include all other fuels used in the rural sector but usually fall short of including animate sources of energy. Energy ecosystem studies view the rural energy from an ecosystem approach, attempting to quantify all energy flows (including animate energy) and to establish an energy equilibrium.

TABLE 1-1 CLASSIFICATION MATRIX FOR RURAL ENERGY STUDIES

Wood Energy Energy ~uppl y/~emand Supply/ ema and Ecosystem

............................................................. Household/ Fleuretet a1 Beijer (Oleche) Briscoe Village Tanzania, 1978 Kenya, 1982 Bangladesh, 1979

Multiple Brokenshaet a1 Beijer (Johnson) Astra (Reddy et al) Village Kenya, 1980 Kenya, 1982 India, 1980

~egional/ FAO (Openshaw) Beijer (Hosier) Revelle National Tanzania, 1978 Kenya, 1985 India, 1976

~egional/ Whitsun National Zimbabwe, 1981 .............................................................

Each of t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s h a s been a p p l i e d a t a s i n g l e household o r v i l l a g e , m u l t i - v i l l a g e o r r e g i o n a l o r n a t i o n a l l e v e l d u r i n g t h e p a s t few y e a r s . Each h a s been used a s t h e b a s i s f o r e n e r g y p r o j e c t s and p o l i c y p l a n n i n g on numerous o c c a s i o n s . I n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l o c a t i o n on t h e m a t r i x i s w r i t t e n t h e name o f a n o r g a n i z a t i o n , c o u n t r y , and r e f e r e n c e d e t a i l i n g some of t h e format ive work done i n t h e s u b s t a n t i v e a r e a s . Each w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n t u r n t o g i v e a f e e l f o r t h e s t a t e o f r u r a l e n e r g y p l a n n i n g r e s e a r c h a s i t h a s been undertaken t o da t e .

The f i r s t c a t e g o r y o f s t u d i e s f o c u s e s s o l e l y on one r u r a l e n e r g y r e s o u r c e - wood. The u se of reduced- form models p r o v i d e s a p r o j e c t i o n , which may o r may n o t b e ba sed on v a l i d assumptions. Supply t a r g e t s and p l a n t a t i o n p r o j e c t s a r e p l a n n e d f o r , b u t l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n i s p a i d t o p r e c i s e l y how t o u t i l i z e o r d i s t r i b u t e t h e wood t h a t i s produced . I n o t h e r w o r d s , wood r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e e s t i m a t e d , b u t t h e workings of t h e r u r a l system remain a mystery.

As f a r a s e n e r g y supply/demand s t u d i e s a r e conce rned , p e r h a p s t h e most e f f e c t i v e work t o d a t e h a s been unde r t aken by t h e B e i j e r I n s t i t u t e i n Kenya. As p a r t o f t h e Kenyan Fuelwood P r o j e c t , t h e s t a f f o f t h e I n s t i t u t e s u p e r v i s e d a n a t i o n a l r u r a l h o u s e h o l d ene rgy s u r v e y which e s t i m a t e d h o u s e h o l d consumpt ion of a l l f u e l s ( H o s i e r , 1985 ) . These s u r v e y r e s u l t s h e l p e d b o t h t o b u i l d a n a t i o n a l end- use accounting model and t o s t r a t i f y a s e t of d e t a i l e d s i n g l e and m u l t i p l e v i l l a g e - l e v e l household energy-use s t u d i e s (Oleche, 1982; Johnson 1982).

On t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e s t u d i e s , B e i j e r p roposed t o e s t a b l i s h a s e t o f r u r a l e n e r g y c e n t e r s a d o p t i n g a d e c e n t r a l i z e d , p a r t i c i p a t o r y approach t o t h e d i ssemina t ion of a g r o f o r e s t r y t e c h n i q u e s and f u e l - e f f i c i e n t s t o v e s i n h i g h p o t e n t i a l r e g i o n s of t h e c o u n t r y . The r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s i nd i ca t ed t h a t t h e energy problem was most s eve re i n t h e h igh p o t e n t i a l r e g i o n s and t h a t t o be e f f e c t i v e any e f f o r t must i n c o r p o r a t e t h e knowledge, o p i n i o n s and p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e r u r a l p e o p l e . The s t u d y a p p e a r s t o h a v e worked we1 l . By c o u p l i n g n a t i o n a l s u r v e y s w i t h l o c a l s t u d i e s , t h e B e i j e r I n s t i t u t e team was a b l e t o i d e n t i f y bo th t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e most s e v e r e p rob l em, a s w e l l a s t h e i n n e r work ings o f t h e r u r a l energy system. Both t h e t e c h n i c a l and s o c i a l s i d e s of t h e p rob l em were a n a l y z e d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t an ima te power was no t inc luded . I n t h e f i r s t year of ope ra t i on , t h e e n e r g y c e n t e r s appea red t o b e h a v i n g an impact on t h e r u r a l energy problems i n Kakamega D i s t r i c t ,

The f o r m a t i v e work done w i t h i n t h e energy- ecosys tem paradigm has been pursued by A.K.N. Reddy and h i s c o l l e a g u e s a t ASTRA i n Bangalore, I nd i a (Reddy e t a l . , 1980). The ASTRA r e s e a r c h team per formed a s e r i e s of c a r e f u l s u r v e y s and o b s e r v a t i o n s t o e s t a b l i s h an e n e r g y f l o w b a l a n c e f o r a l l a c t i v i t i e s i n f i v e v i l l a g e s i n Karna taka . The s t u d y team t h e n i d e n t i f i e d s h o r t a g e s and b o t t l e n e c k s i n t h e ene rgy s u p p l y sys tem. The p r o j e c t team e v e n t u a l l y adop ted a p a r t i c i p a t o r y approa.ch t o t h e des ign of t h e energy c e n t e r s t o

meet the supply requirements of the study communities. Residents were asked to identify their most pressing energy needs, and fuel supply options were identified to fulfil these needs.

The ecosystem approach adopted by the ASTRA team has proved to be very useful. High quality data was derived and used in the ecosystem model to identify critical energy supply areas. The obvious shortcomings of their approach are twofold. First, while the technical aspects of the energy system were very strong, very little attention was paid to the socio-economic aspects of the energy problem. A more detailed overlay of socio-economic data is needed to lend a thorough understanding of energy-use patterns to the study results. Critical household decisions cannot be understood without a better understanding of intra-household processes than can be achieved with an ecosystem model. Second, the energy center solutions proposed by the team were mostly technological fixes requiring capital investment and substitution of alternative fuels for traditional ones. These solutions provided energy for development with insufficient attention being paid to the constraints impinging on household energy decisions. In this respect, the ASTRA energy centers were designed to provide development-oriented energy supplies, forsaking the tradi- tional, subsistence energy resources.

As part of the ZEAP effort, a thorough study of the rural energy system from the energy demand/supply perspective was undertaken. The aim was to analyze the use of all fuels using methodologies suitable for household or village-level, multiple-site, and national studies. Of crucial importance to this analysis was the subsectoral disaggregation of the agrarian structure in order to pinpoint differences in resources, constraints, and opportunities influencing energy demand and supply patterns and subsectoral changes. We therefore, turn to a discussion of Zimbabwe's agrarian system before presenting in a more detailed manner the methodological approaches used in the work.

4. ZIMBABWE'S RURAL STRUCTURE AND ENERGY SYSTEM

The analysis of the rural energy system in Zimbabwe by the ZEAP team involved the application of the energy accounting system at the national level, and the micro-level study of the structure and processes affecting energy supply and demand. The latter entailed clearlyidentifying the subsectors of the agrarian structure and characterizing these in terms of their economic, environmental, demographic, and production features. The units of investigationhad to be identified, as these vary by production units fromhouseholds to estates. Appropriate methods and approaches to the investigation had to be given special attention in order to fit the methodology to both the scale of observation and the level of detailed information required.

At present, rural Zimbabwe reflects an historical process of uneven development: a labor-reserve economy was created to provide a constant source of cheap labor to mines, industries, and large-scale commercial farms. The State acted to limit access to capital and new technologies to the white minority. As a result, patterns of energy utilization vary tremendously between different rural subsectors. the Government's growth-with-equity strategy is an attempt to reverse this historical trend.

In attempting to conceptualize Zimbabwe's rural energy system, we identified six subsectors. Each subsector plays a particular role in the rural economy, exhibits markedly different energy supply and demand characteristics, and presents a different set of potential energy policy initiatives. These subsectors are:

(1) Large-Scale Commercial Farms (LCSF); (2) State Farms; (3) Small-scale Commercial Farms (SSCF); (4) Communal Areas; (5) Resettlement Areas; and (6) Rural Growth Points and Service Centers.

For the ZEAP analysis, the first two subsectorswere treated as purely agricultural production units. Their domestic energy requirements were handled separately. The three remaining agricultural subsectors were considered as individual household units for domestic, agricultural, and non-agricul tural activities within the context of the overal l household economy. Growth points and service centerswere examined as small urban entities servicing the other rural subsectors.

LARGE- SCALE COMMERCIAL FARMS

The large-scale commercial farm sector constitutes approximately 4,500 highly mechanized and relatively energy intensive farms. Because of the large input of energy onto these farms, outputs are also high. The LCSF subsector has an energy profile similar to farming in the more industrialized countries of the world, with a very important difference in its reliance on large amounts of cheap labor. (There are presently over 250,000 LSCF workers). Future energy utilization in this subsector is uncertain for a number of reasons. Firstly, as workers' wages rise, farmers will attempt to displace labor with machines, creating a substitution of human for fossil fuel energy. Secondly, political pressures to reduce the size of this subsector are high due to its virtual monopolization of the country's most productive land. So, although long-term predictions regarding this subsector can be no more than speculation, in the short term it does seem likely that the LSCF subsector will remain a major destination for the flow of rural energy resources, primarily in the form of diesel, coal, agro-

chemicals and electricity.

STATE FARMS

State farms have a similar energy profile to the LSCF subsector. Although on a national scale the importance of this subsector is currently minimal, the state farm subsector is expected to grow rapidly. All state farms are irrigated and use large quantities of diesel, agro-chemicals and electricity. In the future, it seems reasonable to assume that an increased amount of energy will have to flow to this subsector.

SMALL-SCALE COMMERCIAL FARMS

The small scale commercial farm subsector (SSCF) represents an attempt by former governments to create a small African agrarian capitalist class. The plan failed as many SSCF remained undercapitalized and absentee landlords became common. Although these farms primarily rely on human energy, there has been some diffusion of tractors and agro-chemicals. Nationally, the SSCF subsector is not an important consumer of energy.

COMMUNAL AREAS

The communal areas, where the bulk of the population live, face numerous energy problems. Firstly, because of the historical role as a labor reserve, these areas are increasingly reliant on off-farm sources of income simply to survive. Access to agro-chemicals - which are very important due to the poor quality land in many communal areas - is limited by monetary constraints, and the droughts have severely reduced access to draught power for agricultural work and manure for fertilization. An insufficient on-farm production capability for many communal farmers, exacerbated by difficulties in obtaining work in the towns, means that many communal area families are now facing a crisis of reproduction. Clearly there must be adequate energy for agricultural subsistence before overall economic development in the communal areas can occur. In many communal areas, obtaining adequate quantities of wood for cooking has also become a problem. Along with increasing the labor time for wood gathering, money is now sometimes required to obtain this critical household energy source. The commodification of wood could direct the flow of this resource to the wealthier communal area households. This could directly counter the Government's growth-with-equity strategy. On the other hand, the commodification of wood could increase the incentive to grow trees. The full implications of this transition, which is in the formative stages in Zimbabwe, must be clearly thought through by policy makers.

Overall, the communal areas will remain a major chal lenge to planners adhering to a growth-with-equity

s t r a t e g y . The combina t i on of a poor r e s o u r c e b a s e and i n c r e a s i n g l y l i m i t e d off- farm income o p p o r t u n i t i e s w i l l mean t h a t communal a r e a f a m i l i e s w i l l have t r o u b l e ob t a in ing new t e c h n o l o g i e s and s e c u r i n g e v e n t h e most e s s e n t i a l ene rgy r e sou rce s .

RESETTLEMENT AREAS

To d a t e , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 , 0 0 0- 4 0 , 0 0 0 f a m i l i e s h a v e been r e s e t t l e d . Most f a m i l i e s h a v e been r e s e t t l e d on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s (model A), where each fami ly i s g iven f i v e h e c t a r e s o f a r a b l e l a n d and a d e s i g n a t e d g r a z i n g a r e a . Because many of t h e r e s e t t l e d f a m i l i e s were l a n d l e s s , poor, o r re fugees , t h e o v e r a l l access t o draught power and c a p i t a l i n t h i s s e c t o r i s low. Also, because t h e government acqu i r e s l a n d on a w i l l i n g - s e l l e r , w i l l i n g - b u y e r b a s i s , most o f t h e schemes a r e l oca t ed on l ands which a r e marginal f o r dry- land maize p r o d u c t i o n . Hence, many of t h e s e a r e a s w i l l r e q u i r e l a r g e i n p u t s of a g r o- c h e m i c a l s i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e h i g h y i e l d s . Some r e s e t t l e m e n t schemes have been organized on a c o - o p e r a t i v e b a s i s (model B ) . Because of t h e i r a b i l i t y t o p o o l s c a r c e f a m i l y r e s o u r c e s , model B fa rms h a v e a g r e a t e r a b i l i t y t o mechanize p a r t i c u l a r components of t h e product ion process . Furthermore, where t r a c t o r s s u b s t i t u t e f o r draught power, a much h i g h e r i n t e n s i t y o f l a n d u se i s p o s s i b l e . I n t h e f u t u r e , t h e r e i s t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t model B farms w i l l become more e n e r g y and l a n d - i n t e n s i v e . T h i s w i l l r e q u i r e a d d i t i o n a l f l o w s o f ene rgy t o t h e c o - o p e r a t i v e fa rms w h i l e h e l p i n g t o s a v e l a n d . Expansion of model A schemes w i l l r e q u i r e more land bu t l e s s energy. P r e s e n t l y , t h e r e does no t a p p e a r t o b e a fue lwood s h o r t a g e on r e s e t t l e m e n t schemes. However, e a r l y r e p o r t s suggest t h a t massive t r e e c u t t i n g i s occur r ing without r ep l an t i ng . I f t h i s p a t t e r n i s a l lowed t o cont inue unabated, s eve re wood s c a r c i t i e s i n t h e s e a r e a s w i l l d eve lop r a p i d l y .

RURAL GROWTH POINTS AND SERVICE CENTERS

The r u r a l growth p o i n t s and s e r v i c e c e n t e r s a r e a major component of t h e Government ' s g rowth- wi th- equ i ty s t r a t e g y . The a r e a s d e s i g n a t e d f o r deve lopmen t a r e l i k e l y t o become c e n t e r s f o r r u r a l popu la t i on migra t ion a s w e l l a s c e n t e r s of demand f o r b o t h r u r a l - b a s e d ene rgy s o u r c e s and s u p p l i e s of commercial energy. However, t h e r e i s t h e danger t h a t i f t h e p l a n n i n g of t h e s e r u r a l towns does n o t a d e q u a t e l y a d d r e s s f u t u r e energy requirements , competi t ion between t h e town and ad j acen t farming communities w i l l deve lop . There i s a l r e a d y some i n d i c a t i o n t h a t s ca r ce wood from t h e communal subsec tor i s b e i n g s e n t t o l o c a l towns where a more l u c r a t i v e marke t e x i s t s . There i s a l s o t h e dange r t h a t t h e s e r u r a l growth p o i n t s and s e r v i c e c e n t e r s w i l l s e r v e o n l y t h e w e a l t h i e r r u r a l i n h a b i t a n t s , a s ha s been t h e case i n o t h e r deve loping c o u n t r i e s w i t h p l a n s f o r s p a t i a l economic i n t e g r a t i o n ( e . g . Kenya, V e n e z u e l a ) . T h i s would i n t e n s i f y t h e h i s t o r i c a l

process of uneven development at a local level, for example, within communal areas.

These six subsectors serve as the structural basis for the ZEAP rural energy analysis. We feel that it is important to understand the flows of energy between and within these subsectors. Furthermore, we stress the need to understand that within each subsector are individual families, farming operations, commercial and industrial enterprises which exhibit varying capabilities for utilizing new energy sources as well as larger quantities of existing types of energy. We also believe that although conservation and increased efficiency are important, in the underdeveloped areas of Zimbabwe the emphasis must be on increasing the supply of energy to these areas. If the growth-with-equity strategy is to be successful, it is imperative that energy be supplied to the poorest of rural households, first for subsistence and then for developmental purposes.

5. ZEAP RURAL ENERGY STUDIES

Having presented the original conception of Zimbabwe's rural structure held by the ZEAP team, we now turn to the studies and methodologies that the ZEAP team utilized in addressing the rural energy system in Zimbabwe. Returning to the classification matrix presented in Table I-l, the ZEAP team undertook an energy supply-demand study at the household or vil lage, multiple-vil lage and national level S. These studies focused on a detailed specification of end-use energy consumption as well as the socio-economic determinants of overall resource utilization. Energy consumption was defined broadly to include human energy, in the form of labor budgets, and animal energy, in the form of draught power. The layout of these studies is presented in Table 1 - 2 by producing the energy supply/demand column of Table I-l.

At the village level, the ZEAP team conducted a series of household observation studies. For these studies, the labor budget, appliance utilization, wood consumption, and agricultural practices of fifteen household in different parts of the country were observed and detailed for one week at four times during the course of a year. The four site visits corresponded to the planting ,weeding,harvesting and dry seasons. The primary objective of these household observations was to compile detailed labor budgets of households facing varying physical and economic resource constraints. This study had the aim of allowing us to better understand the seasonal dimensions of labor utilization, important at the project formulation stage. These observations also provided us with information on cooking practices, eff iciencies, and consumption of wood for other uses such as construction. The relationships between agricultural practices, agricultural inputs, and overall productivity were also examined.

Table 1-2 ZEAP PROJECT STUDIES

Scale of Energy ~upply/~emand Observation Studies

Household/Village Observation Studies Multi-Village Comprehensive Rural Survey National National Household Energy Survey

At the multiple-village level, we conducted a comprehensive survey of approximately 800 households in different parts of the country. The stratification was designed to include communal area farms, small-scale commercial farms, and resettlement area farms in the various natural regions. Through this it was hoped that information would be obtained on the relationship between the socio- economic status of households and their utilization and access to various energy resources. Variations by ecological zone were also assessed. The primary objective of the survey was to get an idea of the constraints that people in the rural areas face in their attempt to secure adequate levels of food, clothing, water, energy, health and shelter. For those families who manage to fulfil their basic needs and are able to accumulate some capital, we were interested in finding out what enables them to generate a surplus. Ultimately, it is local surplus-generation and local reinvestment which leads to rural development.

Finally, at the national level, the ZEAP team worked with the Central Statistical Office (CSO) to administer a national energy survey in rural and urban areas alike. The aim of the survey was to provide national estimates of household energy consumption to be used in the LEAP end-use demand model for the urban and rural household subsectors. Through the overlapping coverage of survey results we expected to gather information ranging from the very detailed, but inferentially weak, to the less detailed, but inferentially strong. Each set of results, it was hoped, would serve to substantiate the others.

These studies provide relatively complete coverage of those subsectors examined as household production units. But for the Large-Scale Commercial Farms, State Farms and Growth/Service Centers, additional research was required. For the first two, existing data sources were used to examine energy requirements of the farming units. The National Household Energy Survey included farm workers from both of these subsectors. For the Growth and Service Centers, existing data, survey results and plans were used to provide a first impression of energy requirements. Then a more detailed examination was made of the supply options available for supplying these needs for rural or small-scale urban industrial growth. Using this inter-related set of analyses,

we expected to obtain a complete picture of the energy requirements of the rural subsectors identified in Table 1-2.

Due to our adopted end-use approach, we have focused this discussion on our studies of the demand-side of the energy equation. However, the ZEAP team also examined supply. A major challenge was the estimation of supplies of woody biomass throughout the country. This entailed mapping vegetation types and estimating standing volume through an extensive review of previous ecological work and mensuration exercises of existing tree cover. In addition to this, of course, available information on commercial fuel supplies was assembled and summarized, but since this was perhaps the simplest part of the exercise to undertake and is relevant not only to the rural system but to the entire economy, further discussion of this subject will be left to other papers in the volume.

6. RURAL ENERGY POLICY ISSUES

Through these exercises a large body of information was assembled which should lead to a more complete understanding of Zimbabwe's rural energy system. In the pages of the papers that follow, we attempt to pinpoint particular problems within the system which demand action as well as identifying which approaches to these problems stand the greatest chance of success. This understanding of the rural energy system can then be used to forge a set of unified programs for rural energy development in Zimbabwe.

Our assessment of the rural energy system in this introductory paper is already sufficient to indicate at least four critical areas which require policy attention. These are:

SHORTAGE OF FUEL FOR DOMESTIC ENERGY

This is the problem area which demonstrates perhaps most clearly the problem of energy for basic human needs. Without satisfactory wood supplies, rural households cannot fulfil their cooking requirements. The problem is further exacerbated by the diffusion of inefficient stoves and the indiscriminate cutting of wood to meet the demands of the urban market. Both the Energy Department and Forestry Commission have begun work in this area, but the severity of the problem requires a redoubling of efforts.

ENERGY INPUTS INTO AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

Due both to the drought and to the low level of capital accumulation in most communal farming areas there is a need to increase energy-related inputs into agriculture. Draught power is in particularly short supply following the drought of recent years. Fertilizers and pesticides are too expensive to experience broad dissemination throughout many

conmunal areas. If small-scale farming in Zimbabwe is to remain viable, development energy for agriculture is required to raise production, output and incomes.

ENERGY FOR RESETTLEMENT

To date, the resettlement effort has been primarily Model A (individual farming). However, Model B (co-operative farming) offers poor peasants opportunities to utilize more sophisticated energy resources and agricultural inputs to obtain higher yields. Co-operative farming also allows for a more intensive use of land. If the present pattern of individual farming on marginal land continues, the potential for significant changes in agricultural inputs and practices will be reduced.

ENERGY SUPPLIES FOR RURAL INDUSTRIES

If growth and service centers are to pose viable, attractive alternatives to the major urban areas, energy supplies are required to spur economic growth and increase employment opportunities. Energy is desperately needed for the development of these areas. If the electricity grid cannot be extended to them, other supply sources will have to be made available or else the whole decentralization p01 icy will doubtless fall flat.

This presentation of perceived problems in the rural energy system is meant to be neither exhaustive nor exclusive. Other energy needs will be addressed in the following papers which detail our comprehensive study of the rural energy system. However, the adoption of such a comprehensive approach is the only way to circumvent the pursuit of more piecemeal efforts. We would maintain that this approach is the singularly most appropriate one to adopt in planning for rural energy needs for growth-with-equity.

FOOTNOTES

(1) This discussion draws implicitly upon a similar presentation in UNIDO (1982).

(2) In economic jargon, the reduced form of model is the simplest, most easily verifiable form of a series of simultaneous equations.

REFERENCES

Briscoe, J., 1979 "The Political Economy of Energy Use in Rural Bangladesh", Harvard University Environmental System Program. Cambridge: Harvard University.

Brokensha, D. and Riley, B., 1980 "Fuelwood in Rural Kenya: Responses to a Dwindling Resource," (mimeo). Proposal to U.S. National Science Foundation. Washington, D.C.

Fleuret, P.C. and Fleuret, A.K., 1978 "Fuelwood Use in a Peasant Community: A Tanzanian Case Study." The Journal of Developing Areas 12: 315-322.

Hosier, R., 1982 " " Somethingto Buy Paraffin With' : An Investigation into Domestic Energy Consumption in Rural Kenya," Ph.D. dissertation. Worcester, Mass.: Clark University.

Johnson, J., 1982 "A Comparative Study of Fuelwood Acquisition and Consumption in Two Rural Kenyan Households," Beijer Institute Kenyan Fuelwood Project Working Paper. Stockholm: Beijer Institute.

Merz-McClel lan, 1981 "Power Sector Development Plan for Zimbabwe," Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, England: Merz-McClel lan Ass.

Montan Consultants, GMBH., 1982 "Zimbabwe Coal Utilization Study," (draft) Essen: Montan Consultants.

Oleche, F., 1982 "Report on Kombewa Location," Beijer Institute Kenya Fuelwood Project Working Paper. Stockholm: Beijer Institute.

O~enshaw. K.. 1978 "~obdfuel - A Time for Reassessment." Natural Resources Forum 3: 35-51.

Reddy, A.K.N., et al, 1980 "Rural ~ n e r g y ~ o n s u m ~ t i o n Patterns: A Field Study," ( mimeo) . Bangalore: ASTRA.

Reaublic of Zimbabwe. 1982 Transitional ~ational Development Plan 1982/83-1984/85. Harare: Amalgamated Press (Pvt) L-

Revelle, R., 1976 "Energy Use in Rural India." Science 192: 969-975.

Snamprogetti, Ltd., 1983 "Petroleum Fuels Supply Engineering Project Report," (draft) Milan: Snamprogetti.

UNIDO, 1982. "A Conceptual Model for Projecting Industrial Energy Use in Developing Countries," IS.278, V.82-20426. Geneva: UNIDO, Global and Conceptual Studies Branch, Division for Industrial Studies.

Whitsun Foundation, 1981 Rural Afforestation Study. Salisbury: Whitsun Foundation.

11. ENERGY USE I N ZIMBABFTE'S AGRICULTURAL SECTOR

Dan Weine r , Sam Moyo, and C h a r l e s C h i d i y a

I. INTRODUCTION

I n Zimbabwe, a 1 t h o u g h a g r i c u l t u r e c o n t r i b u t e s o n 1 y 1 5 p e r c e n t t o w a r d s g r o s s d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t , I t a c c o u n t s f o r o v e r a q u a r t e r o f f o r m a l wage e m p l o y m e n t , a n d 70 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n a r e d i r e c t l y d e p e n d e n t o n t h e l a n d . A g r i c u l t u r e e a r n s 40 p e r c e n t o f f o r e i g n exchange and s u p p l i e s 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e i n p u t s t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g s e c t o r ( A g r i c u l t u r a l M a r k e t i n g A u t h o r i t y , 1983; Mumbengegwi, 1983) . M a i n t a i n i n g t h e v i a b i l i t y o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r i s e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e o v e r a l l h e a l t h o f t h e economy.

S i n c e I n d e p e n d e n c e t h e r e h a s b e e n a r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n and m a r k e t i n g o f ma ize and c o t t o n from A f r i c a n p r o d u c e r s . Zimbabwe's a g r i c u l t u r a l s u c c e s s s t o r y , however , i s s o b e r e d b y t h e r e a l i t y t h a t o v e r o n e - t h i r d o f i t s p o p u l a t i o n l i v e s u n d e r q u i t e m a r g i n a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r d r y l a n d a g r i c u l t u r e . T h i s c o e x i s t e n c e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l v i t a l i t y a n d s t a g n a t i o n i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e v a r i o u s s y s t e m s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d - u s e i n t h e c o u n t r y . The c h a l l e n g e t o G o v e r n m e n t w i l l b e t o h e l p c r e a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h e r e b y a g r i c u l t u r e c a n m a i n t a i n i t s h i s t o r i c a l r o l e a s g e n e r a t o r o f e c o n o m i c g r o w t h w h i l e p r o v i d i n g a m o r e r e l i a b l e s o u r c e o f s u b s i s t e n c e f o r t h e b u l k o f Zimbabwe's p e o p l e .

A g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t i s t h e k e y t o o v e r a l l r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n Zimbabwe. Because t h e m a j o r i t y o f Zimbabweans r e l y o n t h e l a n d f o r t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d , a n d d u e t o t h e i r r e l a t i v e i m p o v e r i s h m e n t , a g r i c u l t u r e m u s t p r o v i d e a m o r e l u c r a t i v e b a s e f o r i n c o m e g e n e r a t i o n i f t h e G o v e r n m e n t ' s " g r o w t h - w i t h - e q u i t y " s t r a t e g y i s t o s u c c e e d .

To d a t e , i n f o r m a t i o n o n e n e r g y u s e i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r h a s e s t i m a t e d t h e t o t a l q u a n t i t y o f s p e c i f i c f u e l s s u p p l i e d . T h i s h a s masked t h e l a r g e d i v e r s i t y o f e n e r g y u s a g e w i t h i n Zimbabwean a g r i c u l t u r e . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d i s a g g r e g a t e t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r a c c o r d i n g t o sys t em o f p r o d u c t i o n (e.g. , s u b s e c t o r ) i n o r d e r t o a s s e s s where e n e r g y i s f l o w i n g , a s w e l l a s t h e a s s o c i a t e d i m p a c t s o n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y . Too o f t e n , r e s e a r c h on Zimbabwe's a g r i c u l t u r e s y s t e m s h a s f o c u s e d on a g r i c u l t u r a l o u t p u t s w i t h o u t examining t h e f u l l mix o f i n p u t s u t i l i z e d .

Because a g r i c u l t u r e i s b o t h a p r o d u c e r and a consumer o f e n e r g y , e f f i c i e n c y o f u s e c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r a t i o o f o u t p u t s t o i n p u t s u s i n g a common d e n o m i n a t o r ( s u c h a s K c a l o r G J ) . T h e a s s e s s m e n t o f a g r i c u l t u r a l e n e r g e t i c s i s o n e m e t h o d o f e v a l u a t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e n e r g y u s e , a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y , l a b o r u t i l i z a t i o n and l a n d- u s e . I t i s t h e method used h e r e . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o p o i n t o u t , however , t h a t e n e r g e t i c a n a l y s i s i s , b y n o m e a n s , a r e p l a c e m e n t f o r e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s o r o t h e r v a l u a t i o n s y s t e m s . I t i s s i m p l y a c o m p l e m e n t t o t h e m o r e

s t a n d a r d a p p r o a c h e s , which h e l p s h i g h l i g h t t h e r o l e o f e n e r g y i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s .

I n t h i s r e p o r t we d i s c u s s t h e c u r r e n t a n d p o s s i b l e f u t u r e r o l e o f e n e r g y u s e i n a g r i c u l t u r e f o r g r o w t h a n d e q u i t y i n t h e economy. U s i n g o u t p u t f r o m t h e LDC E n e r g y A l t e r n a t i v e P l a n n i n g P r o g r a m (LEAP - a m o d e l d e v e l o p e d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r u s e a s a p l a n n i n g t o o l i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s ) , e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n i s d i s a g g r e g a t e d b y a g r i c u l t u r a l s u b s e c t o r . B e c a u s e o f t h e d o m i n a n c e o f l a r g e s c a l e f a r m s i n c o n s u m i n g c o m m e r c i a l f o r m s o f e n e r g y , t h e d i s c u s s i o n f o c u s e s m a i n l y on t h i s s u b s e c t o r . We t h e n p r e s e n t t h e r e s u l t s o f a n e n e r g e t i c a n a l y s i s o f f o u r s u b s e c t o r s , namely: l a r g e - s c a l e commerc i a l , s t a t e , communal, and model A r e s e t t l e m e n t . Fo r t h e two h i g h- i n p u t s u b s e c t o r s a compar i son i s made w i t h U.S. f a r m i n g . The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f o u r f i n d i n g s f o r p o l i c i e s c o n c e r n e d w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t a r e t h e n o u t l i n e d .

2 . ENERGY USE I N AGRICULTURE

The a b i l i t y t o f e e d a n i n c r e a s i n g l y n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n h a s b e e n made p o s s i b l e b y t h e i n f u s i o n o f e n e r g y i n t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l sys tem. Fo r example , o n l y two p e r c e n t o f A m e r i c a ' s p o p u l a t i o n o f 230 m i l l i o n f a r m t h e l a n d . F o r e a c h d a y worked, t h e U.S. a g r i c u l t u r a l worke r p r o d u c e s enough f o o d f o r s i x t y p e o p l e a n d a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t f o r e x p o r t (Green , 1978) . I n 1976, t h e r e were o n l y 0.5 h e c t a r e s c ropped p e r p e r s o n (Dickenson , 1978) .

T h i s h i g h l e v e l o f l a n d and l a b o r p r o d u c t i v i t y h a s been made p o s s i b l e b y e n e r g y u s e d d i r e c t l y i n t h e f o r m o f l i q u i d f u e l s , and i n d i r e c t l y i n t h e form o f e l e c t r i c i t y , mach ines , h y b r i d s e e d , f e r t i l i z e r a n d p e s t i c i d e s . The i m p o r t a n c e o f f o s s i l f u e l e n e r g y i n p u t s i n t o t h e U.S. a g r i c u l t u r a l economy i s d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t i f 1 9 3 0 l e v e l s o f f o s s i l f u e l e n e r g y ( d i r e c t a n d i n d i r e c t ) w e r e p r e s e n t l y u t i l i z e d , s i x t y p e r c e n t m o r e l a n d a n d 500 p e r c e n t more l a b o r w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n c u r r e n t p r o d u c t i o n l e v e l s (Green , 1978) .

T h i s p o s e s a d i l e m m a i n t h a t h i g h - p r o d u c t i v i t y a g r i c u l t u r e t e n d s t o b e l e s s e f f i c i e n t i n t e r m s o f e n e r g y u s e when c o m p a r e d w i t h l o w - p r o d u c t i v i t y a g r i c u l t u r a l s y s t e m s . Where l a b o r i s t h e p r i m a r y e n e r g y i n p u t , y i e l d s t e n d t o b e low and e n e r g e t i c e f f i c i e n c i e s h i g h . For example , f o r e v e r y k i l o c a l o r i e p u t i n t o sorghum/millet/groundnut f a r m i n g i n M a l a w i , e i g h t k i l o c a l o r i e s a r e p r o d u c e d ( H a s w e l l , 1 9 8 1 ) . Rappapor t (1971) c a l c u l a t e s a n e n e r g e t i c e f f i c i e n c y r a t i o o f 1 6 : l f o r t a r 0 yam f a r m i n g i n New Guinea .

I n a g r i c u l t u r a l s y s t e m s w h e r e a n i m a l a n d human e n e r g y a r e u t i l i z e d i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s , e f f i c i e n c y r a t i o s o f 6 . 4 : l f o r N i g e r i a n m a i z e (Akinwume, 1 9 7 1 ) , 4 . 3 : l f o r M e x i c a n m a i z e ( L e w i s , 1 9 5 1 ) , a n d 5 : l f o r P h i l l i p p i n e m a i z e (AED, 1960) h a v e b e e n c a l c u l a t e d . I n f u l l y mechanized a g r i c u l t u r a l s y s t e m s w i t h h i g h l e v e l s o f f o s s i l f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n , e n e r g e t i c e f f i c i e n c i e s f o r m a i z e p r o d u c t i o n h a v e b e e n

estimated as 3.13:l for the United States and 2.3:l in Great Britain ((Pimental and Pimental, 1979). The entire U.S. agricultural system has an efficiency ratio of 1:10 (Perelman, 1980), when energy used in food processing and transportation are considered.

These figures suggest that agricultural development has required large expenditures of energy, particularly commercial forms. Returns of food energy per unit of energy input into the system have tended to decline. If efficiency is measured in terms of land, labor, or on economic criteria, however, the picture reverses. For example, a day's work for a Khoisan farmer in Botswana provides food for himself and three other people. Using only muscle power, his energy 0utput:input ratio is 7.8:1, but he needs 1,040 ha. to do it. In North America, Prairie Indians required 2,500 ha. of land per person to meet their food needs. This contrasts dramatically with the American worker, who produces for 60 people each day, using an average of 0.5 cropped ha. per capita. The economic efficiency of increased energy inputs is evident in the 6.2 billion expenditure that U.S. farmers made on fertilizer and pesticides in 1971 alone. This was a 600% increase from 1966. It has been estimated that a one dollar expenditure for fertilizer in U.S. maize production in 1976 yielded eleven dollars in the field (Green, 1978), suggesting that farmers make decisions based on economic, not energetic criteria.

In a recent study, the FAO (1979) predicted that the developing countries' share of energy consumption would soon rise threefold. The bulk of the increase, it was suggested, would be in the form of fertilizer. Based on historical trends, this study indicates that the use of commercial energy is increasing rapidly in the Third World. There is still, however, considerable controversy regarding the appropriateness of high-input farming for developing countries.

Proponents of a transition to high-input farming cite the shortage of land and increasing population as necessitating more energy-intensive farming. More commercial energy inputs, it is argued, are needed in agriculture to enhance yields and prevent a Malthusian type disaster (Green, 1978; FAO, 1979). The small percentage of total commercial energy consumed in agriculture (3.5 percent), is cited in support of this argument. Few would disagree that Third World farming needs more energy. There is, however, disagreement over the types and quantities of energyto be used in the agricultural energy transition.

Opponents of a major shift towards high-input farming argue that most rural households cannot afford commercial energy. Citing some of the failures of the green revolution, it is suggested that too often only the wealthier households reapthe benefits of new energy inputs, further dichotomizing rural class structures (Yapa, 1981). It has also been argued that more "modern" farming methods can increase the farmer's vulnerability to drought, and exacerbate existing

r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f d e p e n d e n c y ( W i s n e r , 1 9 7 7 ; G r i f f i n , 1 9 7 4 ) . O t h e r s c i t e t h e i n e f f i c i e n c y o f e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n i n h i g h i n p u t e n e r g y f a r m i n g ( P i m e n t e l a n d P i m e n t e l , 1 9 7 9 ) , a n d t h e n e g a t i v e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s ( P e r e l m a n , 1977) , w h i l e s t i l l o t h e r s c i t e t h e s i g n i f i c a n t p r o d u c t i v i t y c h a n g e s t h a t c a n b e a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h b e t t e r f a r m managemen t a n d t h e u s e o f r e n e w a b l e e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s (O'Keefe e t a 1 ., 1984) .

T h i s d e b a t e i s v e r y r e l e v a n t t o t h e c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n i n Zimbabwe. L a r g e s c a l e c o m m e r c i a l a n d s t a t e f a r m s u t i l i z e l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f c o m m e r c i a l e n e r g y a n d h a v e e n e r g y p r o f i l e s s i m i l a r t o f a r m s i n t h e m o r e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . On t h e o t h e r hand many o f t h e p e a s a n t s s t i l l r e l y p r i m a r i l y o n human a n d a n i m a l p o w e r a n d h a v e o n l y r e c e n t l y b e g u n u t i l i z i n g c o m m e r c i a l f o r m s . However , £ 'a rming i n Zimbabwe i s c u r r e n t l y i n a t r a n s i t i o n t o w a r d s i n c r e a s e d u s e o f c o m m e r c i a l e n e r g y i n p u t s . The p a c e a n d f o r m o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n w i l l depend on r e l a t i v e f a c t o r p r i c e s , t h e r o l e o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t i n h e l p i n g t o d e v e l o p t h e s m a l l f a r m e r , a n d t h e t y p e s o f f a r m i n g s y s t e m s d e v e l o p e d .

R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e p r e c i s e f o r m t h a t t h i s t r a n s i t i o n t a k e s , i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a m o r e e q u i t a b l e a g r a r i a n l a n d s c a p e , e n e r g y w i l l b e r e q u i r e d t o e n h a n c e a n d m a i n t a i n c u r r e n t l e v e l s o f p r o d u c t i v i t y . However , i f s u f f i c i e n t e n e r g y i s n o t a v a i l a b l e t o t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , t h e G o v e r n m e n t ' s s t r a t e g y o f g r o w t h w i t h e q u i t y t h r o u g h a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t w i l l f a i l . G a i n i n g c o n t r o l o f t h e m e a n s o f p r o d u c t i o n i s o n l y p a r t o f t h e p r o b l e m . The p e a s a n t r y a l s o n e e d m e a n s o f p r o d u c t i o n t h a t c a n p r o d u c e . T h i s r e q u i r e s e n e r g y . B e f o r e p r e s e n t i n g o u r f i n d i n g s , we b r i e f l y d i s c u s s Zimbabwe's n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e b a s e and a g r a r i a n s t r u c t u r e .

3 . ZIMBABWE'S NATURAL RESOURCE BASE

Zimbabwe h a s b e e n s u b d i v i d e d i n t o f i v e a g r o - e c o l o g i c a l z o n e s (Map 11-1). B a s e d p r i m a r i l y o n a v e r a g e q u a n t i t i e s o f r a i n f a l l and i t s v a r i a b i l i t y , t h e s e n a t u r a l r e g i o n s p r o v i d e a b r o a d framework f o r e v a l u a t i n g p o t e n t i a l l and- use . N a t u r a l R e g i o n I , c o n £ i n e d t o t h e E a s t e r n H i g h l a n d s D i s t r i c t s , h a s a n n u a l r a i n f a l l a m o u n t s o f o v e r 9 0 0 mm, w i t h some a r e a s r e c e i v i n g o v e r 1500 mm a n n u a l l y . Because o f h i g h e l e v a t i o n ( a b o u t 1 7 0 0 m ) a n d l a c k o f f r o s t , t h e a r e a i s w e l l s u i t e d t o t e a , c o f f e e and f o r e s t c r o p s , a s w e l l a s i n t e n s i v e l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t i o n .

N a t u r a l r e g i o n I1 i s t h e p r i m a r y i n t e n s i v e f a r m i n g a r e a i n Zimbabwe. S i t u a t e d i n t h e h i g h v e l d r e g i o n a r o u n d H a r a r e , t h e summer r a i n f a l l o f 750- 1000 mm t e n d s t o b e r e l i a b l e . Hence m a i z e , t h e c o u n t r y ' s s t a p l e c r o p , i s w e l l s u i t e d t o t h i s r e g i o n a s i s t o b a c c o , c o t t o n , w h e a t , o t h e r g r a i n c r o p s a n d i n t e n s i v e l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t i o n . N a t u r a l R e g i o n 11, t h e r e f o r e i s t h e k e y f a rming a r e a o f Zimbabwe. S u b r e g i o n II- B , a l t h o u g h s t i l l s u i t a b l e f o r i n t e n s i v e p r o d u c t i o n , e x p e r i e n c e s h i g h e r l e v e l s o f r a i n f a l l v a r i a b i l i t y and r i s k .

a Semi-Extensive Farming Region

0 / Extensive Farming Region

Survoyor-General Rararo Zimbabwe. 1984

MAP 11-1 DISTRIBUTION OF NATURAL REGIONS BY PROVINCE - -

N a t u r a l R e g i o n I11 i s b e s t s u i t e d f o r s e m i - i n t e n s i v e c r o p a n d l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t i o n . I n t h i s z o n e , t h e a n n u a l r a i n f a l l a m o u n t s d e c l i n e t o 6 5 0 - 8 0 0 m m . C r o p p i n g i s t h e r e f o r e r i s k y , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r ma ize which r e q u i r e s l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f m o i s t u r e a t s p e c i f i c p e r i o d s o f p l a n t d e v e l o p m e n t . N a t u r a l R e g i o n IV r e c e i v e s 450- 650 mm o f r a i n f a l l a n n u a l l y , which means t h a t d r o u g h t - r e s i s t a n t c r o p s s h o u l d b e g r o w n , a n d t h a t l i v e s t o c k s h o u l d b e t h e b a s i s o f t h e f a r m i n g sys tem. Mid- season d r y s p e l l s a r e common, making any form o f d r y l a n d c r o p p i n g r i s k y .

N a t u r a l Region V r e c e i v e s r a i n f a l l t h a t i s b o t h low and e r r a t i c . T h i s l a n d h a s sound u s e o n l y i n e x t e n s i v e l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t i o n . The r e g i o n i n c l u d e s t h e h o t a n d d r y l o w v e l d a r e a s o f t h e Zambezi and Sabi-Limpopo v a l l e y s .

I n T a b l e 11-1, t h e t o t a l a r e a i n e a c h N a t u r a l Region i s shown. O n l y 16.8 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l a r e a o f Zimbabwe f a l l s i n t o z o n e s w h e r e t h e r e i s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r i n t e n s i v e c r o p and l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t i o n . Well o v e r h a l f t h e c o u n t r y i s b e s t s u i t e d f o r l i v e s t o c k r e a r i n g o n l y . Tu rn ing back t o Map 11-1, i t c a n b e s e e n t h a t m o s t o f Zimbabwe 's p r i m e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d i s l o c a t e d i n t h e t h r e e Mashonaland p r o v i n c e s .

TABLE 11-1 LAND AREAS BY NATURAL REGION

.............................................................. N a t u r a l S u i t a b l e I n t e n s i t y Land Area P e r c e n t o f Region o f Land-Use (1000 h a ) T o t a l ..............................................................

I S p e c i a l i z e d and 0 , 7 0 5 1 . 8 D i v e r s i f i e d Crops

I I I n t e n s i v e 5 ,857 15 . O I11 S e m i- I n t e n s i v e 7 ,290 18 .7

I V Semi- Extens ive 14 ,770 3 7 . 8 V E x t e n s i v e 10 ,450 26 .7 ..............................................................

T o t a l 39 ,072 100 . O

The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e n a t u r a l r e g i o n a n d t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m ( s u b s e c t o r ) i s t h e k e y t o d e t e r m i n i n g a p p r o p r i a t e t y p e s a n d l e v e l s o f e n e r g y i n p u t s i n t o a g r i c u l t u r e . P l a n n i n g must b e done w i t h i n t h i s c o n t e x t . T h i s i s a g e n e r a l theme t h r o u g h o u t t h i s c h a p t e r .

4 . ZIMBABWE'S AGRARIAN STRUCTURE

I n Zimbabwe, s i x p r i m a r y a g r i c u l t u r a l s u b s e c t o r s c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d :

(1) Large S c a l e Commercial Farms (LSCF),

( 2 ) S t a t e Farms,

(3) Communal Areas (CA),

(4) Model A (individual) Resettlement Schemes,

(5) Model B (cooperative) Resettlement Schemes,

(6) Small Scale Commercial Farms (SSCF).

Recently, the Government has initiated a model C outgrower scheme and a model D semi-arid land-grazing scheme under the resettlement schemes. These developments are not included in this study.

LARGE-SCALE COMMERCIAL FARM SUB-SECTORS

The large-scale commercial farm sector consists of approximately 4000 privately owned farming units. As indicated in Table 11-2 and Map 11-2, the sector is fairly evenly distributed between the various natural regions. However, in contrast to the communal areas, very little dryland cropping takes place in the marginal rainfall areas. The bulk of LSCF cultivation is done in Natural Region I1 where over three-quarters of the land is occupied by approximate1 y 2,600 large-scale commercial farms (C.S.O., 1983).

TABLE 11-2 DISTRIBUTION AGRICULTURAL LAND BY NATURAL REGION AN0 AGRICULTURAL SUBSECTOR

Natura l Resett lement Resett lement Region LSCF (1) % S ta te (3) % Communal ( l ) % Model A (2) % Model 8 (2) % SSCF (1) %

To ta l 13,943,446 100 78,702 100 16,355,580 100 1,669,233 100 66,775 100 1,416,100 100

Sources : (1) Agritex Planning Branch, Ministry of Agriculture:

LSCF figures adjusted for resettlement for period up to August 1983.

(2) Ministry of Lands, Resettlement and Rural Development (MLRRD). For period up to August 1983.

(3) Agricultural and Rural Development Authority (ARDA). For period up to July 1984.

Large Scale Commerc~al Farm Area

Communal Areas

yor-Gsnsral Barars ZLmbabrro, 1979

MAP 1 1 - 2 DISTRIBUTION OF LARGE-SCALE COMMERCIAL AND COMMUNAL FARM ATEAS BY NATURAL REGION

-p-

The LSCF s u b- s e c t o r produced 78 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l a g r i c u l t u r a l ou tput i n 1984 and ove r 90 percent of t h e t o t a l marke ted o u t p u t (AMA, 1986) . Of a t o t a l o u t p u t o f Z$ 598 m i l l i o n , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 90% was produced on l a r g e - s c a l e commercial farms. The subsec tor provided permanent employment f o r 165,000 people and seasona l employment f o r another 56,000 i n 1982, (C.S.O., 1 9 8 3 ) , and had s t r o n g l i n k a g e s w i t h t h e s e r v i c e and i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r s of t h e economy.

In t h e 1981-82 crop year t h e LSCF subsec tor consumed 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l commercial e n e r g y i n a g r i c u l t u r e . N a t i o n a l l y , t h e e n t i r e s u b s e c t o r a v e r a g e s one t r a c t o r f o r e v e r y 6.5 t r a c t o r s / f a r m i n t h e more f a v o r a b l e Mashonaland reg ion (Min i s t ry of Agr i cu l t u r e , 1984). Besides d i e s e l , t h e s e c t o r i s a l s o a l a r g e consumer .of c o a l and wood f o r tobacco c u r i n g and c r o p d r y i n g , e l e c t r i c i t y f o r i r r i g a t i o n , and agrochemicals .

STATE FARMS

S t a t e farms a r e t h e on ly o t h e r subsec tor u t i l i z i n g high- i n p u t methods. The A g r i c u l t u r a l and Rura l Development Author i ty (ARDA) ope ra t e s ove r 20 farms on 67,000 ha. of land ( T a b l e 1 1 - 2 ) . B e c a u s e o f t h e r o l e o f s t a t e f a r m s i n maintaining h igh i npu t farming i n Zimbabwe, we compare t h e i r e n e r g e t i c e f f i c i e n c y wi th t h e LSCF subsec tor i n t h i s chapter . Most s t a t e fa rms a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e d r i e r n a t u r a l r e g i o n s Hence, t h e opening up of marginal l ands through i r r i g a t i o n i s one of t he main o b j e c t i v e s .

COMMUNAL AREAS

The communal a r ea s ' (CAs) a r e where t he b u l k (57 percent ) o f Zimbabwe's p o p u l a t i o n l i v e . A s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 11-2 and Map 11-2, a lmos t t h r ee- qua r t e r s of communal land a rea i s i n N a t u r a l Regions IV and V, where d r y - l a n d c ropp ing i s r i sky . According t o 1982 census r e s u l t s , 2.65 m i l l i o n people l i v e i n t he se marginal a reas . This r ep re sen t s 62 percent of t h e communal a r e a populat+.on and 35 percent of t h e n a t i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n (C.S.O., 1984)

Human and b u l l o c k power, f e r t i l i z e r s , agrochemicals and hybr id seed a r e t h e primary energy i npu t s i n t o communal a r ea a g r i c u l t u r e . With r e g a r d t o b u l l o c k power, however , i t h a s been es t imated t h a t 27-52 percent of communal a r ea households do n o t h a v e t h e i r own d r a u g h t a n i m a l s (Whitsun Founda t ion , 1 9 8 3 ) , and h i r i n g and bor rowing i s common. I n a d d i t i o n , d raught animals a r e o f t e n a t t h e i r weakest when t h e i r energy i s i n most demand. These f a c t o r s c o n s t r a i n t h e development of communal a r ea a g r i c u l t u r e .

Since t h e i r demarcation around t h e t u r n of t he cen tury , t h e communal a r e a s have se rved a s a l abo r r e s e r v e f o r l o c a l mines , l a r g e fa rms and i n d u s t r i e s ( A r r i g h i , 1973; Pa lmer , 1 9 7 7 ) . T h i s had l e d t o a permanent p o p u l a t i o n of womeq, c h i l d r e n and t h e e l d e r l y i n t h e communal a r e a s w h i l e many young and middle-aged men a r e migrants . Furthermore, because

of an excessive human and livestock population, the resource base is under severe stress. Hence, household wealth and subsistence is increasingly dependent on off-farm sources of income.

Recently, the deterioration of employment prospects combined with drought has created a crisis situation for many communal area households. This crisis, we believe, is not a short term problem caused by a temporary environmental fluctuation. It is a result of a long term deterioration in the viability of the labor reserve economy as a whole. This is particularly true for the 2.65 million people living in areas where even a year with a subsistence crop is considered a good one.

There is also a small portion of communal area households who live in quite favorable environmental zones. Because of higher yields many farmers in these areas have been able to successfully reinvest capital back into their farms. The recent success of many communal area farmers, particularly in more favorable natural regions, underscores the ability of the peasantry to produce for subsistence and the market. The high variability in farming viability between and within natural regions indicates that generalizations about communal area agriculture (which are very common in all sorts of reports on Zimbabwe's agriculture sector) must be interpreted cautiously.

RESETTLEMENT MODEL A

The model A resettlement program allocates land on an individual family basis. Throughout the country each family is provided with 5 ha. of arable land and 5-15 livestock units for grazing, depending on the natural region.

The figures in Table 11-2 indicate that most model A schemes have been in natural regions I11 and IV. There is some slight improvement in the ecological location of the peasantry under resettlement, when compared to the communal areas. However, as indicated in Map 11-3, the best land (Region I1 A) has had limited resettlement. The large area of natural region I1 B under resettlement in the area to the east and north of Harare is primarily former white farming land abandoned during the war. The Lancaster House requirement that Government can only purchase land on a willing-sel ler/wil ling-buyer basis has effectively prevented peasant-access to Zimbabwe's best land.

The energy profile of model A schemes is similar to that in communal areas. However, access to the Government's mechanical tillage unit has meant a higher percentage of tractor usage. A few schemes are also experimenting with an internal mechanical tillage unit. This is an important experiment in the provision of tractors to small farmers who cannot afford to buy their own.

A F R I C A

Intensive Resettlement F7 ,,he,

Source: Ministry of Lands, Resettlement and nural Development, June, 1983

MAP 1 1 - 3 DISTRIBUTION OF RESETTLEMENT SCHEMES -U=- - P REGION

Farmers on model A schemes are not permitted to have formal employment off the farm. The purpose of this rule is to create a viable on-farm income base for resettled families. Furthermore, credit-access for the purchase of fertilizer, pesticide and seed (and in some cases, to hire a tractor) has given settler farmers access to commercialized energy inputs. However, because of their location in marginal areas it is unclear whether the returns to higher inputs (in the form of higher outputs) will be realized. It should not be forgotten that poor environmental conditions helped create the labor reserve economy in the first place.

RESETTLEMENT MODEL B

Model B resettlement schemes are producer cooperatives. There are approximately 35 model B schemes in Zimbabwe, on just over 6 6 , 0 0 0 ha. of land. It is interesting to note that the model B resettlement schemes are, in general, being allocated good land. This is primarily because the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) and the former Ministry of Lands, Resettlement and Rural Development (MLRRD) opted for model B schemes where viable large-scale farms could potentially be maintained.

To date, the cooperatives have been faced with serious shortages of capital and managerial experience. However, with the late rains of the 1983-84 crop season some impressive yield levels have been achieved. About 75 percent of model B farms have at least one tractor, although few have more than two. A few have none. We could not obtain any specific information on levels of energy consumption in the subsector. However, monitoring inputs and outputs on cooperatives is very important because of their potential to pool scarce family resources in order to harness greater quantities of energy in agricultural production as well as their greater access to the country's prime arable land. Producer cooperatives represent a potential form of production organization that could help the peasantry move up the energy ladder.

SMALL-SCALE COMMERCIAL FARMS

The SSCF subsector was created by the former Government in an attempt to create a small, elite, African farming class with freehold title. The proposed theory suggested that private ownership would create the conditions for high investment on the farm, hence, higher productivity. The plan failed because of under-utilization of land, and the farms simply became sources of income for investment in town. A further factor, as indicated in Table 11-2, is the poor resource base of the subsector. The subsector consumes a very small proportion of the nation's energy and is not a major contributor to overall marketed surplus.

5. ENERGY USE I N ZIMBABWE'S AGRICULTURAL SECTOR

I n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l component o f LEAP, f o u r e n e r g y t y p e s were a c c o u n t e d f o r : p e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t s , c o a l , e l e c t r i c i t y and f u e l w o o d . F e r t i l i z e r , a m a j o r e n e r g y i n p u t , w a s n o t a c c o u n t e d f o r h e r e b e c a u s e o f i t s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r . F u r t h e r m o r e , g a s o l i n e consumed i n a g r i c u l t u r e was a c c o u n t e d f o r i n t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s e c t o r , a s most g a s o l i n e u s e i n t h e f a r m i n g s e c t o r i s n o t d i r e c t l y f o r p r o d u c t i o n . H e n c e , t h e c a t e g o r y o f p e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t s r e f e r s t o d i e s e l f u e l o n l y . B e s i d e s e n e r g y u s e d f o r d r y i n g a n d c u r i n g , t h i s i s a n a c c o u n t o f e n e r g y used i n p r o d u c t i o n o n l y .

I n t h e 1981- 82 c r o p y e a r a g r i c u l t u r e a c c o u n t e d f o r 8.7 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l commercia l and fue lwood e n e r g y consumed n a t i o n a l l y . I n T a b l e 1 1 - 3 , t h e b r e a k d o w n b y f u e l t y p e i s p r e s e n t e d . I t c a n b e s e e n t h a t c o a l and fue lwood ( f o r d r y i n g a n d c u r i n g ) w e r e t h e m a j o r f u e l s u s e d . P e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t s , a c c o u n t i n g f o r l e s s t h a n 1 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e s e c t o r a l t o t a l , a c c o u n t e d f o r 1 0 . 3 p e r c e n t o f t h e n a t i o n a l t o t a l . T h i s r e p r e s e n t e d a l m o s t 20 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l d i e s e l consumed i n t h e c o u n t r y . E l e c t r i c i t y , p r i m a r i l y f o r i r r i g a t i o n p u r p o s e s ( w i t h some u s e d f o r d r y i n g ) , a c c o u n t e d f o r 9 .3 p e r c e n t o f a g r i c u l t u r a l c o n s u m p t i o n a n d 7 . 3 p e r c e n t o f n a t i o n a l consumpt ion t h a t y e a r .

TABLE 11-3 ENERGY CONSUMPTION I N THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR 1981-82 CROPSEASON --

% o f T o t a l % o f T o t a l F u e l M i l l i o n A g r i c u l t u r a l N a t i o n a l TYPe G J Usage Usage ........................................................ P e t r o l e u m P r o d u c t s 2.78 13.4 10.3 C o a l 8.80 42.2 18.3 E l e c t r i c i t y 1.94 9.3 7.3 Fue lwood 7.31 35.1 6.5 ........................................................ T o t a l 20.83 100 8.7

Draugh t Animal Power 3.6 Human Energy 2 .S

The t o t a l human e n e r g y and a n i m a l d r a u g h t power expended i n a g r i c u l t u r e was e s t i m a t e d e x o g e n o u s l y from LEAP. As c a n b e s e e n , a n i m a l d r a u g h t power a c c o u n t e d f o r more e n e r g y t h a n p e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t s . The human e n e r g y component i s a l s o q u i t e s i g n i f i c a n t . I f we w e n t f u r t h e r a n d i n c l u d e d t h e e n e r g y consumed i n t h e form o f f e r t i l i z e r ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7.5 m i l l i o n G J ) we c o u l d e s t i m a t e t h a t , a s a w h o l e , t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r u t i l i z e d 35 m i l l i o n G J . I f we i n c l u d e d h y b r i d s e e d a n d p e s t i c i d e s t h e f i g u r e w o u l d b e c l o s e r t o 40 m i l l i o n G J . T h i s a m o u n t s t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 G J p e r h e c t a r e c r o p p e d .

When only commercial energy inputs are accounted for, energy consumption per hectare (GJ) has been estimated to be 0.8 for Africa, 2.2 for all developing countries, 2.4 for China, 9.3 for the Soviet Union, 20.2 for North America and 27.9 for Western Europe (FAO, 1979). Although these figures are a bit outdated (1972173) and do not include human and animal energy they clearly demonstrate the intensity of energy use in Zimbabwean agriculture, particularly relative to other African countries.

These aggregate figures must be treated with caution because of the large level of variation within Zimbabwe's agricultural sector. In Table 11-4, energy consumption in the large-scale commercial subsector is presented. It can be seen that the subsector accounted for 90 percent of the commercial and fuelwood energy consumed in the entire sector that year. This amounts to 32 ha. which is higher than any of the regional averages of ten years earlier. Again, tobacco curing and crop drying consumed the bulk of commercial energy. The subsector accounted for 9.6 percent of the petroleum products (18 percent of the diesel), 17 percent of the coal, 6.7 percent of the electricity and 5.6 percent of the fuelwood consumed nationally.

TABLE 11-4 ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN THE LSCF SUBSECTOR --p

............................................................. % of Total % of Agricultural National

Fuel Type Million GJ (end-use) Consumption Consumption ............................................................. Petrol.Prod. 2.59 (Tractor) 93.2 9.6 Coal 8.20 (Drying,Curing) 93.2 17.1 Electricity 1.78 (Irrigation,Drying) 91.8 6.7 Fuelwood 6.21 (Curing,Drying) 85 .O 5.6 ............................................................. Total 18.78 90.2 7 -9

To get a more precise estimate of energy consumed in the LSCF subsector we disaggregated by the four major crops grown and a residual category called "Other." This is presented in Table 11-5.

The table shows the importance of tobacco, which accounted for 57.5 percent of the total energy consumed in the subsector. In that year tobacco accounted for 7.8 percent of total cropped hectares. Again, the high energy costs of the curing process are indicated. However, although the absolute diesel consumption doesn't appear to be high, on a per hectare basis, tobacco utilizes more than double the amount of diesel (194 liters per hectare) than all the crops grown, with the exception of cotton (MOA, 1978).

Even though maize used forty-six percent of the total cropped hectarage that year, it accounted for a relatively small proportion ( 16.2%) of total LSCF energy consumption.

Drying was a large component of this. Wheat, although accounting for a small proportion of total consumption (3.9%), required a lot of electricity. This was primarily for irrigation.

TABLE 11-5 ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN THE LSCF SUBSECTOR BY CROP --p --

............................................................. Million % of LCSF

Crop Fuel Type G J Consumption ............................................................. Maize Diesel 1.03 39.8

Coal 1.86 22.7 Electricity .l7 9.6 Total 3.06 16.2

............................................................. Cotton Diesel .25 9.6

Electricity .l4 7.9 Total .39 2.0 .............................................................

Tobacco Diesel .45 17.4 Coal 6.13 74.8 Electricity .04 2.3 Fuelwood 4.18 67.3 Total 10.80 57.5 .............................................................

Wheat Diesel .l2 4.6 Coal .l3 1.6 Electricity .49 27.5 Total .74 3.9 .............................................................

Other Diesel .74 28.6 Coal .08 0.9 Electricity .94 52.8 Fuelwood 2.04 32.9 Total 3.80 20.2 .............................................................

The large expenditure on electricity for the residual crop category (other), was primarily for lowveld irrigation. Fuelwood for tea and coffee drying also was a major energy consumer. Coal consumption was of minor importance and diesel use was roughly proportional to the number of other crops grown.

The intensity of energy required to produce the major crops is indicated in Table 11-6. It can be seen that for 3 of the 5 crops, curing and drying consumed the largest quantities of energy. Tobacco, the most intensive, consumed over 25 times more energy than cotton, the least intensive, on a per hectare basis. On average, one LSCF cropped hectare required 33 GJ. Curing was the single largest end-use in the subsector.

TABLE 11-6 PERHECTAREENERGY CONSUMPTION FOR THEMAJOR LSCF C R O P S

........................................................ Crop GJ/ha. Major End-Use ........................................................ Tobacco 210.9 Cur ing Wheat 26.1 I r r i g a t i o n O t h e r 21.5 Drying Maize 11.7 Drying C o t t o n 7.4 L a n d p r e p a r a t i o n and Main t enance

Mean 33 .01 Cur ing ........................................................

T h e s e f i g u r e s d e m o n s t r a t e t h e d o m i n a n c e o f t h e LSCF s u b s e c t o r i n t h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f c o m m e r c i a l e n e r g y i n p u t s w i t h i n a g r i c u l t u r e . S t a t e f a r m s a c c o u n t e d f o r m o s t o f t h e r e m a i n i n g commercia l e n e r g y consumpt ion . Combined w i t h t h e communal a r e a s , model A r e s e t t l e m e n t schemes and s m a l l - s c a l e c o m m e r c i a l f a r n a r e a s u s e d l e s s t h a n 1 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l e n e r g y consumed i n t h e s e c t o r . H o w e v e r , i f a n i m a l d r a u g h t p o w e r a n d human e n e r g y w e r e i n c l u d e d , t h e f i g u r e w o u l d b e c l o s e r t o 25 p e r c e n t .

6 . THE ENERGETICS O F AGRICULTURE I N ZIMBABWE

I n a g r i c u l t u r e , e n e r g e t i c s i s t h e s t u d y o f t h e f l o w and c o n v e r s i o n o f e n e r g y i n f o o d p r o d u c t i o n . B e c a u s e e n e r g y i n f o o d p r o d u c t i o n i s b o t h a p r o d u c e r a n d c o n s u m e r o f e n e r g y , e n e r g y i n p u t s c a n b e e v a l u a t e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f e n e r g y o u t p u t s by c o n v e r t i n g b o t h i n t o common e n e r g y u n i t s . I f t h e r a t i o o f t h e o u t p u t s t o i n p u t s i s g r e a t e r t h a n 1, t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s y s t e m i s a n e t p r o v i d e r o f e n e r g y . An o u t p u t : i n p u t r a t i o l e s s t h a n 1 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s a n e t l o s s o f ene rgy .

B e f o r e we p r o c e e d t o e v a l u a t e t h e e n e r g e t i c s o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n Zimbabwe, a f ew w o r d s a b o u t t h i s m e t h o d a r e n e c e s s a r y . F i r s t , e n e r g e t i c a n a l y s i s s h o u l d n o t b e v iewed a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s . As we h a v e d i s c u s s e d , f a r m e r s make d e c i s i o n s o n e c o n o m i c n o t e n e r g e t i c c r i t e r i a . E n e r g e t i c a n a l y s i s , t h e r e f o r e , i s a way t o e v a l u a t e t h e e n e r g y i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e economics o f a g r i c u l t u r e .

S e c o n d l y , e n e r g e t i c a n a l y s i s c a n d i s g u i s e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p a r t i c u l a r f u e l s b y combining a l l e n e r g y t y p e s t o g e t h e r . T h i s i s a v o i d e d h e r e b y m a i n t a i n i n g t h e d i s a g g r e g a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r e n e r g y t y p e s a f t e r c o n v e r s i o n i n t o s t a n d a r d i z e d u n i t s .

F i n a l l y , 0 u t p u t : i n p u t r a t i o s a r e v e r y d e p e n d e n t on y i e l d l e v e l s ( p e r u n i t o f l a n d ) . A l t h o u g h e n e r g y i n p u t s p l a y a p i v o t a l r o l e i n d e t e r m i n i n g o u t p u t s , f a c t o r s s u c h a s w e a t h e r , s o i l a n d managemen t s k i l l s a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t . Hence , e n e r g e t i c a n a l y s i s s h o u l d b e l i m i t e d t o b r o a d s t a t e m e n t s

a b o u t a v e r a g e s . When e v a l u a t i n g e n e r g y u s e i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f

i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s ( t o b a c c o , c o t t o n , e t c . ) , c o n v e r t i n g o u t p u t s i n t o t h e i r e n e r g y e q u i v a l e n t s wou ld b e m e a n i n g l e s s . I n s u c h c a s e s , we e v a l u a t e t h e i n t e n s i t y o f e n e r g y u s e m e a s u r e d a s t h e e n e r g y i n p u t r e q u i r e d p e r u n i t o f p h y s i c a l o u t p u t ( t o n s ) . T h i s s h o u l d n o t b e c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f i n t e n s i t y a s u n i t e n e r g y i n p u t p e r c r o p p e d h e c t a r e , a l s o i n u s e i n t h i s c h a p t e r .

LSCF AND STATE FARM SUBSECTORS

I n T a b l e 11-7 we c o m p a r e t h e e n e r g e t i c e f f i c i e n c y o f ma ize p r o d u c t i o n i n Zimbabwe's LSCF s u b s e c t o r and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o n a p e r h e c t a r e b a s i s . I t c a n b e s e e n t h a t i n Zimbabwe, i n p u t s a r e s l i g h t l y h i g h e r w h i l e o u t p u t s a r e s l i g h t l y l o w e r w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e U.S. E n e r g e t i c e f f i c i e n c i e s were c a l c u l a t e d a s 2.67 and 3.13 r e s p e c t i v e l y . The f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e t h a t , i n Zimbabwe, t h e b u l k o f t h e e n e r g y u s e d i n m a i z e p r o d u c t i o n i s f o r f e r t i l i z e r ( 5 0 . 3 % ) , d r y i n g ( 2 0 . 4 % ) , a n d d i e s e l ( 1 2 . 2 % ) . A l t h o u g h f e r t i l i z e r i s a l s o t h e m a j o r u s e o f e n e r g y i n U.S. m a i z e p r o d u c t i o n ( 3 6 . 9 % ) , d i e s e l ( 2 0 . 9 % ) a n d i r r i g a t i o n ( 1 2 . 7 % ) p l a y a m o r e i m p o r t a n t r o l e . E n e r g y u s e d f o r d r y i n g ( 7 . 0 % ) i s mucli l e s s i n t h e U.S., and l a b o r i n p u t s (0 .1%) a r e v i r t u a l l y n i l .

TABLE 11-7 ENERGETIC EFFICIENCY OF MAIZE PRODUCTION IN ZIMBABWE'S LARGE-SCALE COMMEEIALREI SECTOR - --

AND THE UNITED STATES

............................................................. Zimbabwe U n i t e d S t a t e s

I n p u t K c a l . GJ/ha % k c a l . GJ/ha % ............................................................. Labor 259,560 1 . 0 9 4 . 0 5 , 5 8 0 .02 0 . 1 Machinery 348 ,000 1 . 4 6 5 . 3 558,000 2 .34 9 . 1 D i e s e l 797 ,898 13 .34 1 2 . 2 1 , 2 7 8 , 3 6 8 5 .35 20 .9 F e r t i l i z e r 3 , 3 0 1 , 4 8 1 3 .82 5 0 . 3 2 ,257 ,100 9 . 4 5 3 6 . 9 P e s t i c i d e s 255,614 1 .07 3 . 9 286,730 1 . 2 0 4 . 7 Seed 161 ,250 .67 2 . 4 525,000 2 .20 8 . 6 I r r i g a t i o n 1 0 0 , 3 3 4 .42 1 . 5 780,000 3 .26 1 2 . 7 Drying 1 , 3 3 7 , 7 9 2 5 .60 2 0 . 4 426 ,341 1 . 7 8 7 . 0 ............................................................. T o t a l I n p u t s 6 , 5 6 1 , 9 2 9 27.47 6 , 1 1 7 , 1 1 9 25 .60 O u t p u t 1 7 , 4 9 7 , 9 5 0 73 .24 19 ,148 ,700 8 0 . 1 6 O u t p u t / I n p u t 2 .67 3 . 1 3 .............................................................

S o u r c e s : C F U ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; MOA ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; d e J o n g ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; CS0 ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; P i m e n t a l & P i m e n t a l , 1 9 7 9 .

T h e s e f i g u r e s d e m o n s t r a t e t h e r e l a t i v e i n t e n s i t y o f b o t h c o m m e r c i a l e n e r g y a n d l a b o r u s e i n Zimbabwean m a i z e

production. There is a slight skew towards labor saving inputs (tractors) versus yield enhancing inputs (fertilizer) in U.S. production. This, however, is partially due to higher levels of soil fertility in the U.S. midwest in comparison to Zimbabwe's highveld region. What these figures suggest is that despite the relative labor intensity of Zimbabwe's LSCF maize production, inputs of commercial energy are also quite high. It can be seen that in order to become high yielding, the LSCF maize grower has required a very large energy subsidy.

In Table 11-8, a similar analysis is performed for wheat. The figures are interesting, Zimbabwe utilizes almost 4 times the inputs, and gets almost 2.5 times more yield than the U.S. Hence, Zimbabwe's energetic efficiency (1.65) is again lower than in the U.S. (2.65). The comparison is a bit inconsistent, however, because cropping is mostly non-irrigated in the U.S.

TABLE 11-8 ENERGETIC EFFICIENCY OF WHEAT PRODUCTION IN ZIMBABWE ' S LARGE-SCALE C O M M E ~ I ~ F A R M SECTOR -

AND THE UNITED STATES

............................................................. Zimbabwe (Irrigated) United States (Dryland)

............................................................. Input Kcal. ~ ~ / h a % kcal. G~/ha % ............................................................. Labor 139,050 .58 1.4 3,255 0.014 0.1 Machinery 360,000 1.51 3.7 360,000 1.51 14.0 Diesel 848,065 3.55 8.8 604,942 2.53 23.5 Fertilizer 4,505,494 18.86 46.5 852,025 3.56 33.1 Pesticides 95,557 .4 1.0 49,955 0.21 2.0 Seed 264,000 1.11 2.7 699,600 2.93 27.3 Irrigation 3,468,705 14.52 35.9 -- -- -- ............................................................. Total Inputs 9,680,871 40.53 2,569,777 10.75 Output 16,005,000 67.0 6,798,000 28.46 ~utput/~nput 1.65 2.65

Sources: CFU (1983b); Mangombe (1983); CFU (1983b); CS0 (1983); Pimental & Pimental (1979);

The energetics of wheat production in Middle-Sabi and Chisumbanje state farms is presented in Table 11-9. On the Middle-Sabi scheme, input levels are very similar to the average for large-scale commercial farms. However, because of lower yields, the output:input ratio of 1.32 is lower. On Chisumban je, however, the combination of significantly lower inputs and slightly lower outputs combines to make for a more efficient conversion of energy (1.56). Although the energy demand profile is similar on the two farms, the higher rate

o f l a b o r u t i l i z a t i o n on t h e Midd le- Sab i scheme i s n o t i c e a b l e . H o w e v e r , when c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e LSCF a v e r a g e , b o t h s c h e m e s a p p e a r q u i t e l a b o r i n t e n s i v e . T h e l o w e r d e m a n d f o r f e r t i l i z e r and i r r i g a t i o n a t Chisumbanje i s d u e t o t h e i r more f e r t i l e s o i l s a n d s y s t e m o f f l o o d i r r i g a t i o n ( s o i l s a t Midd le- Sab i a r e s a n d i e r and t h e y u s e a s p r i n k l e r s y s t e m ) .

TABLE 11-9 ENERGETIC EFFICIENCY OF \?HEAT PRODUCTION ON TWO LOWVELD STATE F A R M S I N T B Z A B \ J E --

............................................................. Middle- Sabi Chisumbanje .............................................................

I n p u t K c a l . GJ/ha % K c a l . GJ/ha % ............................................................. Labor 306 ,744 1 .28 3 . 2 173 ,813 0 .73 2 . 3 Machinery 360,000 1 . 5 1 3 . 6 360,000 1 . 5 1 4 . 7 Diesel 8 5 7 , 6 2 0 3 .59 8 . 9 721,452 3 .02 9 . 3 F e r t i l i z e r 3 , 9 3 2 , 1 5 4 16 .46 4 0 . 9 3 ,203 ,535 1 3 . 4 1 4 1 . 4 P e s t i c i d e s 119 ,466 0 .50 1 . 2 110 ,295 0 . 5 1 . 5 Seed 1 , 2 4 7 , 4 0 0 5 .22 1 3 . 0 1 , 0 0 5 , 0 0 0 4 .21 1 3 . 0 I r r i g a t i o n 2 , 7 9 5 , 0 3 1 11 .70 2 9 . 1 2 ,150 ,024 9 . 0 2 7 . 8 ............................................................. T o t a l I n p u t s 9 ,618 ,415 40 .26 7 ,724 ,119 32 .38 O u t p u t 1 2 , 6 5 8 , 8 0 0 52 .99 12 ,078 ,000 50 .56 O u t p u t / I n p u t 1 . 3 2 1 .56 .............................................................

H i g h i n p u t f a r m i n g i n Zimbabwe i s o n l y s l i g h t l y l e s s e f f i c i e n t t h a n i n t h e U.S. However, b o t h s y s t e m s a c h i e v e v e r y h i g h l e v e l s o f o u t p u t . When compar ing t h e two c o u n t r i e s , it i s i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s i d e r t h e l o w e r l e v e l s o f s o i l f e r t i l i t y and h i g h e r l e v e l s o f r a i n f a l l v a r i a b i l i t y i n Zimbabwe.

Our compar i son o f LSCF and s t a t e - f a r m whea t p r o d u c t i o n , a l t h o u g h l i m i t e d , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e two s u b s e c t o r s e x h i b i t s i m i l a r e n e r g y u s e p a t t e r n s . The LSCF s u b s e c t o r i s m o r e p r o d u c t i v e a n d s l i g h t l y more e n e r g y e f f i c i e n t . However , a b s o l u t e q u a n t i t i e s o f e n e r g y u s e a r e h i g h e r . The s t a t e f a rm s u b s e c t o r u t i l i z e s more l a b o r w h i l e l e v e l s o f d i e s e l u s e a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r .

To c o m p l e t e t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e two s u b s e c t o r s , we f o c u s o n a m a j o r i n d u s t r i a l c r o p : c o t t o n . I n T a b l e 11- 10 , t h e e n e r g y i n t e n s i t y o f c o t t o n p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e LSCF s u b s e c t o r and on t h e Chisumbanje scheme a r e a s s e s s e d . I t c a n b e s e e n t h a t t h e s t a t e fa rm u t i l i z e s more e n e r g y p e r h e c t a r e . H o w e v e r , t h e C h i s u m b a n j e y i e l d s a r e a l s o h i g h e r t h a n t h e LSCF a v e r a g e .

The C h i s u m b a n j e s cheme r e q u i r e s s l i g h t l y more e n e r g y (9 .22 G J ) t o p r o d u c e 1 t o n o f c o t t o n t h a n t h e LSCF sector (8.76 G J ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , l a b o r u s e i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r o n t h e s t a t e fa rm, a s i s f e r t i l i z e r u s e . These f i g u r e s s u g g e s t a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n a s t h a t s e e n i n t h e e n e r g e t i c a n a l y s i s : h i g h e r q u a n t i t i e s o f e n e r g y l e a d t o h i g h e r y i e l d s b u t l e s s e f f i c i e n t c o n v e r s i o n o f ene rgy .

FABLE 11-10 ENERGY INTENSITY OF IRRIGATED COTTON PRODUCTION IN ZIMBZ~Z~ LARGE-SCALECOMMERCIAL FARMSECTOR -

AND CHISUMBANJE STATE FARM (PER=)- ----

LSCF Chisumbanje ............................................................. Input Kcal. ~ ~ / h a % Kcal. ~ ~ / h a % ............................................................. Labor 644,265 2.70 12.0 1,056,780 4.42 15.4 Yachinery 417,150 1.75 7.8 413,030 1.73 6.0 Diesel 967,511 4.05 18.0 957,955 4.01 14.0 Fertilizer 1,471,572 6.16 27.3 1,958,910 8.2 28.6 Pesticides 288,570 1.21 5.4 495,150 2.07 7.2 Seed 100,000 0.42 1.8 250,000 1.05 3.7 Irrigation 1,488,294 6.23 27.7 1,720,019 7.20 25.1 ............................................................. Total Inputs 5,377,362 22.52 6,851,844 28.68 Iutput (tonsjha) 2.57 3.11 Energy required ?er Ton 2,096,000 8.76 2,200,000 9.22

Sources: MOA (1976): Pimentel & Pimentel (1979); FIOA (1983); Browne (1983); CS0 (1983);

COMMUNAL AREAS

In this section the energy efficiency of maize production is calculated for farmers in six communal areas. The sites are stratified by natural region because of the strong influence of environment on both inputs and outputs.

Data on inputs was collected from a comprehensive survey >f communal area households, administered during February and March of 1984. Secondary data sources were also used where necessary. The data thus pertains to the 1983-84 crop season. 3ur estimate of outputs is based on a review of the available statistics and literature for particular regions of the zountry. The output estimates, therefore, are averages, and 3re not meant to pertain to the 1983-84 crop season.

Another problem faced was the calculation of the ~uantity of inputs utilized for specific crops and fields. Farmers appeared to have a very clear idea of the total quantity of inputs used and area cropped. However, many could not be much more specific than that. Hence we simply averaged the total quantities of inputs used by the total area cropped to obtain an estimate of per-hectare energy usage. Although this method underestimates input levels for crops like maize and cotton, and overestimates them for crops like millet and sorghum, the average is still useful for our purposes here.

In Table 11-11, some basic production and input information is presented for six sites. Although the sample size used is small the geographical range is large, and all

f i v e n a t u r a l r e g i o n s a r e c o v e r e d . Guruve, t h e s i t e i n t h e most f a v o r a b l e n a t u r a l r e g i o n had t h e h i g h e s t househo ld a v e r a g e c ropped a r e a , 3.17 ha . C h i b i , t h e s i t e i n t h e l e a s t f a v o r a b l e n a t u r a l reg ion averaged o n l y 1.76 ha. cropped per f a m i l y . A long w i t h Mhondoro, and Sabi -Lqor th , t h i s represen ted t he lower averages. The f a c t t h a t cropped a r e a s were h i g h e s t i n t h e two s i t e s l o c a t e d i n t h e most f a v o r a b l e n a t u r a l r e g i o n s i s i m p o r t a n t , f o r t h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t h o u s e h o l d s i n t h e s e a r e a s a r e p roduc ing ( t h r o u g h h i g h e r y i e l d s and l a r g e r c ropped a r e a s ) s u b s t a n t i a l l y more p e r h o u s e h o l d t h a n t h e m a j o r i t y of h o u s e h o l d s l i v i n g i n more s e m i- a r i d r e g i o n s . The h i g h l e v e l o f v a r i a b i l i t y w i t h i n s i t e s , however , does d i m i n i s h t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s i t e averages . The l a r g e range of cropped a r e a s ( n o t show below) sugges ts t h a t v a r i a t i o n s between households i n t he same s i t e c o u l d be a s i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m u l a t i n g an e x p l a n a t i o n a s v a r i a t i o n s between s i t e s .

TABLE 11-71 SOME BASIC PRODUCTION AN0 INPUT STATISTICS FOR SIX COMMUNAL AREAS, 1983-84

Mean Land P r e p a r a t i o n and Maintenance P lan ted B u l l o c k

Communal Sample N a t u r a l Area 5 W 5 Tlmes Hrs. Area S i z e Region (Ha) Manur. Harrow. C u l t . Plough.(Per Ha)

Guruve 9 I I A 3.17 7.8 29.8 62.4 2.0 93.7 Mangwende 6 I I A / I I B 2.29 3.7 0 32.4 1.5 65.1 b o n d o r o 8 I I B / I I I 1 . 7 3 29.9 8.0 53.3 1.1 55.4 Sabi N o r t h 7 I11 1.79 40.3 41.9 66.1 2.0 96.7 Nyajena 7 I V 2.14 54.1 0 10.8 3.0 120.9 C h i b i 7 V 1.76 8.2 18.0 9.8 1.3 54.7

F e r t i l i z e r P e s t l c l d e

U s e ( k g ) U s e ( k g ) HH Per 5 HH Per E

Ave. HA Use Ave. HA Use

H y b r i d SE

Use (kg : HH Per

Ave. HA L

Total/Mean 44 I IA- V 2.18 21.9 17.8 42.5 1.8 81.1 567 260 77 0.8 0.3 18 56.8 26.0

The t a b l e a l s o g i v e s t h e p e r c e n t a g e of t o t a l c ropped a r e a which i s manured, har rowed, and c u l t i v a t e d . These percentages , a long wi th t h e average number of t imes each a c r e was ploughed t h a t season, g i v e an es t imate of b u l l o c k hours expended p e r h e c t a r e . T h i s l a t e r c a l c u l a t i o n ( a s we w i l l d i s c u s s b e l o w ) i s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e e n e r g e t i c s of communal a r ea a g r i c u l t u r e . With t h e except ion o f C h i b i , t h e r e a p p e a r s t o be a s u b s t a n t i a l l y l a r g e r a r e a manured i n more m a r g i n a l a r e a s . P e r c e n t a g e s harrowed and c u l t i v a t e d were h igh i n Guruve, wh i l e almost none of t he s i x households surveyed i n Mangwende used a harrow. Although no p a t t e r n of h a r r o w i n g i s e v i d e n t , t h e r e does seem t o be g r e a t e r u se of c u l t i v a t o r f o r weeding i n h i g h e r r a i n f a l l a r e a s .

F e r t i l i z e r u se i s d i r e c t l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h n a t u r a l r e g i o n w h e n m e a s u r e d b o t h a s a h o u s e h o l d a v e r a g e and on a p e r h e c t a r e ba s i s . Farmers i n Guruve used very l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f f e r t i l i z e r , whereas o n l y one f a rmer i n C h i b i used any a t

O v e r a l l , f e r t i l i z e r was t h e p r i m a r y s o u r c e o f e n e r g y consumption a t 44.5 percent bu t v a r i e d from approximately 65 p e r c e n t i n t h e h i g h e r r a i n f a l l a r e a s t o o n l y 1.5 and 8.7 percent i n t he d r i e r a r e a s of Nyajena and Chibi r e s p e c t i v e l y . P e s t i c i d e use was n e g l i g i b l e and hybr id seed was an important s o u r c e o f consumpt ion t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y a v e r a g i n g between 5.6 and 18 .1 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l ene rgy use . I n t h e column i n d i c a t i n g t o t a l i n p u t s it can be s e e n t h a t f o r t h e s i t e w i t h h i g h e s t p o t e n t i a l , G u r u v e , a v e r a g e e n e r g y consumption was a lmos t four t imes g r e a t e r than i n Chibi , t h e s i t e wi th lowest p o t e n t i a l .

Given c e r t a i n a s sumpt ions on o u t p u t , d e r i v e d from a s u r v e y of a v a i l a b l e communal a r e a r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e , Mangwende had t h e h i g h e s t e n e r g e t i c e f f i c i e n c y w i th a n 0 u t p u t : i n p u t r a t i o o f 6.96. I n Guruve , t h e f i g u r e was 5.10. Thus i n t he se two s i t e s , e f f i c i e n c i e s of a g r i c u l t u r a l energy u s e w e r e g r e a t e r t h a n i n LSCF o r U n i t e d S t a t e s m a i z e product ion. However, t h e f i g u r e s a r e comparable t o est imated e f f i c i e n c i e s f o r peasant maize product ion u t i l i z i n g draught a n i m a l power i n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d ( s e e s e c t i o n 2 i n t h i s c h a p t e r ) . E n e r g e t i c e f f i c i e n c i e s i n t h e o t h e r f o u r s i t e s were much l o w e r , w i t h o n l y Mhondoro r e c e i v i n g o v e r 3 u n i t s of energy f o r each u n i t pu t i n t o t he system.

We can s e e t h a t ene rge t i c e f f i c i e n c y and n a t u r a l reg ion a r e h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d . I n o t h e r words, a d e q u a t e m o i s t u r e l e v e l s a r e necessary t o reap t h e b e n e f i t s of enhanced energy u t i l i z a t i o n . T h e r e i s n o t h i n g new i n t h i s s t a t e m e n t ; e v a l u a t i o n s of g reen r e v o l u t i o n innovat ions throughout t h e w o r l d h a v e shown t h i s q u i t e c l e a r l y . Howeve r , t h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s q u i t e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e Zimbabwean c o n t e x t b e c a u s e it s e v e r e l y l i m i t s t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r s i g n i f i c a n t a g r i c u l t u r a l change f o r t h e o n e - t h i r d of Zimbabwe's t o t a l popu la t i on who l i v e i n n a t u r a l reg ions 1 V and V.

MODEL A RESETTLEMENT SCHEMES

F i v e Model A r e s e t t l e m e n t schemes were a l s o su rveyed d u r i n g t h e ZEAP r u r a l h o u s e h o l d e n e r g y s u r v e y . The r e s u l t s a r e presented i n Table 11-13. I t can be seen t h a t farmers on Model A r e s e t t l e m e n t s chemes c r o p p e d , on a v e r a g e , a p p r o x i m a t e l y one more h e c t a r e t h a n f a r m e r s i n communal areas .As a l l farmers a r e a l l o c a t e d 5 h e c t a r e s of l and , t h e r e i s a n upper l i m i t t o t h e c ropped a r e a a s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e r a n g e . Wi th t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e Mukos i s cheme , a l l h o u s e h o l d s c ropped a t l e a s t 2 h e c t a r e s . Access t o d r a u g h t animal power v a r i e d by scheme, bu t , o v e r a l l , was l e s s than i n t h e communal a r e a s . However, t h e a r e a p loughed by t r a c t o r was g r e a t e r , due t o t h e s e t t l e r s ' g r e a t e r a c c e s s t o t h e s e r v i c e s of t he Government t i l l a g e u n i t .

I n t h e sample , use of manure, ha r rows and c u l t i v a t o r s was lower t h a n i n communal a r e a s . However, h o u s e h o l d f e r t i l i z e r use was h ighe r , a l though per h e c t a r e use was not . P e s t i c i d e use was l i m i t e d t o a few f a r m e r s i n two schemes, and, a s i n t h e communal a r ea s , a l l of t h e surveyed households

used h y b r i d s eed . I n T a b l e 11- 14, t h e ene rgy e q u i v a l e n t of t h e p h y s i c a l i n p u t s t o p r o d u c t i o n a r e shown. The f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e t h a t r e s e t t l e d f a r m e r s u t i l i z e d 7 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l ene rgy i n p u t s (on a v e r a g e ) , when compared t o t h e communal a r e a a v e r a g e . S i g n i f i c a n t 1 y l e s s manure and d r a u g h t an ima l power was used on t h e s e schemes, t h a n i n communal a reas . Only d i e s e l had h ighe r r a t e s of use.

TABLE 11-73 SOME BASIC PRODUCTION AN0 INPUT STATISTICS FOR 5 MOOEL A RESETTLEMENT SCHEMES 1983-84.

Land P r e p a r a t i o n and Maintenance Fertilizer Pesticide Hybr id Seed Area P lan ted Average B u l l o c k Use ( k g ) Use ( k g ) Use ( k g )

Sample N a t u r a l (HA) C, a v ,m % Times Hrs. HH Per % HH Per E HH Per %

Area S1ze Region Mean Range Manur.Harrow.Cult~v.Plough.(Per Ha) Ave. HA Use Ave HA Use Ave HA Use ...................................................................................................... Hoyuyu 10 I I B / I I I 3.03 2-5 0.0 0.0 12.0 1.0 12.8 1,052 347 100 - - - 43 1 4 100 Mayo 8 113-IV 2.98 2-4 5.9 0.0 20.3 1.8 63.7 803 269 100 1.6 0.5 37 57 19 100 Tugwl 9 I I I / I V 4.05 2-5 8.8 18.8 30.0 1.7 74.5 744 184 100 4.8 1.2 56 81 20 100 Ko tana l 9 I I I / I V 3.15 2-5 10.0 47.1 68.6 1.2 65.6 414 131 89 - - - 65 21 100 Mukosi 7 I V 2.56 1-4 4.5 0.0 0.0 1.1 43.1 171 67 71 - - - 43 17 100

Tot/Mean 43 I I B- I V 3.18 1-5 6.1 14.8 28.4 1.3 51.9 665 209 93 1.3 0.4 19 58 18 100

TABLEII-14 ENERGY INPUTS AN0 ESTIMATED OUTPUTS I N F IVE MOOEL A RESETTLEMENT SMMES

................................................................................................... Per Ha. Energy I n p u t s (1983/84) Es t ima ted

(GJ) Output ...................................................................................................

Sample N a t u r a l H y b r l d T o t a l Maize Output/ Scheme S i z e Region Hman B u l l o c k T r a c t o r Manure F e r t i l i z e r P e s t i c i d e Seed I n p u t s Kg. GJ I n p u t ................................................................................................... b y u y u 10 I I B / I I I .70 0.28 0.69 - 5.75 - 0.38 7.8 3,000 44.6 5.72 Mayo 8 I I B - I V .70 1.41 0.16 0.31 4.76 - 0.51 7.9 2,250 33.4 4.23 Tugwl 9 I I I / I V .70 1.65 - 0.47 2.67 0.25 0.54 6.3 1,500 22.3 3.54 K o t a n a i 9 I I I / I V .70 1.45 - 0.53 1.90 0.60 0.57 5.8 1 ,50022 .3 3.84 Mukosi 7 I V .70 0.96 - 0.24 1.02 - 0.46 3.4 1,000 14.9 4.38

Given o u r a s sumpt ions on y i e l d l e v e l s , t h e h i g h e s t e n e r g e t i c e f f i c i e n c y ( 5 . 7 2 ) i s i n a r e g i o n o f h i g h e r p o t e n t i a l (Hoyuyu) . However, u n l i k e i n t h e communal a r ea s , t h e r e i s no r a p i d r e d u c t i o n i n r a t e s o f e f f i c i e n c y i n marginal a r ea s . This i s p a r t i a l l y due t o t h e s m a l l range of environmental extremes between r e s e t t l e m e n t schemes, un l i ke i n communal a r ea s . The f i g u r e s sugges t t h a t , on r e s e t t l e m e n t schemes, farmers i n n a t u r a l reg ions 111 and I V p r a c t i s e l e s s energy i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e than t hose i n communal a r ea s .

SUMMARY

T h i s a n a l y s i s o f t h e e n e r g e t i c s o f agriculture p r o d u c t i o n i n Zimbabwe c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e s t h e r o l e o f e n e r g y i n a h i g h l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r . The h l g h y i e l d s o f t h e LSCF s u b s e c t o r , e v e n when compared w i t h U.S. f a rming , i s e v i d e n t , a s i s t h e l a r g e e n e r g y s u b s i d y needed t o p roduce such h i g h y i e l d s .

T h i s a n a l y s i s o f s t a t e farm e n e r g e t i c s i s l i m i t e d t o two l o w v e l d f a r m s . However , e v e n i n s u c h a s m a l l s a m p l e , s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h LSCF p r o d u c t i o n a r e e v i d e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e u n u s u a l p a t t e r n o f h i g h l a b o r and e n e r g y intensity. Comparison o f t h e two h i g h i n p u t s u b s e c t o r s h a s l i m i t a t i o n s , p r i n c i p a l l y b e c a u s e o f t h e l i m i t e d s t a t e farm p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e Mashonaland r e g i o n .

The a n a l y s i s o f communal a n d Model A r e s e t t l e m e n t f a rming q u i t e c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t s m a l l - s c a l e farming i n Zimbabwe i s i n a s t a t e o f t r a n s i t i o n . Use o f fertilizer and h y b r i d s e e d i s now w i d e s p r e a d , a n d p e s t i c i d e u s e i s r a p i d l y o n t h e i n c r e a s e .

I n l o w e r p o t e n t i a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l z o n e s , e n e r g e t i c a n a l y s i s s u g g e s t s t h a t r e t u r n s t o l n p u t s a r e much lower ( and p r o b a b l y q u i t e v a r i a b l e o n a n a n n u a l b a s i s ) . I n n a t u r a l r e g i o n I1 and t h e b e t t e r p a r t s o f 111, t h e u s e o f h y b r l d s e e d a n d f e r t i l i z e r h a s g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d y i e l d s . The h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y o f conununal a r e a f a r m e r s under more f a v o r a b l e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s was r e c e n t l y h i g h l i g h t e d b y t h e D i r e c t o r o f A g r i t e x , M r . J . Hayword. I n a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h t h e " F i n a n c i a l G a z e t t e " (iday 18 , 1984) h e d e s c r i b e d communal a r e a y i e l d s o f c o t t o n a n d m a i z e i n n a t u r a l r e g i o n I1 a s " r e m a r k a b l e " a n d a " b r e a k t h r o u g h " a n d s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e y w e r e c o m p a r a b l e w i t h y i e l d l e v e l s o f a d j a c e n t l a r g e - s c a l e f a r m e r s . Our f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e t h a t i n ene rgy t e r m s t h e y a r e a l s o t w i c e a s e f f i c i e n t .

Manure u s e i s h i g h l y v a r i e d and a c c e s s t o d r a u g h t power i s c o n s t r a i n e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n communal a r e a s . So w h i l e , on t h e one hand, t h e s m a l l - s c a l e , A f r i c a n farm i s moving r a p i d l y t o w a r d s y i e l d e n h a n c i n g c o m m e r c i a l e n e r g y i n p u t s , t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o more l a b o r s a v i n g i n p u t s ( e . g . , a n i m a l a n d m e c h a n i c a l d r a u g h t power) h a s been l i ~ n l t e d . Fu r the rmore , i n some r e g i o n s a backward t r a n s i t i o n i s o c c u r r i n g , a s d rough t - r e l a t e d c a t t l e d e a t h s h a v e f o r c e d p e o p l e t o p l o u g h some o f t h e i r l a n d by hand.

T h e s e t r e n d s , we b e l i e v e , a r e c o n t r a d l c t o r y . D e s p r t e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f Zimbabwe a s a l a b o r s u r p l u s economy, t h e r e i s s u b s t a n t i a l e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t r n g t h a t , a t t h e h o u s e h o l d l e v e l , l a b o r s h o r t a g e i s a k e y constraint o n d e v e l o p m e n t ( d e Jong , 1983) T h i s i s particularly t r u e d u r l n g p e r i o d s o f peak l a b o r use : p l a n t i n g , weeding and h a r v e s t r n g . T h e r e i s a l s o e v l d e n c e t h a t money e a r n e d o f f t i l e f a r m 1 s a m a j o r s o u r c e o f i ncome f o r i n v e s t m e n t o n t h e f a r m . I n t h i s l a b o r m i g r a n t economy, t h e d r a u g h t power s h o r t a g e p u t s additional s t r a i n s on women's l a b o r .

T h e r e i s i n c r e a s i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t a g r i c u l t u r a l deve lopmen t i n t h e communal a r e a s i s h i g h l y uneven. For t h o s e f o r t u n a t e enough t o b e l o c a t e d i n t h e more f a v o r a b l e n a t u r a l r e g i o n s , a t r a n s i t i o n t o h i g h e r i n p u t and h i g h e r o u t p u t f a rming i s t a k i n g p l a c e . But f o r t h e m a j o r i t y of communal a r e a h o u s e h o l d s , s i t u a t e d , a s t h e y a r e , i n a r e a s t h a t a r e normal ly dry , t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c r i s i s has deepened. With sources of off- farm income drying up, t h e prospec ts f o r development i n t he se reg ions i s p r e s e n t l y b l eak .

7. KEY ISSUES FOR AGRICULTURAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENT

I n t h i s s e c t i o n we move from a g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w of energy use i n Zimbabwe's a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r t o a d i s cus s ion of what we c o n s i d e r t o be t h e major i s s u e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y regarding t h e Government's o b j e c t i v e o f g rowth- wi th- equ i ty . Th ree key i s s u e s emerge a s b e i n g of paramount impor t ance i n t h i s r e spec t . These a r e :

( l ) Reset t lement and a g r i c u l t u r a l land-use;

( 2 ) Kraal compost and f e r t i l i z e r use i n semi-arid a r ea s ;

( 3 ) The c r i s i s of draught power.

RESETTLEMENT AND AGRICULTURAL LAND-USE

Because of t h e l a r g e d i s p a r i t y i n land p o t e n t i a l i n t h e country, t h e geographica l l o c a t i o n of t h e major a g r i c u l t u r a l subsec tors i s c r i t i c a l t o t h e e v a l u a t i o n of energy i n p u t s and a g r i c u l t u r a l ou tputs . Curren t1 y, t h e n a t i o n ' s prime a r a b l e l a n d i s , f o r t h e most p a r t , monopol ized by l a r g e - s c a l e commercial farms. As we have shown, t h e subsec tor ach i eves very h igh y i e l d s a t t h e expense of a very h igh energy c o s t . There i s a tendency towards increased fore ign exchange-using i npu t s on l a r g e- s c a l e commercial farms. The unusual p a t t e r n 2f h i g h l a b o r and e n e r g y- i n t e n s i v e fa rming a p p e a r s t o be changing a s t h e s u b s e c t o r r e p l a c e s l a b o r w i t h c a p i t a l . The i n c r e a s e d c a p i t a l i n t e n s i t y of farm p r o d u c t i o n w i l l r e d u c e e f f i c i e n c y l e v e l s f u r t h e r .

I n r e g i o n s o f h i g h e r p o t e n t i a l , c o m m u n a l a n d r e s e t t l e m e n t scheme f a r m e r s a p p e a r t o be making a p a r t i a l t r a n s i t i o n t o more e n e r g y- i n t e n s i v e f a rming . O u t p u t s h a v e r e s p o n d e d r e m a r k a b l y , l e a d i n g t o much more e f f i c i e n t c o n v e r s i o n s of ene rgy . Energy a n a l y s i s p o i n t s f a v o r a b l y i n the d i r e c t i o n of r e s e t t l e m e n t f o r t h e n a t u r a l reg ion I 1 and 111 a reas .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p between ene rgy and l a n d- u s e i n t h e Xashonaland reg ion i s h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e ques t ion of cropping i n t e n s i t y and a r a b l e l a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y . Work done a t t h e Zimbabwe I n s t i t u t e of Development S t u d i e s (ZIDS), s u g g e s t s t h a t l e s s t h a n one t h i r d of t h e p o t e n t i a l l y a r a b l e l a n d of

t h e LSCF M a s h o n a l a n d r e g i o n was c r o p p e d o r f a l l o w e d i n t h e 1981- 1982 a g r i c u l t u r a l s e a s o n ( s e e W e i n e r e t a l , 1 9 8 5 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , r e g i o n a l s t o c k i n g r a t e s were o v e r 5 h a / l i v e s t o c k u n i t . I n t e r e s t i n g 1 y , Mode l A s c h e m e s e x h i b i t e d s i m i l a r i n t e n s i t i e s o f l a n d- u s e w h i l e Model B schemes u t i l i z e d l e s s o f t h e p o t e n t i a l l y a r a b l e l a n d f o r c r o p p i n g . M e a n w h i l e , communal a r e a s w e r e shown t o h a v e t h e h i g h e s t p e r c e n t a g e o f a r a b l e l a n d unde r c r o p s o r f a l l o w (Whi t low, 1 9 7 9 ) .

Due t o i n c r e a s e d c a p i t a l i z a t i o n o f LSCF p r o d u c t i o n , more e f f e c t i v e u s e o f t h e n a t i o n ' s p r i m e a r a b l e l a n d , g i v e n e x i s t i n g a l l o c a t i o n s o f n a t u r a l r e g i o n I I A l a n d , w o u l d r e q u i r e a t r a n s i t i o n t o more c a p i t a l - a n d e n e r g y - i n t e n s i v e f a r m i n g . T h i s w o u l d r e q u i r e a g r e a t e r f l o w o f f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e i n t o t h e s u b s e c t o r w h i l e d e m a n d i n g l e s s l a b o r . P l a n n e r s m u s t s e r i o u s l y e v a l u a t e t h e c o s t s a n d b e n e f i t s o f t h i s s c e n a r i o f o r Zimbabwe.

A l t h o u g h t h e r e h a s b e e n l i m i t e d Model A r e s e t t l e m e n t i n n a t u r a l r e g i o n I1 ( p a r t i c u l a r l y I I A ) , t h e s t u d y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e i n t e n s i v e r e s e t t l e m e n t model i s r e a l l y e x t e n s i v e . T h i s i s p r i r n a r i l y due t o t h e g e n e r o u s a l l o c a t i o n s o f l a n d g i v e n t o d r a u g h t a n i m a l s i n t h i s r e g i o n ( 5 h e c t a r e s p e r l i v e s t o c k u n i t ) . So w h i l e t h e u s e o f f e r t i l i z e r s a n d h y b r i d s e e d h a s h e l p e d t h e s m a l l s e t t l e r f a r m e r a c h i e v e h i g h y i e l d s , r e l i a n c e o n d r a u g h t power h a s s u b s t a n t i a l l y r e d u c e d t h e amoun t o f p o t e n t i a l l y a r a b l e l a n d i n a c r o p r o t a t i o n , which u l t i m a t e l y l i m i t s t h e number o f h o u s e h o l d s which can b e r e s e t t l e d .

A l t h o u g h m o s t m o d e l B f a r m s a r e t r a c t o r i z e d , t h e ZIDS s t u d y i n d i c a t e s t h a t g r o s s u n d e r u t i l i z a t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l l y a r a b l e l a n d e x i s t s h e r e t o o . Mode l B f a r m s , i n a n a t t e m p t t o m a i n t a i n fo rmer LSCF p r o d u c t i o n , h a v e o f t e n b e e n g i v e n w h o l e LSCF f a r m s t e a d s . T h i s h a s l e d t o g r e a t e r u n d e r u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n ' s p r ime a r a b l e l a n d .

T h e r e h a s b e e n l i m i t e d s t a t e - f a r m d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e Mashonaland r e g i o n . A l though s t a t e f a rms a p p e a r t o h a v e t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a m o r e i n t e n s i v e u s e o f t h e c o u n t r y ' s p r i m e f a r m i n g r e g i o n , s i m i l a r c o n s t r a i n t s on c a p i t a l and m a n a g e r i a l a v a i l a b i l i t y a p p l y h e r e a s i n t h e LSCF a n d m o d e l B s u b s e c t o r s . L a n d- u s e p l a n n i n g i n M a s h o n a l a n d m u s t f i n d a midd leg round be tween t h e h i g h c a p i t a l - and e n e r g y - i n t e n s i t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h LSCF a r e a s , t h e o v e r u t i l i z a t i o n o f l a n d i n many communal a r e a s a n d t h e u n d e r u t i l i z a t i o n o f l a n d o n r e s e t t l e m e n t schemes.

I n n a t u r a l r e g i o n s 1 1 1 , I V , a n d V d r a u g h t p o w e r a l l o c a t i o n s t o s e t t l e r f a r m e r s a r e more c o n s i s t e n t w i t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s where e x t e n s i v e forms o f l a n d- u s e a r e n e c e s s a r y . T h i s i s q u i t e e v i d e n t i n t h e communal a r e a s where t h e l a n d i s b e i n g farmed and g r a z e d t o o i n t e n s i v e l y .

A t p r e s e n t , t h e r e i s a c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n l a n d - u s e p o t e n t i a l and l a n d- u s e p l a n n i n g i n Zimbabwe's h i g h v e l d r e g i o n b e c a u s e much o f t h e a r e a w i t h p o t e n t i a l f o r i n t e n s i v e l a n d - u s e i s b e i n g used e x t e n s i v e l y w h e r e a s l a n d t h a t s h o u l d o n l y b e u sed e x t e n s i v e l y i s b e i n g farmed and g r a z e d i n t e n s i v e l y . E n e r g y h a s a p o t e n t i a l l y k e y r o l e t o p l a y i n h e l p i n g t o r e s o l v e t h i s p r o b l e m , b y e n h a n c i n g p e a s a n t a c c e s s t o

mechan ica l t i l l a g e i n n a t u r a l r e g i o n 11 , and t o y i e l d enhancing energy i npu t s i n a l l n a t u r a l regions.

KRAAL COIbIPOST AND FERTILIZER USE I N SEMI-ARID AREAS

High r a t e s of f e r t i l i z e r u t i l i z a t i o n a r e a l r e a d y i n e v i d e n c e i n communal a r e a s and r e s e t t l e m e n t schemes i n t h e h ighve ld reg ion , a s a r e low r a t e s of use of k r a a l manure and compost. App l i ca t i on r a t e s of f e r t i l i z e r a r e lower and k r a a l compost h i g h e r i n n a t u r a l r e g i o n s 111, I V and V . Because f e r t i l i z a t i o n ( p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h n i t r o g e n ) i s h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h y i e l d , t h e p o t e n t i a l u s e of o r g a n i c and i n o r g a n i c f e r t i l i z e r s i n Zimbabwe's d r y r e g i o n s i s q u i t e important .

A major problem a s soc i a t ed wi th f e r t i l i z e r use i n semi- a r i d a r e a s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 11-1. P repa red by t h e Department of Research and S p e c i a l i s t S e r v i c e s of t h e MOA, t h e f l g u r e p r e s e n t s r e s u l t s o f r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d o u t d u r i n g t h e 1981- 1982 c r o p s e a s o n . The e f f e c t s o f n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z e r on maize y i e l d s were a n a l y z e d i n n i n e communal a r e a s i t e s w i t h sandy s o i l s . I t was found t h a t , on a v e r a g e , t he r e was a 46 percent i nc r ea se i n y i e l d when f e r t i l i z e r was used. However, a s i nd i ca t ed i n F igure 11-1, two s i t e s i n t he Be ren j ena c l u s t e r o f C h i b i s o u t h e x p e r i e n c e d v e r y s l i g h t i n c r e a s e s whereas one s i t e a c t u a l l y c a l c u l a t e d a y i e l d d e c l i n e . T h i s was caused by poor r a i n f a l l i n C h i b i s o u t h t h a t year . I n t he remaining s i t e s where r a i n f a l l was b e t t e r , t h e p o s i t i v e response on y i e l d s i s q u i t e s t r i k i n g .

The dilemma h e r e i s t h e l e v e l of r i s k a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f e r t i l i z e r u se i n s e m i- a r i d a r e a s . With a d e q u a t e m o i s t u r e , y i e l d s r e s p o n d w e l l , b u t f e r t i l i z e r c a n i n c r e a s e v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o drought. Data presen ted he re i n d i c a t e s t h a t farmers i n n a t u r a l reg ions I11 and IV f e e l t he r i s k i s worth t a k i n g whereas f a r m e r s i n r e g i o n V a r e r e l u c t a n t t o use f e r t i l i z e r ( o r c a n ' t a f f o r d t o ) .

Research on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between f e r t i l i z e r , k r a a l compost and a n t h i l l use show s i m i l a r r e s u l t s . For example, Theisan (1979) concludes t h a t " i t ha s been c o n s i s t e n t l y shown t h a t i n a d r y s e a s o n , a s a f t e r a d r y s p e l l , maize y i e l d s w i t h low r a t e s of ammonium n i t r a t e a p p l i e d w i t h low r a t e s of a n t h i l l o r compost w i l l i n v a r i a b l y ou t- y i e ld maize p l o t s with h i g h r a t e s of compound f e r t i l i z e r and a n t h i l l o r k r a a l compost." These c o n c l u s i o n s a r e p a r t i a l l y ba sed on f i e l d t r i a l s i n t h e Chiwundura communal a r e a i n t h e 197611977 d r o u g h t y e a r . I n t h a t y e a r , a p p l i c a t i o n s of 200 kg. of ammonium n i t r a t e ( A N ) and 8,000 kg. of an a n t h i l l compost mixture y i e lded 3,124 kg./ha. Adding an a d d i t i o n a l 2,500 kg. of compound D and doubling t h e a n t h i l l compost r a t e t o 16,000 kg . , /ha . o n l y i n c r e a s e d y i e l d s t o 3,429 kq . /ha . llhen an a d d i t i o n a l 8 ,000 kg. of a n t h i l l k r a a l compost was a p p l i e d , w i l t i n g occurred and y i e l d s dec l i ned t o 2,819 kg./ha.

Grain Y ie ld t / h a

Not fe r t i l i zed

----------------------. F e r t i l i z e d

FIGURE 11-1 EFFECT OF FERTILIZER ON MAIZE YIELDS AT VARIOUS C O M M ~ ~ SITES, 1 9 8 1 q 9 8 2 0 S E A S 0 ~

Source: Department of Research and Specialist Services (1983)

In research geared towards communal a r ea farming i n t he poor g r a n i t e s o i l s o f n a t u r a l r e g i o n 11 , Rode1 e t a 1 (1980) found dramatic e f f e c t s of k r a a l compost and f e r t i l i z e r use on l e v e l s of p r o d u c t i v i t y . Maize y i e l d s wi th no k r a a l compost i n c r e a s e d from 490 kg . /ha . , t o 972 kg . /ha . when 4.5 t o n s was a p p l i e d and t o 1 ,593 kg . /ha . w i t h 9.0 t o n s a p p l i c a t i o n . An a p p l i c a t i o n of 180 kg. n i t r ogen y i e lded 2,808 kg./ha., and a s much a s 4,896 kg . /ha . was y i e l d e d w i t h an a d d i t i o n a l 9 t o n s of k r a a l manure.

The imp l i ca t i ons of t h i s research f o r t h e development of communal a r ea a g r i c u l t u r e a r e complex. There i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t t h e use of f e r t i l i z e r and k r a a l compost c an h a v e a d r a m a t i c impact on y i e l d s . Be fo re t h e r a p i d i n c r e a s e of f e r t i l i z e r u se i n t h e LSCF s u b s e c t o r i n t h e 1 9 6 0 1 s , maize y i e l d s a v e r a g e d o n l y 2,000-2,500 kg . /ha . (Mui r , 1981 ) . I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 5 0 1 s , LSCF maize y i e l d s a v e r a g e d o n l y 1 ,421 kg . /ha . ( T a t t e r s f i e l d , 1 9 8 2 ) , whereas y i e l d s on g r a n i t e s a n d v e l d were o n l y 700 kg . /ha . i n t h e e a r l y 1960s ( G r a n t , 1976). A s i n t h e LSCF subsec tor , t h e breakthrough i n t o h igh o u t p u t fa rming i n t h e communal a r e a s l o c a t e d i n n a t u r a l r e g i o n 11, can be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e d i f f u s i o n of f e r t i l i z e r s w i t h h y b r i d s e e d , a l o n g w i t h i n s t i t u t i o n a l and f i n a n c i a l support . Technical packages developed h i s t o r i c a l l y f o r LSCF h i g h v e l d u se a r e b e i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e peasant ry . However, t he se i npu t s a r e expensive, and can have l i t t l e o r even n e g a t i v e impac t s on y i e l d s when r a i n f a l l i s low. Furthermore, t h e environmental impacts on t h e community a r e u n c e r t a i n , and can a l s o be p r o b l e m a t i c . Because t h e m a j o r i t y of communal and r e s e t t l e m e n t a r e a s a r e l o c a t e d i n s e m i - a r i d r e g i o n s t h e l e v e l o f r i s k a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f e r t i l i z e r use i s high.

With regard t o k r a a l manure, our research sugges ts t h a t f e r t i l i z e r i s r e p l a c i n g manure i n many a r e a s , w i t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n o c c u r r i n g a t t h e r a p i d e s t pace on t h e h i g h v e l d . A 1 1 5 of t h e surveyed r e s e t t l e m e n t schemes app l i ed manure t o no more than 10 percent of t h e t o t a l cropped a rea . However, i n t h e communal a r e a s l oca t ed i n n a t u r a l reg ions 111 and I V , 30-55 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l c ropped a r e a was under manure. O t h e r s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t c u r r e n t r a t e s o f manure a p p l i c a t i o n a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t t o h a v e a d r a m a t i c impact on y i e l d s . Fu r the rmore , r a t e s a r e d e c l i n i n g a s a c c e s s t o l i v e s t o c k i n gene ra l d e c l i n e s .

DRAUGHT POWER CRISIS

The c r i s i s o f d r a u g h t power i n t h e communal a r e a s i s one o f t h e more w e l l documen ted a s p e c t s o f communal a r e a a g r i c u l t u r e . Analys i s of t he se s t u d i e s sugges ts t h a t 27-52 p e r c e n t o f h o u s e h o l d s do n o t h a v e a c c e s s t o t h i s c r i t i c a l ene rgy s o u r c e (Whi t sun Founda t ion , 1983 ) . Fu r the rmore , f o r households wi th draught animals , t h e a b i l i t y of t h e animals t o work i s l o w e s t a t t h e p o i n t where t h e i r work i s needed t h e most . For h o u s e h o l d s h i r i n g and bor rowing d r a u g h t power,

ploughing is often done too late, further reducing yields. Although the problem is universally recognized, workable

solutions often seem elusive. Some optimistic words and programs have emerged. For example, Sanford (1982), in a controversial report, concluded that there is no evidence of long-term environmental degradation due to overgrazing in the communal areas. He went against conventional wisdom by suggesting that there are too few, not too many livestock. Arguing that livestock are the key to small farm development, he proposed a system of intensification of livestock production through supplementary feeding combined with better management practices. The importance of Sandford's study is that the problem has been redefined from simply a Malthusian dilemma of population outgrowing the resource base, towards a realization that the capital availability and the organization of the production system are also critical. In other words, carrying capacity is a relative concept. Critics of more intense livestock production argue that peasants do not have the available biomass (for direct feed) or cash (to buy feed). While this is indeed the case for many households we question why some of the critics of developing commercial feed for the communal areas do not have the same objections to the rapid diffusion of fertilizers, pesticides and hybrid seed.

Recently, the people of Mwenezi (Victoria Province) have spontaneously developed their own livestock development program. In short, all members of the community have been allocated an area of grazing land with a corresponding number of livestock units. Households with large herds are obliged to sell off some of their livestock or buy more land if they want access to more land. Presumably, they will buy from households with little (or no) livestock, giving this poorer family an opportunity to purchase livestock. The system is devised to reduce community pressure on a common resource, while helping to create greater opportunities for livestock production for the poorer households. It is too early to evaluate whether the program will be successful, but it is a very important experiment that could provide guidelines for a Government livestock policy, particularly in the semi-arid areas. One important lesson of the Mwenezi experiment is the decision by the local population that changing the way that production is organized is the key to overcoming the interrelated crises of environment and livestock production.

A third possible means of helping to alleviate the draught power crisis is a transition to mechanical tillage. Because individual households cannot afford tractors, cooperative production is one mechanism to help farmers make this transition. For this reason, model B farms are being allocated better land where more contiguous tracts of arable land exist. Presently, most cooperative farms have only one tractor and a few have none. Furthermore, the combination of very large allocations of land (an average of 1,740 ha./farm) and a shortage of managerial expertise, has led to an underutilization of prime arable land. Model B farms have

Mechanical Tillage Head Office Central Mechanical Equipment Department SOUTH

A F R I C A c Base for Major, Repairs 1:1,000.000

Sub Base for Servicing, Maintenance and Fuel a 50 LOO 150 xi low^==

Tsetse .Belt: Free or Subsldlzed Servlce

Viable Cropping Zone: Economlc Service

f--? Water Conservation Zone and Reclamati0n:~c~nomic and Free Subsidlzed Servlce

( Water Conservation and Food Deficit z0ne:Free or Subsidlzed Service

source: ninlstq of I a n d s , Resettlement and Rural Development, 1983

MAP 11-4 TILLAGE ZONE MAP OF MECHANICAL TILLAGE PROGRAM

been d e s i g n e d t o r e p l a c e l a r g e - s c a l e commercial fa rms . C l e a r l y , i t i s u n r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t t h e s e cooperative p r o d u c e r s t o c r o p t h e 400-500 h e c t a r e s of p o t e n t i a l l y n e t a r a b l e a r e a a v a i l a b l e t o them. L a r g e - s c a l e f a rmer s who a v e r a g e 6.5 t r a c t o r s p e r farm, i n t h e Mashonaland r e g i o n , c rop l e s s than h a l f of t h i s (on ave rage ) .

The f a c t t h a t Model B farms averaged 61 cropped ha./farm ( 7 3 ha . / f a rm i n Mashonaland) i n t h e 1983-1984 c r o p s e a s o n ( M O A e s t i m a t e ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s method of o r g a n i z i n g p r o d u c t i o n does h a v e t h e p o t e n t i a l t o b r i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r t r a c t s o f l a n d under p r o d u c t i o n t h a n i n i n d i v i d u a l fa rms . Fu r the rmore , t h e c o o p e r a t i v e model c an p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n p r o v i d i n g p e a s a n t - a c c e s s t o mechan ica l t i l l a g e and o t h e r forms of commerc ia l ene rgy w h i l e p u t t i n g more of t h e n a t i o n ' s prime a r a b l e land i n t o product ion. This l a t t e r goa l w i l l r e q u i r e t h a t land-use planning ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i n n a t u r a l r e g i o n 11) be more i n t u n e w i t h t h e c a p i t a l and m a n a g e r i a l a v a i l a b i l i t y of p a r t i c u l a r forms of p r o d u c t i o n o rgan i za t i on .

I n t h e c a s e of i n d i v i d u a l smal l - s c a l e p r o d u c t i o n , any t r a n s i t i o n t o mechanical t i l l a g e w i l l have t o come through p r i v a t e h i r e , government h i r e o r s e r v i c e . I n t h e 1983-1984 crop year , t h e Government's mechanical t i l l a g e u n i t ploughed 6 , 0 9 4 h a . on c o n t r a c t and 5 , 1 3 6 h a . a s a f r e e s e r v i c e . Ninety- four percent of t h e 11,230 t o t a l h e c t a r e s ploughed by t h e mechan ica l t i l l a g e u n i t t h a t y e a r were i n r e s e t t l e m e n t schemes. A major dilemma i n deve loping mechanical t i l l a g e f o r s m a l l - s c a l e i n d i v i d u a l producers i s g r a p h i c a l l y d i sp layed i n Map 11-4. The map i n d i c a t e s t h a t economic s e r v i c e i s p o s s i b l e i n n a t u r a l reg ions I and 11, t h e b e t t e r p a r t of I11 and a s m a l l a r e a of I V around Gokwe. To t h e s o u t h , i n Masvingo and t h e Sab i- va l l ey reg ion , economic and subs id ized s e r v i c e i s p o s s i b l e . For much o f t h e m i d l a n d s and a l l o f N a t a b e l e l a n d , no economic s e r v i c e i s p o s s i b l e a t a l l . The M i n i s t r y of Lands, R e s e t t l e m e n t and Rura l Development e s t i m a t e s t h a t y i e l d l e v e l s o f 3 ,000 kg. /ha. f o r maize a r e necessary t o j u s t i f y t h e ploughing charge t o t h e farmer ( $ 6 2 p e r ha . i n 1983-1984) f o r a h e c t a r e of maize. Again, t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r h a r n e s s i n g new e n e r g y s o u r c e s i n a g r i c u l t u r e a r e i n t h e a r e a s o f h i g h e r potential. An e c o n o m i c a l l y v i a b l e mechan ica l t i l l a g e u n i t servicing i n d i v i d u a l producers appears u n v i a b l e i n t he reg ions where t h e ma jo r i t y of t h e cornmunal a r ea popula t ion l i v e .

8 . SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The LSCF s u b s e c t o r i s t h e d o m i n a n t consumer o f commercial ene rgy and fue lwood. The skewed f l o w of ene rgy i n t o t h i s subsec tor i s i n d i c a t i v e of t he h i s t o r i c a l process of uneven deve lopmen t t h a t h a s o c c u r r e d i n Zimbabwean a g r i c u l t u r e . S i n c e i n d e p e n d e n c e , t h e r e h a s b e e n some r e d i r e c t i o n of e n e r g y f l o w s t owards communal a r e a s and r e s e t t l e m e n t schemes, a 1 though p r i m a r i l y i n t h e form of

fertilizer, agrochemicals and hybrid seed. Furthermore, this change has occurred primarily in the more favorable natural regions. With the exception of producer cooperatives and tractor hiring, there has been limited diffusion of agricultural machinery and liquid fuels into peasant production.

The post-independence pattern of energy-use suggests that, although differentiation between subsectors may be diminishing somewhat, there is heightened differentiation within the communal areas. This process threatens the Government's strategy of growth-with-equity. The following observations and opinions are made regarding post- independence land and energy-use patterns.

At present, the nation's prime arable land in Mashonaland is being underutilized. Given existing farm sizes in the LSCF subsector (which are growing), fuller utilization of the land will require an intensification of energy and capital utilization, at the expense of labor. This process has already begun to happen. In Mashonaland, Model B farms also underutilize land because they have been allocated whole LSCF farmsteads. Model A schemes in natural region I1 underutilize land because of a generous allocation for draught power.

A comparison of state farm and LSCF production suggests that, while their level of capital and energy intensity are similar, the state farm sector utilizes more labor and potentially arable land. There are no significant differences in levels of productivity and energetic efficiency.

Given the right environmental, infrastructural and economic conditions, Zimbabwe's small-holders can achieve levels of productivity comparable to the LSCF and state subsectors, utilizing substantially less energy inputs.

There must be a re-evaluation of land-use planning in the LSCF area of Mashonaland in order to maximize the use of the country's best land. Model B producer cooperatives are we1 l-suited to the higher rainfall areas; however, allocations of land must be smaller and Government support greater. The schemes need better access to credit for the purchase of machinery and more assistance from Agritex on issues of management and agronomy. In natural region 11, Model A schemes must be allocated less land for grazing and must increase the area cropped. Cooperative livestock and tractor schemes, and the mechanical tillage unit offer potential here. Where large tracts of arable land are available, the state farm model appears to be attractive.

More research on the viability of fertilizer use in semi-arid regions (natural regions 111 and I V primarily) needs to be done. Also, the feasibility of diffusing crop packages of hybrid seed, fertilizer and agrochemicals in these areas should be evaluated.

Research on the environmental impacts of the transition to high-input farming is necessary.

Models for livestock development in natural regions IV

and V need to be tested and evaluated, In this context, planners can learn a lot from spontaneous projects such as the Mwenezi scheme.

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111. METHODOLOGY FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF LAND-USE IN ZIMBABWE

D . K . Munasirei

1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of t h i s r epo r t i s t o o u t l i n e t h e methodology b e h i n d t h e deve lopmen t o f t h e l a n d- u s e d a t a b a s e f o r t h e Zimbabwe Energy Accounting P ro j ec t . There a r e two s t ages t o cons ider : t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n of a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of e c o l o g i c a l zones ( i . e . n a t u r a l reg ions) and how these a r e d i s t r i b u t e d by a d m i n i s t r a t i v e province ; and t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n of land-use c a t e g o r i e s wi th in t h e n a t u r a l reg ions .

The d a t a f o r t h e 1982 b a s e y e a r were c o l l e c t e d from s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s . S o u r c e s i n c l u d e d p u b l i c a t i o n s from government departments ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e C e n t r a l S t a t i s t i c a l O f f i c e and A g r i t e x ) , f o u n d a t i o n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s , and a r t i c l e s from j o u r n a l s . O f f i c i a l s o u r c e s were n o t a lways a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s s tudy and some were no t i n a form s u i t a b l e f o r t h e s t u d y . The s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n wh ich w e r e v a l u a b l e regarding land-use d id no t , unfor tuna te1 y, consider communal l and- use . T h e r e f o r e , e s t i m a t e s of c u l t i v a t i o n o f communal a r e a s a r e sub j ec t t o l a r g e e r r o r s (iThitlow, 1979b) f o r d i f f e r e n t land-use ca t ego r i e s a t t he p r o v i n c i a l l e v e l .

The 1982 P o p u l a t i o n Census (CSO, 1984) g i v e s a more comprehensive bu t incomplete coverage of communal land a reas . The s o u r c e s which s a t i s f y t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t t h e r e be complete a r ea coverage of t he a r ea , a r e o f f i c i a l r e p o r t s f o r non- ag r i cu l t u r a l land- use, and topographic maps which provide a w e a l t h of d a t a on l a n d- u s e a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l . A g r a t i c u l e was used t o measure land a r e a s by n a t u r a l reg ion , and t h e s e measurements were compared w i t h o f f i c i a l c o n t r o l t o t a l s (CSO, 1984), and ad jus ted where necessary.

2. LAND AREAS AND ECOLOGICAL ZONES

The o r i g i n a l a g r o - e c o l o g i c a l s u r v e y o f Zlmbabwe c l a s s i f i e s t h e count ry i n t o f i v e n a t u r a l reg ions (Vincent and Thomas, 1960) These n a t u r a l r e g i o n s ( N R ) i n d i c a t e t h e p o t e n t i a l u s e o f l a n d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e amount and v a r i a b i l i t y of r a i n f a l l , s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and r e l i e f . However, a cons ide rab l e amount of a d d i t i o n a l information has made m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o t h e sys tem i n e v i t a b l e ( I v y , no d a t e ) . The modified n a t u r a l reg ions and a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of each a r e h i g h l i g h t e d i n T a b l e 111-1. The n a t u r a l r e g i o n s were r e m o d i f i e d f o r ZEAP by combining r e g i o n s I I b and I11 i n t o j u s t r e g i o n 111.

Before d i v i d i n g t h e land a r e a by n a t u r a l region, t he c o n t r o l t o t a l s were o b t a i n e d f o r each p r o v i n c e . On a n a t i o n a l b a s i s , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of land by n a t u r a l region i s 1 .6 p e r c e n t i n r e g i o n I , 11 p e r c e n t i n r e g i o n 11 , 2 5 . 4

p e r c e n t i n r e g i o n I11 and 62 p e r c e n t i n r e g i o n I V ( T a b l e I I I - 2 ) . The n a t i o n a l t o t a l and t h e propor t ions by n a t u r a l reg ion a r e q u i t e comparab l e w i t h d a t a from o t h e r s o u r c e s . The d i v e r s i t y i n t h e e c o l o g i c a l cha rac t e r of Zimbabwe i s g r e a t e s t i n Manicaland province because of a wide range of a l t i t u d e , r a i n f a l l and s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The d i s t r i b u t i o n of land by n a t u r a l reg ion i n t h e province i s 1 7 pe r cen t i n reg ion I , 5.3 p e r c e n t i n r e g i o n 11 , 42.2 p e r c e n t i n r e g i o n 111 , and 35.3 p e r c e n t i n r e g i o n I V . Whi le t h e l a n d a r e a s of o t h e r p r o v i n c e s f a l l i n a t l e a s t two e c o l o g i c a l z o n e s , Matebeleland South i s e c o l o g i c a l l y homogeneous (Table 111-2).

The f u l l l i s t of t h e land-use c a t e g o r i e s used i n t h i s r e p o r t a r e :

(1) Commerc i a l l a n d : c o m p r i s i n g a l l p r i v a t e l y owned commercial l a n d r e f e r r e d t o a s Large Scale-Commercial Farms (LSCF) , Smal l - S c a l e Commercial Farms (SSCF) , and some s m a l l a r e a s of s t a t e land ( S t a t e Farms);

( 2 ) Communal land ( former ly , T r i b a l T rus t Land) : comprising 171 d e f i n e d a r e a s of s t a t e l a n d which a r e o c c u p i e d on a t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n of l and tenure ;

( 3 ) Reset t lement land: comprising land bought o r acquired by t h e s t a t e from commercial f a r m e r s , and used e i t h e r f o r i n t e n s i v e v i l l a g e s e t t l e m e n t s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l a r a b l e l o c a t i o n s and communal graz ing a r e a s ( i . e . Model A ) , o r f o r i n t e n s i v e s e t t l e m e n t w i t h communal l i v i n g and co- o p e r a t i v e farming (Model B ) ;

( 4 ) Parks and w i l d l i f e land: comprising a r e a s of s t a t e land t h a t a r e c u r r e n t l y used a s n a t i o n a l o r r e c r e a t i o n a l parks , s a f a r i a r e a s , b o t a n i c a l gardens and r e s e r v e s ;

( 5 ) Fo re s t land: comprising a r e a s of s t a t e land t h a t have been r e se rved f o r f o r e s t s , and n a t u r a l r e s e r v e s f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t r e e s and f o r e s t produce;

( 6 ) Urban- buil t environment: comprising urban a r e a s l oca t ed m a i n l y i n LSCF a r e a s w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of 10 000 p e o p l e o r more, and

( 7 ) R u r a l - b u i l t env i ronmen t : compr i s ing towns , m i s s i o n and mining c e n t e r s with l e s s than 10 000 people.

TABLE 111-1 RELATED FARMING SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................... NR I Spec ia l ized and Diversified Farming Region: R a i n f a l l i n t h i s reg ion i s h lgh (more than 1 000

mm pe r annum i n areas l y i n g b e l o w 1 700 m a l t i t u d e , and more t h a n 900 mm pe r annum a t g r e a t e r a l t i t u d e s ) , no rma l l y w i t h some p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n a l l months of the year. Temperatures are no rma l l y comparat ive ly l ow and the r a i n f a l l 1s consequently h i g h l y e f fec t ive , enab l ing af forestat ion, f r u l t

and I n t e n s i v e l i v e s t o c k product ion t o be pract iced. I n f ros t- f ree areas, p l a n t a t i o n crops such as tea, co f f ee and macadamia nu t s can be grown. Where t he mean annual r a i n f a l l i s below 1,400 mm,

supplementary i r r i g a t i o n of these p l a n t a t i o n crops 1s requ l red for top y i e l ds .

NR I I a I n t ens i ve Farmlng Region: R a i n f a l l i s conf ined t o t he Simmer and i s moderately h igh (750-

1,000 mm). Two sub-regions have been defined. Sub-region I I a rece ives an average of a t l e a s t 18 r a l n y pentads per season and no rma l l y enjoys r e l i a b l e conditions, r a r e l y experiencing severe d r y

s p e l l s i n Sunmer. The reg ion i s s u l t a b l e f o r I n t e n s i v e systems o f farming baaed on crops and/or l i v e s t o c k production. ..................................................................................................... NR I I b Sub-region I I b rece ives an average of 16-18 r a i n y pentads per season and i s sub jec t e i t h e r t o

r a the r more severe d r y s p e l l s dur ing the ra i ny season, o r t o the occurrence o f r e l a t i v e l y sho r t r a i n y seasons. I n e i t h e r event, crop y l e l d s i n c e r t a l n years w i l l be a f fec ted, b u t no t s u f f i c i e n t l y

f requent ly t o change the o v e r a l l u t i l i z a t i o n of I n t e n s i v e systems o f farming.

NR 111 Seml-Intensive Farming Region: R a i n f a l l i n t h i s reg ion i s moderate I n t o t a l amount (650-800

mm), b u t , because much o f ~t i s accounted f o r b y i n f r e q u e n t heavy f a l l s , and t empe ra tu res a r e g e n e r a l l y hlgh, i t s e f fec t iveness i s reduced. This reg ion w i l l r ece i ve an average of 14-16 r a i n y pentads per season. The reg ion 1s a l s o sub jec t t o f a l r l y severe mld-season d r y s p e l l s and t he re fo re 1s marginal fo r malze, tobacco and co t t on productlon, o r f o r en terpr ises baaed on crop product lon

alone. The farming systems, i n conformity w i t h t he n a t u r a l conditioning factors, should there fore be based on both livestock product ion (ass is ted by the product lon o f fodder crops) and cash crops under good management on s o l l s o f h igh a v a i l a b l e moisture po ten t i a l .

NR I V Seml-Intensive Farmrng Region: This reg lon experiences f a l r l y l ow t o t a l r a i n f a l l (450-650 mm) and i s sub jec t t o pe r i od i c seasonal droughts and severe d r y s p e l l s dur ing the r a i n y season. The

r a l n f a l l i s too l ow and uncer ta in f o r cash cropplng except i n c e r t a i n very favorab le localities, where l i m i t e d drought- resistant crops can afford a s i de l i ne . The farming system, I n accord w i t h

n a t u r a l fac tors , should be based on l i v e s t o c k product ion, b u t i t can be ~ n t e n s i f l e d t o some ex tent by

the growlng o f drought- resistant fodder crops.

NR V Extensive Farming Reglon: The r a l n f a l l i n t h i s reg ion i s too low and e r r a t i c f o r the r e l i a b l e

product ion o f even drought-resistant fodder and g r a i n crops, and farming has t o be based on t he

u t l l l z a t i o n of the v e l d alone. The extensive form o f c a t t l e ranching o r game ranching 1s the o n l y sound f a rm lng systems f o r t h i s r e g l o n . I n c l u d e d l n t h l s r e g i o n a r e areas o f l e s s t han 900 m

altitude, where t he mean r a i n f a l l i s below 650 mm I n the Zambezl V a l l e y and below 600 mm I n t h e Sabi-Llmpopo v a l l e y s . ..................................................................................................... Note: A r a i n y pentad IS def lned as the center one o f th ree f ive- day ~ e r i o d s (pentads) which together r ece l ve more than 40 mm r a l n f a l l and two o f which rece l ve a t l e a s t 8 mm o f r a i n f a l l .

TABLE 111-2 PROVINCIAL TOTALS BY NATURAL REGION ( g o o o -

............................................................. I I I I11 IV Total

............................................................. Manicaland 611.24 190.77 1522.71 1270.23 3594.95

17 % 5.3% 42.4% 35.3% Mashonaland Central 1145.14 496.54 1079.31 2721.00

42.1% 18.2% 39.7% Mashonaland East 728.53 946.88 637.03 2312.45

31.5% 40.9% 27.6% Mashonaland \Jest 2262.55 2078.49 1777.77 6118.80

36.9% 34% 29.1% Matebeleland North 439.40 6697.50 7136.90

6.2% 93.8% Matebeleland South 6647.00 6647.00

100% Midlands 3723.26 2073.74 5797.00

64.2% 35.8% Masvingo 708.14 4051.76 4759.90

14.9% 85.1% ............................................................. National Total 611.24 4326.99 9915.42 24234.35 39088.00

1.6% 11% 25.4% 62% ............................................................. Note: Top figures represent area in ha. Bottom figures

denote percentages of provincial total.

Communal land-use data were obtained from the 1982 Population Census report (CSO, 1984). The communal areas are also well-demarcated on the official Map of Natural Regions and Farming Areas of Zimbabwe (DCE, 1984) For the LSCF and SSCF sectors, the ICA supplement for 1982 (CSO, 1982a) proved invaluable. However, these two categories were grouped into the old 5 provinces so it was necessary to rearrange the farming types to fit the currently used administrative provinces, taking note of their ecological location. The data for resettled areas were obtained from lists produced by the Ministry of Lands Resettlement, Rural Development (MLRRD) and the Agritex Planning Branch, a 1982 map prepared by the MLRRD, and the 1982 Census report. Only those resettled areas that appeared in the Census report and the map were considered for the 1982 base year. The data for state farms were obtained primarily from detailed 1982 returns of the Agricultural and Rural Development Authority (ARDA, 1984) which administers all the farms in the country.

For non-agricultural land-use categories various sources were used. The data for parks and wild life areas were obtained from a pamphlet published by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT, 1982). For forest Lands, the 1982 report of the Forestry Commission was helpful. Data of the urban and rural built-environments were obtained from measurements and calculations made on 1:5000 government maps (Surveyor General, 1982). These maps show the plans of urban

a r e a s , towns, m i s s i o n s and min ing c e n t e r s o f Zimbabwe. The c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r t h e b u i l t a r e a s of t h e b i g m u n i c i p a l i t i e s were t r e a t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y . The c a l c u l a t e d propor t ions of t he b u i l t a r ea of t h e s e urban c e n t e r s a r e a s fo l l ows : Harare and Chitungwiza (70%) , Gweru (57%) , Kwekwe (54%) , Bulawayo (50%) , Kadoma ( 4 0 % ) , Mutare ( 2 0 % ) , and R e d c l i f f ( 1 3 % ) . A f i f t y percent sample of 12 towns was s e l e c t e d on t h e c r i t e r i um t h a t a l l t h e towns s e l e c t e d were s m a l l e r than t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s . For t h e s e c e n t e r s t h e a v e r a g e p r o p o r t i o n s of b u i l t - u p a r e a u s e d i s 37 p e r c e n t . F o r t h e r e m a i n i n g 32 s m a l l t o w n s , missions and mining c e n t e r s , t h e 25 percent sample y i e lded an average b u i l t - u p propor t ion of 33 percent . The shortcoming of t h e p r o p o r t i o n s used from t h e sampled c e n t e r s i s t h a t they a r e no t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e a c t u a l b u i l t - u p a reas . I t i s important t o no te t h a t most of t h e c e n t e r s except Kariba, V i c t o r i a Fa1 l s , Chimanimani, Zimunya Town and Kamative a r e l oca t ed i n t he LSCF sec to r .

The d i s t r i b u t i o n of l a n d a t p r o v i n c i a l and n a t i o n a l l e v e l s i s shown f o r each o f t h e l and- use c a t e g o r i e s by n a t u r a l reg ion i n t a b l e s 1 1 1 - 2 and 111-3. These f i gu re s a r e q u i t e comparable t o o f f i c i a l f i g u r e s and t h o s e from o t h e r sources. On a n a t i o n a l b a s i s , 41.8 percent of t h e land a r e a i s under communal land-use. Of t h i s a r ea about 70.9 percent l i e s i n n a t u r a l r e g i o n I V . Another s o u r c e ( I l h i t l o w , 1980a) e s t i m a t e s t h i s t o be 74 p e r c e n t . I n c o n t r a s t , LSCF a r e a s , which occupy 34.4 percent of t he na t i on , have more than h a l f o f t h e i r a r e a (53.3 p e r c e n t ) i n more f a v o r a b l e n a t u r a l r e g i o n s ( i . e . N R I , I1 and 111). P a r k s and Wild L i f e a r e a s a r e t h e t h i r d major land-use type , occupying 13.5 percent of t h e c o u n t r y . About 81.4 p e r c e n t o f t h i s a r e a o c c u r s i n NR I V . The e c o l o g i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l a n d a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l of o t h e r land-use types i s shown i n Table 111-3.

TABLE 111-3 LAND USE CATEGORIES AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL REGIONS -- ( '000 HTA

Agro-Ecological Regions Land-Use Category I I I I11 IV Total

Communal lands 106.52 958.06 3702.16 11595.45 16362.20 (c) 0.6% 5.9% 22.6% 70.9%

Resettlement 13.46 80.32 844.78 630.25 1568.80 (R) 0.9% 53.8% 40.2%

SSCF 7.89 155.77 569.62 539.73 1273.00 0.6% 12.3% 44.7% 42.4%

State Farms 1.90 1.04 17.64 58.82 79.40 (SF) 2.4% 1.3% 22.2% 74.1%

Parks and Wild Life 39.50 16.66 922.85 4281.10 5260.11 (PRES) 0.8% 0.3% 17.5% 81.4%

Forest Lands 86.25 16.29 42.25 808.58 953.37 9.1% 1.7% 4.4% 84.8%

Urban Built Env. 49.57 24.61 32.52 106.70 (STR) 46.4% 23.1% 30.5%

Rural Built Env. 2.19 5.1 11.13 12.55 30.97 (STR) 7.1% 16.7% 35.8% 40.4%

LSCF 353.54 3044.10 3780.39 6274.45 13452.48 2.6% 22.6% 28.1%

............................................................. Note: Top figures denote area in ha. and bottom figures represent percentage of Land-use category total.

Provincially, communal land occupies over 50 percent of land in Manicaland, Mashonaland East and Mashonaland Central. LSCF areas occupy a greater portion of land only in Mashonaland West and Matebeleland South (Table 111-4). Over 45 percent of the communal area in each of the eight provinces, except Mashonaland West (35.6 percent), occurs in NR IV. In contrast, Manicaland has 40.6 percent of its LSCF area in NR I, Mashonaland East 53.1 percent in NR 11, Mashonaland Central 86.7 percent in NR I1 and Mashonaland West 64.9 percent in NR 11.

The provincial distribution of parks and wild life areas is uneven. The highest concentration of this category occurs in Matebeleland North. Important areas in this province include Hwange National Park, the biggest in Zimbabwe, and Matetsi and Deka Safari areas. About 35 percent of the total area reserved for this category in the country occurs in this province (Table 111-4). This is followed by Mashonaland West (27.3 percent) and Masvingo (15.4 percent). Most of this land occurs in NR IV.

Small-scale commercial farming areas occupy about 3.3 percent of the country, which is quite comparable with the 3 percent estimated for the 1972-1977 period given in another source (Whitlow, 197933) The 0.3 percent difference might be accounted for by a slight increase in SSCF areas between 1977 and 1982. Even though the ecological distribution of the

SSCF s e c t o r i s uneven , o v e r 50 p e r c e n t o f t h i s l a n d- u s e c a t e g o r y o c c u r s i n N R I 1 1 i n Man ica l and , Mashonaland E a s t , Mashonaland C e n t r a l , and Midlands provinces . This e c o l o g i c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n NR I 1 1 i s s i m i l a r t o , b u t even h i g h e r t h a n r e s e t t l e m e n t a r e a s , where f o r each of t h e provinces (except t h e M a t e b e l e l a n d p r o v i n c e s ) t h e p r o p o r t i o n i s o v e r 70 percent . The expected change by t h e year 2002 i s a doubling of r e s e t t l e d a r e a s , with expansion i n t o NR I11 where land i s b e i n g a c q u i r e d by t h e s t a t e from LSCF a r e a s . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e LSCF s e c t o r w i l l c o n t r a c t a n d b e c o n s o l i d a t e d i n N R I 1 o f t h e Mashonaland P r o v i n c e s . S t a t e fa rms a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e marginal a r e a s ( N R I V ) i n most p rovinces . Like r e s e t t l e d a r e a s , s t a t e fa rms a r e expec t ed t o more t h a n d o u b l e i n t h e marginal a r e a s by t h e year 2002.

TABLE 111-4 LAND-USE CATEGORIES IN ZIMBABWE

( ' 000 HA)

Prov lnce Resettlement SCFA Parks, Reserves Towns, Townships LSCF and Communal To ta l (Oct. 1982) & Ss fa r l Areas Mun l c i pa l i t i es Forest Lands

Mines, Missions Lands

Manlcaland

Msshonal and East

Mashonaland West

Mashonaland Central

Midlands

Masvingo

Matebeleland North

Matebeleland South

........................................................................................................ Totals 1568.80 1274.00 5261 .OO 300 .OO 14323.00 16362.20 39089.00 ........................................................................................................ Note: Top f i gu res denote area i n ha. and bottom f igures represent percentages o f p r o v i n c i a l t o t a l .

The c a t e g o r y o f f o r e s t l a n d s i n c l u d e s managed f o r e s t (FMG) , unmanaged f o r e s t (FUN), l a r g e s c a l e e x o t i c f o r e s t (LEXF) a n d communal e x o t i c f o r e s t (CEXF) ( F o r e s t r y Commission, 1982 ) . F o r e s t l a n d s , which occupy abou t 2.4 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y , h a v e a b o u t 84.8 p e r c e n t o f t h e i r t o t a l i n N R I V ( T a b l e 111-4 and 1 1 1 - 5 ) . The h i g h e s t concent ra t ion of f o r e s t l ands occurs i n Matebeleland North where Gwaai, Ngomo, and Mafungabusi managed f o r e s t s a r e found. About 88 pe rcen t of a l l t h e f o r e s t l ands i n Zimbabwe occurs i n t h i s p rovince .

TABLE 111-5 FOREST LANDS ( ' 0 0 0 H A ) -

EMG FUN

....................................... Manicaland 83.45 0.95 Mashonaland Central 2.78 - Mashonaland East 5.19 - Matebeleland North 14.25 824.12 Matebeleland South 0.01 - Midlands 4.12 - Masvingo 0.10 1.29

LEXF/ CEXF

2.30 2.89 4.54 0.91 0.17 3.33 0.88

Total

............................................................. Total 109.90 826.36 15.02 951.28 .............................................................

Urban-built environment occupies about 0.3 percent of the country. About 46.4 percent of this environment occurs in NR 11. The largest area occurs in Mashonaland East where Harare and Chitungwiza municipalities are located. About 23.1 percent of this land-use category occurs in NR I11 in which are found mostly Midlands municipalities. The ecological distribution for rural-built environment on the other hand shows a heavy concentration in natural regions I11 and IV.

3. DISTRIBUTION OF CULTIVATION

The data presented in this section may be taken as a close approximation to the present distribution of cultivation in Zimbabwe. The only exception is the distribution of cultivation and intensity of cropping in communal lands. The data obtained for the intensity and distribution of cultivation in communal lands (Appendix III- 1) is based on aerial photographs (at 1:25 000 scale) taken over the period 1972 to 1977 (Whitlow, 1979b). Cover types analyzed on the photographs included cultivation and fallow in communal lands. It was not possible to distinguish cultivation and fallow on the photographs. The figures of "actual cropped" area shown on Appendix 111-1 include fallow. On average, 40 percent of the "actual cropped" area is fallow. To understand how the figures were obtained it is important to note how the 1972-77 data were presented. For analytical and mapping purposes the data were expressed in categories (classes) giving the proportion of cultivation and fallow per unit area as follows: less than 10 percent; 10-25 percent; 26-50 percent; 51-75 percent; and over 75 percent. An estimate of the actual area under cultivation was calculated as the product of the percentage of land in a given class and the median value of the cultivation class, divided by 100. For example, if 25% of Mutasa South Communal

Area i s i n t h e 51-758 c u l t i v a t e d land c l a s s , then t he a c t u a l cropped a r ea i s :

(25 X 63)/100 = 15.75% of Mutasa South.

The a r e a o f Mutasa South i s 19 700 h e c t a r e s and 15.75% of t h i s y i e l d s a cropped a r ea of 3102.8 hec t a r e s .

The a c t u a l c ropped a r e a o f a l l t h e 171 communal l a n d s was de r ived using t h e method o u t l i n e d above. I t i s important t o no te t h e shortcomings of using t h e 1972-1977 d a t a f o r t h e 1982 b a s e y e a r . The 1972-77 d a t a were used m a i n l y because they r ep re sen t t h e o n l y da t a base cover ing t h e whole country. I t i s a l s o assumed t h a t t h e r e have been on ly s l i g h t changes i n t h e i n t e n s i t y of cropping i n communal l ands between 1977 and 1982. Therefore, t h e d a t a shown i n Appendix 111-1 may be t a k e n a s a c l o s e app rox ima t ion t o t h e 1982 d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c u l t i v a t i o n i n communal lands.

Appendix 111-1 r e v e a l s t h a t 29.5 percent o f a l l comlnunal l ands i s cropped (40 percent of t h i s i s f a l l o w ) . This i s an e x t r e m e l y h i g h p r o p o r t i o n i n v iew of t h e f a c t t h a t abou t 70 p e r c e n t o f t h e l a n d o c c u r s i n NR IV. The p r o p o r t i o n under cultivation by e c o l o g i c a l r e g i o n i s 50.4 p e r c e n t i n N R I , 45 .2 p e r c e n t i n N R 11, 39.6 p e r c e n t i n N R I 1 1 and 24.7 percent i n NR IV. The most i n t e n s i v e l y cropped province 1 s Mashonaland E a s t w i t h 41.1 p e r c e n t o f i t s a r e a c ropped . Cropped p r o p o r t i o n s f o r Man ica l and , Masvingo and Midlands range from 34 t o 37 percent of t h e i r a r ea s . The s i t u a t i o n i n which a b o u t 25 p e r c e n t o f t h e m a r g i n a l a r e a s i s cropped i s e x a c e r b a t e d by t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f rock domes. These non- u t i l i z a b l e land a r e a s form an a r c i n t h e communal a r e a s which e x t e n d s from Mberengwa th rough Buhera and S a b i North t o Mutoko ( \ ; h i t l o w , 1 9 8 0 a ) . These a r e a s p r o v l d e woodfuel and poor g r a z i n g and a r e of e x t r e m e l y m a r g i n a l v a l u e . They g r e a t l y l i m i t t h e availability of a r a b l e l a n d . I n t h e s e communal a r e a s , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t p o p u l a t i o n i s i nc r ea s ing a t t he ve ry high r a t e of ove r 3 percent per annum. I n t h e l i g h t of such e s t i m a t e s , ~t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e r e i s a c r i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of l a n d I n communal a r e a s . I n t e rms of t h e a b s o l u t e s l z e of communal l a n d s , no change i s expec t ed by 2002. The expec t ed changes by 2002 inc lude t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of c rop cultivation, t h e reduc t ion of f a l l o w and a s l i g h t expansion i n t h e ~nd lgenous f o r e s t and graz ing a r ea s . Through the se changes, t he cropped a r e a i s expec t ed t o i n c r e a s e by 26.2 p e r c e n t by 2002 ( T a b l e 111-6) .

From t h e 1982 ICA Supplement t h e c a l c u l a t e d proportion of cropped a r ea i n t h e LSCF s e c t o r i s 4 percent . S ix ty f i v e p e r c e n t of t h e c ropped a r e a o c c u r r e d i n NR I 1 i n 1982. P r o v i n c i a l l y about 78.5 percent of LSCF cropped a r ea occurred i n t he t h r e e Plashonaland provinces (Appendix 111-2). In o the r p r o v i n c e s , l e s s t h a n 4 p e r c e n t o f t h e LSCF l a n d i n t h e p r o v i n c e s was c r o p p e d . Fo r e x a m p l e , t h e M a t e b e l e l a n d provinces , with ove r 90 percent of t h e l r LSCF land I n NR lV, a r e used p r i m a r i l y f o r l i v e s t o c k r ea r ing . The malor changes

e x p e c t e d i n t h e c u l t i v a t e d a r e a a r e i n t h e LSCF and r e s e t t l e d a r e a s . The LSCF c ropped a r e a i s e x p e c t e d t o d e c r e a s e by 14.2 p e r c e n t b y t h e y e a r 2002 ( T a b l e 1 1 1 - 6 ) . T h i s d e c r e a s e w i l l a f f e c t m a i n l y t h e Mashonaland p r o v i n c e s where t h e Government i s a c q u i r i n g l a n d f o r t h e r e s e t t l e m e n t p r o g r a m . R e s e t t l e d a r e a s w i l l more t h a n d o u b l e t h e i r c ropped a r e a ( T a b l e 111-6) . The b u l k o f t h e r e s e t t l e d l a n d w i l l b e i n NR 111. T h i s a s sumpt ion i s b a s e d on t h e p a t t e r n t h a t emerged i n t h e f i r s t t w o y e a r s o f t h e p r o g r a m ( 1 9 8 1- 8 2 ) . The c h a n g e s e x p e c t e d b y 2002 a r e t h e e x p a n s i o n o f r e s e t t l e d a r e a s i n N R I11 a n d t h e c o n t r a c t i o n and c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e LSCF l a n d i n NR 11. The e x c l u s i o n o f NR I a n d I1 i n t h e R e s e t t l e m e n t P r o g r a m c a n b e s e e n a s a n e e d t o a l l o w f o r t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f c r o p c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e LSCF s e c t o r . T h i s i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n i s e x p e c t e d t o b e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n t o b a c c o , c o t t o n , a n d o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s . The p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s e c r o p s i s e x p e c t e d t o i n c r e a s e b y 40 p e r c e n t ( t o b a c c o ) , 20 p e r c e n t ( c o t t o n ) and 20 p e r c e n t ( o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s ) b y 2002 ( T a b l e 1 1 1 - 7 ) . The a p p a r e n t l o s s i n f o o d p r o d u c t i o n i n t h i s s e c t o r i s e x p e c t e d t o b e c o m p e n s a t e d f o r b y a n e t g a i n f r o m s m a l l h o l d e r f a rming i n r e s e t t l e d a r e a s .

TABLE 111-6 PROJECTION OF CROPPED LAND ( ' 000 HA)-

....................................................... 1982 2002 % o f Change

....................................................... LSCF 588 .9 505.4 -14% R e s e t t l e m e n t 107 . O 246.0 +129% Communal 2892.6 3650.5 +26% SSCF 67 . l 73.0 +9% S t a t e Farms 1 6 . 1 40 .0 +148% ....................................................... T o t a l 3671.7 4514.9 +23%

Note: The c ropped a r e a i n communal l a n d s i n c l u d e s a b o u t 40 p e r c e n t f a 1 low.

The c r o p p e d a r e a a n d a r e a u n d e r d i f f e r e n t c r o p s i n r e s e t t l e d l a n d was d e r i v e d f r o m t h e p r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t s o f r e s e t t l e d a r e a s produced by t h e A g r i t e x P l a n n i n g Branch (MOA, 1984) . The a c t u a l a r e a under c u l t i v a t i o n was e s t i m a t e d t o b e 6 .8 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l . The m o s t i n t e n s i v e c u l t i v a t i o n o c c u r r e d i n NR 1 1 1 , w h e r e 53.7 p e r c e n t o f a l l c r o p p e d a r e a l i e s . Appendix 111-3 h i g h l i g h t s t h e a r e a cropped b y n a t u r a l r e g i o n . Of a l l t h e r e s e t t l e d l a n d i n Man ica l and , Mashonaland E a s t , M a s h o n a l a n d C e n t r a l , M a s h o n a l a n d West a n d M i d l a n d s p r o v i n c e s o v e r 60% o f t h e c u l t i v a t e d l a n d o c c u r r e d i n NR 111. O t h e r t h a n t h e e x p e c t e d c h a n g e s b y 2002 m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , e x p e c t e d c h a n g e s i n p r o d u c t i v i t y a r e h i g h 1 i g h t e d i n T a b l e 111-7.

TABLEIII -7 PERCENTAGEINCREASEINAGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION -.--p

BY F A R I ~ ~ I N G S Y S T E M ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ )

............................................................. 1982 2002 % I n c r e a s e

............................................................. LSCF Area

Maize 1223 1223 - Tobacco 8 6 120 40% C o t t o n 123 147 20% O t h e r Food Crops 8 0 80 - O t h e r I n d u s t r i a l Crops 3716 4458 20%

............................................................. T o t a l 5228 6028 15% ............................................................. R e s e t t l e m e n t Areas

Maize 122 3 84 15% O t h e r Food Crops 36 125 247% O t h e r I n d u s t r i a l Crops 60 17 2 187%

............................................................. T o t a l 218 681 212% ............................................................. Communal Areas

Maize 1215 3571 194% O t h e r Food Crops 7 2 3 2096 190% O t h e r I n d u s t r i a l Crops 600 1193 99%

............................................................. T o t a l 2 5 38 6860 170% ............................................................. Note: P r o j e c t i o n s on i n c r e a s e d a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y a r e

o n t h e b a s i s o f i n c r e a s e d i n t e n s i t y o f c r o p p i n g , a n d n o t e x p a n s i o n o f c u l t i v a t i o n i n t o new a r e a s .

S t a t e f a r m s , d e s p i t e t h e i r m a r g i n a l l o c a t i o n ( 7 4 . 1 p e r c e n t i n NR I V a n d 2 2 . 2 p e r c e n t i n NR 111) a r e m o r e i n t e n s i v e l y c ropped t h a n a r e LSCF fa rms . Approx ima te ly o n e s t a t e fa rm o u t o f e v e r y f i v e i s c r o p p e d , and 82.3 p e r c e n t o f t h e c ropped a r e a l i e s i n NR I V . By t h e y e a r 2002, t h e number o f s t a t e f a r m s i s e x p e c t e d t o m o r e t h a n d o u b l e . T h i s i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e e x p e c t e d c h a n g e i n t h e c r o p p e d a r e a , a s shown i n T a b l e 111-6 . U n l i k e LSCF f a r m s , s t a t e f a r m s w i l l t a k e up m a r g i n a l l a n d ( N R I11 and I V ) .

S m a l l - s c a l e c o m m e r c i a l f a r m i n g a r e a s a r e l e s s i n t e n s i v e l y c ropped t h a n s t a t e f a rms . The a c t u a l p r o p o r t i o n o f SSCF a r e a unde r c u l t i v a t i o n i s 5.3 p e r c e n t , w i t h o v e r 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o c c u r r i n g i n NR 111. D e t a i l s o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e SSCF s e c t o r a r e shown i n Appendix 111-4. S m a l l - s c a l e commerc i a l f a rms a r e e x p e c t e d t o change s l i g h t l y i n number by 2002 ( T a b l e 111-6) . T h i s change i s e x p e c t e d t o come f r o m e x p a n s i o n o f t h e c r o p p e d a r e a i n t o i n d i g e n o u s f o r e s t and g r a z i n g l a n d .

4 . INDIGENOUS FOREST AND GRAZING LAND AND NON- UTILIZABLE LAND

About 3.7 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s (14.2 p e r c e n t ) o f Zimbabwe i s c ropped . The r e m a i n i n g l a n d a r e a w i t h i n a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d - u s e c a t e g o r i e s i s t a k e n u p b y n o n - u t i l i z a b l e l a n d (NUT) a n d i n d i g e n o u s f o r e s t a n d g r a z i n g l a n d ( I F G ) . T h e s e c a t e g o r i e s o c c u p y 3 .9 a n d 65 .7 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y r e s p e c t i v e l y ( T a b l e s 111-8 and 111- 9) .

N o n - u t i l i z a b l e l a n d (NUT) i s d e f i n e d f o r t h i s r e p o r t a s l a n d d o m i n a t e d b y b a r e d o m e d - i n s e l b e r g s w h i c h p r e c l u d e c u l t i v a t i o n and l i m i t p l a n t growth . The b a r e r o c k domes may occupy be tween 20-35 p e r c e n t o f t h e l a n d l y i n g i n t h e domed- i n s e l b e r g t e r r a i n ( W h i t l o w , 1 9 8 0 ~ ) . A map ( W h i t l o w , 1 9 8 0 a ) , s h o w i n g t h e o c c u r r e n c e a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e domed- i n s e l b e r g t e r r a i n , was u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e e x t e n t o f NUT b y l a n d- u s e t y p e and n a t u r a l r e g i o n f o r e a c h p r o v i n c e . The a r e a u n d e r t h i s t e r r a i n was m e a s u r e d f o r d i f f e r e n t l a n d - u s e c a t e g o r i e s . The a r e a o b t a i n e d was t h e n m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e m e d i a n o f t h e r a n g e ( t h e r a n g e i s 20 t o 3 5 p e r c e n t , s o t h e m e d i a n i s 27.5 p e r c e n t ) t o g i v e t h e NUT a r e a . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e a r e a i n t h e communal l a n d s o f NR I V i n M a n i c a l a n d p r o v i n c e u n d e r t h i s t e r r a i n i s 399 7 5 3 h e c t a r e s . The a c t u a l NUT a r e a o f t h i s p r o v i n c e i s o b t a i n e d b y m u l t i p l y i n g t h i s a r e a by 27.5 and d i v i d i n g b y 100 , t o g i v e 109 932 h e c t a r e s .

On a n a t i o n a l b a s i s , t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f NUT l a n d a c c o r d i n g t o l a n d - u s e c a t e g o r i e s i s shown i n T a b l e 1 1 1 - 8 . S i x t y p e r c e n t o f a l l NUT l a n d o c c u r s i n communal a r e a s a n d t h e l o w e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f 1.5 p e r c e n t i n P a r k s a n d W i l d L i f e A r e a s . Of a 1 l t h e NUT l a n d i n communal a r e a s , 59 .3 p e r c e n t i s i n M a s v i n g o a n d 20 p e r c e n t i n M a n i c a l a n d . F o r NUT l a n d i n t h e LSCF and SSCF s e c t o r s , 31.6 p e r c e n t i s i n M a n i c a l a n d and 21.4 p e r c e n t i n Mashonaland C e n t r a l . I n o t h e r p r o v i n c e s , t h e p r o p o r t i o n r a n g e s f r o m 7 .9 p e r c e n t i n M i d l a n d s t o 15 .2 p e r c e n t i n M a s v i n g o . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t f o r a l l l a n d- u s e c a t e g o r i e s , a b o u t 8 8 p e r c e n t o f a l l NUT l a n d o c c u r s i n NR I11 and I V ( T a b l e 111-10).

TABLE 111-8 NON-UTILIZABLE LAND I N ZIMBABWE

A b b r e v i a t i o n Land-Use Category Area ( '000 ha) % o f T o t a l

CNUT Communal N o n - U t i l i z a b l e Land 921.27 60.0% LNUT Large Sca le Commercial Farm N o n- U t i l i z a b l e Land 323.25 20.9% RNUT Reset t lerpent N o n- U t i l i z a b l e Land 169.59 I 1 .C% SNUT % a l l Scale Commercial Farming N o n- U t i l i z a b l e 102.19 6.6% PNUT Parks and Wild L i f e N o n- U t i l i z a b l e Land 24.19 1.5%

N a t i o n a l T o t a l 1540.49 100.0%

TABLE 111-9 INDIGENOUS FOREST/GRAZING LAND I N ZIMBABWE

( '000 HA)

........................................................................................................ Land-Use Category I I1 111 I V Tota l ........................................................................................................ LSCF/State Farms/SSCF (LIFG) 332.44 2724.92 4065.49 6673.69 13796.54 (53.8%) Communal Lands (CIFG) 50.90 49881 1961.67 8067.03 10578A2 (41.2%) Resett lement )RIFG) 6-46 68.05 677.83 538.85 1293.19 (5%) ........................................................................................................ Tota ls 391.80 3291.78 6704.99 15279.57 25668.15 ........................................................................................................

Note: F igures g i v e t h e area i n ha. The percentages i n t h e l a s t c o l m n denote t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e t o t a l IFG i n Zimbabwe.

I n d i g e n o u s f o r e s t / g r a z i n g ( I F G ) l a n d i s c o n s i d e r e d , i n t h i s p a p e r , a s t h e r e s i d u a l l a n d a r e a a f t e r t h e s u b t r a c t i o n o f c r o p p e d a r e a a n d N U T f r o m t h e t o t a l a r e a o f e a c h a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d- u s e c a t e g o r y . Of t h e t o t a l IFG a r e a (65.7 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y ) , a b o u t 53 .8 p e r c e n t i s LIFG ( s e e T a b l e 111-9 f o r a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f a b b r e v i a t i o n s ) . T h e h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f LIFG l a n d i s i n M a t e b e l e l a n d p r o v i n c e s which a c c o u n t f o r 33.1 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l IFG a r e a . Almost a l l o f t h e LIFG l a n d i n t h e s e p r o v i n c e s o c c u r s i n NR I V . I n t h e Mashonaland p r o v i n c e s , o v e r 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e LIFG l a n d o c c u r s i n NR I1 a n d 111.

Communal i n d i g e n o u s f ~ r e s t / ~ r a z i n g (CIFG) l a n d a c c o u n t s f o r a b o u t 40 p e r c e n t o f IFG a r e a ( T a b l e 111-9) . The l a r g e s t e x t e n t o f CIFG l a n d (39 .5%) i s i n t h e M a t e b e l e l a n d p r o v i n c e s . L i k e LIFG l a n d , CIFG l a n d i n t h e s e p r o v i n c e s i s i n NR I V . R e s e t t l e m e n t i n d i g e n o u s f o r e s t / g r a z i n g a r e a s (RIFG) o c c u p y a b o u t 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e IFG l a n d . U n l i k e t h e LIFG a n d CIFG a r e a s , t h e h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f RIFG l a n d ( 2 0 . 2 p e r c e n t ) o c c u r s i n M a n i c a l a n d , w i t h a b o u t 73.3 p e r c e n t o f i t l y i n g i n N R 111.

TABLE 111-10 DISTRIBUTION Of NON-UTILIZABLE LAND BY PROVINCE AND NATURAL REGION ( '000 HA)

I I 1 111 I V To ta l ........................................................................................ Man ica l and 52.90 23.71 215.05 143.80 435.46 Mashonal and C e n t r a l 90.57 22.67 12.63 125.87 Mashonaland East 18.04 55.56 61.31 134.91 Matebe le land South 89.67 89.67 Mid lands 51.32 36.34 87.66 Mssvingo 159.43 507.48 666.91 ........................................................................................ T o t a l 52.90 132.32 504.03 851.23 1540.48

(3%) (9%) (33%) (55%)

5 . AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY

The agricultural productivity of commercial farms is much higher than that of communal or resettled farms. It is suggested that "the commercial producer averages a yield of marginally over 5 tonnes per hectare (5 000 kg), while the non-commercial producer averages less than 1 tonne per hectare." (Zimbabwe Agricultural and Economic Review, 1982) For this chapter, the overall yield estimates used are 5 tons per hectare for commercial producers, 2 tons per hectare for resettlement producers, and 1 ton per hectare for the communal producers. The higher productivity figure for the commercial producer reflects high-input farming on favorable land, while the figures for non-commercial producers result from low-input farmlng on marginal lands.

REFERENCES

Agricultural and Rural Development Authority (ARDA), 1984 From ARDA files of Operating Budget Returns 1983/84 from State Farms in Zimbabwe. Harare: ARDA.

Central Statistical Office, 1982 "Crop Production of Commercial Farms (ICA Supplement)" Harare: C.S.O.

Central Statistical Office, 1982 "Crop Production of Commercial Farms (Zimbabwe and Provincial Totals)" Harare: C.S.O.

Central Statistical Office, 1984 "1982 Population Census: A Preliminary Report" Harare: C,S.O.

Cole, R.S., 1981 "The Land Situation in Zimbabwe." Report of the Proceedings of the Commonwealth Association of Surveying and Land Economy Seminar, held in Malawi. Pg.57-72.

Departmentof Conservation and Extension, 1984 "Zimbabwe 1 :l000 000 Natural Regions and Farming Areas." Second Edition. Harare: D.C.E.

Forestry Commission, 1982 Forestry Commission Annual Returns Harare: Forestry Commission.

Ivy, P., No date "Agricultural Zoning in Zimbabwe and observations which form the basis for zoning" Harare: MOA, Agritex.

Ivy, P., 1977 "Agro-Ecological Survey of Rhodesia" Harare: MOA, Agritex.

Ivy, P., 1976 "Land Tenure, 1976." Harare: MOA, Agritex.

Kinsey, B., 1983 "Emerging policy issues in Zimbabwe's land Resettlement Programs" Development Policy Review. Volume 1: 162-196.

MLRRD, 1982 "Zimbabwe 1:1000 000 Location of Resettlement schemes" Revised October1982. Harare : MLRRD.

MLRRD, 1983 "Intensive Resettlement Policies and Procedures" Draft. Ministry of Lands, Resettlement and Rural Development ( MLRRD) Harare: MLRRD.

MNRT, 1982 Annual Returns: Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism Harare: MNRT.

MOA, 1983 "Intensive Resettlement Program, June 1983, Model A" Department of Agricultural Technical and Extension Services Narare: MOA, Agritex.

MOA, 1984 "Preliminary Resettlement Project Reports. 1960-82" Harare: MOA.

Rice, E.B., and Mercer, A., 1983 "Projects for Resettlement - Background Paper No.4." Zimbabwe Agricultural Sector Study.

Saunders, C.R., 1977 "The use of Land for Parks and Wild Life" The Rhodesia -- -p- Science News Volume 11, PJo. 6, 190-196.

Surveyor General, 1982 "Section 6 - 1:5 000 Street Maps of cities and towns of Zimbabwe" Harare: Surveyor General.

Vincent, V., and Thomas, R.G., 1960 "An Agricultural Survey of Southern Rhodesia: Part 1 Agro-Ecological Survey." Harare: Government Printers.

Whitlow, J.R., 1979a "A Scenario of Changes in Subsistence Land-Use and its Relevance to the Tribal Trust Areas of Zimbabwe" Zambezia, Volume V11 171-190.

Whitlow, 1979b "An Assessment of Cultivated Lands in Zimbabwe Rhodesia, 1972 to 1977," The Zimbabwe Rhodesia Science News, XIII, 233-238.

Whitlow, 1979c "An Assessment of Cultivated Lands In Zimbabwe Rhodesia, 1963 to 1977" The Zimbabwe Rhodesia Science News, XIII, 286-290.

Whitlow, 1980a "Environmental Constraints and Population Pressures in the Tribal Trust Areas of Zimbabwe" Zimbabwe Agricultural Journal, Volume 77, No. 4, 173-181.

Whitlow, 1980b "Agricultural Potential in Zimbabwe: a Factorised Survey" Zimbabwe Agricultural Journal, Volume 77, 97-

p-p- P-

106.

Whitlow, 1980c "Land Use, Population Pressure and Rock Outcrops in the Tribal Areas of Zimbabwe Rhodesia," Zimbabwe Rhodesia Agricultural - Journal Volume 77, 3-11.

IJlltshire, J.E.B., 1977 "Forest and Timber Resources." The Rhodesia Science News Volume 11, No. 8, 196-200.

Zlmbabwe Agricultural and Economic Review, 1982 Harare: Modern Farming Publication.

APPENOIXIII-1 THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND CULTIVATION BY NATURAL REGION I N COMMUNAL LAND 1982

Prov ince I I I 111 I V T o t a l

Manicaland Malze 22529 6526 148704 122699 300458

OFC 13410 3885 88514 73053 178862

OIC 17701 5127 116838 96407 236073

T o t a l C u l t i v a t e d 5 3 6 4 0 15538 354056 292159 715393 T o t a l Land Area 106522 52400 737670 1064808 1961400

Mashonaland East Malze

OFC OIC

T o t a l C u l t i v a t e d

T o t a l Land Area

Mashonaland C e n t r a l Malze

OFC OIC

T o t a l C u l t l v a t e d

T o t a l Land Area

Maahonaland West Maize

OFC OIC

T o t a l Cultivated 147764 166898 90974 405636

T o t a l Land Area 310457 595123 499620 1405200 ....................................................................................... Mtdlands Maize 185388 182740 368128

OFC 110350 108774 219124 OIC 145662 143581 289243

T o t a l C u l t i v a t e d

T o t a l Land Area ....................................................................................... Masvlngo Maize 51964 268776 320740

OFC 30931 159986 190917

OIC 40828 211181 252009

T o t a l C u l t i v a t e d

T o t a l Land Area

Appendix 111-1 Continued

Province Crop/Land I I I I11 IV Tot a1

Matebeleland North Maize

OFC

OIC

Tota l C u l t i v a t e d Tota l Land Area

Matebeleland South Maize OFC

OIC

Tota l C u l t i v a t e d

Tota l Land Area

Tota l Cu l t i va ted Area Tota l Communal Area

Note: OFCr Other Food Crops OIC- Other I n d u s t r i a l Crops

A l l cropped areas l n c l u d e f a l l o w . On average 40 percent o f t h e cropped l a n d i s f a l l o w .

APPENDIX 111-2 THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AN0 CULTIVATION BY NATURAL REGION LSCF AND STATE FARMS

....................................................................................... Province I I I I 1 1 I V Tota l

Maize 1295 2453 6241 260 10249

(Wheat) (746) (2200) (2946)

Tobacco 385 4228 4613 Cotton 5417 5804 11221 OFC 169 7945 8114

OIC 5552 7970 6679 20201

Tota l C u l t i v a t e d 6847 3007 31801 12743 54398 Tota l Land Area 437379 122511 408738 107372 1076000

....................................................................................... Mashonaland East Maize 42398 8893 51291

(Wheat) (5544) (401) (5945) Tobacco 8655 1385 10040 Cotton 851 519 1370

OFC 3935 41 0 4345 OIC 25272 5866 31138

Tota l C u l t i v a t e d 81111 17073 98184 Tota l Land Area 376260 326369 6371 709000

Appendix 111-2 Continued ....................................................................................... Province Crop/Land I I 1 111 IV Tot a1

Mashonaland Cent ra l Maize (Wheat)

Tobacco Cotton OFC OIC

Total Cul t iva ted Total Land Area

Mashonaland West Maize (Wheat) Tobacco Cotton OFC OIC

Total Cul t iva ted 166608 43331 209939 Total Land Area 1789293 967707 2757000

....................................................................................... Midlands Maize 10705 2810 13515

(Wheat) (482) (200) (682) Tobacco 1052 1052 Cotton 2493 280 2773 OFC 612 612 OIC 4872 2625 7497

Total Cul t iva ted Total Land Area

....................................................................................... Masvingo Maize 3175 3312 6487

(Wheat) (657) (338) (995) Cokton 225 225 OFC 95 95 OIC 3298 31827 35125

Total Cul t iva ted Tota l Land Area

....................................................................................... Matabeleland North Maize 1908 1908

(Wheat) (500) (500) Cotton 250 250 OFC 390 390 OIC 2792 2792

Total Cul t iva ted Total Land Area

Appendix 111-2 Continued

Prov ince Crop/Land I I I 111 I V To ta l ....................................................................................... Matabele land South Maize 1462 1462

I Wheat) (1617) (1617) Co t ton 1542 1542

OFC 30 30

OIC 610 610

To ta l C u l t i v a t e d

T o t a l Land Area

T o t a l C u l t i v a t e d Area 6847 352746 132969 64615 557177 T o t a l LSCF and S ta te Farm Area 437379 3024080 3783007 7078534 14323000

Note: As wheat 1s n e a r l y a lways a second c rop grown on i r r i g a t e d land , i t has been

exc luded from t o t a l s . I t s i n c l u s i o n would r e s u l t i n s i g n i f i c a n t double- count ing.

APPENDIX 111-3 THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AN0 CULTIVATION BY NATURAL REGION I N RESETTLED AREAS 1982

Prov ince I I I I11 I V To ta l

Manicaland Maize

OFC OIC

T o t a l C u l t i v a t e d 1295 1529 29159 4337 36320 T o t a l Land Area 13458 15859 292375 74858 396550

Mashonaland East Maize

OFC

OIC

T o t a l C u l t i v a t e d 680 11339 T o t a l Land Area 23553 121797

Mashonaland C e n t r a l Maize

OFC OIC

T o t a l C u l t i v a t e d 1870 3906 T o t a l Land Area 14380 60420

Mashonaland West Maize

OFC

OIC

T o t a l C u l t i v a t e d 1716 2643 4359 T o t a l Land Area 26526 67074 93600

.......................................................................................

Appendix 111-3 Continued

Prov ince Crop/Land I I1 I 1 1 I V Tot a1 ....................................................................................... h d l a n d s Malze 14962 780 15742

OFC 5204 5204 OIC 6908 390 7298

T o t a l C u l t i v a t e d 27074 1170 28244

T o t a l Land Area 2442 261906 16652 281000 ....................................................................................... Masvingo Maize 1220 6516 7736

OFC 80 2601 2681 OIC 610 3167 3777

T o t a l C u l t i v a t e d T o t a l Land Area

Metebele land Nor th Malze OFC OIC

T o t a l C u l t i v a t e d T o t a l Land Area

Matebele land South Maize OFC OIC

T o t a l C u l t i v a t e d

T o t a l Lend Area --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- T o t a l C u l t i v a t e d Area 1295 5795 76031 22908 106029

T o t a l Rese t t led Area 13458 82760 842337 630245 1568800

APPENDIX 111-4 THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND CULTIVATION BY NATURAL REGION I N SMALL SCALE COMMERCIAL FARMS 1982

....................................................................................... Prov ince Crop/Land I I 1 111 I V To ta l

M a n i c a l and M a i z e 812 Tobacco Cot ton OFC 107

OIC 86

T o t a l C u l t i v a t e d 1005 T o t a l Land Area 7886

Appendlx 111-4 Continued

Province Crop/Land I I 1 I 1 1 IV Tot a1 ....................................................................................... Mashonaland East Malze 3694 2858 471 7023

Cotton 75 83 158 OFC 377 29 1 48 716

O I C 1079 835 137 2051

Tota l Cu l t i va ted 5225 4067 656 9948

Tota l Land Area 7259 57345 44396 109000

MashonalandCentral Maize Tobacco

Cotton OFC OIC

Tota l Cultivated 1929 4435 891 7255

Tota l Land Area 33594 67364 9042 110000

Mashonal and West Maize

Tobacco Cotton

OFC OIC

Tota l Cu l t i va ted 10601 2692 2216 15509

Tota l Land Area 114912 24024 29064 168000 ....................................................................................... EZldlande Malze 7425 596 8021

Cotton 1545 307 1852 OFC 701 139 840

OIC 1063 212 1275

Tota l Cu l t i va ted Tota l Land Area

Masvingo Malze

(Wheat) Tobacco

Cotton OFC

OIC

Tota l Cu l t i va ted 11352 2509 13861

Tota l Land Area 34031 210969 245000 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Appendix 111-4 Continued

....................................................................................... Province Crop/Land I I1 111 IV Total

Matebeleland North Maize (Wheat) OFC OIC

Total Cul t iva ted 402 402 Total Land Area 41000 41000

....................................................................................... MatebelelandSouth Maize 2225 2225

Cotton 1 1 OFC 504 504 OIC 309 309

Total Cul t iva ted Total Land Area

Total Cul t iva ted Area Total SSCFA Area

Note: A s wheat is n e a r l y always a second c rop grown on i r r i g a t e d l a n d , i t has been excluded from t o t a l s . I t s i n c l u s i o n would r e s u l t i n a l g n i f i c a n t double- counting.

I V . HOUSEHOLD ENERGY USE I N ZIMBABWE: AN ANALYSIS OF CONSUMPTION PATTERNS AND FUEL CHOICE

Richard H. Hosier and Jeffrey Dowd

1. INTRODUCTION

Ever since international attention began to focus on the importance of energy for continued economic growth, a body of literature has centered on comparisons of energy use for countries at different levels of development. This literature has shown that as development proceeds, not only does energy consumption increase but also the mix of fuels relied upon changes. In its cross-sectional form, this work shows that wealthier countries rely more heavily on petroleum and electricity than poorer countries. Poorer countries rely more heavily on biomass fuels. In its longitudinal form, this work shows that as a country progresses through the industrialization process, its reliance on petroleum and electricity increases and the importance of biomass decreases. This literature has been enlightening, but has had limited policy relevance for energy work in developing countries.

A household-level corollary of this macro-tenet focuses on the concept of the "energy ladder" within the energy systems of developing countries. The underlying assumption is that households are faced with an array of energy supply choices which can be arranged in order of increasing technological sophistication. At the top of the list is electricity and LP gas while the low end of the range includes fuelwood, dung, and crop wastes. As a household's economic well-being increases, it is assumed to move "up" the energy ladder to more sophisticated energy carriers. If the economic status decreases, through either a decrease in income or an increase in fuel price, the household is expected to move "down" the energy ladder to less- sophisticated energy carriers. Thus, the energy ladder serves as a stylized extension of the economic theory of the consumer: as income rises, households consume not only more of the same goods, but they also shift to consuming higher quality goods.

A dissenting view on the above concept would hold that while the energy ladder exists as a conceptual construct, it is not a reality for the households in developing countries. The economic status of most of these households is so constrained that they have little or no choice about which fuels to use. While it is possible to hypothesize the existence of such a ladder, it serves no functional purpose to do so since most households in developing countries are too constrained to make any movements on that ladder.

For a number of developing countries, particularly those in Africa, these issues are of crucial importance. Rural

households in these countries face serious to severe fuelwood shortages. The question about how free households are to make fuel substitutions is important. Much of the policy work undertaken to date has assumed that an energy ladder exists but. that most households are so constrained by the physical and economic environment that they have no choice but to remain dependent upon woodfuel for the foreseeable future. As a result, a l l policy efforts will focus on rural afforestation and ignore any possibilities of interfuel substitution, particularly those which involve movements up the energy ladder. From a policy perspective, there has appeared to be no way to encourage households to move away from traditional to the more sophisticated energy carriers.

This paper examines household energy-use patterns as identified in the Zimbabwe National Household Energy Survey and presents a preliminary empirical test of the energy ladder hypothesis. In order to fulfil the latter objective, it applies a multinomial logit model to the data on residential fuel choice in Zimbabwe. The purpose of this analysis is to verify whether or not households do operate on an "energy ladder" and, if they do, can certain policies elicit desired movements or substitutions away from scarce or expensive fuels to plentiful or inexpensive ones.

2. PHYSICAL AND CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND

HOUSEHOLD ENERGY USE AND THE ENERGY LADDER

The energy ladder concept takes as its starting polnt the differences in energy-use patterns between households with differing economic status. Households are assumed to behave in a manner consistent with the neo-classical consumer, moving to more sophisticated energy carriers as their incomes increase. As opposed to wood and crop-wastes burned by the poor, wealthier households will choose to utilize electricity and petroleum products. While a large number of household energy surveys have been undertaken in recent years, none of them has explicitly addressed the validity of this assumption. The energy ladder always hovers in the background without ever being put to the test.

i7hile not explicitly addressing the question of the energy ladder, a number of these recent empirical studies do address the question of the energy consumption patterns of different socio-economic groups. Bajracharya (1983) notes that energy-use patterns in the village he studied in Nepal differed according to the social class of the household. Kennes, et a l . (1984) note that the energy consumption patterns different socio-economic groups in Bangladesh are radically different. In particular, households with earnings from formal employment rely much more heavily on commercial fuels than do landless or smallholder households. For the Indian city of Hyderabad, Alam ~1.(1985) found that household fuel-choice decisions vary directly with income

level. The higher the income level, the greater the tendency for households to choose petroleum-based commercial fuels over biomass fuels. Reddy (1981) notes that for the Indian villages studied, there is a strong correlation between the size of landholding and household energy use. The essays in Barnes, et al. (1985) note that household fuel-mixes in Kenya vary accordrng to the household's level of involvement with the monetary economy. In general, the literature on household energy use in developing countries supports the concept that household energy-use patterns are differentiated with respect to economic status.

A related question is not so frequently addressed in the literaure. How free are households to choose between different energy carriers? Are they actually able to exercise choice between different fuels or is their movement along the energy ladder heavily restricted by their physical or economic environment? While these questions border on the rhetorical, they have been alluded to in the literature. O'Keefe, et al., (1984) argue that in the case of Kenya, economic c?ndytions dictate that the bulk of rural households will be dependent upon wood for the foreseeable future. French (1985) notes that rural households in Malawi have such limited incomes that they cannot possibly opt to utilize commercial fuels. Continuing to rely on fuelwood is their only alternative: decisionmaking is the process of selecting from an opportunity set having a single feasible alternative.

Despite these negations of the existence of decision- making in household energy consumption, other authors have suggested that decisionmaking does occur. Briscoe (1979) notes that in rural Bangladesh, households do move along the energy ladder. However, the most visible movements are those of the poorer households switching either toward less- sophisticated energy carriers or towards purchased fuels. Hosier (1985) argues that in rural Kenya, the household decisionmaker must make a two-stage decision in the energy arena. In the first stage, he or she decides which fuels to use. The second stage consists of the decision about how much of each fuel to use. The options in each case will depend upon the household's specific resource endowment--the higher the economic status or the more integrated the household is into the monetary economy, the greater will be the options available to it.

The modelling of these decisions and energy-use patterns is complicated by a number of factors. Biomass fuels are usually not purchased but are gathered. Where markets do exist for them (Hymen, 1983), they are usually fragmented and chaotic, capitalizing on the common-property nature of wood resources. As a result, households which do purchase these fuels rarely pay prices commensurate with their full opportunity cost. Pri.ces are not easy to monitor and are rarely accurate measures of the fuel's true value. The non- commoditized nature of biomass energy resources poses both an opportunity and a constraint. From the household's perspective, it is an advantage as it enables the household

to obtain its energy requirements without spending any of its scarce financial resources. From a policy perspective, however, movements up the energy ladder are difficult to encourage as long as biomass resources can be obtained at no financial cost. For this reason, policy efforts and programs to encourage interfuel substitution are more appropriately aimed at urban households where markets are operative and households more frequently have a non-neglible disposable income.

THE ZIMBABLIEAN CONTEXT

In April of 1980, Zimbabwe became the newest African nation to gain its independence. With a strong agricultural sector and a manufacturing sector which consistently contributes 20% of total GDP, it has one of the strongest economies in Sub-Saharan Africa (Stoneman, 1982). Historically, the electricity system was based on the cheap power from the Kariba dam complex. However, since Independence, the coal-fired generation plant at Hwange has added nearly 400 megawatts (MW) to a system which already had a capacity of over 1000 MW. Although all petroleum fuels are imported, Zimbabwe has developed possibly the cheapest ethanol program in the world (Juma, 1985). Despite these strengths, Zimbabwe, like other African countries, depends largely on woodfuel to supply the energy needs of the residential sector. In 1982, wood used as fuel and in rural construction accounted for over 45% of the national end-use energy consumption (Hosier, 1986).

The residential sector in Zimbabwe can be divided into a number of subsectors which were originally created through legislation. While this legislation dates largely from the pre-independence period, the systems which were created are still in place. The urban areas consist of high and low density residential suburbs. Although they were originally established on racial lines, the suburbs have been thus titled in order to provide non-racist categories. The low- density areas house the more affluent households and their domestic workers (who frequently outnumber their employers). The high-density areas, previously called townships, contain the working classes and the less affluent households.

The rural subsectors reflect categories created through the Land Apportionment Act. The largest category consists of communal farming areas, original l y called Tribal Trust Lands, In these areas, which provide homes for the bulk of the Af rican population, the land is held under communal tenure arrangements. Large-scale Commercial Farming Areas (LSCFA) are the next largest category. These consist of large farms making use of capital-intensive techniques. Like the case of the low-density suburbs, the farm workers outnumber the landowners. Small-scale Commercial Farming Areas (SSCFA) were created in the 1950's to allow a limited number of successful black farmers to own their own land. The farms are larger than in the communal areas, and the residents tend

to be wealthier. Finally, resettled areas have been created since Independence to alleviate the political and ecological pressure brought about by the inequitable distribution of land resources. Although the resettlement program has been relatively successful to date, its future hangs in the balance for both political and financial reasons (Weiner - et al., 1985). --

Zimbabwe is both similar to and different from its African neighbors. As in other African countries, the bulk of Zimbabwe's population relies on wood to meet its domestic energy needs. The country is facing an increasingly severe shortage of fuelwood for household use (Hosier, 1986). At the same time, Zimbabwe has plentiful coal and hydropower resources. Unlike its neighbors, Zimbabwe's industrial base is sufficiently diversified to produce domestic appliances at affordable prices. In these respects, Zimbabwe possesses unique advantages which bring policy options like urban or rural electrification into the realm of feasibility. The diversity shown within the residential sector, the sophistication of the national energy system, and the country's relative economic strength make it an ideal case in which to examine the energy ladder hypothesis.

3. RESIDENTIAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN ZIMBABWE

The data-base to be used for analyzing household energy decisions in Zimbabwe is taken from a national household energy survey. Implemented by the Central Statistical Office (CSO) from March to May of 1984 as part of the Zimbabwe Energy Accounting Project, the National Household Energy Survey was a comprehensive residential energy survey. Drawn from the permanent household sampling frame of CSO, the sample was stratified according to the population in each of the residential subsectors discussed in the previous section. The survey instrument itself included questions about appliance ownership and utilization, fuel use, fuel procurement, demographics, perceived scarcity of fuelwood, income, and landholding. While the details of the survey itself are discussed elsewhere (Hosier, 1984), the survey data serve as the basis for the analysis which follows.

This section serves as an introduction to the survey by presenting the results in summary form. This serves two purposes. First, it is intended to acquaint the reader with the data and the results of the survey in its simplest form. Second, it is intended to serve as an analytical foundation for the logit work which is presented in section 4. The variables and categories used in the logit analysis were developed on the basis of the conceptually simpler analysis of variance results in this section. The survey results are examined first by stratum, then by income categories, and finally by natural region (ecological zone) for the rural households only.

FUEL USE PATTERNS BY STRATUM

Table IV-1 presents the results of the survey broken down by residential subsector. The table contains both the consumption of each fuel by those using it and the percentage of households actually using each fuel. The first four subsectors are rural while the remaining two are urban. The importance of this subsectoral breakdown can be seen in the fact that all of the quantities and percentages demonstrate statistically significant differences.

TABLE IV- 1 E CONSUMPTION& UTILIZATION 5 RESIDENTIAL SUBSECTOR ............................................................................................ Subsector F u e l wood Coa l Kerosene E l e c t r i c i t y

Load L i m i t e d Mete red

n kg/day 5 Using kg/day L Us ing l t / w e e k 5 Uslng E Uslng kwh/rnonth % Usir

Communal 1230 15.6 94.3% 0.4 0.2% 0.63 76.45 0.22 SSCFA 74 14.8 98.6% - 0.45 94.6;

R e s e t t l e d 88 17.8 97.7% - 0.58 69.3% LSCFA 227 14.0 83.3% 10.0 11.4% 0.46 489% 4.8% H igh D e n s i t y 322 5.6 19.25 6.5 2.5% 2.45 28.3% 60.9L 267.3 10.1 Low D e n s i t y 20 6.4 10.7% 2.0 0.5% 2.75 30.2% 30.7% 531.4 45.1

T o t a l 2146 15.0 74.2% 8.5 1.7% 0.84 62.2% 12.7% 461 .2 6.1

Note: A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e shows t h e above q u a n t i t i e s and percentages t o be s i g n l f l c :

d i f f e r e n t f rom zero a t t h e p:0.001 l e v e l .

The fuelwood figures are somewhat predictable as urban households utilize wood less commonly and in smaller quantities than do rural households. This may well be attributed to the fact that urban households normally purchase wood while rural households normally gather it. Although there is some variation in the quantities utilized by the different rural subsectors, a 95% simultaneous confidence level shows that there is, in fact, no difference between wood consumption in these different groups. Only a few households utilize coal as a domestic energy carrier due both to expense and relative uncleanliness. Kerosene is used in small quantities by a large percentage of rural households for lighting. A smaller quantity of urban households use paraffin, but they use it mostly for cooking. As a result, the quantity used is much larger. While being relatively scarce in rural Zimbabwe, residential electrical connections are common in the urban areas. Load-limited connections, where the consumption is limited by the amperage rating of the system's fuse, are more common in high-density residential areas. Metered connections are more frequently encountered in low-density areas.

In Table IV-1, a number of subsectors demonstrate major differences in both the penetrations and the level of consumption of each fuel. The major differences are between

the rural and the urban areas. Within the rural areas, the most significant differences are between the LSCF areas and the remaining groups, all of which consist of private smallholders. The high and low density areas show differences in the levels of wood, kerosene, and electricity use. In summary, households in the different Zimbabwean residential subsectors demonstrate different energy-use patterns.

FUEL-USE PATTEWS BY INCOME CATEGORY

Household energy consumption is normally assumed to vary according to the level of household income. In fact, some might argue that the differences in energy consumption behavior by residential subsector are solely a reflection of the differences in monetary income. This differentiation by income class lies at the basis of the energy-ladder hypothesis: as income increases, the quality of the energy carriers are supposed to increase. Table IV-2 summarizes the survey results by four income categories, based on monthly income in Zimbabwean dollars. Although another category was originally included for incomes of more than Z $ 500, this extra category was omitted as it added no additional insight.

TABLE IV-2 FUEL CONSUMPTION AND UTILIZATION BY INCOME CATEGORY

..................................................................................................... ome Fuel wood Coal Kerosene Electricity

egory Load Limited Metered pe r month) n kg/day % Using* kg/day* 5 Using* l t /week* 5 using* % usingX kwh/month

t* b Using*

..................................................................................................... s than 50 1173 15.09 86.6% 4.45 0.3% 0.614 68.5% 5.2% 541.5 3.4% s t h a n 150 589 14.62 68.9% 9.68 4.2% 1.081 63.7% 17.6% 352.0 l .9% S t h a n 250 166 15.34 51.8% 8.26 3.0% 1.498 42.8% 27.1% 255.8 1 1.4% a t e r t h a n 250 218 15.64 38.5% 4.63 1.4% 1.372 39.0% 28.9% 493.8 26.6%

A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e r e s u l t s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from zero a t t h e pz0.1 l e v e l .

A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e r e s u l t s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from z e r o a t t h e p:0.001 l e v e l .

According to the results in the above table, fuelwood consumption per se does not appear to change with income. -- -- )That does decrease significantly is the proportion of households relying on fuelwood. As incomes rise, the importance of fuelwood as a domestic fuel declines. Although differences in coal consumption do appear to be statistically significant, the pattern is not clearcut. This may be due to the fact that coal is used by so few households. The quantity of kerosene consumed by households using it increases with income. This is accompanied by a decline in the percentage of households actually using the fuel. Kerosene can perhaps best be characterized as a transitional

fuel for those with enough income to purchase a fuel. Kerosene must be considered as inferior to electricity. The quantity of electricity utilized by those with metered connections shows no staightforward pattern, although the figures do suggest a general increase. However, both the proportion of households with load-limited and metered connections increases across income categories. This becomes particularly apparent if the two figures are added to provide the percentage of households having access to electricity: this estimate increases steadily from 8.6% for the poorest group to 55.5% for the richest group.

These results do tend to support the existence of a crude energy ladder. Households with higher incomes have access to and tend to utilize more effective or sophisticated energy carriers. The overall tendency appears to be a move toward electricity and away from wood. However, these findings are cross-sectional for all households. Although there is no way to be sure that any individual household will follow this pattern as its income rises, the overall trend appears to be in this direction.

FUEL-USE PATTERNS BY NATURAL REGION

Combining the estimates of both the rural and urban households in the preceding two sections is useful to provide a quick overview of the survey data. However, it can obscure some information which is important to the interpretation of the survey results. In Table IV-3, the survey results for rural households only are grouped according to the natural region or agroecological zone of the household. According to the classification of land potential, rainfall and agricultural potential both decrease from natural region I to natural region IV (Munasirei, 1984).

Although several factors do demonstrate statistically significant differences, the most striking pattern is that of the fuelwood and kerosene estimates for zones I1 and 111. In both cases, the quantity of wood consumed is noticeably lower than for zones I and IV. In zone 11, only 83% of the households surveyed made use of fuelwood. Although the quantity of kerosene consumed does not appear to vary, the percentage of households using kerosene is higher for zones I1 and 111.

Three factors should be considered when attempting to explain these patterns. First, the areas with the highest population density and the greatest shortage of woodfuel are the communal areas of natural region I1 (Hosier, 1986). The rural wood shortage in these regions is, perhaps, exacerbated by their proximity to Harare, itself a rather large center for wood demand. Second, the rural areas of zone I1 have the best road network in the country. This has the dual effect of both increasing the availability and decreasing the price of kerosene to rural dwellers. It also improves the ability of wood traders to export wood to Harare. Finally, while incomes do vary by natural region, they do not do so Sn a

n o n o t o n i c a l l y - d e c r e a s i n g f a s h i o n . I n f a c t , among t h e l o u s e h o l d s s u r v e y e d , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t o n l y a t t h e 1 0 % l e v e l . Income c a n n o t b e ~ n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e m a j o r d e t e r m i n a n t o f t h e o b s e r v e d 2a t t e rn s .

TABLE IV-3 CONSUMPTION AND UTILIZATION BY NATURAL REGION: RURAL HOUSEHOLDS !lNLJ

............................................................................. Natura l Fue l wood Coal Kerosene E l e c t r l c l t y

Region Load L imi ted

n kg/dayx Z ~ s l n g * kg/dayx % usin; l t /week % o sing* % using*

T o t a l 1619 15.5 93.1% 9.3 1.7% 0.62 73.0% 0.9% .............................................................................

* Ana lys is o f var iance r e s u l t s are significantly d i f f e r e n t from zero a t the 0.001 l e v e l .

In s h o r t , t h e r u r a l energy consumption p a t t e r n s do vary >y n a t u r a l reg ion , bu t t h e p a t t e r n s a r e r e l a t i v e l y complex. L 1 1 o f t h e above-mentioned f a c t o r s may p l a y a r o l e i n i n f l u e n c i n g t h e s e p a t t e r n s , b u t t h e c a u s e s a r e s u b t l e , and 2erhaps masked by viewing t he problem a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l .

. HOUSEHOLD FUEL CHOICE

The preceding s e c t i o n s demonstrate t h a t household energy :onsumption p a t t e r n s va ry according t o r e s i d e n t i a l subsec tor , income, and n a t u r a l region. The subsec to ra l a n a l y s i s shows :hat t h e major consumption d i f f e r e n c e s a r e between r u r a l ;mal l h o l d e r s , commercial fa rmworkers , and urban d w e l l e r s . rhe income a n a l y s i s shows t h a t a t f i r s t g l a n c e , t h e ene rgy Ladder appears t o ho ld . That i s t o say, households a t h igher income l e v e l s show a g r e a t e r t endency t o u t i l i z e h i g h e r l u a l i t y ene rgy c a r r i e r s . Among r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s , n a t u r a l region o r e c o l o g i c a l zone appears t o be a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r i e t e r m i n i n g consumpt ion p a t t e r n s . However, n a t u r a l r e g i o n i lone does no t go a long way toward exp l a in ing t h e observed > a t t e r n S . IJhi l e t h e s e f i n d i n g s imp1 i c i t l y s u p p o r t t h e :oncept o f an e n e r g y l a d d e r , t h e y a r e n o t an a d e q u a t e t e s t ? o r it. I n t h i s s e c t i o n , a s e t o f m u l t i n o m i a l l o g i t models i r e c o n s t r u c t e d t o a d d r e s s more d i r e c t l y t h e f a c t o r s ~ n f l u e n c i n g household f u e l choice i n Zimbabwe.

?ORMULATION OF THE MODEL

The r e a l ques t ion surrounding t he energy l adde r has t o lo w i t h t h e h o u s e h o l d ' s c h o i c e among a number o f domes t i c mergy a 1 t e r n a t i v e s . For example, under what condi t ions w i l l

a household in Zimbabwe decide to cook with kerosene instead of wood? In order to more precisely formulate this question, it is necessary to both limit the end-uses being discussed and invoke a number of assumptions about both household's decisionmaking environment and its preferences. While the former is necessary in order to ensure that the options being examined are true alternatives, the latter is also required in order to adequately characterize the decisionmaking process. Since cooking is the most important end-use in Zimbabwe, the following discussion focuses on the choice of household cooking fuels. The assumption that households are free to exercise some basic choice about which fuels they will use underlies all of the following analysis. This is a relatively weak assumption, for, although the choice set may be limited by unreasonably high transactions costs in many cases, energy authorities cannot force households to use or not to use a specific fuel. For example, electricity is not a realistic option for the bulk of Zimbabwe's rural households. However, even these households do decide among a reduced set of alternatives. Therefore, the question facing the Zimbabwean energy authorities hinges upon the identification of those factors which can be influenced in order to encourage households to utilize the desired fuel. The model is intended to identify those factors which will most directly influence that choice.

A household faces a choice between a finite number of different cooking-fuel options. Each fuel is distinguished by a range of attributes, such as price, efficiency, and convenience. The modelling approach assumes that any particular household will make a given choice because it reflects the preferences inherent in its decisionmaking environment. This environment plays two roles in the choice process. First, it influences the preference structure of the household, and second, it imposes retrictions on the structure of the choice set. Therefore, the household energy decision is best determined by both a relevant choice set and the socio-economic context of the household.

If the choice about whether or not to use a particular fuel is viewed as a discrete decision (even when fuels are used in combination), then the househoid fuel choice problem reduces to one of choice among a set of discrete fuel alternatives. It is not the quantity of a particular fuel to be used which is to be modellec, but rather the decision about whether or not to use a particular fuel at all. Multinomial logit models have been developed to deal with situations in which a decision must be made between a number of discrete or distinct alternatives (McFadden, 1974; Luce, 1959). In the US, they have been used with increasing frequency tc analyze household fuel-choice and appliance- purchase decisions (Brownstone, 1979; Goett, 1979; and Dubin and McFadden, 1984).

The formulation of the multinomial logit model (MNL) begins with the assumption that a household is seeking to maximize its utility. Under the conventional neoclassical

choice framework, a utility function is prescribed and then maximized with respect to a "bundle" of choice alternatives. The resulting solution is therefore somewhat deterministic. In contrast, the MNL framework is probabilistic in nature. It is stochastic, being comprised of both a deterministic and a random component, Hence, utility is not fixed but is random1 y determined. In this probabi l istic framework, the choice decision can be algebraically determined from a given utility function by defining a choice probability such that household i will select alternative j over alternative k if and only if:

where Ui and Ui represent the utility to individual i of alternatjve j an8 k, respectively. In the case of numerous alternatives, the probability (P) of individual i choosing alternative j over alternative k will depend upon the utility associated with each alternative, such that

where Z i . is a function of both the attribute vector associate& with each alternative and the vector describing the household's decision-making environment: B represents an unknown taste parameter common to all households: and Eij represents an error term.

McFadden (1974) has shown that if certain assumptions are made about the nature of the error terms, the utility function assumes a logit form having an associated choice probability of the form:

By taking the logarithm of the ratio of any two choice probabilities, the model can be expressed in a convenient regression form with the unknown B coefficients estimated using maximum likelihood estimation. For example, assume that there is a choice situation with J possible alternatives, with probabilities: Pil, Pi2, ... PiJ. Also assume that there is a set of explanatory variables that describe the context of the choice situation. Then the explanatory variables can be regressed onto the log odds ratio Ln(Pi j/~ik), so that:

where CO represents tkie intercept and B and Z represent the vectors of coefficients and independent variables, respectively.

The independent variables included in the different formulations are household income, household size, ecological

p o t e n t i a l , r e l a t i v e f u e l p r i c e s , and t h e percept ion of f u e l a c c e s s i b i l i t y . Maximum-l i k e l ihood non1 i n e a r e s t i m a t i o n i s used t o c a l i b r a t e t h e l o g i t model t o t h e d a t a . Maximum l i k e l i h o o d e s t i m a t e s o f o n l y t h e f i r s t t i e r l o g i s t i c odds r a t i o s ( i . e . , compar i sons t o t h e f i r s t o p t i o n , Ln(p2!pI), L n ( P 3 / p l ) , e t c . ) a r e o b t a i n e d d i r e c t l y . The remaining

e s t i m a t e s a r e o b t a i n e d from c o e f f i c i e n t c o n s t r a i n t s which r e s u l t from the requirement t h a t t h e choice p r o b a b i l i t i e s sum t o one. Thus:

f o r m > 3 and k > 1 and m # k. I n t h e fo l l owing s ec t i ons , we app ly t h e l o g i t model t o

t h e d a t a from t h e Zimbabwe National Household Energy Survey t o p r e d i c t t h e type of f u e l a household s e l e c t s f o r cooking. The a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e f u e l s a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e household decisionmaking environment combine t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l i k e l i h o o d of any one f u e l b e i n g chosen i n p r e f e r e n c e t o a n o t h e r . The r e s u l t s from t h r e e d i f f e r e n t models a r e p r e s e n t e d : one f o r t h e e n t i r e sample , one f o r u rban a r e a s o n l y , and one f o r t h e r u r a l a r e a s o n l y . The a l t e r n a t i v e c h o i c e s e t s a r e d i f f e r e n t f o r e ach c a s e a s a r e t h e i ndependen t v a r i a b l e s d e s c r i b i n g t h e h o u s e h o l d d e c i s i o n env i ronmen t and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f u e l a l t e r n a t i v e s .

NATIONAL-LEVEL RESIDENTIAL FUEL CHOICE

Viewing t h e h o u s e h o l d f u e l d e c i s i o n from t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l f i r s t c u t a t t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e energy l adde r and i n t e r f u e l s u b s t i t u t i o n . However, t h i s i s complicated by one important f a c t o r . Not a l l households f ace t h e same a l t e r n a t i v e s e t . Although r u r a l households could c o n c e i v a b l y pay t h e c o n n e c t i o n f e e t o o b t a i n e l e c t r i c i t y , t h i s i s an u n l i k e l y a l t e r n a t i v e . For p u r p o s e s of t h e n a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s , two i m p l i c i t assumptions a r e necessary t o use t h e same a l t e r n a t i v e s e t f o r a l l households. F i r s t , t h e user f e e s a r e assumed t o be p r o h i b i t i v e l y expensive i n t hose c a s e s where a p a r t i c u l a r f u e l , e l e c t r i c i t y f o r example , i s no t r e a l l y an op t ion . Second, t he se c o s t s a r e represen ted , no t by e x p l i c i t c o s t f a c t o r s , b u t a r e fo lded i n t o t h e e f f e c t s of a household being i n a d i f f e r e n t s t ra tum o r coming from a d i f f e r e n t a rea .

The response s e t and t h e independent v a r i a b l e s used i n t h e n a t i o n a l - l e v e l a n a l y s i s a r e summarized i n T a b l e IV-4. The c o o k i n g f u e l a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e g a t h e r e d f i r e w o o d , purchased f irewood, kerosene ( p a r a f f i n ) , e l e c t r i c i t y , and a t r a n s i t i o n a l t e r n a t i v e , This l a s t category i s comprised of h o u s e h o l d s u s i n g more t h a n one f u e l t o cook w i t h , The most common examples of t h i s a r e wood and k e r o s e n e , o r wood and e l e c t r i c i t y , being used i n combination. The l a s t column i n t h e t a b l e g i v e s t h e number o f h o u s e h o l d s u s i n g e a c h a l t e r n a t i v e .

The independent v a r i a b l e s used i n t he n a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s f a l l i n t o t h r e e c l u s t e r s . The f i r s t c l u s t e r c o r r e s p o n d s t o household c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , such a s household s i z e and income c l a s s . The second ca tegory i nc ludes measures of s t ra tum o r l oca t i on . Two dummy v a r i a b l e s were inc luded t o d i s t i n g u i s h households i n t h e l a r g e- s c a l e commercial farming a r e a s and u rban h o u s e h o l d s . Two o t h e r dummies were used t o r e p r e s e n t households i n Natura l Regions I 1 and 111. The t h i r d c l u s t e r i n c l u d e s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t f u e l a l t e r n a t i v e s , such a s p r i c e r a t i o s and fuelwood a v a i l a b i l i t y . For t h e s a k e o f c o m p u t a t i o n a l e f f i c i e n c y , a l l i ndependen t v a r i a b l e s a r e e n t e r e d a s dummies, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of household s i z e .

TABLE IV-4 DEFINITION OF VARIABLES USED I N THE MNL MODEL: NATZNAL LEVEL

Va r i ab l e VariableDef i n i t i o n Frequency ............................................................. Response Va r i ab l e s :

Households Using P a r t i c u l a r Fuel- type

Gathered Fuelwood Purchased Fuelwood Trans i t i on Fuels Kerosene E l e c t r i c i t y

Tota l Sample S i ze N = 1965 ............................................................. Explanatory Var iab les : ............................................................. HHSIZE Household S ize (cont inuous) 1965 STLSCFA Dummy Var i ab l e Ind i ca t i ng Commercial

Farming Areas 186 STURBAN Dummy Ind i ca t i ng Urban Household 463 NRDUM2 Dummy Ind i ca t i ng Natural Region I 1 539 NRDUM3 Dummy Ind i ca t i ng Natural Region I11 453 RPRCAT Ratio of Per Energy Unit P r i ce

of Kerosene t o E l e c t r i c i t y > 0.5 1011 YCATl Monthly Income Dummy f o r Z$ 50-150 528 YCAT2 Monthly Income Dummy f o r Z $ 150-250 146 YCAT3 Monthly Income Dummy f o r > Z$ 250 198 FWNDIFF Woodfuel User's s u b j e c t i v e Assessment

of t h e Ease of C o l l e c t i n g Fuelwood 835 .............................................................

The coefficients and the T-statistics from the maximum- likelihood estimation procedure are listed in Table IV-5. Tab1 e IV-6 summarizes the direction and significance of each independent variable for each fuel choice. In each case, the dependent variables or log-odds ratios are portrayed across the top of the table. They are arranged in such a way that a positive sign represents a movement up the energy ladder.

The effects of income on fuel choice are summarized by the coefficients of the income variables. The four income categories used are represented by three dummy variables, with the default case being the lowest category. The income category variables have a positive influence on choosing kerosene, purchased wood, and the transition alternative over gathered wood. Only in the highest income category do households demonstrate a higher probability of choosing electricity over gathered fuelwood. Being in the Z$50-250 monthly income range actually appears to have a negative influence on the probability of a household choosing electricity over kerosene, purchased wood, or the transition alternative. For most fuels, income does have a positive influence on movements to more sophisticated fuels. The exceptions to this rule, as demonstrated by the negative signs in Table IV-6, are largely for groups where there are few cases. It is as likely as not that they are statistical artifacts with no reasonable underlying explanation.

Of the variables describing a household's location, the urban dummy turns out to be significant and positive in every case. This means that urban households always show a higher probability of choosing a higher quality energy carrier than rural households, other things being equal. The coefficient for the commercial farming area dummy is insignificant in every case, in spite of the significant findings from the results presented in previous sections. This lack of any significant effect can be traced to the limitation of this analysis to the cooking end-use. It is apparent that many farm workers have the equivalent of load-limited connections: they are supplied with sufficient electricity for lighting, but not for cooking.

Natural region does appear to play a role in household fuel choice. Being in Natural Region I1 increases the probability of a l~ousehold choosing kerosene over any other option. This may be attributed to the greater accessibility of kerosene brought on by the superior road network. Households in Natural Region I1 are also less llkely to choose electricity over purchased wood as a cooking fuel. Households in Natural Region 111 show a greater tendency to move away from gathered wood to purchased wood or a transition-fuel combination but not moving on to electricity or kerosene. Unfortunate1 y, the reason for this preference pattern is not altogether clear. It is likely that the households in this region would display patterns slmilar to those of Natural Region 11 if they had both the household resources and the infrastructural capacity.

Increases in household size increase the likelihood of a

household choosing kerosene ove r any o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e . I t i s n o t c l e a r why t h i s s h o u l d be t h e c a s e , b u t t h e e f f e c t o f h o u s e h o l d s i z e i s t o encou rage p o s i t i v e movements up t h e energy l adde r toward kerosene and nega t i ve movements beyond kerosene toward e l e c t r i c i t y .

TABLE IV-5 ANALYSIS OF INDIVIDUAL PARAMETERS NATIONAL RESULTS

Dependent V a r i a b l e s ( N a t u r a l Log o f Odds Ra t io )

(PS/PI) (P4/P1) (P3/P1) (P2/P1) (P5/P4) (P4/P3) (P4/P2) (P3/P2) (P5/P3) (P5/P2)

c p l a n a t o r y E lec : Kero: Tran PWD: E l e c : Kero: Kero: TRAN: E l e c : E l e c : a r l a b l e s Wood Wood Wood Wood Kero Tran PWD PWO Tran PWO .------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ VTERCEPT I s t l m a t e 9.1 9 7 7 8.0769 1.7272 -0.93516 1.1208 6.3497 9.01206 2.66236 7.4705 10.13286 I - S t a t (0.038) (0.011) (1.963) (-2.483) (0.001) (0.008) (0.012) (2.781) (0.030) (0.042) {SIZE l s t l m a t e 0.03015 0.35956 -0.05601 0.04237 -0.32941 0.41557 0.31719 -0.09838 0.08616 -0.01222 T-Stat (0.485) (4.990) (-0.796) (1.090) (-3.462) (4.128) (3.876) (-1.224) (0.917) (-0.167) TLSCFA

I s t i m a t e 0.82874 -8.47992 -0.26989 0.13174 9.30866 -8.21002 -8.61166 -0.40163 1.09863 0.69699 r - S t a t (1.301) (-0.011) (-0.485) (0.763) (0.012) (-0.011) (-0.011) (-0.689) (1.299) (1.055) TURBAN Est lmate 4.4101 2.4022 1.7572 1.2649 2.0079 0.645 1.1373 0.4923 2.6529 3.1452 T-Stat (10.605) (9.987) (5.379) (6.818) (4.179) (1.589) (3.744) (1.310) (5.016) (6.907) ROUMZ 'skimate -0.19027 0.68155 -0.17247 0.21555 -0.87182 0.85402 0.46600 -0.38801 -0.01779 -0.40581 T-Stet (-0.958) (3.297) (-0.417) (1.416) (-3.042) (1.850) (1.816) (-0.882) (-0.039) (-1.622) ROUM3 Es t ima te -0.03469 0.18098 1 .l 264 0.76473 -0.21567 -0.94542 -0.58375 0.36167 -1.16109 -0.79942 T-Stat (-0.148) (0.703) (3.740) (5.801) (-0.619) (-2.386) (-2.018) (1.100) (-3.041) (-2.969) PRCAT Es t ima te 0.44102 0.14015 -0.38025 0.00770 0.30087 0.52040 0.13245 -0.38794 0.82127 0.43332 T-Stat (2.208) (0.682) (-1.336) (0.059) (1.050) (1.482) (0.546) (-1.242) (2.362) (1.825) CAT1 Es t lma te -0.36442 0.58798 0.37966 0.53697 -0.95240 0.20833 0.05102 -0.15731 -0.74407 -0.90138 T-Stat - 1 7 1 5 (2.655) (1.123) (3.912) (-3.104) (0.516) (0.195) (-0.431) (-1.864) (-3.564) CAT2 Es t ima te 0.21491 1.0856 1.1 218 1.2616 -0.87068 -0.0362 -0.176 -0.1398 -0.90688 -1.04668 T-Stat (0.824) (3.934) (3.023) (7.310) (-2.294) (-0.078) (-0.540) (-0.342) (-2.000) (-3.349) CAT3 Es t ima te 0.93405 1.2632 1.1998 0.89280 -0.32915 0.0634 0.37040 0.30700 -0.26575 0.04125 T-Stat (3.397) (4.361) (3.154) (4.310) (-0.824) (0.132) (1.040) (0.709) (-0.566) (0.119) WNDIFF Es t lma te -9.43819 -2.17023 -0.26719 -0.59370 -7.26796 -1.90303 -1.57652 0.32651 -9.17099 -8.84448 T-Stat (-0.039) (-5.411) (-1.023) (-4.734) (-0.030) (-3.975) (-3.751) (1.126) (-0.038) (-0.037) ....................................................................................................... o t e : -2 Log L l k e l l h o o d Rat10 = L790.47; r h o 2 = 0.7574.

Finally, fuel cost and availability do appear to have an effect on household fuel choice; however, few of the estimated effects are those that would be expected. When fuelwood is considered to be relatively easy to collect, households are discouraged from choosing kerosene and purchased wood over gathered wood. This is much as would be expected. In addition, a supply of easily gatherable fuelwood decreases the probability of a household using kerosene instead of a transition alternative or purchased fuelwood. This finding is not one which would be either readily anticipated or easily explained.

TABLE IV- 6 SIGN EFFECTS OF EXPLANATORY VAR1ABLES:NATIONAL RESULTS

................................................................................................. Dependent V a r i a b l e s ( N a t u r a l Log of Odds R a t i o )

.................................................................................... ( P5/P1) (P4/P1) (P3/P1) (P2/P1) (P5/P4) (P4/P3) (P4/PZ) (P3/P2) (P5/P3) (P5/PZ)

E x p l a n a t o r y ELEC: KERO: TRAN: PWO: ELEC: KERO: KERO: TRAN: ELEC: ELEC:

V a r i a b l e s WOOD WOOD WOOD WOOD KERO TRAN PWD PWD TRAN PWD

INTERCEPT 0 HHSIZE 0 STLSCFA 0 STURBAN + NROUMZ 0 NRDUM3 0 RPRCAT + YCATI YCATZ 0 YCAT3 + FWNDIFF 0

"+" denotes significant positive effects (t > 1.5). " 0 " denotes no significant effects (ABS(t) < 1.5). 11 - 11 denotes significant negative effects (t < -1.5)

Even more enigmatic to interpret is the variable indicating that the price of kerosene is high relative to the price of electricity on an energy unit basis. It shows no significant effects on the choice between electricity and kerosene, but has a positive effect on the choice of electricity over gathered wood, the transition alternative, and purchased wood. Presumably, if electricity is cheap relative to kerosene, it will also be cheap relative to other alternatives, thereby increasing its attractiveness. Either the effects of price on fuel-choice decisions is relatively weak over the range of prices and decisions captured in the survey, or the variable is a poor one for summarizing its effects.

In summary, the analysis of household fuel choice at the national-level shows that there are consistent patterns to

household choice of domestic fuels in Zimbabwe. In most cases, increases in income will lead to a higher probability of a household choosing a higher quality fuel. Larger household size encourages the use of kerosene over the range of values examined. Abundance of fuelwood tends to encourage its use. However, the most striking finding from the above two tables centers on the importance of the urban dummy variable. Urban households demonstrate a far higher probability of using a higher quality energy carrier than do their rural counterparts. If policy efforts are going to focus on encouraging households to substitute fuels, such efforts should focus their attention on the urban areas in order to be effective. This finding so dominates the others that it justifies breaking the national-level data down into urban and rural subsamples.

URBAN RESIDENTIAL FUEL CHOICE

Breaking the sample into its separate urban and rural components necessitates a reformulation of both the independent variables and the choice set facing the households. Since all of the cooking-fuel options found in the national sample are found in the urban areas, no reformulation of the response set is necessary. With respect to the independent variables, a1 l of the strata variables from the national analysis have been deleted due either to their redundancy or their insignificance. The remaining independent v a r i a b l e s deal with income, price or availability, and household size. The variables included in the analysis are summarized in Table IV-7 below.

The results from the maximum-likelihood estimation are presented in Table IV-8 and the sign effects of each coefficient are summarized in Table IV-9. For the urban areas, the effects of income increases are mixed, but generally tend to be positive. Having an income higher than the default limit of 2$50 per month tends to increase the probability of choosing kerosene over wood. Only for the highest income group is there a tendency to move toward electricity away from wood. For households in the two highest income categories, there is a significant tendency to choose purchased wood over gathered wood. These are all positive energy-ladder effects of income in the urban areas.

However, there are also some negative effects of income on movements up the energy ladder. For example, households in the Z$50-150 category (YCATl) tend not to use electricity instead of either kerosene or purchased wood. In these cases, they actually choose the lower quality energy carrier. In the highest income categories, households might be expected to choose the higher quality energy carrier in this instance. This is not the case, clearly reflecting the fact that the step toward electricity away from kerosene is not one over which the household exercises total control. The extension of supply lines to households is paramount in determining a household's ability to cook with electricity.

A large number of Zimbabwean urban households have load- limited connections with insufficient capacity to allow electric cooking. This factor makes kerosene's role a pivotal one in the household energy ladder in Zimbabwe. Increases in income above Z$50 per month encourage households to use kerosene instead of gathered fuelwood. However, if continued, these same income forces are insufficient to encourage households to move away from kerosene towards electricity as a cooking fuel. This last step would appear to depend upon access to the electrical grid via higher amperage household connections, not the household's economic well-being.

TABLE IV-7 DEFINITION OF VARIABLES USED IN THE MNL MODEL: URBAN AREAS ONLY - p - p

Variable Variable Definition Frequency

Response Variables: Households Using Particular Fuel-type

Gathered Fuelwood Purchased Fuelwood Transition Fuels Kerosene Electricity

Total Sample Size N = 463 ............................................................. Explanatory Variables: ............................................................. HHSI ZE Household Size (continuous) 463 RP RCAT Ratio of Price of Kerosene to Electricity 115

(Greater than 0.5 per equivalent MJ) YCATl Monthly Income Dummy for Z$ 50-150 160 YCAT2 Monthly Income Dummy for Z$ 150-250 8 1 YCAT3 Monthly Income Dummy for Z$ 250 123 FWNDIFF Woodfuel User's Subjective Assessment

of the Ease of Collecting Fuelwood 2 4

The effects of household size on urban fuel choice are more complex than for the national sample. For most of the cases involving gathered wood, an increase in household size increases the probability that a household will continue to use gathered wood. The exception to this is the kerosene:wood decision, wherein the coefficient is positive, but insignificant. For the e1ectricity:kerosene choice, increases in household size lead to a decreased tendency to choose electricity. In general, the effect of larger household sizes is to decrease the likelihood of moving up the energy ladder. Additionally, increasing household size

encourages the use of kerosene. This is evidenced by the e1ectricity:kerosene coefficients, as we11 as the kerosene vs. transition or purchased wood coefficents. These latter two are the only cases in which the coefficients are positive.

TABLE IV-8 ANALYSIS OF INDIVIDUAL PARAMETERS: URBAN AREAS ONLY

Dependent V a r i a b l e (Natura l Log o f Odds Rat io)

(P5/P1) (P4/P1) (P3/P1) (P2/P1) (P5/P4) (P5/P3) (P5/P2) (P4/P3) (P4/P2) (P3/P2) ....................................................................................................... xp lanatory ELEC: KERO: TRAN: PWD: ELEC: ELEC: ELEC: KERO: KERO: TRAN: a r i a b l e s WOOD WOO0 WOOD WOO0 KERO TRAN PWO TRAN PWD PWO ....................................................................................................... NTERCEPT Parameter 7.5071 -1.59171 -6.14927 0.84447 9.09881 13.65637 6.66264 4.55756 -2.43617 -6.99373 T-Stat (0.017) (-2.120) (-0.015) (0.912) (0.020) (0.023) (0.015) (0.011) (-2.044) (-0.017) HSIZE

Parameter -0.20093 0.11742 -0.23001 -0.29748 -0.31836 0.02908 0.09655 0.34744 0.41491 0.06748 T-Stat (-1.939) (1.069) (-1.463) (-2.601) (-2.11) (0.154) (0.626) (1.811) (2.616) (0.347) PRCAT

Parameter 0.42727 0.20995 0.12320 -1 .l1843 0.21732 0.30407 1.54570 0.08675 1.32838 1.24163 T-Stat (1.332) (0.635) (0.239) (-1.812) (0.472) (0.501) (2.222) (0.142) (1.897) (1.544) CAT1 Parameter -0.28326 0.43452 7.692 0.41852 -0.71778 -7.97526 -0.70178 -7.25748 0.01601 7.27349 T-Stat ( -1 .D221 (1.456) (0.019) (1.140) (-1.763) (-0.020) (-1.526) (-0.018) (0.034) (0.018) CAT2 Parameter 0.11583 0.75104 8.1364 0.89315 -0.63521 -8.02056 -0.77732 -7.38535 -0.14210 7.24325 T-Stat (0.301) (1.863) (0.020) (1.903) (-1.140) (-0.020) (-1.281) (-0.018) (-0.230) (0.018) CAT3 Parameter 0.77589 0.73365 8.3037 0.75387 0.04225 -7.52780 0.02203 -7.57005 -0.02021 7.54983 T-Stat (1.902) (1.690) (0.021) (1.533) (0.071) (-0.019) (0.034) (-0.019) (-0.030) (0.019) WNDIFF

Parameter -10.0595 -1.83329 -0.95740 -0.05228 -8.22621 -9.10209 -10.0072 0.87588 -1.78101 -0.90512 T-Stat (-0.023) (-4.422) (-1.541) (-0.172) (-0.019) (-0.021) (-0.023) (-1.172) (-3.465) (-1.308)

3te: -2 Log L i k e l i h o o d Rat io = 652.64; rho2 = 0.4379.

Turning to the effects of availability and price, the coefficients are again somewhat difficult to interpret. The effect of a readily available supply of fuelwood on movements away from gathered wood to kerosene or a transitional package are negative, as would be expected. However, the negative effect of fuelwood availability on the move from purchased wood to kerosene would again suggest that there is a correlation between readily gatherable fuelwood supplies and a low purchase price of wood. The variable describing the relative price ratios of wood and electricity yields unusual results. None of these results seem sensible. What is clear is that the price of kerosene relative to electricity has no significant impact on the choice of electricity vs. kerosene

over the range of values examined. Other factors, such as electricity availability, would seem to dominate.

TABLE I V- 9 SIGN EFFECTS OF EXPLANATORY VARIABLES: URBAN AREAS ONLY

........................................................................................... Dependent V a r i a b l e ( N a t u r a l Log o f W d s Ratio)

........................................................................................... Explanatory ELEC: KERO: TRAN: PWO: ELEC: ELEC: ELEC: KERO: KERO: TRAN: V a r i a b l e s WOOD WOOD WOOD WOOD KERO TRAN PWD TRAN PWD PWD ........................................................................................... INTERCEPT 0 - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 HHSIZE 0 0 0 + + 0 RPRCAT 0 0 0 - 0 0 + 0 + + YCATI 0 + 0 0 - 0 - 0 0 0 YCATZ 0 + 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 YCAT3 + + 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 FWNDIFF 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

"+" denotes significant positive effects (t > 1.5). "0" denotes no significant effects (ABS(t) < 1.5). 11-11 denotes significant negative effects (t < -1.5).

Households in the urban areas are more likely than their counterparts in the rural areas to make use of higher-quality energy carriers. This can be attributed both to the proximity of fuel supplies or supply facilities, such as the electrical grid, as well as to the higher incomes. Deliberate attempts to encourage fuel substitution are more likely to gain a foothold in the urban areas. Unfortunately, the factors determining household fuel choices in the model, such as income and household size, are not easy to control. At the same time, it does appear that more households would readily cook with electricity if the availability of metered connections were increased. This supply-side bottleneck, rather than the household decisionmaking environment, appears to be the greatest obstacle to the increased use of electricity for cooking in urban Zimbabwe.

RURAL RESIDENTIAL FUEL CHOICE

Because of the striking differences between rural and urban life in Zimbabwe, the set of fuel alternatives being examined in the rural case are necessarily more limited than for the urban case. The choice alternatives, independent variables and the frequencies for each are summarized in Table IV-10. The gathered and purchased wood options have remained the same. The main change involves the treatment of commercial fuel options. Since there were so few rural households who cooked with either kerosene or electricity, these were combined into one option, called commercial fuels,

While it is not strictly valid to assume that all rural households have the option of using electricity, the assumption is rationalized on the basis that the connection fees are prohibitively expensive.

TABLE IV-10 DEFINITION VARIABLES: RURAL HOUSEHOLDS ONLY

............................................................. Variable Variable Definition Frequency

Response Variables: Households Using Particular Fuel-type

............................................................. P1 Gathered Fuelwood 1397 P2 Purchased Fuelwood 82 P3 Commercial Or Transition 2 3

Total Sample Size PT = 1502

Explanatory Variables: ............................................................. HHSIZE Household Size (continuous) 1502 RPRCAT Ratio of Price of Kerosene to Electricity 896

(Greater than 0.5 per equivalent MJ) YCATl Monthly Income Dummy for Z $ 50-150 368 YCAT2 Monthly Income Dummy for Z$ 150-250 6 5 YCAT3 Monthly Income Dummy for > Z$ 250 7 5 FWNDIFF Woodfuel user's subjective Assessment

of the Ease of Collecting Fuelwood 811 .............................................................

The results of the maximum-likelihood estimation are presented in Table IV-11 and the sign effects are summarized in Table IV-12. Focusing first on the coefficients of the income variables, they generally have a positive effect on a household's position on the energy ladder. Households in either of the higher two income groups demonstrate a greater propensity to choose the commercial-fuel alternative over gathered wood. Households in any but the lowest income category will show a higher probability of choosing purchased wood over gathered wood. These effects are as would be expected. At the intermediate income levels, income has a somewhat puzzling negative effect on the probability of using commercial alternatives instead of purchased wood. Again, this may be derived from the limited number of cases.

Household size appears to influence significantly only the decision to utilize purchased wood over gathered wood. The larger the housek~old, the greater the probability of choosing to purchase firewood. Again, this counterintuitive finding may be attributed to the limited sample size, the existence of a few exceptional cases, or even an element of multicollinearity between household size and income.

The measures of fuel availability and price have negative effects on movements along the energy ladder. The impact of the fuelwood accessibility measure is much as would be expected: when fuelwood is readily accessible, households tend not to utilize other fuels. When it is available, rural households prefer to utilize fuelwood instead of purchased fuelwood or a commercial alternative. Other things being equal, a household in a fuelwood-scarce area will be more likely than a household in a fuelwood-abundant area to utilize a purchased alternative instead of gathered fuelwood. This finding cannot be considered to be particularly startling. However, scarcity alone is not a sufficiently- strong condition to encourage the substitution of commercial fuels for gathered fuelwood. A minimum income level is another of the conditions necessary to encourage rural households to purchase fuels.

TABLE IV-11 ANALYSIS OF INDIVIDUAL PARAMETERS: RURAL HOUSEHOLDS ONLY

............................................................. Dependent Variable (Natural Log Odds Ratio)

( ~ 3 1 ~ 1 ) ( ~ 2 1 ~ 1 ) (p3/p2) ............................................................. Explanatory COMM : P17OOD : COMM: Variables WOOD IJOOD Pi7OOD ............................................................. lNTERCEPT

Estimate 2.5778 0.564401 2.013399 T-Stat (3.771) (1.421) (2.547)

HHS I ZE Estimate 0.025056 0.100027 -0.07497 T-Stat (0.361) (2.256) (-0.910)

RP RCAT Estimate -0.45823 0.044024 -0.50225 T-Stat (-1.989) (0.355) (-1.919)

YCATl Estimate 0.04435 0.541004 -0.49665 T-Stat (0.159) (3.815) (-1.585)

YCAT2 Estimate 0.704534 1.4108 -0.70626 T-Stat (1.765) (7.997) (-1.618)

YCAT3 Estimate 1.1807 0.748924 0.431776 T-Stat (4.306) (3.081) (1.178)

FWNDIFF Estimate -0.61490 -0.80589 0.190988 T-Stat (-2.499) (-5.466) (0.666)

.............................................................

Note: -2 Log Likelihood Ratio = 2564.40; rho2 = 0.7770.

Viewed from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e r e s u l t s , t h e r e appear t o be r e l a t i v e l y few o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o encourage r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s t o move away from g a t h e r e d wood t o o t h e r f u e l s . Few a l t e r n a t i v e s t o wood a r e c u r r e n t l y i n use, r e f l e c t i n g t he c o n s t r a i n e d d e c i s i o n env i ronmen t . On t h e one hand , t h i s might b e viewed a s a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e l i m i t e d d a t a s e t b e i n g used f o r t h e a n a l y s i s . However, t h i s c r i t i c i s m must be discounted a s t h e d a t a s e t i s among t h e most complete of i t s k i n d i n t h e A f r i c a n c o n t e x t . On t h e o t h e r hand , i f t h e l i m i t e d d a t a r e a l l y do r e f l e c t both a l i m i t e d choice s e t and a h e a v i l y c o n s t r a i n e d d e c i s i o n env i ronmen t , t h e n it makes l i t t l e o r no s e n s e t o f o c u s e f f o r t s t o promote a l t e r n a t i v e f u e l s on t h e r u r a l a r ea s . Such e f f o r t s would most c e r t a i n l y f a i l t o ach ieve widespread acceptance even i n t h e bes t- case s c e n a r i o . I n t h e more p r o b l e m a t i c i n s t a n c e s , t h e y would p l a c e unnecessary s t r a i n on r u r a l households.

The e f f e c t s of t h e v a r i a b l e i n d i c a t i n g a h i g h p r i c e of k e r o s e n e r e l a t i v e t o e l e c t r i c i t y a r e n e g a t i v e i n t h e comparisons which concern commercial f u e l a l t e r n a t i v e s . For households fac ing a h igh r e l a t i v e p r i c e of kerosene, t h e r e i s l e s s of a t endency t o u t i l i z e any commercial f u e l . T h i s might have r e s u l t e d becaused t h e c o s t of e l e c t r i c i t y r e l a t i v e t o t h e income of many r u r a l households approximates i n f i n i t y . T h e r e f o r e , i f t h e p r i c e o f k e r o s e n e i s h i g h enough t o g i v e t h e v a r i a b l e a v a l u e of one, t h i s d i scourages households from using t h e o n l y commercial a l t e r n a t i v e open t o then.

TABLE IV-12 SIGN EFFECTS OF EXPLANATORY VARIABLES: RURAL HOUSEHOLDS ONLY

....................................................... D e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e ( N a t u r a l Log OddsRatio)

Explanatory COMM: PWOOD: COMM: V a r i a b l e s WOOD WOOD P1700D

INTERCEPT HHSIZE RP RCAT Y C A T l YCAT2 YCAT3 FLrnDIFF

5 . CONCLUSIONS

The p r e c e d i n g a n a l y s i s h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d s e v e r a l i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t s r e l e v a n t t o f u e l dec i s ions and household e n e r g y use i n Zimbabwe. In g e n e r a l , t h e ene rgy l a d d e r hypothes i s appears t o ho ld f o r t h e d a t a examined. That i s t o

say, as household economic well-being increases, households show a higher probability of choosing a more sophisticated energy carrier. As presented here for Zimbabwe, the energy ladder moves from gathered fuelwood to purchased f uelwood, to cornbination or transitional fuel mixes, to kerosene, and finally to electricity. While the analysis presented here does go part way to demonstrate that this transition is taken, it is not complete for two reasons. First, to do so, it would have to incorporate a more direct test of these transitions as a continuum. Second, there has been no discussion of the reasons for this transition. Such a discussion lies beyond the scope of the present paper, but would have to focus on the identification of those indifference points where households value equally the resources (both time and monetary) which are expended to obtain each fuel. Future efforts will focus more closely on both of these shortcomings.

Next, having said that there does exist a tendency for households with a higher economic status to move to more sophisticated energy carriers, there appear to be points at which this does not happen. For example, there appears to have been no significant impact of the higher income categories on the choice between electricity and kerosene. All of the significant impacts were incorporated into the coefficients of the first two income categories. This would appear to mean that the household's decisionmaking environment ultimately does not determine the decision in these cases, but rather the capacity of the connection to the grid. Households with load-limited connections are less likely to cook with electricity, not because they cannot afford it, but simply because their electrical wiring cannot carry the necessary current. From this perspective, the extension of non-load-limited connections to urban consumers is paramount not only to the expansion of electricity users but also to the avoidance of the proliferation of illegal connections. To date, Zimbabwe has managed to avoid heavy electricity losses due to pirated connections. However, this is more likely to emerge as a problem in cases such as that revealed in this analysis, where households can afford metered connections, but the supply-authorities have dragged their feet in supplying them. Urban electrification appears as a critical policy initiative for Zimbabwe's energy future.

Thirdly, kerosene does appear to play a critical role in the household energy sector in Zimbabwe. Income increases encourage households to move away from wood to kerosene, and yet are not strong enough to encourage them to move to electricity. As a result, kerosene serves as a holding pattern, particularly for urban households. This is the case in a number of other countries where the kerosene price is heavily subsidized (Pitt, 1985). While the Zimbabwean government does not provide subsidies, it applies a only minimal excise tax to its retail price when compared to the price of other fuels. As a result, this critical fuel has remalned relatively affordable for those needing to use it.

Fourth, the effects of the relative price variable used in the above analysis yielded only enigmatic results. The variable was based on the relative price ratio of kerosene to electricity, and yet it never demonstrated a significant effect on the choice between these two fuels. Two reasons can be advanced for this difficulty. First, as was argued above, the decision to utilize electricity over kerosene is based on the availability of electrical connections. The ratio of the price per energy unit of the two fuels may not have an important impact on the decision. Secondly, the measure itself may not be very good. Kerosene prices are controlled at the pump in Zimbabwe. The price markup from second-hand vendors may be enough to give the variable a value of one only in extreme cases. Not enough variation is expressed in the variable for it to be interesting.

The policy implications of this last point are both good and bad. The price regulatory system appears to be working well throughout Zimbabwe. There do not appear to be many cases of extreme price inequities in the different areas surveyed. This is a positive finding for the energy authorities. On the negative side, however, it means that controlling the price of domestic fuels is insufficient to encourage the use of the desired fuel-mix. The attractivness of price regulation is that it is simple and requires a minimal l eve1 of involvement. To encourage households to move from kerosene to electricity will require a more active role for the electricity-supply authorities.

Finally, the analysis has demonstrated that urban households show a consistently higher propensity to make use of commercial fuels than do their rural counterparts. While this is not surprising, it does have two significant implications. First, any efforts at policy-induced fuel substitution should focus their attention on the urban areas. In these areas, the household decisionmaking environment is more amenable to the adoption of commercial fuels. The second implication is related to this. As urban households move more toward the adoption of commercial fuels, the demand for firewood will decrease. Thus, the forces encouraging deforestation of the rural areas to supply the urban fuelwood markets will abate, lessening the extent of "parasitic" deforestation. This is not to say that trees will no longer be cut faster than they can regenerate, but rather that the forces encouraging this will be the extension of agriculture, not the supplying of fuelwood to the urban markets. The substitution component of Zimbabwe's household energy policy should focus on fuel substitution in the urban areas.

REFERENCES

Alam, M., Dunkerley, J., Gopi, K.N., Ramsay, W . , and Davis, E., 1985

Fuelwood in Urban Markets: A Case Study of Hyderabad. -- -- - --p

New Delhi: Concept Publishing Co.

Bajracharya,D. 1983 "Fuel, Food or Forest? Dllemmas in a Nepali Village," World Development 11,12: 1057-1074. --p

Barnes, C., Ensminger, J., andOIKeefe, P., 1985 Wood, Energy, and Households: Perspectives on Rural - - - - -- --- Kenya. Energy, Environment and Development in Afrlca, Volume 6. Stockholm: Beijer Institute and the Scandinavlan Institute of African Studies.

Brownstone, D. , 1979 "Econometric Models of the Choice and Utilization of Energy-Using Durables," in The Choice and Utilization of Energy-Using Durables, EPRI Report EQ-1961, prepared -- August 1981.

Dubin, J. A., and McFadden, D., 1984 "An Econometric Analysis of Residential Electric Appliance Holdings and Consumption," Econometrica 52: 132-148.

French, D., 1985 "The Economics of Bioenergy in Developing Countries," rn H. Egneus et a l . ed. 1985. Bioenergy '84 Volume 5: - --p --- - Bioenergy 1 5 Developing Countries. - - -p-

London: Elsevier Applied Science Publishers.

Goett, A.A. ,1979 "A Structured Logit Model of Appliance Investment and Fuel Choice," in The Choice and Utilization of Energy- - - - -- -- Using Durables, EPRI Report EQ-1961, prepared August

--p

1981.

Hosier, R., 1986 "Energy Planning in Zimbabwe: An Integrated Approach," Ambio 15, 2: 90-96.

Hosier. R.. 1985 . . Energy Use in Rural Kenya: Household Demand and Rural - -- p--- -- Transformation. Energy, Environment and Development in Africa. Volume 7. Stockholm: Beiier Institute and the scandinavian Institute of African Studies.

Hosier, R., 1984 "Household Energy Consumption in Zimbabwe: A Preliminary Analysis," Zimbabwe Energy Accounting Project (ZEAP) Working Paper No. 18. Stockholm: Beijer Institute.

Hymen, E.L., 1983 "Analysis of the bJoodfuels Market: A Survey of Fuelwood Sellers and Charcoal Makers in the Provrnce of Ilocos Norte, Phillippines," Biomass 3: 167-197.

Juma, C., 1985 "Market Restructuring and Technology Acquisition: Power Alcohol in Kenya and Zimbabwe," Development and Change 16: 39-59.

Kennes, W., Parikh, J.K., and Stolwijk, H., 1984 "Energy from Biomass by Socio-economic Groups- A Case Study of Bangladesh," Biomass 4: 209-234.

Luce, R., 1959 Individual Choice Behavior: _A Theoretical Analysis. New York: Wiley.

McFadden, D., 1974 "Conditional Logit Analysis of Qualitative Choice Behavior," pp. 105-142 in P. Zarembka, ed. 1974. Frontiers in Econometrics. - New York: Academic Press.

Munasirei, D.K., 1984 "Methodology for the Assessment of Land-Use in Zimbabwe, "This volume.

O'Keefe, P., Raskin, P., and Bernow, S., ed. 1984 Energy and Development in Kenya: Opportunities and

----p

Constraints. Energy, ~nviironment and Development in Africa, Volume 1. Stockholm: Beijer Institute and the Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.

Pitt, M., 1985 "Equity, Externalities, and Energy Subsidies: The Case of Kerosene in Indonesia," Journal of Development Economics 17: 201-217.

Reddy, A.K.N.et al, 1982 - -- "Rural Energy ;Consumption Patterns- A Field Study," Biomass 2: 255-280.

Stoneman, C., ed. 1982 Zimbabwe's Inheritance. London: Macmil lan.

Weiner, D., Moyo, S., Munslow, B., and O'Keefe, P., 1985 "Land Use and Agricultural Productivity in Zimbabwe," Journal of Modern A£ rican Studies 23,2: 251-285.

V. WOMEN AND THE RURAL ENERGY ECONOMY OF ZIMBABWE: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND POLICY ISSUES

Kirsten Johnson

1. INTRODUCTION

The past decade has seen agrowing awareness ofthe role of women in rural development. This awareness has generated an expanding body of theoretical and applied analyses reflecting the experience of women in both socialist and nonsocialist countries. The Zimbabwean Government recognizes the considerable contribution of women to the transformation of production and family welfare in all sectors of society. It also recognizes the inherited conditions of inequity and vulnerability affecting many rural women and has set for itself, as a social and political priority, to redress these conditions.

In principle, the broad social priorities formulated in such documents as the Transitional National Development Plan serve to guide the programs and activities of the ministries and departments responsible for implementing diverse aspects of the country's rural development. In practice, a series of intermediary steps is required before the social and political aims of the country's transitional program can be translated into the day-to-day planning procedure of specific government agencies. This translation process, frequently requiring legislative changes, institutional redirection, and a high level of ideological commitment, is itself a key element of the transition period.

A modest yet necessary initial task in this process is the reformulation of the existing broad social and political objectives into specific policy guidelines directed at the activities of particular ministries and departments. These guidelines would serve to evaluate existing and new programs and projects, select among suitable energy technologies, and initiate rural development activities consonant with the country's social objectives.

The present paper outlines the major issues and policy options concerning women and rural energy development in Zimbabwe. The first section provides background information highlighting the major problems affecting women and the rural energy economy in Zimbabwe. Where useful, additional information from analogous experiences in other sub-Saharan countries is included. The material in the first section draws primarily upon selected reports, articles, and monographs synthesizing the current experiences and thinking generated by women-oriented programs in agriculture, domestic water supply, and forestry which have some bearing upon the Department of Energy's current process of policy formulation for rural areas.

In addition, this section includes informatior, derived from a preliminary analysis of selected data on labor budgets

and gender division of labor taken from the Zimbabwe Energy Accounting Project's 1984 Rural Energy Survey. The Rural Energy Survey represents the first attempt to gather comprehensive country-wide data on all aspects of rural household energy use as well as the conditions governing its use. Central to this lies the question of women's role in the rural energy economy.

The last section delineates the elements of a rural energy policy capable of mobilizing women's knowledge, concerns, and capabilities. This discussion is not presented as a formal or complete proposal, but rather as a set of guidelines framing options to be taken into account when formulating a comprehensive energy policy for rural areas.

2. WOMEN AND RURAL ENERGY

RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND RURAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENT

The most prevalent forms of energy in rural Africa are animal power for draught, water lifting and transport; and woody biomass, crop residues and dung for cooking, space heating and lighting. All these are mediated by the region's primary form of energy: human labor power. Generally speaking, this labor power is equipped with fairly rudimentary technology and is governed by social arrangements at the household or community level of organization.

One of the key objectives of rural development is to induce the social and technical arrangements permitting an increase in the productivity of human labor power as well as ensuring that this increase is translated into improvements in rural livelihood and welfare. Closely attuned to this objective is a rural energy policy aimed at increasing the supplies and enhancing the efficient uses of diverse forms of existing and novel energy sources. The dual task of this policy is to satisfy both growing domestic requirements and the demands of a developing agricultural economy.

These objectives seem self-evident. What is not altogether clear is how they may best be achieved. The current difficulties of many African countries in maintaining food self-sufficiency, as we1 l as the impending fuelwood crisis in many parts of the region, coupled with the widespread failure of ambitious, large-scale, expensive agricultural development schemes and forestry projects, have led a growing number of development planners to question the validity of capital-intensive, "top-down" models of rural development.

Thus the mystique of the large, pre-packaged scheme has lost much of its appeal. In its place integrated resource planning, informed by local priorities and the selection of appropriate technologies, has gained a growing number of adherents. There is also much interest in approaches aimed at enhancing local self-reliance and local control over physical and technical resources.

The decentralized, participatory approach would also seem to be most closely suited to Zimbabwe's espoused development goals for its communal areas and resettlement schemes. Thus, potentially at least, we have, in community- based, participatory models, an approach in which the goals of equity and effective, pragmatic planning converge.

Yet critical questions remain for rural energy planners. Most rural energy development schemes tend to substitute, even on a small -scale, capital inputs (in the form of petrochemicals, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and machinery) for labor. Even seemingly modest technological innovations such as small stoves or manual water pumps carry a relatively high price tag when viewed from "below." Additionally, most rural energy supply enhancement schemes tend to substitute monetized commodities (such as fuelwood and timber from plantations) for what had hitherto been a free (although increasingly scarce) good.

As many studies have shown, locally based development can be costly and demanding of scarce resources, and can place undue demands on those least able or willing to bear them. Community woodlots, for example, established a£ ter due consultation with local (male) leaders, have a singular record of failure when women are expected to do the maintenance (EIoskins, 1979) or they produce a product that only some groups within the community value or can afford (Skutch, 1983).

The concept of "local" or "community" development can mask important intra-family and intra-community differences. Effective and equitable rural energy development is based on an understanding of the different sets of constraints and opportunities operating within and among rural households situated in particular agro-ecological settings. Some of the most important of these differences relate to gender-defined division of labor, decision-making, and access to productive resources. The following pages review some of the most important features of this phenomenon and address their possible implications for an equitable yet effective rural energy development policy. The discussion will treat the £01 lowing interrelated aspects of the problem:

(1) Col.onialism's demographic legacy;

(2) Ilomen's responsibility for providing basic household necessities;

( 3 ) Labor time and the allocation of tasks;

(5) Sharing the rewards of labor; and

(6)Access to means of production and means of subsistence.

The issues raised in the discussion provide the basis for a consideration of women-oriented energy policy options in the final section of the paper.

THE CONTEXT: COLONIALISM'S LEGACY

In much of rural Africa, women outnumber men. In some areas the overwhelming majority of permanent rural residents are women, children, and the elderly. Frequently, their lands are poor, overcrowded, and distant from all-weather roads and basic services.

In the Zimbabwean case, the demographic consequences of colonial land and labor policies have compelled men to seek wage employment in mines, commercial farms, and cities. Women have thus become the de facto heads of household and the principal providers of the family's subsistence needs.

According to Chavunduka (1970) the percentage of males 15-55 years of age absent from the Tribal Trust area typical of rural Zimbabwe increased from 24.13 percent in 1948 to 67.4 percent in 1968. The imbalanced demographic results of these policies are shown in Figure V-l, an age-sex pyramid for communal land population based on the 1969 Census of Powulation.

300 200 100 0 100 200 300 (IN THOUSANDS)

FIGURE V-l AGE-GENDER PYRAMID IN COMMUNAL LANDS Source: 1969 Census of Population

More recent information derived from the CSO's national household survey for the communal areas of Mashonaland Central and Manicaland Provinces indicates that this trend has not changed to any significant degree in the intervening fifteen years. Census figures for these two provinces show

that children under 10, women and individuals over 60 years of age comprise 75.30 and 75.29 percent, respectively, of the communal area population of Mashonaland Central and Manicaland provinces (CSO, 1983/84a and 1983/84b). Most significantly, the male to female sex ratio for individuals in the prime working age group between 20 and 49 years of age indicates that women outnumber men roughly 2 to 1 in the communal lands of these two provinces (CSO, 1983/84a and 1983b).

The colonial legacy in Africa, of which Zimbabwe is an outstanding example, is an agrarian economy characterized not only by a distorted demographic structure, but also by a peasantry with limited control over productive resources, whose fields, forests and waters are now experiencing widespread deterioration. Table V-l summarizes the results of a recent survey of deforestation in communal lands.

TABLE V-l POPULATION PRESSURES ANC CRITICAL AREAS OF TIMBER SHORTAGES IK CO~lMUl\rAL AREAS - -- p

............................................................. Degreeof Pressure Total Communal Areas Critical Areas

Balance or No Pressure 32.7% 5.6% Some Pressure 29.8% 20.7% Great to Extreme Pressure 37.5% 73.7% ............................................................. Totals 100.0% 100.0%

Source: Whitlow. 1980

Deforestation and soil erosion directly threaten the livelihood of African farmers. Limited access to additional and improved means of production intensifies processes of environmental degradation and leads to the marginalization of peasant agriculture and to the pauperization of rural African households. As a result, many households are increasingly unable to provide for the subsistence needs of their members on the basis of on-farm activities or locally available water and biomass resources. In the case of fuelwood, two recent studies have concluded that between 20 and 30 percent of Zimbabwe's communal areas are experiencing critical shortages of fuelwood (Whitlow, 1980: Whitsun Foundation, 1981).

RURAL WOMEN AS PROVIDERS

In men's absence, women shoulder the major burden of farm labor and responsibility for family welfare. In the communal lands of Zimbabwe the overwhelming majority of household heads are either women or the elderly. The CS0 household survey results for Mashonaland Central and Manicaland indicate that somewhat over 70 percent of heads of household are female or over 50 years old (CS0 1983/84a and

1983/84b). Table V-2 summarizes the specifics of the officially recorded numbers. If de facto women heads of -- household were included in these figures it is probable that an even greater disparity between women and men would be revealed in the 20 to 49 age group.

TABLE V-2 HEADS OF HOUSEHOLDS: BY AGE AND SEX -- ----

Group Mashonaland Central Manicaland

...................................................... Female or Over 50 70% 72% Over 50 37% 33% Females in 20-49 Age Group 5 3 % 61%

Source: CS0 Household Survey, 1983/84a and 1983/84b

TABLE V-3 WOMEN'S LABOR CONTRIBUTION PER TASK PER UNIT OF P A R T I C I P A T ~ N RURAL A F R I C A ~ O ~ O L G S p--

............................................... ~roduction/~u~ply/~istribution

............................................... Responsibility Participation

Food Production Domestic Food Storage Food Processing Animal Husbandry Marketing Brewing IJater Supply Fuel Supply

~ousehold/~ommunity ............................................... Responsibility Participation ............................................... Household:

Bearing, Rearing of Children 1 .OO Cooking for Husband, Children, Elders 1.00 Cleaning, Washing, etc. 1 .OO House Building 0.30 House Repair 0.50

Community Self-Help Projects 0.70

Source: ECA, 1974: after Muchena, 1977

Women farm, f e t c h water , c o l l e c t firewood, cook, c l e a n , wash, and bear and ca r e f o r c h i l d r e n . They engage i n c r a f t s p r o d u c t i o n and , i n c r e a s i n g l y , pe r fo rm what h i t h e r t o were c o n s i d e r e d ma le t a s k s : p l o u g h i n g , l i v e s t o c k h e r d i n g and r e p a i r s . T a b l e V-3 p r o v i d e s a summary of t h e e s t i m a t e d d e g r e e o f f ema le i n v o l v e m e n t i n r u r a l t a s k s i n an a v e r a g e Afr ican household.

An e a r l y c a s e s t u d y from Zimbabwe conce rn ing r u r a l women's r o l e i n a g r i c u l t u r e recorded t h a t women con t r i bu t ed between 32 and 40 p e r c e n t of t o t a l h o u s e h o l d l a b o r h o u r s t o f a r m i n g ( W e i n r i c h , 1 9 7 5 ) . T a b l e V-4 b e l o w shows t h e percentage f i g u r e s de r ived from t h i s s tudy, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t i n b o t h p e a s a n t and Mas te r Farrner h o u s e h o l d s women's and c h i l d r e n ' s l a b o r i npu t i n crop product ion outweighs t h a t of men.

TABLE V-4 KARANGE TTL LABOR INPUT I N AGRICULTURE

Percentage of To ta l Llorking Hours Devoted t o Crop Production .............................................................

Peasant Households Master Farmer Households

Women Men Chi ldren

Source: Tleinrich, 1975

T a b l e V-5 p r o v i d e s a d d i t i o n a l c a s e s t u d y - b a s e d i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e age and gende r d i v i s i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l l a b o r i n Zimbabwe. I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t women a r e i n v o l v e d a t a l l s t a g e s of t h e c r o p c y c l e f o r t h e c o u n t r y ' s major s t a p l e crops.

Table V-6 records t he most r ecen t survey-based da t a on t h e d i v i s i o n of l a b o r i n a g r i c u l t u r e i n r u r a l Zimbabwe, p r o v i d i n g a u s e f u l d i s a g g r e g a t i o n by t a s k . The Zimbabwe- s p e c i f i c f i nd ings on t h e d i v i s i o n of l abo r shown i n Tables V- 4 , V-5, and V-6 confirm women's c r i t i c a l r o l e i n a g r i c u l t u r e , however t h e p e r c e n t a g e f i g u r e s d i f f e r somewhat from t h e o v e r a l l averages recorded i n Table V-3.

T a b l e V-6 s u g g e s t s t h a t women's c o n t r i b u t i o n t o many fa rm t a s k s i s h i g h e r i n r u r a l Zimbabwe t h a n e l s e w h e r e . Moreover , t h e Zimbabwe l a b o r s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t c h i l d r e n p l a y a c r i t i c a l r o l e i n p r o d u c t i o n by pe r fo rming numerous a g r i c u l t u r a l and l i v e s t o c k ca r e t a sks .

I n an e f f o r t t o document t h e age and g e n d e r - l i n k e d a s p e c t s of r u r a l l a b o r , t h e Rural Energy Survey, sponsored by t h e Department o f Energy and t h e B e i j e r I n s t i t u t e , g a t h e r e d interview- and o b s e r v a t i o n - b a s e d i n f o r m a t i o n on h o u s e h o l d l a b o r budgets ove r a range of Zimbabwe's n a t u r a l reg ions and communal, sma l l s c a l e commercial, and r e s e t t l e m e n t product ion systems.

TABLE V- 5 MAJOR FOOD CROP CYCLES AND LAJ3OR INPUT: BY SEX

Crop Type Crop C y c l e Labor I n p u t b y Sex ............................................................. M i l l e t s P l o u g h i n g Men and Hoeing Women Sorghum P l a n t i n g Women

T r a n s p l a n t i n g \iomen/\iork P a r t i e s Weeding women/ Men H a r v e s t i n g \{omen/ Men T h r e s h i n g women/ ~ e n / \ i o r k P a r t i e s Winnowing, T r a n s p o r t a t i o n

and S t o r a g e Women M a r k e t i n g ( b a r t e r ) Women/Men

Maize P l o u g h i n g Men Hoeing Women P l a n t i n g omen/ Men Weeding Women/Children H a r v e s t i n g ~ o m e n / ~ e n / ~ h i l d r e n She l l i n g Women/Children T r a n s p o r t a t i o n and S t o r a g e Women

............................................................. Groundnu t s Hoeing Women

P l a n t i n g Women Weeding Women H a r v e s t i n g Women/Chi l d r e n T r a n s p o r t a t i o n and S t o r a g e Women M a r k e t i n g Women

............................................................. Beans and A1 l C y c l e s Sweet P o t a t o e s

Women

S o u r c e s : A l v o r d , 1929; G e l f a n d , 1971; W e i n r i c h , 1975 Muchena, 1977

TABLE V-6 LABOR INPUT I N AGRICULTURE I N RURAL ZIMBABWE: AS PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LABOR INPUT PER TASK

................................................................................................... Performer Ploughing P l a n t i n g Weeding Transport Manure Winter Gardening C a t t l e

Handling Ploughing Herding ................................................................................................... Wife 23.7 63.0 27.2 16.3 22.2 16.3 52.2 16.8 Husband 18.2 6.0 36.4 25.0 10.7 30.1 15.9 27.2 Both 16.7 11.7 13.8 27.0 9 .O 20.4 12.7 7.6 Ch i ld ren 10.4 5.8 10.1 11.9 6.2 14.2 4.9 17.0 H i red Labor 8.2 2.7 2.4 6.8 6.3 4.5 1.2 8.7 Worlung Par ty 4.4 1 .8 2.2 2.7 6.3 2.1 1 .D 5.2 M h e r 13.4 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.8 1.7 1.4 2.9

Source: M i n i s t r y o f Community Developnent and Women's A f fa i rs , 1982

T a b l e V-7 summarizes t h e l a b o r budge t f i n d i n g s o f i n t e r v i e w s conduc t ed i n 117 h o u s e h o l d s . I n e a c h , d a t a were recorded on t h e e x t e n t of each working member's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a r ange o f fa rm, l i v e s t o c k c a r e , and domes t i c t a s k s . I n d i v i d u a l s were then grouped, f o r t h e purpose of a n a l y s i s , i n t o one of four gender/age ca t ego r i e s : men (males 18 yea r s and o v e r ) , women ( f e m a l e s 18 y e a r s and o v e r ) , boys ( m a l e s under 18 y e a r s ) , and g i r l s ( females under 18 yea r s ) .

A s shown i n T a b l e V-7, women and c h i l d r e n pe r fo rm 73 p e r c e n t o f farm l a b o r ( i n c l u d i n g p l o u g h i n g , p l a n t i n g , weeding, and h a r v e s t i n g ) , 62 p e r c e n t of l i v e s t o c k c a r e , 8 1 p e r c e n t o f f u e l g a t h e r i n g and chopp ing , and 96 p e r c e n t o f r o u t i n e domestic t a s k s ( i nc lud ing cooking, c o l l e c t i n g water , and c h i l d c a r e ) . I n t o t a l , women and c h i l d r e n ' s l a b o r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o b a s i c r u r a l t a s k s e q u a l s 80 percent .

When women's l a b o r i s compared t o men's, a n a l y s i s of t h e s u r v e y d a t a i n d i c a t e s t h a t women c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y more l a b o r t h a n do men i n a l l t h e t a s k c a t e g o r i e s w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of l i v e s t o c k c a r e , and t h a t ( a t 44 p e r c e n t ) t h e i r average t o t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o household l i v e l i h o o d i s ove r t w i c e t h a t o f a d u l t m a l e s (who a c c o u n t f o r a t o t a l o f 20 p e r c e n t o f b a s i c t a s k l a b o r ) . With t h e e x c e p t i o n of t h e somewhat h i g h e r t h a n a v e r a g e l a b o r i n v o l v e m e n t of men i n f a r m i n g and l i v e s t o c k c a r e on s m a l l - s c a l e c o m m e r c i a l h o l d i n g s , t h e p e r c e n t a g e s r e c o r d e d on T a b l e V-7 i n d i c a t e l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n i n a d u l t ma le c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t a s k l a b o r o v e r t he t h r e e s e c t o r s .

Making due a l l o w a n c e s f o r l e v e l s o f a g g r e g a t i o n , a comparison of Tables V-5, V-6, and V-7 shows t h a t a l l t h r e e s t u d i e s h a v e a r r i v e d a t r o u g h l y s i m i l a r f i g u r e s f o r t h e age/gender composition of a g r i c u l t u r a l l abo r .

TABLE V-7 AGE AND GENDER COMPOSITION OF LABOR

Percentage Labor Cont r ibu t ion ........................................................................................................

Routine Sector Sample Farming Livestock Fuel Domestic Tota l

M W B G M W B G M W B G M W B G M W B G

Communal 71 26 45 15 14 35 18 36 11 11 56 14 19 3 66 9 22 19 46 19 16 Small-Scale 21 33 35 19 13 47 15 32 6 12 58 8 22 6 67 6 21 25 44 16 15 Commercial Resettlement 25 23 37 21 19 39 18 33 10 10 46 20 24 B 49 16 2 20 38 22 20 ........................................................................................................ Tota l 117 27 41 17 15 38 17 35 10 11 54 14 22 4 63 10 23 20 44 19 17

Source: Pre l iminary Analys i s of Labor Extension Sec t ion of t h e ZEAP 1984 Rural Energy Survey.

P r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s o f t h e 1984 Rura l Energy Su rvey l a b o r d a t a provides p r e v i o u s l y u n a v a i l a b l e information on t h e

composition of labor involved i n household maintenance. Here we see t h a t women and chi ldren a re overwhelmingly responsible f o r t h e p r o v i s i o n of f u e l and water , a s we1 l a s f o r cooking and c h i l d ca re . Perhaps t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g s concern the l e v e l of ch i ld ren ' s involvement over the e n t i r e range of r u r a l a c t i v i t i e s . Table V- 7 shows t h a t c h i l d r e n c o n t r i b u t e r o u g h l y o n e - t h i r d of t o t a l l a b o r f o r c r o p p roduc t ion , f u e l g a t h e r i n g and r o u t i n e domestic t a s k s . In addit ion, they a r e responsible f o r almost h a l f of l ives tock care .

S ign i f i can t ly , the Rural Energy Survey findings suggest t h a t ch i ld ren ' s labor i s even more c r i t i c a l i n rese t t lement areas , where they contribute we l l over fo r ty percent of both p r o d u c t i v e a c t i v i t i e s and household maintenance. Others (e .g . Kinsey, 1983: 183) have po in ted o u t t h a t r e s e t t l e m e n t schemes su f fe r from labor shortages. The f igures compiled i n Table V-7 i n d i c a t e t h a t , f o r t h e t ime being a t l e a s t , t h i s shor tage i s being amel io ra ted by t h e use of c h i l d r e n ' s l a b o r . However, once school S become wide1 y a c c e s s i b l e t o r e s e t t l e m e n t p o p u l a t i o n s , t h i s l a b o r may be p a r t i a l l y withdrawn from the households's labor budget. A t t h i s point , a d u l t women may be fo rced t o absorb a g r e a t e r sha re of t h e t a s k s and t h e r e s e t t l e m e n t agelgender l a b o r p r o f i l e may evolve t o resemble t h a t of the more es tabl ished sectors .

F i n a l l y , by examining the d i f ferences between g i r l s ' and boys' l a b o r c o n t r i b u t i o n s , we s e e t h a t gender d i v i s i o n s a r e es tabl ished r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y i n l i f e . While boys and g i r l s c o n t r i b u t e e q u a l l y t o c r o p p r o d u c t i o n and t o o v e r a l l household labor, boys a r e more responsible fo r l ives tock care while g i r l s a r e more heav i ly involved i n f u e l provision and routine domestic chores.

The c o n c l u s i o n s , which can be drawn from e x i s t i n g s tudies and a preliminary ana lys i s of the Rural Energy Survey l a b o r d a t a , i n d i c a t e , i n unequivocable terms, t h a t r u r a l women, a long wi th t h e i r c h i l d r e n , shou lde r a major s h a r e of t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r product ion and household we1 f a r e i n a l l t h e s m a l l- h o l d e r s e c t o r s of t h e a g r a r i a n economy. Moreover, c u r r e n t t r e n d s suggest t h a t women shou lder t h e s e tasks under increas ingly d i f f i c u l t conditions. While t h e i r r e spons ib i l i ty fo r o v e r a l l household we1 f a r e grows, so does t h e i r dependence on o f t e n i r r e g u l a r and i n a d e q u a t e remittances from the wage sector . Despite the l a rge numbers of absen t males , perhaps a s few a s 30 p e r c e n t of r u r a l r emi t t ances a l l o w t h e fami ly t o s u b s i s t and s t a v e o f f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a d e t e r i o r a t i n g r e s o u r c e b a s e . Only o c c a s i o n a l l y do they s e r v e a s a b a s i s f o r an expanding and prosperous a g r i c u l t u r a l enterpr ise .

WOMEN'S LABOR T I M E

As we have seen, women's labor , along with t h a t of t h e i r chi ldren, represents a major component of the tasks c r i t i c a l t o household l ive l ihood . This i s p a r t i a l l y a r e f l e c t i o n of the lopsided demography of r u r a l areas where women outnumber

men, and also partially the result of the fact that women work longer hours on a greater range of tasks than do men. This section outlines the principal features of rural household labor budgets in order to highlight the stresses experienced by women who shoulder these heavy work loads. Three important aspects of household labor budgets will be treated here:

(1) Time budgeting by task;

(2) Length of the working day; and

(3) Intensity of labor.

Before considering the particulars of the labor budget data from the 1984 Rural Energy Survey, it is useful to summarize the findings of earlier studies done on this topic (e.g., Callear, 1982; Muchena, 1977, 1981, 1982a, 1982b; Owen, 1982; Weinrich, 1975, 1979). These studies, done at different times and in different settings, using diverse methodologies, concur in their assessments of the following features of rural women's labor.

(1) The multiple and competing demands made upon women, especially during the summer months, result in extraordinarily long work days and often in physical exhaustion.

(2) This situation is, in part, the consequence of a breakdown in the traditional gender and age division of labor resulting from male out-migration and children attending school, both of which (as argued above) have c o m p e l l e d w o m e n t o a s s u m e n e w t a s k s a n d responsibilities.

(3) In addition, there has been an intensification of labor in tasks traditionally within women's domain. For example, the shift from long-term fallow rotations to short-term or no fallow has meant that more time and care must be spent weeding if yields are to be maintained. Likewise, soil depletion has increased the need for manuring and field maintenance. Additional ly, the depletion of woodlands owing to the replacement of forests by fields and a growing demand for wood and timber has added to the labor time necessarily allocated to fuelwood provision.

(4) Finally, the prevailing gender division in the use of implements and equipment makes women's labor particularly arduous. Draught animals, ploughs, cultivators are most often the province of men. Thus when men participate in agricultural activities such as groundbreaking or weeding they are more likely to use this level of technology. Likewise, when they fetch

wood, they a r e most l i k e l y t o use scotch c a r t s . Women, on t h e o t h e r hand, most f r e q u e n t l y a r e l i m i t e d t o using h o e s f o r g roundbreak ing and weeding, and t o c a r r y i n g wood on t h e i r heads.

Time Budgeting By Task

R u r a l women work upwards o f 12 h o u r s a d a y . As d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n on t h e a g e and gender compos i t i on of l a b o r and documented f u r t h e r i n T a b l e V- 8 , women p a r t i c i p a t e i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l s t a g e s o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c y c l e , o f t e n provid ing t h e major l a b o r i npu t f o r b o t h f o o d and c a s h c r o p p r o d u c t i o n . Thus d u r i n g t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e a s o n women spend l o n g h o u r s i n t h e i r f i e l d s and gardens i n a d d i t i o n t o performing t h e i r r o u t i n e domestic t a s k s . During t h e non- farm s e a s o n women engage i n c r a f t product ion a s a v i t a l source of cash income.

TABLE V-8 TASKS: TIMING AND LABOR INPUT FOR FIELD AND GARDEN MAIZE

Task Month(a) Labor Input

F i e l d Maize .......................... Winter Plough Apply Manure

Plough and l arrow Fence

P lant and F e r t i l i z e ?

Weed ( 1 s t ) Top Dress w i t h F e r t l l i z e r

and Apply I n e c t i c i d e

Weed (2nd) Weed (3rd)

Harvest Green Malze Harvest Ripe Maize

She l l

March-Sept . Aug .-Oct.

October Sept .-Oct.

End Oct .-Early Nov. Mid-Late Nov.

Ear ly Dec.-Late Jan.

Late Dec.-Late Jan.

End o f February

February on Mid April-May

August on

Men Men/Women/Children Men/Women/Children

Men Women/Children

~ o m e n / ~ h i l d r e n / ~ e n *

Women/Children

~ o r n e n / ~ h i l d r e n / ~ e n * Women/Children/kn

Women

Fmi ly /Work Pa r t i es

Women/Some Men ......................................................................

Garden Maize

Plough and Harrow June-Aug . Women

Fence March-Aug . Wornen/Children Plant and F e r t i l i z e r June-Aug . Women

Weed (1 s t ) July-Sept . Women

Top Dress w i t h Fertilizer End Sept.-Oct. Women

and Apply I nsec t i c i de Weed (2nd) Sept .-Oct. Women

Weed (3rd) Sept .-Oct. Women Harvest Green Malze Mid December on Women ...................................................................... Source: Cal l e a r , 1982

X Also Work Pa r t i es

The observation/measurement component of the Rural Energy Survey carefully recorded the activities of 14 households for three week-long periods corresponding to the planting, weeding, and harvesting times of the agricultural cycle. Preliminary analysis of labor data from six of these households (five communal and one small-scale commercial) p r o v i d e s a n a c c u r a t e , a l t h o u g h s t a t i s t i c a l l y unrepresentative, picture of the time budgets of all their resident members.

Early case study-based data suggest that men, women, and children devote somewhat different proportions of their total work hours to crop production (see Table V-4). Table V-9 summarizes the Rural Energy Survey data on task time budgeting for agriculture as well as for four other task categories.

TABLE V-9 LABOR INPUT BY TASK: AS PERCENTAGEOFOTALORKINGURS - --

Group Livestock Routine* Farming Care Fuel Water Domestic ~otal** .............................................................

Men 50.1 23.4 2.7 1.8 0 .8 78.3 Women 22.6 2.4 1.0 2.6 44.3 72.9 Boys 29.5 32.8 1.6 9.4 7.8 81.1 Girls 14.9 7.3 4.2 12 .O 60.7 99.1 ............................................................. Average (Weighted) 29.3 19.1 2.2 6.8 24.9 82.3 ............................................................. * Includes cooking, child care.

* * Not included in these percentages are tasks such as food

processing, crafts manufacture, repairs and construction, etc., which make up the balance of recorded productive activities.

Source: Preliminary Analysis of Labor Observation Component of the ZEAP 1984 Rural Energy Survey.

At first glance, these results appear to indicate a strong gender-linked emphasis on farming and livestock care for males and on routine domestic tasks for females. It is interesting to note, however, that while women budget roughly 25 percent of their labor time for crop production, women's labor overall (as shown in Table V-7) accounts for approximately 40 percent of the labor contribution to the final product. There are two possible explanations for this disparity. The first is that it is a reflection of the imbalanced demographic composition of rural labor. The second is that while women may devote as many or more hours to crop production than men, these tasks represent only a

f r a c t i o n of t h e i r o v e r a l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . A s shown i n Table V-9, fuelwood p r o v i s i o n r ep re sen t s , i n

both r e l a t i v e and a b s o l u t e terms, a r a t h e r s m a l l p ropor t ion of t h e a v e r a g e i n d i v i d u a l ' s l a b o r budge t . On t h e a v e r a g e , people expend roughly t h r e e t imes a s much time f e t ch ing water a s t h e y do on fue lwood c o l l e c t i o n . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d , however, t h a t t h e s e f i g u r e s may have been i n f luenced by t he f a c t t h a t 1984 was a drought year , compell ing people t o walk g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e s t o w a t e r s o u r c e s . A n o t h e r p r o b a b l e i n f l u e n c e i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e obse rva t i ons were made during t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e a s o n d u r i n g which t i m e h o u s e h o l d s o f t e n have s t o c k p i l e s of fuelwood.

Length of t h e Working Day p--

S t u d i e s of t i m e use i n r u r a l a r e a s of t h e T h i r d World i n d i c a t e t h a t women work from e i g h t t o o v e r s i x t e e n h o u r s a day depending upon season and socio-economic f a c t o r s . Table V-10 p r o v i d e s an example of a t y p i c a l d a i l y s c h e d u l e f o r r u r a l women i n Zimbabwe dur ing d i f f e r e n t seasons of t h e year. The 1984 Rural Energy Survey provides t h e f i r s t comparative d a t a on women's and men's l e n g t h of day i n r u r a l Zimbabwe. Table V - 1 1 summarizes t h e s e f i nd ings i n d i c a t i n g t h a t women's days tend t o be s l i g h t l y longer than men's by between 20 and 25 minutes on t h e average. This seems t o be t h e case during b o t h fa rming and non- farming s e a s o n s i n a l l t h r e e s m a l l - h o l d e r s e c t o r s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a p r e l im ina ry a n a l y s i s of t h e l a b o r o b s e r v a t i o n d a t a s u g g e s t s t h a t men engage i n more l e i s u r e time a c t i v i t i e s than do women dur ing t h i s per iod .

TABLE V-10 SCHEDULE OF TYPICAL DAILY ACTIVITIES OF RURAL WOMEN I N DIFFERENT SEASONSINZIMBABWE --p- -

............................................................. Summer (Farming Season) .............................................................

4:OO-4:30 a.m. Get up and go t o t h e f i e l d s ( u s u a l l y without b r e a k f a s t ) t o c u l t i v a t e , sow and weed.

10:OO a.m. Res t f o r 30 minu t e s . U s u a l l y h a v e mahewu (homebrewed n o n- i n t o x i c a t i n g d r i n k ) . More work i n t h e f i e l d s u n t i l a f t e r midday.

A l i g h t l u n c h i s p r e p a r e d on s i t e , b u t i n some in s t ances , someone goes t o b r ing cooked food . A f t e r l u n c h , more c u l t i v a t i n g and weeding u n t i l sundown.

6:00 p.m. Ga the r f i rewood on t h e way home and p r e p a r e supper ,

9:OO-10:OO p.m. Bedtime f o r most f a m i l i e s . .............................................................

............................................................. Dry Season

5:30-6:00 a .m. G e t u p a n d work a r o u n d t h e h o m e s t e a d a n d h a v e a l i g h t b r e a k f a s t .

7:30-8:00 a.m. Work i n t h e g a r d e n p a t c h ( s m a l l c u l t i v a t e d p a t c h -- a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 / 2 a c r e , m a i n l y f o r v e g e t a b l e s ) . The r e s t o f t h e d a y i s s p e n t d i g g i n g cow m a n u r e f r o m c a t t l e p e n s a n d c a r t i n g i t t o t h e f i e l d s a n d s p r e a d i n g it a round t h e f i e l d ,

4:OO-5:00 p.m. The f a m i l y g o e s home e a r l y and h a s more t i m e f o r a l e i s u r e l y m e a l a n d r e s t . C l u b a c t i v i t i e s , o t h e r forms o f a d u l t l e a r n i n g and i n v o l v e m e n t , c h u r c h c o n f e r e n c e s , b r i e f v i s i t s t o husbands i n towns , e t c . , a r e more p o s s i b l e d u r i n g t h e d r y s e a s o n .

............................................................. H a r v e s t Season

The d a y i s v e r y much l i k e a d a y i n t h e summer e x c e p t t h a t t h e f i e l d c h o r e s a r e d o n e w i t h some m o r e f e s t i v e s p i r i t a s t h e r e w a r d s o f t h e i r t o i l a r e q u i t e o b v i o u s , a n d t h e r e i s a l s o a l o t t o e a t . .............................................................

Source : Mujeni , 1974, a f t e r Muchena, 1977

TABLE V - 1 1 LENGTH OF DAY FOR MEN AND I7OMEN - - -

S e c t o r Group Farming Season Non-Farming Season ( h o u r s ) ( h o u r s ) .............................................................

Communa l Men (n=59) 15.08 14.18 Women (n=72) 15.40 14.50

Smal l - S c a l e Men (n=24) 14.65 Commercial Women (n=14) 15.05

R e s e t t l e m e n t Men (n=24) 14.76 14.30 Women (n=26) 14.90 14.90 .............................................................

T o t a l s Men (n=97) 14.93 14.26 Women (n=112) 15.24 14.67

.............................................................

S o u r c e : P r e l i m i n a r y A n a l y s i s o f L a b o r E x t e n s i o n S e c t i o n I n t e r v i e w o f t h e ZEAP 1984 R u r a l Energy Survey .

I n t e n s i t y o f Labor

P r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s o f t h e s i x l a b o r o b s e r v a t i o n h o u s e h o l d s i n d i c a t e s t h a t e a c h d e v o t e d a w e e k l y a v e r a g e o f 88.6 h o u r s t o c r o p p r o d u c t i o n , 45.5 h o u r s t o l i v e s t o c k c a r e , 7.7 h o u r s t o f u e l p r o v i s i o n , a n d 1 0 0 . 6 h o u r s t o r o u t i n e d o m e s t i c t a s k s . The p e r c a p i t a , g e n d e r l a g e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e s e l a b o r t i m e s i s p r o v i d e d i n T a b l e V-12. I t c a n b e s e e n f r o m t h e s e r e s u l t s t h a t b o t h women a n d g i r l s b e a r a c o n s i d e r a b l y h e a v i e r l a b o r b u r d e n t h a n d o men a n d b o y s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

I f t h e R u r a l E n e r g y S u r v e y ' s p r e l i m i n a r y f i n d i n g s o n i n t e n s i t y o f l a b o r a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a b r o a d e r r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n , t h a n it c a n b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t , o n t h e a v e r a g e , d u r i n g t h e f a r m i n g s e a s o n women d o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 p e r c e n t more work t h a n d o men, and t h a t g i r l s work 30 p e r c e n t l o n g e r t h a n b o y s . Women p u t i n a b o v e a v e r a g e l a b o r t i m e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n i n a d d i t i o n t o a r a n g e o f o t h e r t a s k s . G i r l s , many o f whom a r e s c h o o l a g e , t a k e o n a f u l l work week , assuming m a j o r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r h o u s e h o l d ma in t enance .

TABLE V-12 LABOR INTENSITY BY AGE AND GENDER ( H o u r s p e r Week)

............................................................. Group Farming L i v e s t o c k F u e l ~ o u t i n e * ~ o t a l * *

Ca re Domest ic ............................................................. Men 22.8 9.7 1.2 0.7 43.1 Women 15.5 0.8 0.8 31.6 63.8 Boys 10.1 10.7 0.6 5.0 32.7 G i r l S 6.1 2.6 2.2 30.0 42.5 ............................................................. Average 13.6 5.9 1.2 16.8 45.5 .............................................................

*includes w a t e r p r o v i s i o n , c h i l d c a r e , and cook ing .

* * I n c l u d e s c r a f t s , f o o d p r o c e s s i n g , r e p a i r s , a n d o t h e r

m i s c e l l a n e o u s t a s k s .

Source : P r e l i m i n a r y A n a l y s i s o f Labor O b s e r v a t i o n Component o f t h e ZEAP 1984 R u r a l Energy Survey .

F u e l wood g a t h e r i n g , a t a s k p a r t i a l l y s h a r e d among h o u s e h o l d m e m b e r s , a p p e a r s t o r e p r e s e n t a v e r y s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n o f t o t a l l a b o r h o u r s , e v e n f o r g i r l s who a r e t h e m a j o r p r o v i d e r s . As d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r t iming, . t h e o b s e r v a t i o p s u n d e r t a k e n b y t h e 1984 R u r a l Energy S u r v e y may n o t b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e l a r g e r f u e l w o o d p r o v i s i o n s i t u a t i o n i n Zimbabwe. However, we may t a k e t h e s e f i g u r e s a s i n d i c a t i v e o f l a b o r t i m e s p e n t d u r i n g t h e w e t s e a s o n , when a g r i c u l t u r a l t a s k s t a k e p r e c e d e n c e o v e r o t h e r s . C l e a r l y , t h e t i m e s p e n t i n c o l l e c t i n g f i r e w o o d v a r i e s

considerably with local ecological conditions, season, availability, and family size. The average weekly household figure of 7.7 hours spent on fuelwood provision for the six Rural Energy Survey households falls within the range of estimates for other rural areas in Africa. Table V-13 summarizes some of these figures, including those of a preliminary household survey conducted in Zimbabwe in 1982 under the auspices of the Beijer Institute.

To conclude this section, an appropriate and effective rural energy policy would be one which is sensitive to the multiple demands on women's labor time and, therefore, is directed at increasing their productivity across a range of activities without also unduly increasing their workload in any one task.

TABLE V-13 HOUSEHOLD LABOR TIMES FOR FUELWOOD COLLECTION IN S E ~ D ~ C ~ S I T E S -

Area Time Spent Source (Hours/~eek) ............................................................

Upper Volta 1 McSweeney cited in Tinker, 1981 Mbere, Kenya 2.5-10 Brokensha and Riley, 1978 Embu, Kenya 3.5-7 Haugerud, 1981 Nyakyusa, Tanzania 4-10 Bush, 1977 cited in Devres, 1980 Zambia 7 ECA in Molinyi, 1977 Bukoba, Tanzania 11 Fleuret and Fleuret, 1978 Selected Communal 16 Hosier, 1982 Areas, Zimbabwe ............................................................

THE SCOPE OF WOMEN'S DECISION-MAKING POWER

Decision-making in peasant households is a complex matter combining both farm management and family welfare. It often has been pointed out that, unlike a commercial enterprise, the peasant family cannot declare bankruptcy; it must survive from year to year. This reality has been observed to circumscribe the range of options open to the household.

While accurate, this observation fails to address important intra-household disparities in decision-making power. In many instances, these disparities are based on age, in others they are based on gender, or in the case of polygamous households, upon seniority. In rural Zimbabwe these disparities have been reported to be quite wide, and are cited, along with other hardships, as being the cause of considerable resentment among women (Ministry of Community Development and Women's Af f airs, 1982; Zimbabwe Women's Bureau, 1981).

Decision-making covers a broad range of questions including the disposition of members' labor time, the timing of agricultural operations, investments in productive inputs,

the selection of crops, the ratio of retentions to sales, expenditures on a variety of household necessities, the allocation of rewards and sharing of benefits. Issues concerning the sharing of benefits will be treated in a separate section to follow. The present section considers the broad determinants and consequences of unequal decision- making power within the household.

Most available reports and studies concerned with this issue conclude that rural women have much less decision- making power than their male kin. This situation is rooted in patriarchal relations prevailing both within the household and in society at large. Most central to this disparity is male control over land and productive assets. As women's rights to land are mediated through husbands or male kin, and as the critical means of production (to the extent that they are available) are in men's hands, women's bargaining power within the household is seriously circumscribed.

Therefore, while women may bear the major responsibility for family welfare and shoulder a disproportionate share of both farming and domestic work, they may have relatively little say in major decisions concerning household livelihood or community affairs.

Two excel lent recent studies (Cal lear, 1982; Cheater, 1981) modify this general picture of women's subordination by pointing out that many women have been able to retain a decision-making role in certain important facets of agricultural production. They argue that a distinction should be made between the formal norms for male/female decision-making and the informal means whereby women exert influence upon decisions or, in fact, make decisions. This is particularly the case within households where men are absent for long periods of time. These arguments are supported by findings of the Ministry of Community Development and IJomen's Affairs survey (see Table 14).

TABLE V-14 FAMILY DECISION-MAKING IN RURAL ZIMBABWE --

............................................................. Decision-Making What Crops How Much What Inputs to Process to Grow to Sell Procure ............................................................. Husband and Wife 28.5 25.3 38.1 Husband Dictates 17 .O 2 5 .O 14.8 Wife Alone 10.2 24.4 35.9 Senior Relative 5.5 7 .O 1.6 Head of Household 4.4 5.6 1.3 Other 1 .O 0.6 0.6 .............................................................

Source: Ministry of Community Development and Women's Affairs, 1982

While the arguments stressing formal vs. informal decision-making power are, without a doubt, valid, the fact remains that women overall are subordinated to male decision- making and that this subordination is based upon unequal control over- productive assets.

While women have indeed been able to exert in£ luence within certain spheres of household decision-making, in particular over domestic routines and those questions concerning the timing of agricultural operations, males retain crucial decision-making powers when it comes to expenditures, income-generating activities, and the allocation of the rewards to household (often female) labor.

In summary of this section, there exist both practical and political reasons why rural energy planners should pay particular attention to disparities between men and women's decision-making power. Rural energy programs designed to enhance women's decision-making capabilities are more likely both to gain women's support and acceptance and to contribute to Zimbabwe's broad social goals. In the design of locally- based energy projects, care should be taken not to inadvertently replicate or build upon existing gender differences, thereby increasing women's structural vulnerabilities.

SHARING BENEFITS

The material benefits of a peasant household's efforts can be grouped into four broad categories:

(1) The product of domestic and farming activities;

(2) Personal services;

(3) Leisure; and

(4) Savings

The product of a peasant household's activities can take the form of things such as food, shelter, and clothing, directly consumed by its members. It can also take the form of commodities such as purchased food, medicine, clothing, household appliances, school fees, tools and farm equipment purchased with money obtained from the sale of crops, livestock, crafts, or labor.

Personal services also take a variety of forms ranging from the care given to infants, young children, old or infirm members, to many routine domestic tasks such as cooking, washing, laundry, or ironing. A1 l available evidence points to the fact that women and older children perform the majority of these services and that men and younger children are the main recipients.

Leisure, itself an important element of a healthy and fulfilled life, is a frequently overlooked benefit in the case of peasants. Leisure can be enjoyed on an individual

basis or it can take a variety of social forms. In either case, substantial gender-linked differences exist in both the kinds and amounts of leisure enjoyed in rural Zimbabwe.

Savings, a critical component of an agrarian economy characterized by drought and social obligations primarily take the form of livestock, usually controlled by men.

Both the range and the level of benefits vary considerably among Zimbabwe's rural households. However, in all cases, benefits can be usefully distinguished in terms of the extent to which they are appropriated by individuals or by the family as a whole. Most available studies point to the fact that the sharing of benefits is a contested issue in rural society. The findings of two major surveys (Zimbabwe Women's Bureau, 1981; Ministry of Community Development and \?omen's Affairs, 1982) concur in highlighting rural women's concerns over this issue. Women argue that they need additional reliable sources of cash income in order to cover household expenses. They also argue that men appropriate most of the money from crop sales for their personal use.

TABLE V-15 AGE AND GENDER COMPOSITION OF CROP PRODUCTION --p

AND MARKETING

............................................................. Percentage Labor Contribution

Farming Total** Marketing Labor

M W B G M W B G M L J B G ............................................................. Communal 26 45 15 14 19 46 19 16 40 51 5 4 labor n=71, marketing n=42 Smal l-Scale 33 3 5 1 9 1 3 2 5 4 4 1 6 1 5 70 30 0 0 Commercial labor n=21* marketing n=ll Resettlement 23 37 21 19 20 38 22 20 61 35 2 2 labor n=25, marketing n=21 Total 27 41 17 15 20 44 19 17 50 44 3 3 labor n=11z marketing n=74

............................................................. * Data on marketing compiled on1 y for households marketing

crops.

* * Includes farming, livestock care, fuel provision, cooking,

childcare and domestic water provision.

Source: Preliminary Analysis of Labor Observation Component of the ZEAP 1984 Rural Energy Survey.

These a rguments a r e bo rne o u t , t o a d e g r e e , by t h e p r e l im ina ry r e s u l t s of t h e Rural Energy Survey. A s shown i n T a b l e V-15, men c o n t r o l a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e s h a r e of t h e m a r k e t i n g ( i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r l a b o r i n p u t ) i n a l l t h r e e s m a l l - h o l d e r s e c t o r s . O v e r a l l , men do a b o u t 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e marketing, w h i l e they c o n t r i b u t e approximately 27 pe rcen t of l a b o r t o t o t a l c rop product ion and 20 percent of l abo r t o a g g r e g a t e h o u s e h o l d t a s k s . I t s h o u l d b e no t ed a t t h e same t i m e , however , t h a t women's s h a r e o f marke t i ng c o n t r o l i s o v e r a l l r o u g h l y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o b o t h a g r i c u l t u r a l and t o t a l l abo r input . The c o n f l i c t between men and women may w e l l b e o v e r t h e p r o d u c t o f c h i l d r e n ' s l a b o r , who a s shown, c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o h o u s e h o l d l a b o r budget b u t who have n e g l i g i b l e c o n t r o l ove r cash c rop income.

However, t h e b r o a d e r i s s u e f o c u s e s n o t o n l y on c o n t r o l ove r t h e household 's cash income, b u t a l s o on t h e a l l o c a t i o n of l a n d and women's l a b o r between food and c a s h c r o p s . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , food c r o p s r e p r e s e n t a s h a r e d f a m i l y b e n e f i t wh i l e t h e proceeds from cash crop product ion appear t o b e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y a p p r o p r i a t e d by men. T a b l e V-16 p rov ides a c u r r e n t breakdown of t h e degree t o which a v a r i e t y of peasant grown crops have become commercialized. One s tudy c o n c l u d e s t h a t "when a c r o p comes t o b e d e f i n e d a s a c a s h c r o p , men become more i n v o l v e d a n d more c o n t r o l l i n g " ( C a l l e a r , 1982). This should no t be i n t e r p r e t e d t o mean t h a t women a r e opposed t o cash crop product ion per s e , bu t r a t h e r -- t h a t they a r e seeking income-generating a c t i v i t i e s ove r which t h e y c a n m a i n t a i n a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f c o n t r o l o f t h e proceeds.

TABLE V-16 PEASANT CROPS GROWN FOR FOOD OR CASH

Crop ---------------- Finger m i l l e t Ground nu t s Beans P e a r l m i l l e t Maize Rice Vegetab les F r u i t s Sweet po t a toe s Sorghum Other c rops

Food

35.2 34.6 29-7 28.4 27.9 24.2 23.9 19.9 18.5 12.4 11.9

Cash

16.6 2.1 2.5

11 .o 22.6 14.9 10.4 13.3 15.0

6.3 10.4

Both

13.7 20.4 18.0 14.5 37.1 24.0 28.8 10.6 24.8 14.3

6.9

Source : M i n i s t r y o f Community Development and Women's A f f a i r s , 1982

To c o n c l u d e t h i s s e c t i o n , r u r a l ene rgy p l a n n e r s may u s e f u l l y b u i l d upon women's expressed i n t e r e s t i n increased c a s h income i n , f o r example , t h e d e s i g n of commercial

f o r e s t r y p r o j e c t s . Income genera t ing energy p r o j e c t s t a r g e t e d s t r u r a l women must e n s u r e t h a t women a c t u a l l y r e c e i v e t h e income r e s u l t i n g from t h e i r e f f o r t s . New e n e r g y - r e l a t e d c r o p s , t e c h n o l o g i e s , and marke t i ng s t r a t e g i e s , must be eva lua t ed i n terms of whether they unduly f avo r persona l ove r fami ly shared income.

ACCESS TO LAND

Along with o t h e r members of t h e i r household, women sha re the consequences of marg ina l i za t i on i n t h e l abo r r e s e r v e s and >f r u r a l c l a s s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n which, i n l a r g e measure, shape t h e f a m i l y ' s a c c e s s t o l a n d , p r o d u c t i v e a s s e t s , and wage mployment. I n add i t i on , p a t r i a r c h a l r e l a t i o n s have l a r g e l y s u b o r d i n a t e d women by making t h e i r r i g h t s t o l a n d and o t h e r 3roduct ive a s s e t s cont ingent upon at tachments t o husbands o r na le k in .

When c o n s i d e r i n g women's l a n d r i g h t s i n t h e communal 3reas it i s u s e f u l t o d i s t i n g u i s h between land such a s t h a t i n t ended f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s , and common p r o p e r t y resources, such a s woodlands o r g raz ing a r ea s . I n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e , l a n d i s a 1 l o c a t e d t o i n d i v i d u a l m a l e s and women j a i n a c c e s s t o a g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s o n l y by v i r t u e o f t h e i r c i e s t o t he se men.

Whereas women's r i g h t s t o f a rmland a r e med ia t ed by gender r e l a t i o n s h i p s , t h e i r a c c e s s t o common p r o p e r t y r e s o u r c e s i s d i r e c t : a f u n c t i o n of t h e i r membership i n t h e soc i a l group. Woodland sources of household n e c e s s i t i e s such 3s woodfue l , m e d i c i n e s , and supp lemen ta ry f o o d s t u f f s a r e immediately a c c e s s i b l e t o women, making a v a i l a b l e a sphere of n c t i v i t i e s t h a t i s r e l a t i v e l y independent of male c o n t r o l .

The p r o g r e s s i v e s h r i n k i n g and d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e s e :ommon proper ty resources ove r time has a f f e c t e d women more i dve r se ly than men. As f o r e s t s a r e r ep l aced by f i e l d s women Eind i t i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o p r o v i d e h o u s e h o l d l e c e s s i t i e s such a s woodfue l f o r t h e i r f a m i l i e s . I n a > e r c e p t i v e a n a l y s i s of t he r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r i v a t i z a t i o n )f l a n d and t h e weakening of cus tomary a c c e s s r i g h t s i n Cenya, Wisner (1983) argues t h a t t h e l a t t e r d i sappear i n more lr l e s s t h e fo l l owing sequence:

(1) Building of houses;

( 2 ) P l an t i ng of t r e e s ;

( 3 ) P l an t i ng of annual crops;

( 4 ) Grazing of l i v e s t o c k ;

( 5 ) Cut t ing of firewood f o r s a l e ;

( 6 ) Cutt ing of firewood f o r domestic use;

(7) Picking up fallen branches for domestic use;

(8) Placing beehives in trees;

(9) Crossing or trespassing.

Moreover, as more land is transferred from common access to the individual domain, the sphere of women's independent and unmediated activities shrinks accordingly. Conditions of land scarcity have enhanced men's individual land rights at women's expense at the same time as women's absolute and relative share of agricultural labor burden has become larger.

As gender-based access to land intensifies and common property resources have less and less to offer, the situation of unattached women, such as widows or divorcees, becomes increasingly jeopardized.

This situation has reached its most acute form in the former African Purchase Areas where colonial administrators attempted to create a peasant freehold class oriented to cash crop production. Although, at present, these areas are somewhat less restrictive, the male-oriented training and access to purchase area land have left a legacy. Studies of these operations (for example Cheater, 1981) reveal that the exploitation of women's labor in purchase areas reached new heights as men became petty agrarian entrepreneurs, taking on multiple wives as a strategy to increase unpaid labor, expand their production, and accumulate capital.

ACCESS TO PRODUCTIVE ASSETS

Along with land rights, rural women's most consistent demand has been access to new, improved productive inputs (see Ministry of Community Development and LJomen's Affairs, 1982; and Zimbabwe Women's Bureau, 1981). Historical l y, male-oriented land policies have been accompanied by agricultural extension programs and credit schemes which have largely ignored women farmers in favor of a male "head of household" who often may be only marginally involved in crop production. Yet surveys have consistently shown that women are most interested to learn modern farming techniques which are directly relevank to their current subsistence needs. They also want implements and equipment which would lighten their work-load.

Women also point out that credit and financing for agricultural inputs must be made directly accessible to them, instead of through their husbands. Their new legal majority status should make this practicable.

In addition to their strongly expressed interest in improved farming techniques and new crops, women voice a strong desire for training in the use and maintenance of modern equipment. Thistraining would, in any case, be a critical element in a comprehensive agricultural development program. In the case of women, this training would reduce

their dependence on outside expertise, as well as reduce the probability of project failures due to prolonged equipment breakdown.

This instruction and training can only be imparted if the country's agricultural extension service reorients its staff to its female constituents. In 1981, the extension service staff was overwhelmingly male (Ministry of Community Development and Women's Affairs, 1982). Prevailing cultural norms prevent women from availing themselves of extension advice given by men. This severely limits their participation in projects which might otherwise be of considerable value to them. Women argue that the male bias in agricultural extension would be reduced considerably by increasing the number of female extension workers.

3. TOWARDS A WOMAN-ORIENTED RURAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENT POLICY

INTRODUCTION

Section 2 presented a review of existing studies concerning the constraints operating upon rural women in relation to an energy economy at the household level. The insights provided by the studies suggest preliminary energy policy guidelines in this area. These insights can be summarized by two general observations. First, the provision of basic household necessities is an interrelated whole encompassing all aspects of energy provision, use and demand, and is underwritten primarily by women and children's labor. Second, this labor is under severe constraints resulting in a progressive limitation of access to land, productive assets, and sources of cash income. Women are not excluded from participation in productive activities, but they are marginalized from access to productive resources, decision- making, and a fair share of the benefits of their activities.

Although independence and the establishment of majority rule have led to many improvements, the principal structural limitations affecting rural women have not been significantly altered. A rural energy policy aimed at increasing women's productive potential, as well as their equitable participation in the benefits of this increase, would contribute towards the progressive weakening of these structural limitations.

In order to accomplish this task, the country's rural energy policy must escape the confines assigned to it by a conventional approach to energy development. This conventional approach limits the scope of energy planning to two facets. The first involves policies and programs aimed at specific aspects of domestic energy consumption (such as dissemination of improved stoves, research on biogas and other alternative sources of domestic energy, etc.). The second facet assigns to energy planning a secondary role: supportive of development initiatives in other sectors (e.g., agriculture, service, industrial, or transport). Here the

emphasis is on supply levels and pricing policies. This view limits rural energy planning to an "enabling" role in production, but grants it a fuller scope in social welfare programs aimed at fulfilling domestic fuel needs. Conventional rural energy programs identified with a female constituency often fit into this social welfare niche. Meanwhile, women and women's interests may be easily overlooked when it comes to energy planning for production and economic growth.

An alternative approach would expand the role of rural energy policy goals as well as the scope of energy planning activities. It would view energy development as an integrated whole incorporating both production and reproduction, recognizing women as key actors in both these spheres. The overall objective of energy policy with regard to rural women would be to effect a transition from constrained labor-intensive forms of energy provision and use to higher technical and organizational forms. This transition would therefore encompass complementary technological and social transformations.

The comprehensive approach to rural energy development would focus on two broad interrelated types of programs. The first would address existing or impending fuel scarcities by increasing supplies, introducing substitutes, and rationalizing demand. The second type of program would investigate the possibilities of anticipating latent or unmet demands for higher forms of energy for domestic uses, agriculture, rural industries, and transport in communal, small-scale commercial, and resettlement areas. In both types of programs the transition to higher forms of energy use can be accomplished by both direct or indirect means. Direct energy-related interventions include projects to increase the supply of existing or novel energy sources (e.g., woodlots, agroforestry, biogas generators) or enhance the efficiency of existing energy use (e.g., fuel efficient stoves). In addition, the communal and resettlement areas' energy-use profiles can be significantly affected by preferential pricing policies for fossil energy-based inputs for agriculture and rural industry, and by the extension of electricity grids.

Additional ly, an energy transition can be accomplished by indirect means which include a broad range of technical and institutional interventions which either increase the productivity of human or animal labor power or accomplish shifts in (women's or household's) labor budgets in such a manner that labor is released for alternative productive activities.

In the case of Zimbabwe's rural women, the indirect path to an energy transition can be accomplished by the production and dissemination of a wide variety of intermediate technologies (such as shellers, grinders, wire fencing, cultivators, herbicides, water pumps, small scotchcarts, etc.) along with the organizational support making their adoption practicable (such as credit cooperatives, price

incentive, marketing outlets, training and maintenance facilities).

GUIDELINES AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Insights derived from existing studies of rural women's role in production and household welfare suggest some provisional guidelines and recommendations for program design and project identification. These studies point out that the essential reality of rural women's lives is their responsibility for household welfare, along with their heavy involvement in most facets of food and cash crop production, basic needs, provision, and domestic work.

Response to Local Needs and Priorities

Numerous studies, including some concerned with women's role in social forestry (e.g., Hoskins, 1979: Skutch, 1983), emphasize the importance of basing programs and projects upon locally defined needs and priorities. One study of community forestry in Tanzania demonstrated that communal woodlots were successfully established only in areas where fuel-wood scarcity was perceived to be a serious problem (Skutch, 1983). Another study pointed out that woodlots also fail when women, who are expected to do the maintenance, are not consulted even though the project has met with the approval of local (male) authorities (Hoskins, 1979). This same study described the general unpopularity of single stand plantations in situations where forests fulfil multiple demands. The study then recommends that planners study the multiple needs fulfilled by forest resources in different settings and then introduce mixed species stands for woodlots designed to meet those needs.

At a national level, Zimbabwe's rural women have left little doubt regarding their needs and priorities. Two major surveys, one sponsored by the Ministry of Community Development and Women's Affairs and the other by the Zimbabwe Women's Bureau identify inter a+ia the following perceived needs: more training and educational programs, land rights, appropriate farm implements, access to credit and extension services, child-care facilities, income-generating activities, improved health care, improved transport, and an expanded role in community decision-making.

Needs and priorities can be expected to vary from area to area, and even within particular sites. Therefore planners must determine inter and intra community variation at the preliminary stages of project identification. This is best done on the basis of short surveys and of a dialogue between local women and planners in such a manner that local priorities are ultimately strongly reflected in the project design (Graham, 1979).

Incorporate Local Expertise

Available studies on women's farming and fuel provisioning activities strongly suggest that rural women possess a fund of knowledge regarding resources in their local environment (Hoskins, 1979). Moreover, women have been shown to actively experiment with diverse strategies enabling them to adjust to changing circumstances and cope with scarcities. Women experiment with new crop vasieties, and plant saplings and cuttings. In the face of woodfuel scarcity, they may make a variety of cost-bearing adjustments including "switching to alternative fuels, both inferior and commercial; decreasing their household fuel consumption, perhaps with negative effects on family nutrition; improving the efficiency of their own fuel use; and exerting further pressures on the environment" (Cecelski and Loutfi, 1983). In the face of labor scarcity during critical farming periods, rural women in Zimbabwe stockpile fuel during the dry season and also use metal grate stoves which, although fuel-inefficient, have the virtue of saving labor time during cooking (Gill, 1983).

The widespread failure of agricultural and woodfuel projects directed at smallholders is often blamed on the recipients' purported lack of knowledge or low level of training. However, experience suggests that people do not necessarily lack the requisite information or know-how to effect changes in their production systems, or that knowledge is an important constraining variable in many cases. For example, a comprehensive survey of Tanzania's 15-year-old community afforestation program demonstrated that there was no lack of local knowledge regarding tree planting and care. On the local level, the most important factors associated with project failure were a lack of perceived need for more trees, and, on the institutional level, poor logistics of seed1 ing delivery and backup services.

The most effective approaches to rural development planning tap local resource knowledge and practices and combine these with introduced techniques and innovations. Owing to their central role in the rural energy economy, women are a key source of this expertise. Projects which, in addition to responding to women's stated needs, mobilize their expertise in appropriate ways in project design and implementation, have a higher likelihood of gaining their support, of contributing to their self-esteem, and reducing structural dependence on imported techniques.

Build (Selectively) Upon Existing Groups

The female constituency for rural energy planning is likely to be clustered into diverse interest groups with different scopes, aims, and levels of organization. The task of energy planners is, wherever possible, to build uponthese existing groups in such a manner that women overall (as distinct from particular subgroups) are empowered by the

process of development. Consonant with Zimbabwe's general social and political

objectives, the priority will be to reinforce cooperative forms of energy management as well as common property forms of resource ownership. However, solutions aimed at the individual household level should be pursued where appropriate.

The general strategy advocating the programs and/or projects built upon local groups and institutions needs to be qualified when these are male-dominated to a degree that they offer an inadequate scope for the mobilization of women's efforts. The strategy of a woman-oriented rural energy development policy is to select the groups and institutions which do offer the possibility of this mobilization. If these are found to be absent, it may then be necessary to promote new organizations suited to the task.

Emphasize Multipurpose Solutions

Studies conducted to date strongly suggest that fuelwood is one component in an interrelated system of basic needs provision at the household level (see Wisner, 1983). Emphasis on the satisfaction of fuelwood needs at the expense of other basic necessities can lead to project failure. Therefore, special attention should be given to multipurpose strategies such as agroforestry designed to provide integrated fuel/food/fodder resources for household needs.

Additionally, energy projects should encompass both direct and indirect means (described above) of accomplishing an energy transition for rural women. For example, income- generating projects (such as cooperative nurseries), requiring increased labor input, should be coupled with the introduction of labor-saving technologies or facilities (such as pumps for improved domestic water supply, wire fencing, or child care services), which reduce women's labor burden in other spheres of basic necessity provision.

In order to identify the possibilities for multipurpose solutions, surveys of perceived needs and priorities and local resource knowledge and management practices should be conducted at the pre-feasibility stage of project design.

Promote International Cooperation

Comprehensive planning for rural energy development spans the concerns and activities of numerous ministries, government agencies, and non-government organizations requiring the active, coordinated participation of these entities. The Department of Energy assumes a key role in this process by outlining a plan of action which:

(1) Specifies overall needs and priorities in the rural energy sector;

(2) Translates these into long and short-term

objectives;

(3) Identifies the direct and indirect means to reach these objectives in communal, smal l-sca l e commercial, and resettlement areas; and

(4) Establishes a framework for interministerial cooperation in carrying out the range of coordinated projects and tasks encompassing this integrated program.

In the case of rural women, it can be expected that the Ministry of Community Development and Women's Affairs will play a key role.

Alvord. E.D.. 1929 "Agricultural Life of the Rhodesian Native," =E, No. 7, pp. 9-16.

Brokensha, D. and Riley, B., 1978 Forest Foraging, Fences and Fuel in 5 Marginal Area of -- -p- - Kenya. Paper prepared for USAID Africa Bureau Firewood 1Jorkshop.

Brush. S.. 1977 . . Mountain, Field and Family.

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Pittsburgh: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Callear, D., 1982 The Social and Cultural Factors Involved in Production -p-

by Small Farmers in Wedza CA, Zimbabwe. - P ~ ~ ~ ~ : ~ N E s c o .

Cecelski, E. and Loutfi, M., 1983 "Household fuel shortages, rural women's work and family nutrition: research and action." Paper delivered at the FAO/ECA Seminar on Fuelwood and Energy for African Women in Lusaka, Zambia.

Chavunduka, G.L., 1970 Social Change i n A Shona Ward. Occ. Paper No. 4. ----- - - - - -- - Department of Sociology, University of Rhodesia. Salisbury: Mardon Printers.

Cheater, A., 1981 "Women and their participation in commercial agricultural production: the case of medium-scale freehold in Zimbabwe." Development and Change, Vo1.12, pp. 349-377.

CSO, 1969 Census o f P o p u l a t i o n . -- S a l i s b u r y : Government P r i n t e r .

CSO, 1983/84a N a t i o n a l H o u s e h o l d S u r v e y : M a s h o n a l a n d C e n t r a l -------- --------- ----------- ------- P r o v i n c e . H a r a r e : Government P r i n t e r .

CSO, 1983/84b N a t i o n a l Househo ld Su rvey : Man ica l and P r o v i n c e . Ha ra re : Government P r i n t e r .

DEVRES, 1980 The S o c i o- E c o n o m i c C o n t e x t of F u e l w o o d U s e i n S m a l l -- R u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s . ~ ~ ~ E v a l u a t i o n S p e c i a l S t u d y N O . ~ . W a s h i n g t o n , D.C.: USAID B u r e a u f o r P r o g r a m a n d P o l i c y C o o r d i n a t i o n .

ECA. 1974 T h e I n t e g r a t i o n o f Women i n A f r i c a n D e v e l o p m e n t . --- -- ----- Augus tr- ----v-- ----------- Abid j a n , I v o r y Coas t .

F l e u r e t , P. and F l e u r e t , A . , 1978 " F u e l w o o d Use i n a P e a s a n t Community: A T a n z a n i a C a s e S tudy , " J o u r n a l - o f D e v e l o p i n g Areas , J u l y .

G e l f a n d , M., 1971 D i e t and T r a d i t i o n i n a n A f r i c a n C u l t u r e . -- -- Edinburgh: E. & S. L i v i n g s t o n e .

G i l l , J . , 1983 " F u e l w o o d a n d s t o v e s : l e s s o n s f r o m Zimbabwe," i n K . K. P r a s a d and P. V e r h a a r t , eds . , Wood Hea t f o r Cooking. --- B a n g a l o r e : I n d i a n Academy o f S c i e n c e s .

Hauqerud, A . , 1981 H o u s e h o l d E n e r g y Use i n R u r a l Embu: S o c i o- E c o n o m i c A s p e c t s o f Wood Use , ~ o o k i n g a n d ~ i g h t r n g F u e l s , a n a ---- - Water C o l l e c t i o n . --p

S t o c k h o l m : B e i j e r I n s t i t u t e o f The R o y a l S w e d i s h Academy o f S c i e n c e s .

H o s i e r , R., 1 9 8 2 " P r e l i m i n a r y R e p o r t o f Fuelwood Use i n Zimbabwe," m s .

Hosk ins , M . , 1979 "Women i n F o r e s t r y f o r L o c a l Community D e v e l o p m e n t . " T i a s h i n g t o n , D.C.: USAID.

K i n s e y , B.H., 1 9 8 3 "Emerging p o l i c y i s s u e s i n Zimbabwe's l a n d r e s e t t l e m e n t programmes," Development P o l i c y Review. V o l . 1 , No. 2 :

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163- 196,

Mblinyi, M,, 1977 Women: Producers and Reproducers G Peasant Production. Economic Research Bureau, U. of Dar es Salaam. Occ. Paper. 77.3.

Ministry of Community Development and IJomen's Affairs, 1982 Report on the Situation of Women in Zimbabwe. Harare. p--

Muchena. O.N., 1977 Women, Subsistence Farming and Extension Services in the Tribal Trust Lands of Rhodesia. M.Sc. Thesis, Cornell University.

Muchena, O.N., 1979 "The Changing Position of African Women in Rural Zimbabwe, Rhodesia, " Zimbabwe Journal of Economics. Vol. 1, No. 1: 44-61.

Muchena, O.N., 1981 "Women and Work: Planning Rural Development with Women in Mind." Paper presented to Zimbabwe Economic Society Seminar. University of Zimbabwe. 22 pp.

Owen, F., 1982 biomen's Health Survey. Unpublished Manuscript cited in Bie Nio Ong "Energy accounting and the use of labour budget studies," unpublished ms.

Rald, J., 1969 Land Use in 5 Bahaya Village: A Case Study from Bukoba --- p-- District, West Lake Reyion. Res. Paper No. 5.

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Skutch, M., 1983 Why People Don't Plant Trees. The Socio-Economic Impacts of xis sting-%~dfu~ogr~s: Village Case Studies, Tanzania. Resources for the Future Discussion Paper D-73P, Energy in Developing Countries Series. 'Clashington, D.C.

Tinker, I., 1981 Energy for Essential Household Activities. CIDAT --- --------- --------- Occasional P a ~ e r No. C-2. Washington, D.C.: Dames and Moore's Center for International Development and Technology.

Weinrich, A.K.H., 1975 African Farmers & Rhodesia. London: OUP.

Whitlow, J.R., 1980 Deforestation in Zimbabwe? Problems and Prospects

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Supplement to ~ambezia 1980. Salisbury: university of Zimbabwe.

Whitsun Foundation, 1981 Rural Afforestation Study. Salisbury: Whitsun Foundation.

Wisner, B., 1983 Energy and Sel £-Reliant Struggle & African Development: -- An Assessment for the Beijer Institute of "Basic Needs" Approaches. Stockholm: Beijer Institute of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Zimbabwe Women' S Bureau, 1981 "We Carry a Heavy Load." Rural Women in Zimbabwe Speak Out. Harare.

VI. PERFORMANCE TESTING DOMESTIC COOKSTOVES FOR ZIMBABWE

Thomas N. Harris

1. INTRODUCTION

There is considerable scope for the Government of Zimbabwe to take positive action in dealing with the growing f uelwood/deforestation problem of Zimbabwe's peri-urban and communal areas. Strategies for increasing wood energy supplies will be a necessary and central part of a solution, but unfortunately their benefits will become available only in the medium to long run. More immediate impact might be achieved with programs designed to encourage fuel substitution and adoption of more efficient cooking appliances. Such programs could have a major impact in a very short time if they promoted well designed deviceswhich both save fuel and are attractive to potential users.

If such efforts are to be considered, it is essential that the ministries concerned should have access to some basic data on the comparative energy implications of appliance change, of fuel substitution, and on the scope for energy conservation through technical or managerial strategies. This data could enable the Government to develop an estimate of the potential impact of alternative devices and assure that its policies and extension efforts are directed to the best available technologies. It could also provide a graphic and demonstrably credible component of a media campaign on strategies for coping with the fuelwood problem.

The data presented here are the result of an inexpensive short-term investigation focusing on cooking devices currently available in Zimbabwe. In the course of the investigation various hearths and stoves were put through a series of tests designed to measure operating characteristics and efficiency across their power range and to document other factors of interest, including value for space heating and lighting, ease or difficulty of use, danger of burns or asphyxiation, and the like.

The goals ofthe projectwere 1imited:to gather dataon key characteristics and performance parameters of some existing stoves of particular interest, and to establish the capacity for further testing and evaluation of novel and improved devices. The test series is thus by no means comprehensive. Only a few stoves were tested and the testing done under a very limited set of conditions.

However, the hearths and stoves tested are representative of the range of cooking devices available in Zimbabwe. Coal, paraffin, gas and electric cookers were included as well as those using wood and charcoal. The stoves examined were generally good examples of their type, tested under favorable conditions (Harris, 1984a). Thus the data gathered should provide a fair reflection of the

performance to be expected of these stoves in tasks similar to those embodied in the tests.

Beyond the development of this basic data, the test program has developed a set of well specified and documented test methods (Harris, 1984b) and trained the staff of a local technology evaluation center in their use. The capacity for further work building on this foundation is well established.

In stove testing, as in many other areas of research, a bit of knowledge begets more curiosity. The fact that we have left many questions on the influence of fire management or environmental variables unanswered, and new ideas on potential stove design improvements untested for the moment, has been a source of considerable frustration. It is assuaged, however, by the anticipation that these issues will be pursued in future work facilitated by the experience and basic data gathered in these tests.

2. THE PROGRAM

The Domestic Cookstove Performance Testing Project was conceived in the course of work on the Zimbabwe Energy Accounting Project, in which it was realized that rather little was known about the potential economic value or impact on fuelwood resources of alternative cooking devices. Woodburning stoves of "improved" design were being promoted by various local institutions and substitution of these stoves or others using alternative fuels was clearly a matter for government interest, in view of the high rate of deforestation evident in many areas of Zimbabwe.

Obviously if government ministries or other institutions were to embark on programs of stove dissemination for fuel conservation, they had need to be well informed as to the fuel saving potential of various stoves and also as to other characteristics of the stoves which might be influential in their adoption or rejection by potential users. Although several previous investtqytions of stove efficiency had been conducted in Zimbabwe these studies covered a very limited range of stoves, or were insufficiently documented for generalization. As a result it was considered necessary to begin afresh with the development of a set of test procedures of general utility for stove evaluation, supporting full, consistent documentation.

The test procedures devised are a version of a water boiling/simmering test which is rapidly becoming accepted as a world standard for comparable estimation of the performance of stoves in a simulation of the composite demands of a standard cooking task, a version of the constant power test derived from standard engineering practice for investigation of operating characteristics under steady state conditions, and a direct test of performance in preparation of a typical meal. The first test is useful for a rough screening and indexing of stove performance. The second supports a close examination of the influence of various design and management

variables upon efficiency over the power range of a stove. The third test checks the relationship of standardized efficiency data to an actual application. The three tests together support controlled evaluation of performance under most conditions likely to be encountered in actual use.

These tests can be used to derive estimates of fuel consumption in field use. However, such derivations are extremely tenuous, as they rely on the technical efficiency of production of a single output under highly controlled conditions. In field situations users will have many other objectives than simple maximization of the efficiency of cooking. For instance, they may wish to produce heat or light with the stove, or to attend to tasks which divert attention from the optimal management of the fire. Obviously, such interests may greatly affect fuel consumption.

The tests specified also include an effort to develop a qualitative assessment of the performance of stoves with respect to some of the anci l lary characteristics common1 y recognized to be important to users. However, they do not include evaluation of fuel efficiency in applications other than cooking. 17hen such applications are significant determinants of use of the stove, fieldobservations are clearly required for realistic estimates of fuel consumption in actual use.

The three tests, briefly described, are as follows:

THE STANDARD WATER BOILING TEST

The objective of this combination water boiling/simmering test is to obtain an estimate of fuel consumption in a standardized simulation of common cooking practices. The test has recently become an internationally recognized standard for comparative purposes, and is being carried out on a growing number of stoves worldwide. Its components roughly approximate the predominant Zimbabwean usages. Thus, the test provides an index for assessment of the potential value of stoves tested elsewhere and an indication of the relative levels of fuel consumption likely in actual use.

The test is conducted in two phases: a period of fifteen minutes at high power output followed by one of an hour at low power. The high power phase is intended to simulate relatively brief high load tasks, such as frying and water heating, while the low power phase is intended to simulate more prolonged low load tasks, such as simmering. During the high power phase, fuel is supplied freely, so that the stove yields its maximum energy output to pots of water set on top. In the low power phase, fuel is husbanded so as to yield a minimum useful output, just sufficient to maintain a simmer. The relative duration of the two phases of the test is intended to reflect an appropriate weighting of stove performance in the two types of task. In fact, the test as a whole is often taken as a generalized approximation of a common meal preparation process, in which foods are brought

t o t h e b o i l and then simmered f o r an extended period. Performance i s eva lua t ed i n terms of t h e propor t ion of

i n p u t ene rgy u s e f u l l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e p o t s , t h e o u t p u t power c a p a c i t i e s and r a n g e o f t h e h e a r t h o r s t o v e , and t h e time requi red f o r t h e s tandard t a sk .

THE CONSTANT POWER TEST

The o b j e c t i v e of t h e c o n s t a n t power t e s t i s t o d e v e l o p information on t h e a v a i l a b l e power range and on t h e v a r i a t i o n of per formance o v e r t h e power r ange . T h i s t y p e of t e s t i s d e r i v e d from s t a n d a r d e n g i n e e r i n g p r a c t i c e f o r p r o c e s s a n a l y s i s . I t h a s been a p p l i e d w i t h g r e a t e f f e c t by t h e L?oodburning Stove Group of t h e Un ive r s i t y of Eindhoven i n a s e r i e s of soph i s t i c a t ed i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e i n f l u e n c e of v a r i o u s des ign and management parameters on t h e performance of a few p r o t o t y p i c a l s t oves .

The p r i n c i p a l v i r t u e of t h e t e s t l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t i t p r o v i d e s a r e l a t i v e l y p r o l o n g e d and s t e a d y - s t a t e env i ronmen t f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n of t h e i n f l u e n c e of v a r i o u s f a c t o r s on ope ra t i ng c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h e d i s c r imina t i on of performance under d i f f e r e n t condi t ions .

The t e s t i s conduc t ed a s a s i n g l e s t a g e , i n which f u e l i s p r o v i d e d a t a s t e a d y r a t e f o r a p e r i o d of somewhat more t h a n an hou r . P r i o r t o t h e t e s t , t h e s t o v e , p o t and w a t e r a r e prehea ted , i n o rde r t o e l i m i n a t e t h e t r a n s i e n t demands of t h e i n i t i a l h e a t i n g . A f t e r t h e p r e h e a t , t h e f i r e i s ex t inguished , any r e s idue i s removed, and t h e t e s t i t s e l f i s begun. S o l i d f u e l e d s t o v e s a r e f e d w i t h e q u a l c h a r g e s a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s . Other f u e l s a r e supp l i ed a t an even f low t h r o u g h a f i x e d v a l v e o r s w i t c h s e t t i n g . Any r a t e of f u e l s u p p l y may be chosen , s u b j e c t t o t h e c o n s t r a i n t s t h a t i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o m a i n t a i n a simmer i n a p o t o f w a t e r on t h e s t o v e and t h a t i t i s w i t h i n t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e s t o v e . A s e r i e s of t e s t s , i n which t h e r a t e of f u e l s u p p l y i s v a r i e d ac ros s t h i s range, i s u s u a l l y conducted.

Performance i s e v a l u a t e d i n terms of t h e propor t ion of i npu t energy u s e f u l l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e po t s and i n terms of o u t p u t and i n p u t power c a p a c i t i e s a n d r a n g e . C u r v e s d e s c r i b i n g pe r fo rmance o v e r t h e r ange o f power o r o t h e r v a r i a b l e s may be drawn.

THE STANDARD MEAL TEST

The o b j e c t i v e of t h e s t a n d a r d meal t e s t i s t o s e r v e a s a check on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of s tandard measures of performance t o t h e time and energy requi red f o r p r epa ra t i on of a t y p i c a l m e a l . I t t h u s d e v e l o p s a mapping o f t h e meaning o f t h e gene ra l phys i ca l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e v a l u a t e d i n o t h e r t e s t s , i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s p e c i f i c a t t r i b u t e s of l o c a l cooking p r a c t i c e s , s u c h a s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e , t i m e and power r e q u i r e m e n t s of f oods , t h e number o f p o t s , and s equence of o p e r a t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n food p r e p a r a t i o n . The s t a n d a r d meal t e s t may a l s o , t o t he e x t e n t t h a t cooking i s t h e predominant

a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e a p p l i a n c e and t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e "s tandard meal" i s i n f a c t a t y p i c a l meal, be used f o r crude p r o j e c t i o n s of t h e comparative c o s t of use of t h e s t ove .

The t e s t i s conducted a s a s imple exe rc i s e i n cooking a t y p i c a l l o c a l m e a l , s t a n d a r d i z e d f o r t h e t e s t s e r i e s a s t o t y p e s and q u a n t i t i e s o f f o o d , c o o k i n g p r a c t i c e s , a n d , p r e f e r a b l y , t h e cook h im/he r se l f . The meal i s prepared, w i th t h e e x e r c i s e o f r e a s o n a b l e c a r e i n f u e l c o n s e r v a t i o n , by a cook f a m i l i a r wi th t h e use of t h e s t ove .

Per formance i s e v a l u a t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e t ime and q u a n t i t y o f f u e l r e q u i r e d f o r p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e s t a n d a r d m e a l , and i n t e rms o f t h e e a s e o f u s e , s a f e t y and o t h e r f a c t o r s of concern t o p o t e n t i a l u se r s of t h e s t ove .

D i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e p o t e n t i a l s cope and v a l u e of a c o o k s t o v e per formance t e s t i n g program i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e s e t e s t s were h e l d w i t h r e s e a r c h o f f i c e r s of t h e M i n i s t r y o f Energy and Water Resources and wi th va r ious o t h e r i n t e r e s t e d i n d i v i d u a l s and i n s t i t u t i o n s . I t was t h e gene ra l consensus t h a t an exp lo ra to ry t e s t i n g program would be worthwhile and t h a t t h e s t a f f o f A.T.- Z i m S e r v i c e s ( P v t ) L td . under t h e d i r e c t i o n of M r . W.J. Ascough (an a g r i c u l t u r a l engineer and a longt ime and ve ry a c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e technology e n t h u s i a s t ) would b e b e s t s u i t e d t o c a r r y o u t such a program and t o pursue f u r t h e r t e s t i n g i n t he fu tu r e . M r . Ascough was h i g h l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p r o j e c t and an agreement was r eached t h a t t h e Zimbabwe Energy Accounting P r o j e c t would sponsor a b a s i c s e r i e s of t e s t s on a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i f t e e n s t o v e s , t o b e conduc t ed by A.T.- Z i m S e r v i c e s , a t t h e f a c i l i t i e s o f t h e Department of Land Management, Un ive r s i t y of Zimbabwe. The program was i n i t i a t e d i n May and concluded i n August, 1984.

I n a c t u a l i t y , seventeen h e a r t h s and s t o v e s werese lec ted f o r t e s t i n g . An e f f o r t was made t o i n c l u d e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e examples of t h e broad range of cooking dev i ce s a v a i l a b l e i n Zimbabwe, i nc lud ing app l i ances using c o a l , p a r a f f i n , gas and e l e c t r i c i t y a s w e l l a s t h o s e u s i n g wood o r c h a r c o a l . A p a r t i c u l a r e f f o r t was made t o ensure i n c l u s i o n of h e a r t h s and s t o v e s p r e s e n t l y i n widespread u s e , o f models c u r r e n t l y promoted by government m i n i s t r i e s and o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s and of d e s i g n s i n c o r p o r a t i n g minor m o d i f i c a t i o n s expec t ed t o enhance t h e e f f i c i e n c y of common h e a r t h s and s t o v e s . B y t h e s e c r i t e r i a good c o v e r a g e o f t h e v a r i e t y of s t o v e s a v a i l a b l e t o most Zimbabweans was a t t a i n e d . However, a number o f h i g h l y a t t r a c t i v e c o m m e r c i a l s t o v e s w e r e n e g l e c t e d , p r i n c i p a l l y on t h e b a s i s o f c o s t s , t h o u g h t t o b e beyond t h e reach of t h e bu lk of t h e popula t ion .

3 . THE STOVES

Tp2e) s t o v e s chosen f o r t e s t i n g a r e b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d be low Numbers a t t h e l e f t marg in a r e s t o v e i d e n t i t y numbers used f o r r e f e r e n c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e t e s t i n g and a n a l y s i s .

FUEL : WOOD

(1) The t h r e e s t o n e h e a r t h : t h e t r a d i t i o n a l open f i r e used b y a l a r g e number of r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s and by some o f t h e urban popula t ion .

( 2 ) The open g r a t e - high: a welded i r o n frame ho ld ing t h r e e p o t s above an open f i r e , Manufac tured i n t h e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r , i t h a s r e p l a c e d t h e t h r e e s t o v e h e a r t h i n many households, l a r g e l y because it p rov ides s t a b l e support f o r h e a t i n g s e v e r a l p o t s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y and e a s e s adjustment of t h e f i r e .

( 3 ) The open g r a t e - low: t h e open g r a t e d e s c r i b e d above , e x p e r i m e n t a l l y lowered c l o s e r t o t h e f i r e t o i n c r e a s e t h e e f f i c i e n c y of h e a t t r a n s f e r .

( 4 ) The s h i e l d e d g r a t e : t h e open g r a t e d e s c r i b e d above , expe r imen ta l l y sh i e lded with ga lvan i zed i r o n shee t i ng on t h r e e s i d e s t o r e d u c e l a t e r a l d r a u g h t s and t o r e f l e c t r a d i a n t h e a t back t o t h e cooking a r ea .

( 5 ) The s h i e l d e d f i r e 1: an e x p e r i m e n t a l s h e e t s t e e l t u b e s t o v e i n c o r p o r a t i n g an a i r e n t r y doo r and g r a t e i n t h e lower p o r t i o n and r o d s t o suspend a p o t i n t h e upper po r t i on above t h e f i r e .

(6) M e t a l s t o v e ( J a i r o s J i r i ) : a s h e e t s t e e l s t o v e s u p p o r t i n g one p o t above a s m a l l i n s u l a t e d combus t ion chamber, manufactured by t h e J a i r o s J i r i Associat ion.

( 7 ) Brick s t o v e (Seke): a b r i c k s t o v e ho ld ing t h r e e p o t s and i nco rpo ra t i ng a g r a t e , dumper, chimney and h o t p l a t e , a demonstrat ion s t o v e of t h e Min i s t ry of Energy and Water Resources.

( 8 ) Lorena s t o v e (McGarry): a l o r e n a s t o v e s i m i l a r t o t h e Hlekweni s t o v e i n i n t e r i o r cons t ruc t i on except l a ck ing t h e h o t w a t e r t a n k , a d e m o n s t r a t i o n s t o v e a t S i l v e i r a House.

( 9 ) Brick s t o v e (Hlekweni): a b r i ck , l o r ena and cement s t o v e h o l d i n g t h r e e p o t s and i n c o r p o r a t i n g a d o o r , i n t e r n a l b a f f l i n g , dumper, chimney and h o t w a t e r t a n k , promoted by Hlekweni Tra in ing Center.

FUEL: CHARCOAL

( 1 0 ) Me ta l s t o v e ( S a b l e ) : a p a i r o f m e t a l c y l i n d e r s each s u p p o r t i n g one p o t and each i n c o r p o r a t i n g an i n t e r n a l w i r e f u e l b a s k e t and a j e t f o r p r o v i s i o n of a i r by means of an e x t e r n a l pump, manufactured by Copperwares ( P v t . ) L td .

(16) Metal stove (Jiko) : the traditional East African charcoal brazier, a short sheet steel bucket supporting one pot incorporating a grate and air door manufactured by the informal sector, East Africa.

FUEL: COAL

(11) ~rick/metal stove (Coalburn): a low brick stove supporting three pots on a flat cast iron top and incorporating a grate and chimney manufactured by Zim Cast (Pvt.) Ltd. for Wankie Colliery.

(12) Metal stove (Colray 100): a cast iron stove on legs, supporting one pot and incorporating a grate, door and chimney manufactured by TJilliam, Smith and Gourock (Pvt) Ltd.

FUEL: PARAFFIN

(13) Wick stove: a tin stove with adjustable cotton string wicks, supporting one pot, widely used in urban areas, manufactured by Tregers (Pvt.) Ltd.

(17) Pressure stove: a brass primus type stove supporting one pot and equipped with pump, valve and jet burner, imported from Primus, Sweden.

FUEL: GAS

(14) Ring: a valved burner attached to a gas cylinder, supporting one pot, manufactured by GEM (Pvt) Ltd.

FUEL: ELECTRICITY

(15) Hot plate: a switchable electric resistance heater equipped with a metal plate supporting one pot, used in many urban households, manufactured by Tregers (Pvt) Ltd.

The schedu of tests was organized as follows: each hearth or stove was subjected to five or more repetitions of the standard water boiling test, in order to establish basic performance characteristic on a generally comparable basis and in order to ascertain the degree of variability in performance of each stove. Constant power test series were then performed on a subset of sixhearths and stoves in order to clarify the relationship between efficiency and output power. Solid fuel stoves were selected for the constant power tests, as it was judged that the efficiency/power relationship was defined adequate1 y for other stoves by the standard water boiling test. The stoves chosen for the constant power tests, were the three stone hearth (in widespread use), the shielded grate (performance indistinguishable from the high grate in widespread use), the

low g r a t e ( a s i m p l e m o d i f i c a t i o n of t h e h i g h g r a t e which n e a r l y d o u b l e d e f f i c i e n c y i n t h e s t a n d a r d w a t e r b o i l i n g t e s t ) , t h e Hlekweni s t o v e ( t h e d i s t i n c t l y supe r io r h igh mass s t o v e i n t h e s t a n d a r d w a t e r b o i l i n g t e s t ) , t h e j i k o ( a n i n e x p e n s i v e c h a r c o a l s t o v e ) and t h e C o l r a y 100 ( t h e l e s s dangerous c o a l s t o v e ) . Standard meal t e s t s were performed on a l l h e a r t h s and s t o v e s s a v e t h e J a i r o s J i r i and t h e S a b l e s t o v e s , which were judged t o o u n s t a b l e t o be d e s i r a b l e cooking s toves .

The t e s t s were c a r r i e d o u t w i t h g r e a t p r o f i c i e n c y and a c c u r a c y b y t h e A.T.- Z i m S e r v i c e s s t a f f . I n t e r - t e s t v a r i a t i o n s were reduced t o a minimum w i t h t h e U e o f h i g h l y

( 47 s t a n d a r d i z e d p r o c e d u r e s , f u e l s and equipment . Each t a s k was r e g u l a r l y per formed by t h e same i n d i v i d u a l and b o t h c o o k i n g a n d f i r e management we re i n t h e c h a r g e o f a n experienced cook.

Tes t s were conducted indoors t o minimize environmental v a r i a t i o n s . A l l d a t a was r e c o r d e d on p r e p r i n t e d forms designed f o r t h e t e s t s .

4 . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The d a t a acqui red i n t he se t e s t s was obtained using t h e v a l u e s f o r e n e r g y c o n t e n t o f f u e l s and o t h e r p h y s i c a l p a r a m e t e r s a c c e p t e S s t a n d a r d w i t h i n t h e Zimbabwe Energy dt 47 Account ing P ro j ec t .

Figures c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e s tandard water b o i l i n g t e s t i nc luded t h e e n e r g y and power o u t p u t ( f o r e ach s t a g e o f t h e t e s t and f o r t h e t e s t a s a w h o l e ) , t h e ene rgy i n p u t and e f f i c i e n c y , ( f o r each s t a g e of t h e t e s t f o r s t o v e s wi th which it was p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n an a c c u r a t e measure of f u e l consumption of t h e in te rmedia te po in t , and f o r t h e t e s t a s a whole f o r a l l s t o v e s ) , an a l t e r n a t i v e measure of e f f i c i e n c y which d i s coun t s energy l o s t i n t h e evapora t ion of water from t h e po t s , t h e r a t i o of h igh output power t o low output power, and t h e t i m e t a k e n t o b r i n g a s t a n d a r d q u a n t i t y of w a t e r t o t h e b o i l . The mean and s tandard d e v i a t i o n of each f i g u r e was c a l c u l a t e d f o r each s tove .

F igures c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e cons t an t power t e s t s inc luded o u t p u t power b a s e d on t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e t e s t , i n p u t power ba sed on t h e p e r i o d of f u e l f e e d i n g and on t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e t e s t , and e f f i c i ency . Linear r eg re s s ions of each of t h e power v a r i a b l e s a g a i n s t e f f i c i e n c y were computed and t h e ou tpu t power /e f f ic iency r eg re s s ion was p l o t t e d .

F igures c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e s tandard meal t e s t inc luded t h e time and energy i npu t requi red f o r t h e cooking t a s k , and t h e rank and propor t ion of t h e mean time and energy r equ i r ed by t h e s t ove .

The l a r g e amount o f . q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a ob ta ined through t h e t e s t s i s not t a b u l a t e d here . Ins tead , a s a concession t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r b r e v i t y , t h e s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g s a r e d i scussed below.

Dramatic d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e performance of t h e v a r i o u s h e a r t h s and s t o v e s w e r e r e v e a l e d i n t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s tandard water b o i l i n g t e s t . Performance d i f f e r e n t i a l s were most s t r i k i n g between dev i ce s using d i f f e r e n t f u e l s , bu t t h e y were a l s o h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t among h e a r t h s and s t o v e s using t h e same f u e l . Most impor tan t ly , t h e t e s t c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d dev i ce swh ich were s u p e r i o r i n two a s p e c t s o f key conce rn t o u s e r s , f u e l e f f i c i e n c y and t ime r e q u i r e d t o b r i n g a p o t o f water t o t h e b o i l . These d i s t i n c t i o n s were unambiguous. The c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n of f u e l e f f i c i e n c y f i g u r e s w a s g e n e r a l l y no g r e a t e r than 10% f o r t h e f i v e t e s t r e p l i c a t i o n s , and t h a t f o r t h e time t o b o i l f i g u r e s was about 15%.

I n g e n e r a l , t h e f u e l e f f i c i e n c y of t h e h e a r t h s and s t o v e s t e s t e d r o s e w i t h t h e q u a l i t y of f u e l employed, a l t h o u g h t h e c o a l b u r n i n g s t o v e s were an e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . The wood h e a r t h s and s t o v e s showed t e s t e f f i c i e n c i e s of 6% - 22%, t he cha rcoa l s t o v e s 17% & 21%, t h e c o a l s t o v e s 5% & l l%, t h e p a r a f f i n s t o v e s 46%, t h e g a s r i n g 52% and t h e e l e c t r i c p l a t e 63%.

These f i g u r e s can be u s e f u l i n p l a n n e r s ' e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e demand imp l i ca t i ons of f u e l s u b s t i t u t i o n . However, t h e r e l a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y of s t o v e s u s i n g d i f f e r e n t f u e l s i s o f i n t e r e s t t o u s e r s p r i n c i p a l l y i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e r e l a t i v e c o s t o f t h e f u e l s , and t h u s t o t h e u l t i m a t e c o s t o f use o f t h e s t o v e s . S i n c e most Zimbabwean h o u s e h o l d s h a v e l i t t l e choice bu t t o use fuelwood, t h e v a r i a t i o n i n f u e l e f f i c i e n c y of t h e woodburning h e a r t h s and s t o v e s may be more s a l i e n t .

One s t r i k i n g o b s e r v a t i o n was t h a t t h e much ma l igned t h r e e s t one h e a r t h tu rned i n q u i t e a good performance, wi th a t e s t f u e l e f f i c i e n c y of 1 7 % , one of t h e h i g h e s t f o r t h e woodburning d e v i c e s . The c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s c r e p a n c y between t h i s f i g u r e and t h e much lower e f f i c i e n c y u s u a l l y ascr ibed t o t h e t h r e e s t o n e h e a r t h h i g h l i g h t s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f management and env i ronmen t i n d e t e r m i n i n g per formance . A g r e a t d e a l o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e c a n p r o b a b l y b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e c a r e taken t o main ta in a wind f r e e environment throughout t h e t e s t i n g .

An e q u a l l y s t r i k i n g r e v e l a t i o n was t h e r e l a t i v e i n e f f i c i e n c y of t h e i r o n g r a t e , now used i n a m a j o r i t y o f r u r a l households and des i r ed by many of those which s t i l l use t h e t h r e e s t o n e h e a r t h . The i r o n g r a t e , a l t h o u g h it h o l d s two o r more p o t s above a s i m i l a r open f i r e , showed a n e f f i c i e n c y of l e s s than 10%, s l i g h t l y more than one-half t h a t o f t h e t h r e e s t o n e h e a r t h . T h i s s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n i n e f f i c i e n c y was due t o t h e g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e interposedbetween t h e f i r e and t h e po t by t h e g r a t e ,

As it i s o r d i n a r i l y s o l d , t h e g r a t e h a s a p o t t o ground c l ea r ance of about 18 cm. In an e f f o r t t o check whether t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e t h r e e s tone h e a r t h could be recovered wh i l e p r e se rv ing t h e advantages of t h e g r a t e ( i t s a b i l i t y t o h o l d s e v e r a l p o t s s e c u r e l y f o r s imultaneous cooking) a s e r i e s of t e s t s we re made o f a g r a t e l o w e r e d t o a p o t t o g r o u n d c l ea r ance of 8 cm. This g r a t e a c t u a l l y performed b e t t e r than t h e t h r e e s t one h e a r t h , with an e f f i c i e n c y of a lmos t 22%, t h e

i n c r e a s e probably a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e h e a t captured by t h e secondary pot.

Another experiment, t e s t i n g whether t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e h igh g r a t e cou ld be improved by app ly ing a shee t- meta l s h i e l d i n g t o t h r e e s i d e s i n o rde r t o p r e v e n t d raugh t s and r e f l e c t r a d i a n t energy back toward t h e p o t s , met wi th l e s s success. In f a c t the t e s t ef f ic iency of the shielded gra te , 8%, was s l i g h t l y l e s s than t h a t of the same gra te unshielded. However, i t must b e remembered t h a t t h e s e t e s t s were conducted i n s t i l l a i r . I t i s qu i t e poss ible t h a t shie ld ing could preserve the ef f ic iency of the g ra te i n the presence of wind, which, even when s l i g h t , d r a m a t i c a l l y impa i r s t h e performance of open f i r e s .

The importance of t h e f r e e h e i g h t between t h e p o t and f i r e was aga in r e v e a l e d i n t h e poor performance of t h e shielded f i r e , a tubular stove i n which the pot i s suspended i n a chimney, about 2 6 cm above t h e base of t h e f i r e . This s t o v e , which migh t be e x p e c t e d t o g a i n c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f i c i e n c y i n h e a t t r a n s f e r by f o r c i n g a l l of t h e h o t gases from t h e f i r e through t h e narrow c l e a r a n c e around t h e s i d e s of t h e p o t , e x h i b i t e d an e f f i c i e n c y of s l i g h t l y l e s s than 11%, probably because the pot was held so f a r above the f i r e .

Another meta l s t o v e , t h e J a i r o s J i r i , i s des igned t o maximize t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e combustion p rocess , burning s m a l l b i t s of f u e l i n an i n s u l a t e d b u t w e l l a e r a t e d combustion tube mounted d i r e c t l y beneath the pot. This stove performed qu i t e w e l l , with an ef f ic iency of over 19%.

The two remaining wood burning s t o v e s t e s t e d a r e high mass s t o v e s , b u i l t of b r i c k , c l a y , sand and cement. They burn t h e i r f u e l i n a combustion chamber a t t h e f r o n t of t h e s tove, then pass the hot gases back through a passage beneath h o l e s c u t o u t t o a l l o w c o n t a c t wi th t h e bottoms of s e v e r a l p o t s , t o a chimney. Both s t o v e s a r e equipped wi th f l u e dampers. One, t h e "Seke," i s equipped wi th a g r a t e f o r aera t ion of the f i r e . The other , the "Hlekweni," i s equipped wi th a door a t t h e e n t r a n c e of t h e combustion chamber t o r egu la te a i r flow t o the f i r e and with pot ho les and b a f f l e s i n t h e smoke passage t o i n c r e a s e h e a t t r a n s f e r from t h e gas t o the pots. Although genera l ly s imi la r i n appearance, the two s t o v e s performed ve ry d i f f e r e n t l y , The Seke tu rned i n one of t h e poores t performances among t h e d e v i c e s t e s t e d , displaying an eff ic iency of about 6%. The Hlekweni performed n e a r l y twice a s w e l l , wi th an e f f i c i e n c y of 11%, and was s l i g h t l y superior t o the high gra te .

The charcoa l and c o a l s t o v e s t e s t e d a l s o v a r i e d i n e f f i c i e n c y . The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e c h a r c o a l s t o v e s was not p a r t i c u l a r l y marked; however, t h e S a b l e , wi th a s h i e l d e d sc reen charcoa l basket ,was more e f f i c i e n t than t h e j i k o , a simple metal b raz ie r , the s toves showing e f f i c i enc ies of 2 1 % and 17%, respect ively .

The d i f f e r e n c e i n performance of t h e c o a l s toveswas aga in s u b s t a n t i a l ; t h e Colray 100 showing an e f f i c i e n c y of about 5 % , w h i l e t h e Coalburn, which f e a t u r e s a compact f i r e b o x and b a f f l e d smokepath t o i n c r e a s e h e a t t r a n s f e r t o

t h e c a s t i r o n top ,showed an e f f i c i e n c y more t h a n t w i c e a s g r e a t , a lmos t 12%.

The o t h e r s i m i l a r l y f u e l l e d s t o v e s t e s t e d , t h e p a r a f f i n wick and p r e s s u r e s t o v e s , per formed w i t h i d e n t i c a l f u e l e f f i c i e n c y , a t 46%.

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e s e e f f i c i e n c y f i g u r e s a r e n o t a b s o l u t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e h e a r t h s and s t o v e s examined. As has been mentioned p r e v i o u s l y , they may vary a g r e a t d e a l u n d e r o t h e r management o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l cond i t i ons .

Pe rhaps more t o t h e p o i n t , pe r fo rmance f i g u r e s may a l s o v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t y p e o f t a s k f o r w h i c h t h e y a r e eva lua t ed . I n e f f i c i e n t performance of t h e t a s k s embodied i n t h e s tandard water b o i l i n g t e s t ( a t t a i n i n g a vigorous b o i l a t h i g h power , s u s t a i n i n g i t f o r f i f t e e n m i n u t e s , t h e n m a i n t a i n i n g a s immer f o r a n h o u r w i t h m i n i m a l f u e l consumpt ion) c o n s i d e r a b l e we igh t i s g i v e n t o low power performance. An examination of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between low power and h i g h power e f f i c i e n c i e s r e v e a l s t h a t low power e f f i c i e n c y w a s s u b s t a n t i a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n h i g h power e f f i c i e n c y f o r t h e s o l i d f u e l s t o v e s , w h e r e a s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p was r e v e r s e d f o r t h e l i q u i d , g a s a n d e l e c t r i c a l l y f u e l l e d devices .

This u n l i k e l y incons is tency p o i n t s up an anomaly of t h e m e a s u r e o f e f f i c i e n c y u s e d h e r e . E n e r g y o u t p u t , t h e denomina to r of t h e measure of e f f i c i e n c y , i n c l u d e s , a s computed he re , t h e n e t energy used t o h e a t p o t s and water and t o evapo ra t e water. I t does no t count energy t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e p o t s b u t t h e n l o s t t o t h e env i ronmen t ( f o r two r e a s o n s : because it i s d i f f i c u l t t o measure, and because i n t he i d e a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n of p o t and s t o v e no h e a t would be s o l o s t ) . The e x c l u s i o n o f t h e h e a t l o s t f r om t h e p o t t o t h e environment from t h e c a l c u l a t e d energy output makes l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e a t medium t o h i g h r a t e s o f h e a t t r a n s f e r . However, a t v e r y low power o u t p u t s , i t h a s t h e u n f o r t u n a t e e f f e c t of mis represen t ing e f f i c i e n c y downwards. C l e a r l y t h e most e f f i c i e n t way t o m a i n t a i n a simmer i s t o burn o n l y enough f u e l t o t r a n s f e r t o t h e po t energy j u s t s u f f i c i e n t t o compensate f o r l o s s e s t o t h e env i ronmen t . Any ene rgy t r a n s f e r r e d i n e x c e s s o f t h i s amount i s , i n t e r m s of t h e u l t i m a t e p r o d u c t ( w a t e r , k e p t a t b o i l i n g t e m p e r a t u r e f o r a g iven p e r i o d ) , wasted i n evapora t ion , wi th t h e f u r t h e r e f f e c t o f d i s c o u n t i n g t h e ene rgy a l r e a d y embodied i n h e a t i n g and s immering t h e w a t e r v a p o r i z e d . Thus t h e t r u l y e f f i c i e n t s i m m e r i n g p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s a minimum e n e r g y o u t p u t , approaching 0 i n t h e l i m i t . As energy output f i g u r e s a s t h e denominator i n c a l c u l a t i o n of e f f i c i e n c y , it fo l l ows t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t e d e f f i c i e n c y a l s o approaches 0 i n t he l i m i t a s t h e r e a l e f f i c i e n c y of t h e process i nc r ea se s . The e f f e c t of t h i s a n o m a l y o f c a l c u l a t i o n i s t o d i s c o u n t t h e l ow power e f f i c i e n c y of t h e l i q u i d , g a s and e l e c t r i c a l l y f u e l l e d d e v i c e s , which a r e i n f a c t most e f f i c i e n t because t h e i r a c t u a l energy output can be ad ju s t ed t o a low l e v e l , j u s t i n excess of t h a t requi red t o maintain t h e simmer.

A m o r e u s e f u l a p p r o a c h t o t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f low power e f f i c i e n c y c a n b e h a d i n t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e e n e r g y requi red f o r performance of t h e t a sk , r a t h e r than i n terms of n e t energy t r a n s f e r . A look a t t h e f i g u r e s f o r energy i npu t i n t h e low power s t a g e of t h e t e s t c o n f i r m s t h e low f u e l requirements of t h e non- sol id f u e l l e d s t oves . Another task- based comparison can be found i n an a l t e r n a t e c a l c u l a t i o n of e f f i c i e n c y , i n which e n e r g y o u t p u t f o r t h e t e s t i s t a k e n a s t h e energy t h e o r e t i c a l l y requi red t o b r ing t h e p o t s and t h e f i n a l volume o f w a t e r t o t h e i r f i n a l t e m p e r a t u r e . I n t h e s t a n d a r d w a t e r b o i l i n g t e s t t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y i s ve ry much an i n v e r s e func t i on of low power ou tput .

I n a c o m p a r i s o n on t h e b a s i s o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y , t h e low g r a t e was aga in t h e supe r io r woodburning dev i ce , wi th an e f f i c i e n c y of 9.6%, n e a r l y twice t h a t of t h e h i g h g r a t e ( 5 . 2 % ) , a n d t h r e e t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e e f f i c i e n c i e s of t h e t h r e e s t one f i r e (3.2%) and t h e sh i e lded g r a t e ( 3 . 0 % ) , a n d n i n e t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e sh i e lded f i r e (1.1%). The J a i r o s J i r i made a r e l a t i v e l y poor s h o w i n g , a t 2 . 3 % , a n d t h e S e k e and X l e k w e n i p e r f o r m e d m o d e r a t e l y w e l l , a t 3 . 5% and 4 . 4 % , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The r e l a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e cha rcoa l s t o v e s was i n v e r t e d , with t h e Sab l e and j i ko e x h i b i t i n g a l t e r n a t e e f f i c i e n c i e s of 2.2% and 5.2%, r e s p e c t i v e l y , wh i l e t h e r e l a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e c o a l s t o v e s was p r e s e r v e d , w i t h f i g u r e s of 5.6% f o r t h e Coa lbu rn and 1.6% f o r t h e C o l r a y 100. The a l t e r n a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e p a r a f f i n s t o v e s d i v e r g e d somewhat, t h e p r e s su re s t o v e ach i ev ing 16.9%, wh i l e t h e wick s t o v e dropped t o 12 .5%. The g a s r i n g showed a f i g u r e of 20.9%, and t h e e l e c t r i c p l a t e l e d t h e r a n k i n g , a t 29.1%. Again, t h e s e f i g u r e s a r e meaningful t o t h e ex t en t t h a t t h e s tandard water b o i l i n g t e s t s imu la t e s t h e a c t u a l a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s t o v e s .

Users of s t o v e s a r e o f t e n concerned more about t ime than about f u e l . The time requi red t o b r ing a po t of water t o t h e b o i l i s g e n e r a l l y a func t ion of h igh power ou tput , though the r e l a t i o n i s somewhat confused by i n c l u s i o n of energy t r a n s f e r t o secondary p o t s i n t h e power ou tput c a l c u l a t i o n s . The time t o b o i l v a r i e d tremendously between s t o v e s , from a low of 8 minu t e s f o r t h e s h i e l d e d f i r e t o a h i g h of 58 minu t e s f o r t h e Seke s t o v e . Most o f t h e wood b u r n i n g h e a r t h s and g r a t e s showed r o u g h l y s i m i l a r t i m e s t o b o i l ; 1 5 minu t e s f o r t h e t h r e e s t one h e a r t h , a s l i g h t reduc t ion t o 14 minutes f o r t h e low g r a t e , and a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e s t o 17 minu t e s f o r t h e sh i e lded g r a t e , 18 minutes f o r t h e h igh g r a t e , 19 minutes f o r t h e J a i r o s J i r i . The Hlekweni h igh mass s t o v e imposed o n l y a modera te i n c r e a s e i n t ime t o b o i l , t o 21 m i n u t e s , b u t t h e Seke requi red a l l of 58 minutes.

The cha rcoa l s t o v e s were f a i r l y e f f i c i e n t i n t ime, with f i g u r e s o f 24 m i n u t e s f o r t h e j i k o and 26 minu te s f o r t h e S a b l e , a t l e a s t i n compar i son t o t h e c o a l s t o v e s , a t 39 m i n u t e s f o r t h e Coa lbu rn and 54 m i n u t e s f o r t h e C o l r a y 100. The p a r a f f i n s t o v e s were a g a i n e f f e c t i v e l y i d e n t i c a l , t h e wick s t o v e br ing ing t h e po t t o t h e b o i l i n 34 minutes, whi le t h e p r e s s u r e s t o v e t o o k 32 m i n u t e s . The h i g h power

c a p a c i t i e s o f t h e g a s r i n g and e l e c t r i c p l a t e b r o u g h t t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d by t h e s e s t o v e s down t o 2 9 m i n u t e s and 27 minutes, r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The above d i s c u s s i o n s h a v e shown t h a t t h e c a p a c i t y t o ope ra t e a t low power ou tput i s d e s i r a b l e f o r f u e l e f f i c i e n c y and t h a t t h e c a p a c i t y t o o p e r a t e a t h i g h power o u t p u t i s d e s i r a b l e f o r t i m e e f f i c i e n c y . The r a t i o o f h i g h power t o low power c a p a c i t i e s p rovides a crude measure of t h e a b i l i t y of a h e a r t h o r s t o v e t o meet b o t h of t h e s e d e s i d e r a t a , a l though t h e v a l u e of t h e power r a t i o i s somewhat v i t i a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t l o w power o u t p u t d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y correspond t o e f f i c i e n t ope ra t i on a t low power (wi tness t h e S e k e ) . However, ex t r eme v a l u e s can be i n d i c a t i v e . V a l u e s a p p r o a c h i n g 1, a s s e e n f o r t h e J a i r o s J i r i and t h e S a b l e s t o v e s , i n d i c a t e l i t t l e c a p a c i t y f o r a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e vary ing power requirements of d i f f e r e n t t a sks , an i n d i c a t i o n confirmed by t h e unremarkable performance of t h e s e s t o v e s on t h e a l t e r n a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y and time t o b o i l measures. On t h e o t h e r hand , h i g h v a l u e s , a s s e e n f o r t h e g a s r i n g and t h e e l e c t r i c p l a t e , i n d i c a t e g r e a t c a p a c i t y f o r a d j u s t m e n t t o s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n s , a s c o n f i r m e d b y t h e e x c e l l e n t performance of t h e s e s t oves .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p between e f f i c i e n c y and output power was explored more f u l l y i n t h e cons t an t power t e s t s . The r e s u l t s of t h e s e t e s t s showed t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p v a r i e d g r e a t l y among t h e s t o v e s t e s t e d , w i t h t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f some s t o v e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e power a t which t h e y were opera ted and t h a t of o t h e r s q u i t e independent of power.

The t h r e e s t o n e h e a r t h showed a c l e a r r e d u c t i o n o f e f f i c i e n c y w i t h i n c r e a s i n g o u t p u t power ( s l o p e of - . l 9 and c o r r e l a t i o n o f - . 6 5 ) . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e s h i e l d e d g r a t e and Hlekweni s t o v e showed a s t rong p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n between t h e two f a c t o r s ( s l o p e s of . l 2 and . l 4 and c o r r e l a t i o n s of .96 and .80, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . The j i k o showed a weaker p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n ( s l o p e o f . l 0 and c o r r e l a t i o n o f . 2 9 ) , w h i l e e f f i c i e n c y appea red t o be c o m p l e t e l y i ndependen t of o u t p u t power f o r t h e low g r a t e and t h e C o l r a y 100 ( s l o p e s of - .01 and . O 1 and c o r r e l a t i o n s of -.30 and . l 8 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . LCio c l e a r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e , b u t t h e p o t e n t i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s h igh l igh t ed . The graphic p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e c o n s t a n t power t e s t r e s u l t s ( F i g V I - 1 ) p r o v i d e s an e a s i l y a s s i m i l a t e d d i s p l a y of t h e c o m p a r a t i v e e f f i c i e n c i e s and power ranges of t h e s t oves .

F i n a l l y , t h e s tandard meal t e s t cor robora ted t h e gene ra l i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e s t a n d a r d w a t e r b o i l i n g t e s t , a s t h e v a r i o u s s t o v e s demons t r a t ed a r a n k i n g of f u e l consumpt ion r o u g h l y app rox ima t ing t h e o r d e r of f i g u r e s f o r e f f i c i e n c y o b t a i n e d i n t h e s t a n d a r d w a t e r b o i l i n g t e s t . The v a l u e o f low o u t p u t power c a p a c i t y was a g a i n con f i rmed , a s was t h e v a l u e of h igh ou tpu t power capac i t y f o r t h e time e f f i c i e n c y of one-pot h e a r t h s and s toves .

16 Metal Charcoal Stove (llko) / / 1 Three Stone Hearth

\ \-Grate- Low

/ 9 Brlck Wood Stove ( ~ l e k w e n l )

0 00 1 0 0 0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 l0

POWER OUTPUT (KH)

O O4

FIGURE VI-1 CONSTANT POWER TESTS: STOVE EFFICIENCY V E R S U S ~ R ~ T

--p

4 Sh~elded Grate- Hlgh

12 // Metal Coal

Stove (Colray 100)

The s tandard meal t e s t made a no t ab l e con t r i bu t i on i n - 1 a r i f y i n g t h e impor t ance t o t h e t i m e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e 2ooking p r o c e s s of t h e c a p a c i t y t o h o l d more t h a n one p o t f o r j i m u l t a n e o u s cooking . The f a c t t h a t cooking p r o c e s s e s a r e l o t s i m p l e f u n c t i o n s of n e t ene rgy t r a n s f e r , b u t i n v o l v e a s e r i e s o f o p e r a t i o n s i n c l u d i n g low power ma in t enance of zooking temperatures a t low power f o r p ro t r ac t ed per iods a s i e l l a s s h o r t b u r s t s of h igh power, was emphasized.

5 . CONCLUSIONS

The p r e l i m i n a r y d a t a d e v e l o p e d i n t h e c o o k s t o v e )erformance t e s t i n g program have r e v e a l e d a number of p o i n t s - e l e v a n t t o p r o j e c t i o n s o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f s t o v e ; u b s t i t u t i o n , Among t h e most no t ab l e of t he se p o i n t s a r e t h e fol lowing, de r ived from t h e s tandard water b o i l i n g t e s t :

1) The pe r fo rmance o f most h e a r t h s and s t o v e s , under r e a s o n a b l y w e l l c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s , i s r e m a r k a b l y cons i s t en t . The c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n of e f f i c i e n c y i n t h e s tandard t e s t i s g e n e r a l l y l e s s than t e n percent .

2 ) S toves f u e l l e d by p a r a f f i n , gas and e l e c t r i c i t y perform a t e f f i c i e n c i e s a t l e a s t two t o t h r e e times g r e a t e r than those of t h e s o l i d f u e l e d devices .

( 3 ) Great d i f f e r e n t i a l s i n performance a r e found among t h e s o l i d f u e l l e d h e a r t h s and s t o v e s , even between d e v i c e s burning t h e same f u e l .

( 4 ) The t h r e e s t o n e h e a r t h c a n a t t a i n a s u r p r i s i n g l y h i g h degree of e f f i c i e n c y i n h e a t t r a n s f e r , n e a r l y a s h igh a s t h a t of any o t h e r s o l i d f u e l l e d device .

( 5 ) While t h e use of t h e open g r a t e s e v e r e l y compromises t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e open f i r e , i t c o n f e r s a c o n s i d e r a b l e improvement i n t i m e e f f i c i e n c y i n cooking by h o l d i n g more than one po t above t h e f i r e .

( 6 ) The f u e l e f f i c i e n c y of t h e t h r e e s t o n e h e a r t h c a n , however, be recovered wh i l e t h e advantages of t he open g r a t e a r e p r e s e r v e d by s i m p l y l o w e r i n g t h e g r a t e t o p l a c e t h e p o t s c l o s e r t o t h e f i r e .

( 7 ) S h i e l d i n g t h e g r a t e w i t h s h e e t - m e t a l s i d e s makes no c o n t r i b u t i o n t o i t s e f f i c i e n c y i n s t i l l a i r , a l t h o u g h s h i e l d i n g may be q u i t e advantageous i n t h e presence of wind.

( 8 ) Nor i s a one p o t s t o v e w i t h c y l i n d r i c a l s h i e l d i n g c a r r i e d up t o c r e a t e a c h i m n e y a r o u n d t h e p o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y supe r io r t o t h e h igh g r a t e , so long a s t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e pot and t h e f i r e i s undiminished.

( 9 ) The e f f i c i e n c y o f a v e r y s m a l l s h i e l d e d f i r e p l a c e d d i r e c t l y beneath t h e po t i s no g r e a t e r than t h a t of any o t h e r f i r e p l aced c l o s e t o t h e pot .

( 10 ) The a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e b r i c k and c l a y h i g h mass s t o v e s a r e n o t t o b e f o u n d i n e n h a n c e d f u e l e f f i c i e n c y , a 1 though one of them, t h e Hlekweni , pe r fo rms no worse than t h e o rd ina ry h igh g r a t e . The o t h e r h igh mass s t o v e t e s t e d pe r fo rms v e r y b a d l y i n t e rms of b o t h f u e l and time ef f i c i e n c i e s .

(11) The c h a r c o a l s t o v e s t e s t e d a r e n o t s u p e r i o r i n f u e l o r t ime e f f i c i e n c y t o t h e b e s t of t h e wood s t o v e s , a l though they ope ra t e a t n e a r l y twice t h e f u e l e f f i c i e n c y of t h e ord inary h igh g ra t e .

( 1 2 ) The c o a l s t o v e s t e s t e d perform poo r ly i n terms of f u e l e f f i c i e n c y .

I t i s t emp t ing t o make i n f e r e n c e s on s t o v e c o s t and choice from t h e r e s u l t s of t he se t e s t s . I t would be r i sky t o c a r r y t h e s e i n f e r ences very f a r , however. The t e s t s repor ted h e r e h a v e l ooked o n l y a t e f f i c i e n c y i n cook ing ( m o s t l y s i m u l a t e d c o o k i n g , i n f a c t ) u n d e r h i g h 1 y c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s . H e a r t h s and s t o v e s a r e u sed , i n r e a l i t y , f o r many purposes o t h e r than cooking, and under h i g h l y v a r i a b l e

c o n d i t i o n s . F u e l and t i m e e f f i c i e n c y a r e o n l y two o f many c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a f f e c t i n g u s e a n d c h o i c e . C o n c l u s i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e compara t ive e f f i c i e n c y and d e s i r a b i l i t y of v a r i o u s s t o v e s w i l l r e q u i r e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a o b t a i n e d i n t h e s e t e s t s and f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e h e a r t h s and s t o v e s i n a c t u a l use.

D e s p i t e t h e c a v e a t a b o v e , i t would a p p e a r f rom t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e l i m i n a r y t e s t s r e p o r t e d h e r e t h a t :

(1) Cooks who c h o o s e t h e o p e n g r a t e o v e r t h e t h r e e s t o n e h e a r t h a r e s a c r i f i c i n g f u e l e f f i c i e n c y i n f a v o r o f conven ience and t ime e f f i c i e n c y .

( 2 ) C o o k s who u s e o r d i n a r y g r a t e s c o u l d m a i n t a i n t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e g r a t e a n d r e g a i n a h i g h d e g r e e o f f u e l e f f i c i e n c y a t no c o s t , by s i m p l y lower ing t h e g r a t e .

( 3 ) No o t h e r wood burn ing cooking d e v i c e among t h o s e t e s t e d i s s u p e r i o r t o t h e low g r a t e , i n t e r m s o f f u e l and t i m e e f f i c i e n c y .

( 4 ) The H l e k w e n i s t o v e i s t h e c l e a r l y s u p e r i o r c h o i c e f o r wood b u r n i n g h o u s e h o l d s which a r e w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t moderate f u e l e f f i c i e n c y i n r e t u r n f o r t h e c l e a n l i n e s s and s a f e t y a d v a n t a g e s o f a c l o s e d h i g h mass s t o v e .

( 5 ) The p o t e n t i a l v a l u e o f t h e c h a r c o a l s t o v e s t e s t e d i s n o t t o b e found i n f u e l e f f i c i e n c y , which i s no g r e a t e r t h a n can b e a t t a i n e d w i t h i n e x p e n s i v e wood burn ing d e v i c e s .

( 6 ) S i m i l a r l y , t h e p o t e n t i a l v a l u e of t h e c o a l s t o v e s t e s t e d i s n o t t o b e found i n t h e i r i n f e r i o r f u e l and t i m e e f f i c i e n c i e s .

( 7 ) P a r a f f i n , g a s and e l e c t r i c s t o v e s a r e , i n t e rms o f f u e l e f f i c i e n c y , t h e s t o v e s o f c h o i c e f o r h o u s e h o l d s w i t h a c c e s s t o t h e s e f u e l s .

FOOTNOTES

(1) By J. Chadzingwa o f t h e M i n i s t r y f o r I n d u s t r y and Energy D e v e l o p m e n t , b y J. Ascough o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f Land Management, U n i v e r s i t y o f Zimbabwe, by F a t h e r McGarry o f S i l v e i r a House, by J. G i l l o f t h e Open U n i v e r s i t y , U.K., and p o s s i b l y by o t h e r s .

( 2 ) For f u l l d e s c r i p t i o n s and d i m e n s i o n e d d r a w i n g s , s e e H a r r i s , T., W . J . Ascough, K. D o n n e l l y , g cl, 1 9 8 4 , " T e s t D a t a and P r e l i m i n a r y C a l c u l a t i o n s , P e r f o r m a n c e T e s t i n g P r o j e c t Domes t i c C o o k s t o v e s . " Zimbabwe Energy Accounting P r o j e c t .

(3) Excepting the McGarry, which was judged, upon inspection, to be so similar to the Hlekweni as not to warrant separate testing.

(4) Harris, 1984b, op. cit., fuels and equipment were as follows :

STOVES

All stoves tested were standard commercial models, except for the Seke and the Coalburn, provided by C. Murove of the Ministry of Energy and Water Resources and J. Chirodza, mason contractor to the M.E.M.R. and the Hlekweni, provided by K. Pamaand and M. Moyo of Hlekweni Training Center.

FUELS

IJood - gum (Eucalyptus grandis) pole offcuts, supplied air dry in lengths of 15 - 35 cm, diameters of 8 - 13 cm (Lewis Lumber (Pvt) Ltd., Harare)

Charcoal - black wattle (Acacia mearnsii) charcoals, - - - - - - - - - - - - - - supplied air dry in pieces of 3 - 6 cm diameter. (Geo. Elcombe (Pvt) Ltd. Harare)

Coal - Hwange bituminous washed cobbles, 4 - 6 cm diameter, (Geo. Elcombe (Pvt) Ltd., Harare)

Paraffin - illumination grade (Mobil Oil Zimbabwe (Pvt) Ltd., Harare)

L.P. Gas - (Mobil Oil Zimbabwe (Pvt) Ltd., Harare)

Electricity - 225V, 50Hz service

EQUIPMENT

Balance - Mettler PC 8000 electronic balance with automatic tare, range to 10 Kg in increments of 0.1 g.

Thermometer - Zeal glass/mercury thermometers, range from - 10°c to 1 1 0 ~ ~ in increments of 1°c.

Miscellaneous tongs, pans, hot pads, clocks, etc

Environment - Tests were conducted in a small (5 meter square) building at the University of Zimbabwe. The building was equipped with windows and a large tilt-up door which could be left open to allow smoke to escape. The structure provided

effective shielding from light winds. On breezy days openings were held to the minimum necessary for ventilation and hardboard baffles were set in place to assure adequate screening of wind.

REFERENCES

Harris, T., 1984a "Program for Performance Testing Project - Domestic Cookstoves", Zimbabwe Energy Accounting Project.

Harris, T., 1984b "Methodologies for Performance Tests of Domestic Hearths and Cookstoves" , Zimbabwe Energy Accounting Project.

V11 . FUELWOOD CONSUMPTION AND SUPPLY PATTERNS. TREE-PLANTING PRACTICES, AND FARM FORESTRY

IN RURAL ZIMBABWE

Yemi K a t e r e r e

1. INTRODUCTION

T h i s p a p e r examines two d i f f e r e n t s i d e s o f t h e fue lwood i s s u e i n r u r a l Zimbabwe. The p a p e r i s s p l i t i n t o two p a r t s ; t h e f i r s t p a r t examines t h e p a t t e r n s o f fue lwood consumpt ion and s u p p l y i n r u r a l Zimbabwe, h i g h l i g h t i n g t h e p r o b l e m s and p o t e n t i a l s o l u t i o n s s u r r o u n d i n g r u r a l Zimbabwe 's m o s t i m p o r t a n t f u e l s o u r c e . T h e s e c o n d p a r t o f t h e p a p e r d i s c u s s e s , i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l , o n e o f t h e p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s t o t h e fue lwood s h o r t a g e - t r e e p l a n t i n g and farm f o r e s t r y .

PART I. FUELWOOD CONSUMPTION PATTERNS AND SUPPLY I N RURAL Z I MBABWE

2 . BACKGROUND

T h i s p a r t o f t h e p a p e r d i s c u s s e s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e fue lwood modu le s o f t h e R u r a l Energy Survey . The s u r v e y was a n a t t e m p t t o d o c u m e n t t h e f u e l w o o d s u p p l y a n d c o n s u m p t i o n p a t t e r n a t a m i c r o l e v e l . T h i s s e c t i o n a l s o f o c u s e s o n t h e s u p p l y and demand o f fue lwood a t t h e p r o v i n c i a l and n a t i o n a l l e v e l s .

The fue lwood s u r v e y i s p a r t o f t h e R u r a l Energy S u r v e y w h i c h was c a r r i e d o u t t o g a t h e r b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n on r u r a l e n e r g y needs . The s u r v e y was d e s i g n e d t o p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n o n w o o d f u e l s c a r c i t y , c o o k i n g a p p l i a n c e s , m e t h o d s o f g a t h e r i n g wood, a n d d i s t a n c e t r a v e l l e d f o r communal a r e a f a r m e r s , r e s e t t l e d f a r m e r s a n d s m a l l s c a l e communal (SCCF) f a r m e r s . To e x a m i n e c l e a r l y t h e s t a t u s o f e n e r g y s u p p l y a n d demand a t t h e h o u s e h o l d l e v e l , t h e s u r v e y used two t y p e s o f d i s a g g r e g a t i o n s .

T h e f i r s t s t r a t i f i e d h o u s e h o l d s a c c o r d i n g t o a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m s : communa l , s m a l l s c a l e commerc i a l and r e s e t t l e m e n t . T h i s was n e c e s s a r y s i n c e e a c h s y s t e m h a s i t s own u n i q u e c o n d i t i o n s a n d c o n s t r a i n t s a f f e c t i n g e n e r g y s u p p l y and demand.

The second l e v e l o f d i s a g g r e g a t i o n s t r a t i f i e d h o u s e h o l d s a c c o r d i n g t o n a t u r a l r e g i o n s . The n a t u r a l r e g i o n s i n f l u e n c e p o t e n t i a l l a n d u s e a n d t h e r e f o r e r u r a l e n e r g y d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n s .

The s u r v e y c o n s i s t s o f a l a r g e c o r e q u e s t i o n n a i r e d o c u m e n t i n g b a s i c h o u s e h o l d i n f o r m a t i o n i n c l u d i n g f u e l - r e l a t e d i s s u e s . The c o r e i s complemented b y s e v e n e x t e n s i o n s e c t i o n s one o f which i s t h e fue lwood s e c t i o n . The o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s u r v e y i s d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l e l s e w h e r e i n t h i s volume.

3. FUEL TYPES, APPLIANCES AND PREFERRED FUELWOOD SPECIES

A l l households i n a l l t h r e e product ion systems use wood a s t h e main f u e l f o r cooking. P a r a f f i n i s used a s a l i g h t i n g f u e l by 100 p e r c e n t o f t h e s m a l l s c a l e farm h o u s e h o l d s , 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e r e s e t t l e m e n t , and 36 p e r c e n t o f t h e communal households. Crop r e s idues a r e used a s a minor cooking f u e l by 58 and 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e communal and r e s e t t l e m e n t h o u s e h o l d s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The u se o f c r o p r e s i d u e s i s s e a s o n a l and was r e c o r d e d o n l y i n t h e Chegutu D i s t r i c t . About 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e h o u s e h o l d s i n t h e communal a r e a s use dung a s a minor cook ing f u e l . The u se o f dung was r e c o r d e d i n Gwanda and Chegutu D i s t r i c t s . The d i v e r s i o n of animal and c r o p r e s i d u e s from a g r i c u l t u r a l t o f u e l u se r e s u l t s i n t h e d e c l i n e of b o t h c r o p and l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t i o n . Al though s t i l l a t a f a i r l y low l e v e l , t h e u s e of c r o p and an ima l r e s i d u e s f o r f u e l c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o i n c r e a s e a s fue lwood s u p p l i e s d e c l i n e .

The p o r t a b l e g r a t e i s t h e most w i d e l y used cooking a p p l i a n c e i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s f o l l o w e d by t h e t h r e e s t o n e h e a r t h and t h e f i x e d g r a t e . The mud/br ick c l o s e d s t o v e and t h e c l o s e d m e t a l s t o v e w i t h oven a r e used by a n e g l i g i b l e percentage of t h e r u r a l popula t ion .

The p a r t s o f t h e t r e e u s u a l l y used a s f u e l p r e f e r e n c e a r e summarized i n Table VII-1.

Table V I I - 1 TREE-PART USE AS FUEL --p

% of Households P a r t of Tree .................................... Used a s Fuel Communal Small- scale Rese t t l ed

Branches 60 6 7 Trunk and Branches 13 0 Branches and Twigs 10 3 3 A 1 l inc lud ing Roots 17 0

Most h o u s e h o l d s p r e f e r u s i n g b r a n c h e s and t w i g s f o r fue lwood. The t r u n k and b r a n c h e s a r e more commonly used by h o u s e h o l d s i n t h e communal and r e s e t t l e m e n t a r e a s . I t i s o n l y i n t h e communal a r e a s t h a t households a r e using r o o t s a s f u e l . This i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t fuelwood i s more d i f f i c u l t t o f i nd i n t h e communal a r e a s than i n o t h e r r u r a l a r e a s . The use o f e u c a l y p t s a s fue lwood i s n o t w idesp read . Only 10 p e r c e n t o f t h e h o u s e h o l d s i n each of t h e s m a l l s c a l e fa rms and r e s e t t l e m e n t a r e a s u se it. I n t h e communal a r e a s , 20 percent of t he households use euca lyp t s . Although t h e r e i s a s u r p l u s of p r e f e r r ed fuelwood spec i e s i n r e s e t t l e m e n t a r ea s , e u c a l y p t s a r e b e i n g used by some. T h i s i s p r o b a b l y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t he se schemes a r e e s t a b l i s h e d on former l a r g e s c a l e commercial fa rms on which e u c a l y p t u s w o o d l o t s a r e

fairly common. Species commonly used for fuelwood are listed in order

of preference by ecological zone. Unfortunately, the list does not provide an indication of availability.

(1) Ecological Zone I

Brachystegia speciformis (musasa or muura)

(2) Ecological zone I1

Brachystegia boehmii (mupfuti) Julbernardia globiflora (munhondo) Brachystegia speciformis (musasa)

(3) Ecological zone I11

Combretum molle (mubonda or mupembere) Julbernardia globif lora (munhondo) Brachystegia speciformis (musasa) Brachystegia glaucescens

(4) Ecological zone IV

Combretum molle (mubonda) Parinaria curatellifolia (muchakata) Colophospermum mopane (mupani) Julbernardia globiflora - (munhondo)

Other species that have been cited as good for firewood are listed below:

Piliostigma thonningii (mutukutu) Dichrostachys cenerea (mupangara) Terminalia sericea (mukonono) Ziziphus mucronata (muchecheni)

The most commonly cited qualities of the fuelwood of preferred species are: wood is easy to light; the coals last for a long time; the wood does not spark; and the wood is easy to obtain.

4. WOOD STORAGE

No information was collected on wood storage by small scale farm households. In the communal and resettlement areas there is very little difference between households storing wood during the wet season and those doing so in the dry season. At least 56 percent of the communal households store wood throughout the year compared to only seven percent in the resettlement areas. Most households store wood to reduce labor conflicts and to "free" members of the household to perform other tasks.

5 . Hob? FUEL IS OBTAINED

On t h e s m a l l s c a l e commercial farms and t h e r e se t t l emen t a r e a s , a l l wood i s g a t h e r e d . I n t h e communal a r e a s , 95 percent of t he households c o l l e c t t h e i r own wood wh i l e f i v e percent e i t h e r pay someone t o c o l l e c t and/or t r a n s p o r t . There i s p r e s e n t l y a n abundan t s u p p l y of wood on r e s e t t l e m e n t schemes a s new l a n d i s b e i n g c l e a r e d f o r a g r i c u l t u r e . Reconna i s sance t r i p s i n t o communal and r e s e t t l e d a r e a s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t communal a r e a r e s i d e n t s a r e c o l l e c t i n g s u b s t a n t i a l q u a n t i t i e s of wood from t h e r e s e t t l e m e n t schemes. Two methods of secur ing wood were i d e n t i f i e d . I n t h e f i r s t , t h e communal a r e a r e s i d e n t s a s s i s t t h e r e s e t t l e m e n t fa rmer wi th land c l e a r i n g and a r e al lowed t o t a k e t h e c u t wood a s a form of payment. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e r e s e t t l e m e n t fa rmer c l e a r s h i s own land and s e l l s t h e wood t o communal farmers a t $16.00 per t r a c t o r load .

The s m a l l s c a l e commercial f a r m e r s , u n l i k e t h e i r coun te rpa r t s , have t e n u r i a l r i g h t s . The t e n u r i a l r i g h t s t h a t t h e s e f a r m e r s e n j o y g i v e s them some c o n t r o l o v e r ( and t h e i n c e n t i v e s t o manage) t h e i r wood r e s o u r c e s i n a s u s t a i n a b l e manner. I n t h e communal l a n d s , on t h e o t h e r hand, wood i s r e g a r d e d a s a common r e s o u r c e a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y i t s e x p l o i t a t i o n t ends t o be ind iscr imina te . Non-communal a r ea r e s i d e n t s a l s o c o l l e c t from these lands . The r e s u l t i s t h a t fuelwood i s becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o f i nd f o r many communal a r ea households. A s a r e s u l t , more time i s expended i n c o l l e c t i n g wood.

The cornmodification of wood i n Zimbabwe's r u r a l a r e a s i s l i k e l y t o deve lop i n response t o t h e complex process of s u p p l y s h o r t a g e s , socio- economic f a c t o r s , and p h y s i c a l changes i f no e f f o r t s t o ea se t h e fuelwood c r i s i s a r e taken. The i nc rea s ing d i s t a n c e t o t h e source, o r an i nc r ea se i n t he l a b o r r e q u i r e m e n t s of o b t a i n i n g f u e l c a n a l l b r i n g abou t commodification.

L7omen and c h i l d r e n c o l l e c t fuelwood i n o v e r 86 percent of t h e households. Men c o l l e c t fuelwood when women a r e i l l o r t o o busy and when wood c o l l e c t i n g r e q u i r e s t h e u se of an axe o r s co t chca r t .

6 . SOURCE OF FUELWOOD

As mentioned e a r l i e r , wood resources on communal lands a r e e x p l o i t e d by everyone i nc lud ing urban vendors. Although no e s t ima te s a r e a v a i l a b l e , some smal l - s c a l e farm households w i l l c o l l e c t fuelwood from t h e communal a r e a s i f t h e d i s t a n c e i s no t g r e a t . Most of t h e households on r e se t t l emen t schemes (90 pe rcen t ) c o l l e c t wood from t h e i r own lands and t hose h e l d communal l y . The remaining households c o l l e c t from government p l a n t a t i o n s . I n t h e communal a r e a s , 82 p e r c e n t o f t h e h o u s e h o l d s c o l l e c t wood from t h e communal l a n d s w h i l e t h e r e s t c o l l e c t from p r i v a t e farms o r government p l a n t a t i o n s .

Only 10 percent of the households on small scale commercial farms and resettlement schemes experience difficulty in collecting wood. On communal lands, 68 percent of the households have difficulties obtaining fuelwood.

Table VII-2 summarizes the distances travelled by households to collect fuel. For both small scale and resettlement areas, 99 percent of the households travel 4 km or less compared to 84 percent for communal areas. In the latter case, 16 percent of the households travel distances greater than four km. In the case of resettled and small scale farming areas, only one percent of the households in each case travel distances greater than 4 km.

Table VII-2 DISTANCE TO FUEL SOURCE --P

% Of Households Distance .......................................... To Fuel Communal Small Scale Farm Resettlement ..................................................... < l km 2 2 7 8 38 1 < 4 k m 6 2 2 1 6 1 4 < 10 km 15 1 1 10 < 20 km 1 0 0

7. TRANSPORT

In the communal and resettlement areas wood is carried on the heads of women, in over 80 percent of the households (see Table VII-3). The scotchcart is the next common form of transportation used in both these areas. Greater use is made of the scotchcart and motorized vehicle by small scale farm households. Only 54 percent of the households have wood carried on the head by women in this area.

Table VII-3 FORM OF TRANSPORT --

.................................................... % Of Households

Type of Transport Communal Small Scale Resettlement .................................................... Head 8 3 54 9 6 Scotchcart 16 2 3 3 Sledge 1 0 1 Tractor/truck 0 2 3 0

The paper thus far has provided a synopsis of fuelwood trends in Zimbabwe's rural areas based on survey data. The survey established some interesting patterns:

(1) Communal a r e a s a r e t h e w o r s t h i t b y t h e f u e l w o o d s h o r t a g e .

( 2 ) The r u r a l d w e l l e r s r e l y a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y o n fue lwood a s t h e i r p r i m a r y e n e r g y s o u r c e .

( 3 ) F u e l w o o d i s s e l d o m p u r c h a s e d e x c e p t i n l o c a l i z e d p o c k e t s o f s e r i o u s wood s h o r t a g e s .

( 4 ) W a l k i n g i s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t m e t h o d o f r e a c h i n g c o l l e c t i n g a r e a s w h i c h a r e u s u a l l y l o c a t e d some d i s t a n c e from t h e a r e a o f n e e d .

8 . DEMAND AND SUPPLY

The second h a l f o f t h i s p a r t o f t h e p a p e r d i s c u s s e s t h e s u p p l y and demand o f fue lwood a t t h e n a t i o n a l and p r o v i n c i a l l e v e l s . The d i s c u s s i o n h i g h l i g h t s t h e fue lwood p r o b l e m i n Zimbabwe, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h e r u r a l p e o p l e .

On a n a t i o n a l l e v e l , Zimbabwe h a s a s u r p l u s o f wood. However , a t a m i c r o l e v e l i t b e c o m e s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e f u e l w o o d p r o b l e m i s l o c a l i z e d , a n d t h a t t h e communal a r e a s a r e t h e w o r s t h i t . H a l f o f t h e communal a r e a h o u s e h o l d s h a v e p r o b l e m s f i n d i n g fue lwood . The e x t r e m e l y l o c a l i z e d n a t u r e o f t h e f u e l w o o d s h o r t a g e s i s masked b y v i e w i n g t h e p r o b l e m a t t h e p r o v i n c i a l and n a t i o n a l l e v e l s .

The demand f o r a n d s u p p l y o f wood was a n a l y z e d i n a s t u d y i n Vo lume 8. o f t h i s s e r i e s , u s i n g t h e LEAP m o d e l (Ene rgy Sytems Resea rch Groups 1983) . The n a t i o n a l fue lwood s u p p l y and demand r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e VII- 4 a n d b r o k e n down b y P r o v i n c e i n T a b l e V I I - 5 . A t a n a t i o n a l l e v e l , t h e f i r s t s h o r t f a l l o c c u r s i n 1 9 9 7 . A l t h o u g h n o s h o r t f a l l o c c u r s be tween 1982 and 1992 a s i g n i f i c a n t c u t t i n g o f wood s t o c k s d o e s t a k e p l a c e , a n d c e r t a i n a r e a s w i l l e x p e r i e n c e s u p p l y s h o r t f a l l s .

T a b l e VII- 4 NATIONAL FUELWOOD SUPPLY AND DEMAND RELATIONS HIPS^

' m - i o n Tons )

....................................................... 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 .......................................................

Demand 8 . 3 3 9 .47 1 0 . 6 3 1 2 . 1 4 1 3 . 6 9 Y i e l d s 7 . 1 3 6 . 8 1 5 . 6 3 4 .92 4 . 6 7 S t o c k s 1 . 2 0 2 .66 3 .77 1 . 5 7 3 . 0 1 S h o r t f a l l 0 . O 0 .0 1 . 2 2 5 .65 6 . 3 5 ....................................................... T o t a l S t o c k s 666.29 654.49 633.32 603.19 605.87

The p a t t e r n e m e r g i n g from T a b l e VII- 4 and VII- 5 w a r r a n t s some d i s c u s s i o n . I n M a n i c a l a n d , M a s h o n a l a n d E a s t , a n d Masvingo p r o v i n c e s , t h e p r o c e s s o f c u t t i n g wood s t o c k s b e g i n s

i n t h e b a s e y e a r . I n M i d l a n d s , it b e g i n s i n 1987. A l l f o u r p r o v i n c e s h a v e a p o p u l a t i o n o f a t l e a s t o n e m i l l i o n p e o p l e . The n a t i o n a l s h o r t f a l l i n wood s u p p l y o c c u r s i n 1997 which i s when p r o v i n c i a l s h o r t f a l l s o c c u r i n M a n i c a l a n d , Mashonaland E a s t , a n d M a s v i n g o . I n t h e b a s e y e a r , 1 7 p e r c e n t o f M a n i c a l a n d ' s f u e l w o o d demand i s s u p p l i e d f r o m e x i s t i n g s t o c k s . F o r M a s h o n a l a n d E a s t a n d M a s v i n g o , i t i s 2 8 a n d 46 p e r c e n t , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e r e i s c u r r e n t l y i n s u f f i c i e n t fue lwood a v a i l a b l e on a s u s t a i n a b l e y i e l d b a s i s t o meet a l l t h e wood demand i n t h e s e t h r e e p r o v i n c e s . The c u t t i n g o f w o o d s t o c k s i s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a p r o c e s s w h i c h i s l i k e l y t o l e a d t o a f u t u r e fue lwood s h o r t a g e and accompanying s e r i o u s e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e c l i n e .

Table VII-5 PROVINCIAL FUELWOOD SUPPLY AN0 DEMAND ( M i l l i o n Tons)

........................................................................... Manica Mashona Mashona Mashona Matabele Matabele Mid Masvingo

Land Land Land Land Land Land Lands Central East West North South

........................................................................... Demand

1982 1.39 0.76 0.93 1.02 0.60 0.70 1.26 1.35 1992 1.86 0.98 1.18 1.29 0.74 0.88 1.59 1.77 2002 2.31 1.27 1.58 1.68 0.99 1.15 2.07 2.30

........................................................................... S h o r t f a l l 1982 1992 1982 None 2002 None 1987 1982

1982 Y ie l ds 1.15 0.76 0.67 1.02 0.60 0.70 1.26 0.73 Stocks 0.23 0.00 0.26 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.62

1992 Y ie l ds 0.46 0.82 0.13 1.29 0.74 0.88 1.24 0.15 Stocks 1.40 0.16 1.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.35 1.62

2002 Y ie l ds 0.00 0.47 0.00 1.68 0.91 1.15 0.47 0.00 Stocks 0.00 0.81 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.60 0.00

Tot. Supply 1982 1.39 0.76 0.93 1.02 0.60 0.70 1.26 1.35 1992 1.86 0.98 1.18 1.29 0.74 0.88 1.59 1.77 2002 0.00 1.27 0.00 1.68 0.99 1.15 2.07 0.00

Pop. Densi ty 31.5 20.6 60.0 14.2 12.0 7.8 18.5 23.3 (1982)

9 . WOOD RESOURCE ADEQUACY

As h a s p r e v i o u s l y b e e n d e s c r i b e d , wood r e s o u r c e s f o r m e e t i n g fue lwood , p a p e r and p u l p , r u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n wood and i n d u s t r i a l wood a r e d e r i v e d f rom y i e l d s and s t o c k s from t h e

v a r i o u s n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d- u s e c a t e g o r i e s . Supp ly and demand r e l a t i o n s h i p s determine t h e amounts and types of wood consumed. The a c c e s s i b i l i t y of wood resources , which depends on geographic, t e c h n o l o g i c a l , socio-economic and e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s , a l s o i n f l u e n c e s s u p p l y p a t t e r n s . I n a r e a s where demand exceeds a n n u a l p r o d u c t i o n o f woody b iomass , a n e t d e p l e t i o n of t h e s tanding s tocks w i l l occur i n o rde r t o meet demand. T h i s p r o c e s s i s a l r e a d y b e i n g e x p e r i e n c e d a t a p r o v i n c i a l l e v e l i n Zimbabwe. A t p r e s e n t , v i r t u a l l y no animal waste and very l i t t l e c rop r e s idue i s being used a s a s o u r c e of r u r a l ene rgy . P r e s e n t l y , a b o u t 14 p e r c e n t (1.11 m i l l i o n t o n s ) of Zimbabwe's wood resource demand i s being met by a n e t r e d u c t i o n i n s t a n d i n g s t o c k s . T h i s f i g u r e i s p ro j ec t ed t o i nc r ea se t o 26 percent i n 1987.

The f u t u r e adequacy of wood resources w i l l depend on t he amount o f a c c e s s i b l e wood and t h e r a t e a t which s t a n d i n g s tocks a r e dep l e t ed . As can be expected, an a c c e l e r a t e d r a t e of s t o c k d e p l e t i o n i s l i k e l y t o c o n t r i b u t e t o s e r i o u s s o i l f e r t i l i t y and o t h e r environmental problems.

The LEAP model used t o a n a l y z e t h e e s t i m a t e s i n t a b l e s VII- 4 and VI I -5 , does n o t a t t e m p t t o i d e n t i f y a r e a s of u n s a t i s f i e d demand a t t h e m i c r o l e v e l . P a r t i c u l a r l y i n M a n i c a l a n d , M a s h o n a l a n d E a s t and M a s v i n g o p r o v i n c e s , l o c a l i z e d a r e a s wi th i n s u f f i c i e n t s u p p l i e s f o r c u r r e n t demand l e v e l s e x i s t . A t t h e n a t i o n a l and p r o v i n c i a l l e v e l s , i t appears t h a t wood demands a r e c u r r e n t l y being met. The Rural Energy Survey i d e n t i f i e d s e v e r a l communal a r e a s comple te ly denuded of v e g e t a t i v e cover i n Mashonaland East and Mavingo Provinces

More s e r i o u s p rob l ems , however , b e g i n t o emerge on a n a t i o n a l b a s i s by 1992 when 46 p e r c e n t o f t h e demand f o r fue lwood i s met t h r o u g h t h e c u t t i n g o f s t a n d i n g s t o c k s . By 1997, demand exceeds s u p p l i e s from b o t h y i e l d s and s t o c k s . The g r a d u a l d e p l e t i o n of s t a n d i n g s t o c k s means t h a t y i e l d s a r e f u r t h e r decreased, causing t h e continued and a c c e l e r a t e d d e p l e t i o n of t h e r ema in ing s t o c k s . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s summarized i n Figure VII-1.

T a b l e VII- 4 shows t h a t , on a n a t i o n a l b a s i s , a wood problem a l r e a d y e x i s t s wi th r e spec t t o n e t s t ock dep l e t i on . S tock d e p l e t i o n i s l i k e l y t o c o n t i n u e u n t i l checked by t h e c o n s t r a i n t s of a c c e s s i b i l i t y . When a c c e s s i b l e s t ocks become d e p l e t e d , l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n s a r e l e f t w i t h o u t means of ob t a in ing t h e i r fuelwood requirements. To t a l s tanding s tocks a r e expec t ed t o d e c l i n e by a b o u t n i n e p e r c e n t between 1982- 2002. Although t h e d e c l i n e may appear s m a l l , t h e d e p l e t i o n of a c c e s s i b l e s tocks i s much more dramatic . This i s ev iden t from t h e r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n s u p p l i e s from s t o c k s a f t e r 1982, fol lowed by a d e c l i n e i n 1997. Supp l i e s from s tocks i nc r ea se a g a i n i n 2002, p r o v i d i n g 35 p e r c e n t o f t h e s u p p l i e s o r 19 p e r c e n t o f t h e fue lwood demand. I n t h i s y e a r , t h e demand s h o r t f a l l i s 46 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l demand o r 6.19 m i l l i o n t ons ( s e e Figure V I I - 1 ) .

M a s h o n a l a n d W e s t a n d M a t e b e l e l a n d S o u t h d o n o t e x p e r i e n c e any s t o c k c u t t i n g a t a l l . Mashonaland w e s t i s t h e t h i r d l a r g e s t p r o v i n c e i n Zimbabwe and i n c l u d e s p a r t s o f t h e Lake K a r i b a a r e a w h i c h h a s a l o w p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y a n d n u m e r o u s p a r k s a n d r e s e r v e s . M a t e b e l e l a n d S o u t h i s t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t p r o v i n c e a n d h a s t h e l o w e s t p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y . As a r e s u l t o f t h e s e l ow p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s , b o t h p r o v i n c e s h a v e a d e q u a t e a c c e s s i b l e s u p p l i e s o f wood r e s o u r c e s t o m e e t demand.

Mashonaland C e n t r a l , M a t e b e l e l a n d Nor th , and M i d l a n d s d o n o t e x p e r i e n c e a n y s h o r t f a l l s d u r i n g t h e 1982- 2002 p e r i o d . T h e s e p r o v i n c e s h a v e r a t h e r l o w p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s o n a p r o v i n c e- w i d e b a s i s . However, i n o r d e r f o r demand t o b e met , n e t r e m o v a l o f s t a n d i n g s t o c k s b e g i n s i n 1992 i n Mashonaland C e n t r a l , i n 2002 i n M a t e b e l e l a n d N o r t h , a n d i n 1 9 8 7 i n M i d l a n d s . By 2 0 0 2 , m o r e t h a n 77 p e r c e n t o f t h e wood r e s o u r c e s s u p p l i e d t o M i d l a n d s w i l l b e d e r i v e d from s t a n d i n g s t o c k s . For M a t e b e l e l a n d Nor th , 1 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e demand f o r wood w i l l b e m e t t h r o u g h s t o c k c u t t i n g . F o r M a s h o n a l a n d C e n t r a l , t h i s f i g u r e w i l l b e 64 p e r c e n t .

T a b l e V I I - 6 FUELIJOOD SUPPLYAND DEMAND FOR MANICALAND, MASHONALANDAST AND MASVINGO PROVINCES

( ~ i l l i o n T o n s T

Manica land Mashonaland Masvingo E a s t

........................................................... Demand

1992 2002 ...........................................................

1992 Y i e l d s 0 . 4 6 0 . 1 3 0 . 1 5 S t o c k s 1 . 4 0 1 . 0 5 1 . 6 2

2002 Y i e l d s 0 .00 0 . O O 0 . O O S t o c k s 0 . 0 0 0 . O O 0 . 0 0

........................................................... S h o r t f a l l 1997 1997 1997 D e p l e t i o n 1982 1982 1982

S h o r t f a l l a s % o f Demand 1997 100 100 100 2002 100 100 100

C o n t r i b u t i o n t o N a t i o n a l S h o r t f a l l ( M i l l i o n Tons )

1997 2 .08 1 . 3 8 2 . 0 3 2002 2 . 3 1 1 . 5 8 2 .30

...........................................................

S e r i o u s p rob l ems of wood s h o r t a g e s can be expec t ed i n t h e dense ly popula ted provinces of Manicaland, Mashonaland E a s t and M a s v i n g o . S u p p l y s h o r t f a l l s i n t h e s e t h r e e p r o v i n c e s w i l l b e g i n i n 1997. The p r o v i n c i a l impac t s o f t he se t h r e e provinces a r e summarized i n Table VII-6.

The r u r a l s e c t o r which depends a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y on wood ene rgy c a n n o t endu re t h e s h o r t f a l l s i n r e s o u r c e s u p p l i e s t h a t a r e e x p e c t e d i n 1997 and 2002. More t h a n 4 5 percent of t h e n a t i o n a l fuelwood demand w i l l go unmet i n 1997 and 2002 u n l e s s some major p o l i c y a f f e c t i n g t h e c u r r e n t supply t r e n d s i s undertaken.

I n t h e absence of a d e q u a t e fue lwood s u p p l i e s , r u r a l energy consumption p a t t e r n s w i l l change. More people w i l l be forced t o use dung and crop r e s idue f o r cooking. Removal of animal waste and c rop r e s idues from t h e s o i l n u t r i e n t c y c l e c o u l d r e d u c e s o i l f e r t i l i t y and c o n s e q u e n t l y a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y . As wood r e s o u r c e s become more s c a r c e , t h e commodi f i ca t i on o f fuelwood i n t h e r u r a l s e c t o r can b e expected t o deve lop more comple te ly .

As l o c a l s u p p l i e s of fue lwood become d e p l e t e d , t h e household l abo r time a l l o c a t i o n w i l l have t o be ad jus ted t o a l l o w f o r increased fuelwood search ing time wi th decreas ing prospec ts of f i nd ing adequate s u p p l i e s . Such a burden on t h e l a b o r t ime budge t c o u l d h a v e t h e consequence of keep ing f a m i l y s i z e s l a r g e r a n d / o r i n c r e a s e d r u r a l t o u r b a n m i g r a t i o n . The combined e f f e c t s o f d i m i n i s h e d f o o d p r o d u c t i o n , l a c k o f cooked food o r d e c r e a s e d cook ing t i m e s could decrease n u t r i t i o n a l and h e a l t h l e v e l s . On a n a t i o n a l l e v e l , t h i s c o u l d s e r i o u s l y hamper Government p l a n s f o r o v e r a l l economic development. The importance of fuelwood a s an e n e r g y s o u r c e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s must b e g iven g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n . Accordingly, t h e r u r a l development s t r a t e g y must p l a c e a h i g h p r i o r i t y on t h e p r o v i s i o n o f adequate fuelwood s u p p l i e s o r a l t e r n a t i v e energy sources t o t h e r u r a l a reas . (Republ ic of Zimbabwe 1982).

The major s t r a t e g y opt ions wi th t h e g r e a t e s t promise f o r meeting Zimbabwe's fuelwood needs should be reviewed. End- u se and c o n v e r s i o n t e c h n o l o g y e f f i c i e n c y improvements a r e no t , by themselves , s u f f i c i e n t t o make s u b s t a n t i a l reduc t ions i n t h e p r o j e c t e d p o t e n t i a l b iomass s h o r t f a l l s . T h i s means t h a t m a j o r e f f o r t s t o e n h a n c e s u p p l y w i l l h a v e t o b e undertaken.

The formula t ion of long- term s t r a t e g y p o l i c i e s t o d e a l w i t h t h e wood s u p p l y problem i s c r u c i a l . The p r a c t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s of meeting t he n a t i o n a l fuelwood requirements should t ake p l a c e w i th in an o v e r a l l energy p o l i c y framework whichencompasses t e c h n i c a l , i n s t i t u t i o n a l , economic, and c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s . To overcome any c o n s t r a i n t s t h a t t h e s e f a c t o r s might c a u s e , r e s e a r c h and t h o u g h t f u l p l a n n i n g a r e needed i n a wide v a r i e t y of a r e a s - a l t e r n a t i v e f u e l s , b e t t e r systems of wood product ion and d i s t r i b u t i o n , more e f f i c i e n t use of wood f u e l s , and t h e development of new wood-production sys t ems . For Zimbabwe, t h e £01 lowing a r e p o s s i b l e o p t i o n s f o r wood supply enhancement (Curren t t r e e- p l a n t i n g p r a c t i c e s

i n r u r a l Zimbabwe a r e d i scussed i n t h e next s ec t i on . ) :

(1) Farm Fore s t ry

( 2 ) Improved management of n a t u r a l f o r e s t s

( 3 ) Fuelwood p l a n t a t i o n s

( 4 ) V i l l a g e woodlots.

FARM FORESTRY

This i s an important op t ion and i s d iscussed i n g r e a t d e t a i l i n t h e second h a l f of t h e paper.

MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL FORESTS

The i n t roduc t ion of communal a r e a management p r a c t i c e s f o r e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l f o r e s t s might be a s o l u t i o n t o t h e u n c o n t r o l l e d e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e " f r e e " wood r e s o u r c e s i n t h e s e a r e a s . T h i s approach p r o v i d e s an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r expanding t h e wood resource base i n Zimbabwe by t ransforming e x p l o i t a t i o n i n t o s u s t a i n a b l e management. I t h a s t h e advantage of using an a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g resource base. This approach w i l l i n v o l v e t h e community t o whom t h e b e n e f i t s of sound r e s o u r c e management w i l l a c c r u e . By s o d o i n g , t h e community has a d i r e c t s t a k e i n managing t h e wood resources .

When compared wi th c o s t l y p l a n t a t i o n s , n a t u r a l f o r e s t s o f f e r t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r g r e a t e r r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t i n fuelwood product ion systems.

N a t u r a l f o r e s t s t h a t a r e c u r r e n t l y e x p l o i t e d f o r commercial t imber can be managed i n such a way t h a t waste i s r e d u c e d . I n some c a s e s , h a r v e s t i n g w a s t e s c o u l d b e t r anspo r t ed from t h e s e a r e a s t o c e n t e r s of popula t ion f o r use a s f u e l . However, t h e l i m i t a t i o n of t h i s app roach l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t it i s o n l y economical ly f e a s i b l e t o t r a n s p o r t fue lwood o v e r r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t d i s t a n c e s . Hence, o n l y managed n a t u r a l f o r e s t s l oca t ed near popu la t i on c e n t e r s could s e r v e a s s o u r c e s of fue lwood. The management of n a t u r a l f o r e s t s i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d a s a p r i o r i t y a r e a when compared w i t h o t h e r p r e s s i n g n e e d s s u c h a s f o o d p r o d u c t i o n . Considerable s t a f f and f i n a n c i a l resources would be requi red f o r n a t u r a l f o r e s t management.

FUEL'IIOOD PLANTATIONS

These a r e l a r g e s c a l e e f f o r t s t o p l a n t b locks of t r e e s with t h e o b j e c t i v e s of genera t ing fuelwood and p o l e s a s w e l l . ( P e r i - u r b a n p l a n t a t i o n s n e a r urban c e n t e r s where fue lwood demand i s h i g h c a n a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d a s f u e l w o o d p l a n t a t i o n s ) T h i s s u p p l y enhancement o p t i o n h a s b o t h p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e q u a l i t i e s . There a r e t h e a d v a n t a g e s t h a t management and s i l v i c u l t u r a l techniques a r e a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d . The p r o j e c t s a r e usua l l y concent ra ted near t h e

market place, generating employment, and acting as demonstrations that something can be done to ameliorate the fuelwood deficit.

The cost benefit ratio is the most crucial of the disadvantages. Fuelwood harvested from these plantations will have to compete with fuelwood being harvested free. In addition, limited land availability can affect plantation establishment. Also, there are high administrative costs associated with the projects so that the cost of establishing enough plantations to meet fuelwood requirements would likely be too costly for any government or donor agency.

VILLAGE liOODLOTS

These are usually smaller-scale plantations established on common land and where, theoretically, there is labor sharing. Once again, the advantages must be careful l y balanced against the disadvantages. To consider the advantages: this approach responds to the need to get rural people involved; it provides demonstration and introduces knowledge into the areas; and woodlots spread throughout the rural landscape can contribute to an improved environment.

On the other hand, there is the problem of careful selection of species, and if the outcome of the project is negative, then the rural people will not be receptive to future reforestation efforts. Once again, if the cost/benefit ratio is not positive, people might prefer collecting free wood to investing their labor in community woodlots. Communal land for planting might be hard to find and trees wouldbe seenas competing for land with other farming activities. Finally, the question of whether those who contributed to the establishment of the woodlots will eventually receive the benefits remains unanswered.

PART 11, TREE PLANTING PRACTICES AND THE POTENTIAL ROLE OF FARM FORESTRY IN ZIMBABbJE'S RURAL AREAS

10. INTRODUCTION

There has been increasing recognition that trees are an essential component of the environment. Trees can play an important role in helping to increase agricultural productivity, to improve rural welfare, to alleviate the negative impact of the energy crisis (as discussed in part I) and to preserve the environment. Trees are better able to withstand severe moisture stresses than most agricultural crops. In drier zones, tree growing can provide a source of income in times of crop failure.

It is also important to know why rural people plant trees. Men commonly plant trees for construction wood or for

a d d i t i o n a l money i n t h e f u t u r e . S i n c e t h e t a s k o f c o l l e c t i n g fue lwood i s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f women, men r a r e l y p l a n t t r e e s f o r fuelwood. However, a s wood becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o g a t h e r , t h e a t t i t u d e s o f men towards p l a n t i n g t r e e s f o r fuelwood a r e l i k e l y t o change. A T ree P l a n t i n g Su rvey was c a r r i e d o u t a s p a r t o f t h e Rura l Energy Survey . The major o b j e c t i v e of t h i s s t u d y was t o e s t a b l i s h whether o r n o t t h e r e was t r e e p l a n t i n g i n r u r a l Zimbabwe and i f s o , t h e l e v e l o f such t r e e p l a n t i n g . More s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e s tudy sought t o e s t a b l i s h t h e fo l lowing:

(1) Types of t r e e s p l an t ed

( 2 ) Source of s e e d l i n g s

(3 ) Reasons f o r p l a n t i n g t r e e s

( 4 ) On whose i n i t i a t i v e t r e e s a r e being p l an t ed .

H e r e , we f i r s t summar i ze t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e t r e e p l a n t i n g s tudy, and proceed t o examine t h e p o t e n t i a l r o l e of farm f o r e s t r y i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s and how t h e f i nd ings of t he t r e e p l a n t i n g s tudy can f a c i l i t a t e i t s implementation.

11. RESULTS OF THE TREE-PLANTING SURVEY

Seventy percent of t h e households in te rv iewed ind i ca t ed t h a t t h e y had p l a n t e d t r e e s . The r e s t e i t h e r d i d n o t p l a n t o r d i d no t respond t o t h e ques t ion . Tree p l a n t i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t by a l l members of t h e household a l though t h e male members appear t o t h e most a c t i v e i n t h i s a c t i v i t y .

Table VII-7 summarizes t h e type and frequency of t r e e s p l a n t e d by r u r a l households.

Table VII-7 TYPE AND FREQUENCY OF TREES PLANTEFTNCOMMUNAL AREAS- --

..................................................... Type of Trees Frequency of P lan t ing Percentage

F r u i t Eucalypts Jacaranda Pine Indigenous ..................................................... Tota l 116 100 .....................................................

The most f r e q u e n t l y p l a n t e d t r e e s a r e f r u i t ( 6 7 % ) fo l lowed by e u c a l y p t s (31%) and Jacaranda ( 2 % ) . The p l a n t i n g of jacaranda t r e e s might i nc r ea se i n t h e d r i e r zones a s they a p p e a r t o be more t e r m i t e r e s i s t a n t t h a n e u c a l y p t s and t h e

f o l i a g e i s f e d t o c a t t l e a n d g o a t s . I n some communal a r e a s j a c a r a n d a a l s o p r o v i d e s p o l e s . L e s s t h a n one p e r c e n t o f t h e t r e e s p l a n t e d w e r e i n d i g e n o u s . I n d i g e n o u s s p e c i e s a r e p l a n t e d m o s t l y a s l i v e f e n c e s .

The m a i n s o u r c e s o f s e e d l i n g s i n t h e s t u d y a r e a s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e VII- S.

T a b l e VII- 8 PERCENTAGES OF SEEDLING SOURCES - ........................................................ S o u r c e o f S e e d l i n g s Number o f Households P e r c e n t a g e ........................................................ S e l f grown 2 2 4 3 C o l l e c t e d w i l d 7 1 4 F r e e on T r e e Day 1 4 2 7 Purchased 8 16 ........................................................ T o t a l 5 1 100

F i f t y s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e h o u s e h o l d s e i t h e r r a i s e t h e i r own s e e d l i n g s o r c o l l e c t t h e m w i l d . O n l y 1 6 p e r c e n t o f t he h o u s e h o l d s p u r c h a s e d t h e i r s e e d l i n g s . Twenty s e v e n p e r c e n t r e c e i v e d s e e d l i n g s f r e e on N a t i o n a l T r e e P l a n t i n g Day.

The d i f f e r e n t i n i t i a t i v e s b y h o u s e h o l d s i n p l a n t i n g t r e e s a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e V I I - 9 . S i x t y s i x p e r c e n t o f t h e h o u s e h o l d s p l a n t i n g t r e e s d i d s o on t h e i r own i n i t i a t i v e , 1 5 p e r c e n t o n t h e i n i t i a t i v e o f s c h o o l s a n d e i g h t p e r c e n t o n g r o u p i n i t i a t i v e . O n l y t h r e e p e r c e n t c i t e d e x t e n s i o n a s h a v i n g i n £ l u e n c e d them t o p l a n t trees.

The m a i n r e a s o n s c i t e d f o r p l a n t i n g t r e e s a r e f r u i t (GO%), p o l e s ( 1 7 % ) , s h a d e ( 1 4 % ) a n d f u e l w o o d ( 6 % ) . D r o u g h t , t e r m i t e s and a n i m a l b rows ing were c o n s i s t e n t l y c i t e d a s t h e m o s t s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s a f f e c t i n g t r e e g r o w i n g e f f o r t s i n r u r a l a r e a s .

T a b l e VII- 9 PERCENTAGE OF TREE PLANTING INITIATIVES --

........................................................ I n i t i a t i v e Number o f Households P e r c e n t a g e ........................................................ Own i d e a 9 3 66 Group i d e a 1 2 8 S c h o o l 2 2 1 5 N a t i o n a l T r e e Day 9 6 T r e e Day and S c h o o l 2 2 A g r i t e x 4 3 ........................................................ T o t a l 142 100

Table VII-10 PERCENTAGES OF TREE PLANTING PURPOSES --

Purpose Number of Households Percentage .................................................... Shade 17 14 Ornamental 0 0 Fruit 7 6 60 Fuelwood 6 6 Poles 2 1 17 Sawn Timber 4 3 Fodder 0 0 Prevent Soil Erosion 0 0 .................................................... Total 126 100

12. DISCUSSION

Contrary to the belief that rural people do not plant trees, the survey shows that tree planting is a fairly common practice. This finding is supported by observations made during visits to Mashonaland East, Manicaland and Masvingo Provinces.

The type of trees planted vary from locality to locality depending on the environment, seed availability and social circumstances impinging upon each settlement. Fruit trees are by far the most common trees and the first to be planted. Once a tree has been introduced into an area, it becomes fairly common. Trees are introduced by individuals or seed obtained from neighbouring commercial farms or from coffee, tea and other commercial plantations. Hedges and live fences are also established early to try and keep animals out.

The practice of raising seedlings or collecting them wild is common. Once a tree has been introduced into an area and has produced seed, neighbours collect the seed and raise their own seedlings. This finding is an important one as it demonstrates that rural people already have the knowledge necessary for tree establishment.

The fact that 66 percent of the households are growing trees on their own initiative illustrates the willingness to plant and the recognition of the importance of trees by the rural people. Schools are fairly important in the dissemination of tree planting knowledge and their role is likely to increase. Together with extension agencies they can be an important vehicle for the introduction of tree planting knowledge in the initial stage. Once in the area, the knowledge will diffuse through the informal sector.

Tree growing to produce fuelwood in the future was not cited as an important reason for growing trees. This is explained by the fact that tree planting is predominantly carried out by male members of the household while fuelwood gathering is the responsibility of women. Individual

woodlots a r e e s t a b l i s h e d t o provide cons t ruc t i on wood f o r use by t h e men of t h e household o r f o r s a l e . F r u i t t r e e s a r e t h e most abundant t r e e s i n t he r u r a l a r e a s because they provide t h e household wi th food and some money i n t h e f u t u r e .

Animals a r e a c o n s t a n t p rob l em t o t r e e e s t a b l i s h m e n t . Tremendous e f f o r t s t o p r o t e c t young t r e e s a g a i n s t b rowsing a r e being made. Seed l ings a r e p ro t ec t ed i n d i v i d u a l l y by wood f e n c i n g and t h o r n b u s h e s u n t i l t h e y a r e beyond t h e r e a c h of browsing a n i m a l s . Another method f o r r e d u c i n g damage by browsing an imals i s t o p l a n t u n p a l a t a b l e and hardy spec ies . E f f o r t s t o i n v o l v e r u r a l f a r m e r s t o i n c l u d e t r e e s i n t h e i r farming systems w i l l be made e a s i e r s i n c e some knowledge and w i l l i n g n e s s t o grow t r e e s a l r e a d y e x i s t s .

The p re sen t t r e e p l a n t i n g e f f o r t s a r e using l o c a l i npu t s and t h e r u r a l p e o p l e a r e t r y i n g t o f i n d l o c a l s o l u t i o n s t o p r o t e c t i o n problems.

13. FARM FORESTRY

Those concerned wi th r u r a l development a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y becoming aware t h a t t h e problems fac ing t h e r u r a l people a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d . I n Zimbabwe where t h e communal a r e a s were never c r ea t ed a s v i a b l e product ion systems, t h e major i s s u e i s t h e d e c l i n i n g c a p a b i l i t y t o produce food requi red t o feed an e v e r growing p o p u l a t i o n . T h i s s i t u a t i o n c r e a t e s a t remendous p r e s s u r e on t h e l a n d l e a d i n g t o i n t e n s i f l e d c u l t i v a t i o n and t h e c l e a r i n g of more m a r g i n a l l a n d s f o r a g r i c u l t u r e . The consequences a r e s o i l d e g r a d a t i o n and o v e r a l l diminut ion of environmental s t a b i l i t y . Any p r o j e c t s o r a c t i v i t i e s whose s o l e purpose i s fuelwood product ion w i l l n o t a l w a y s be s u c c e s s f u l . Such p r o j e c t s must be s een t o a d d r e s s t h e w o o d f u e l p r o b l e m , a s w e l l a s p r o v i d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n . T ree p l a n t i n g e f f o r t s s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r e and r u r a l development p o l i c i e s and programs. This means working wi th f a r m e r s t o promote t r e e p l a n t i n g u s i n g l o c a l i n p u t s on t h e farms.

Farm f o r e s t r y r e f e r s t o t h e s u s t a i n a b l e f o r e s t r y product ion by i n d i v i d u a l farmers on t h e i r own land (Cat te rson 1 9 8 4 ) . T h i s can be a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h i n c r e a s e d p l a n t i n g e f f o r t s o r t h r o u g h b e t t e r management of e x i s t i n g woody biomass resources. Farm f o r e s t r y has many components namely, ag ro fo re s t ry , s m a l l woodlots and individual t r e e p l a n t i n g s . Whatever t h e approach, t h e r e must be a c a r e f u l incorpora t ion of t r e e components i n t h e farming system.

Before Zimbabwe's independence i n 1980, t he r u r a l s e c t o r was n e g l e c t e d and t h e i s s u e s of fuelwood and e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n were i g n o r e d . T h i s n e g l e c t was prompted b y a n a r r o w v i e w o f d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of s t a t e - r u n b l o c k p l a n t a t i o n s t o s u p p l y commercial markets. Today, t he needs a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t and t h e commercial approach canno t be a p p l i e d t o t h e r u r a l a r e a s .

I n t h e f u t u r e , fue lwood w i l l b e produced by f a r m e r s u s i n g l e s s c a p i t a l i n t e n s i v e methods and p l a n t i n g t r e e s i n d i f f e r e n t con f igu ra t i ons around t h e farm. This approach has t h e p o t e n t i a l of p rovid ing farmers with t a n g i b l e and m u l t i p l e b e n e f i t s . Perhaps t h e g r e a t e s t advantage of farm f o r e s t r y i s t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e and f o r e s t r y . T h i s i s an e f f i c i e n t means of u t i l i s i n g land.

Wood s u p p l i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h farm f o r e s t r y would be l o c a t e d on fa rms where p e o p l e l i v e and work. The t i m e , e f f o r t and income expended by t h e r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s on acqu i r i ng fuelwood could be reduced, t hus f r ee ing t h e r u r a l popula t ion f o r o t h e r v a l u a b l e a c t i v i t i e s . With well- designed farm f o r e s t r y p r o j e c t s , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r farmers t o earn a d d i t i o n a l income from s a l e s of wood and f r u i t a r e increased .

The i n t e g r a t i o n of t r e e s and o t h e r woody p e r e n n i a l s i n t o t r a d i t i o n a l f a rming sys t ems , u s i n g management t e c h n i q u e s which a r e e c o l o g i c a l l y and c u l t u r a l l y compatible wi th l o c a l p r a c t i c e s s h o u l d be encouraged . A l ong- te rm, n a t i o n a l s o l u t i o n t o t h e fue lwood p rob l em among t h e r u r a l p e o p l e c a n n o t be a c h i e v e d w i t h o u t encou rag ing and a s s i s t i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l l a n d u s e r s t o c a t e r f o r t h e i r own needs . Farm f o r e s t r y i s one sys tem t h a t can h e l p a c h i e v e an i n c r e a s e d fuelwood product ion wh i l e a t t h e same time address ing some of t h e many problems r e l a t e d t o land p r o d u c t i v i t y .

There i s abundant evidence t h a t t r e e s and a g r i c u l t u r a l c rops can be grown toge the r without degrada t ion of t h e s i t e . The taungya o r h i l l c u l t i v a t i o n system, which o r i g i n a t e d i n Burma i n 1856 (King 1979) h a s s p r e a d t houghou t As i a , A f r i c a and p a r t s of South America under d i f f e r e n t names, such a s t he shamba system of f o r e s t p l a n t a t i o n i n Kenya (Mburu 1980). In t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s o f a f o r e s t p l a n t a t i o n o r w o o d l o t e x i s t e n c e , t r e e s c a n b e grown t o g e t h e r w i t h a n n u a l a g r i c u l t u r a l crops. There i s a l s o evidence t h a t g e n e r a l l y most a g r i c u l t u r a l c r o p s h a v e no a d v e r s e e f f e c t s on f o r e s t c r o p s and v i c e v e r s a . S t u d i e s i n Zambia showed t h a t in te rc ropping of Pinus oocarpa and Eucalyptus c loez i ana with b o t h s u n f l o w e r and g roundnu t s d i d n o t a f f e c t t h e r a t e s of t r e e- g r o w t h (Zambia F o r e s t r y Department 1980 ) . Y i e l d s from b o t h g roundnu t s and s u n f l o w e r s were comparable t o t h o s e repor ted under more convent iona l c u l t i v a t i o n .

I f a g r o f o r e s t r y i s t o be adop ted a s a farm f o r e s t o p t i o n , t h e n a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be drawn t o a g r o f o r e s t r y r e s e a r c h and deve lopmen t p r o j e c t s which h a v e a l r e a d y been undertaken by FAO, and SIDA i n many African coun t r i e s . This information can be used i n e s t a b l i s h i n g p r o j e c t s wi th l i t t l e p r i o r s i l v i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h . F i n a l l y , t h e s u c c e s s o f any farm f o r e s t r y o p t i o n w i l l depend l a r g e l y on t h e s o c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f new t e c h n i q u e s . The s y s t e m m u s t b e compatible with t h e c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s of t h e l o c a l people. I t must be p r o f i t a b l e and s a t i s f y t h e needs o f t h e p e o p l e . I t must h a v e economic a d v a n t a g e s such a s u se o f l o c a l l y a v a i l a b l e inputs . F i n a l l y , it must o f f e r a means of reducing l o s s e s whi le c r e a t i n g e c o l o g i c a l s t a b i l i t y .

As d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s p a p e r , t h e f u e l w o o d

s h o r t a g e i n Zimbabwe i s l i k e l y t o a t t a i n a c r i t i c a l l e v e l . The p r o d u c t i o n of fuelwood o u t s i d e t h e f o r e s t s i s a u s e f u l and necessary d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n of resources . The s e r iousnes s of t h e problem h a s been i l l u s t r a t e d e a r l i e r and what i s needed i s t h e reduc t ion of p r e s su re on t h e remaining n a t u r a l f o r e s t s . T h i s i s i n t e n d e d t o c o n s e r v e some o f t h e more e s s e n t i a l p r o t e c t i v e f e a t u r e s of t h e f o r e s t wh i l e a t t he same t i m e b e i n g a b l e t o p roduce s u b s t a n t i a l amounts o f food and wood f o r cooking and s h e l t e r .

The chances o f a t t a i n i n g s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y would b e cons ide rab ly g r e a t e r i f l oca l l y- des igned farm f o r e s t r y and o r t r e e p l a n t i n g p r o j e c t s were undertaken. The development of a n y s u c h t r e e p l a n t i n g t e c h n o l o g i e s m u s t t a k e i n t o cons ide ra t i on t h e whole range of problems fac ing t he farmer.

The s e l e c t i o n of s u i t a b l e t r e e spec i e s might i n v o l v e an i n i t i a l s u r v e y t o d e t e r m i n e t r e e s a l r e a d y i n t r o d u c e d i n t o d i f f e r e n t a reas . Melia azadi rach , which i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e neem t r e e grows w e l l i n t h e B i k i t a a r e a . Leucaena l e u c o c e p h a l a i s a n o t h e r s p e c i e s t h a t s h o u l d do w e l l i n t h e Z r i e r zones,-~hese spec i e s can be p l a n t e d i n pure s tands , i n rows, o r mixed wi th annual crops. Some acac i a s have a g r e a t p o t e n t i a l f o r u se i n a g r o f o r e s t r y sy s t ems a s t h e y a r e g e n e r a l l y d r o u g h t - r e s i s t a n t and u s e f u l f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n . They c a n be i n t e r c r o p p e d , g r a z e d o r c u t f o r f o d d e r . Zimbabwe h a s a number o f p o t e n t i a l l y u s e f u l a g r o f o r e s t r y acac i a s . Acacia a l b i d a i s a n i t r ogen f i x e r and -- p r o v i d e s f o d d e r . I t r e t a i n s i t s l e a v e s i n t h e d r y s e a s o n t h u s provid ing c rops wi th shade and p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t r a i n and wind. Acacia t o r t i l i s ha s s i m i l a r p o t e n t i a l . G r e v i l l e a robus ta , i s a good ag ro fo re s t ry spec i e s f o r t he h igh r a i n f a l l a r e a s b e c a u s e it can b e r e g u l a r l y p o l l a r d e d t o p r o v i d e fuelwood and p o l e s . Some spec ies i n t h e genus Prosopis , such a s P, tamarugo, a r e s u i t a b l e spec i e s f o r fuelwood and fodder product ion f o r t h e d r i e r a reas . They draw l i t t l e water from t h e s o i l o r t h e w a t e r t a b l e and can spea rhead e f f o r t s a t r e h a b i l i t a t i n g t h e marginal zones.

The £01 l o w i n g e x a m p l e s i l l u s t r a t e some o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t r e e s and s h r u b s on a g r i c u l t u r a l l and:

CLOSED TREE STANDS OR PLANTATIONS

These would be w o o d l o t s , farm f o r e s t s , home g a r d e n s , woody £a l l ows ( r o t a t e d with c rops ) . Eucalyptus woodlots a r e a l r e a d y common i n Zimbabwe a long r a i lways and on farms. The t r e e s produce cons t ruc t i on and u t i l i t y p o l e s and fuelwood i n coppice systems. Extens ive p l a n t a t i o n s of Acacia mearns i i a r e found i n t h e E a s t e r n H i g h l a n d s . The b a r k i s used i n t a n n i n g p r o c e s s e s w h i l e t h e t r u n k s a r e used f o r c h a r c o a l making and sometimes t r e a t e d and s o l d a s f e n c e p o s t s . The p l a n t i n g of e u c a l y p t s on sma l l l and ho ld ings needs c a r e f u l e v a l u a t i o n . E u c a l y p t s a r e known t o h a v e h i g h m o i s t u r e r e q u i r e m e n t s which can a f f e c t a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n . A t t h e s m a l l farm h o l d i n g - l e v e l ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e d r i e r

z o n e s ) , p r e f e r e n c e must b e g i v e n t o s p e c i e s o t h e r t h a n euca lyp t s . Mult ipurpose t r e e s would be most d e s i r a b l e .

TREE ROWS

Tree rows a r e p l a n t e d f o r wind b r e a k s , s h e l t e r b e l t s , l i v i n g f e n c e s , hedge rows i n farm f i e l d s and a l o n g r o a d s . L i v e f e n c e s and h e d g e t r e e s s h o u l d h a v e good f e n c i n g p r o p e r t i e s and o t h e r b e n e f i c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such a s u n p a l a t a b i l i t y t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t browse damage o r h i g h n u t r i t i o n a l v a l u e f o r use a s fodder.

Species used f o r hedges vary from province t o province. I n Makoni communal a r e a m u t i t i and mupwanda a r e i n d i g e n o u s s p e c i e s u s e d i n t h e a r e a . Bo th s p e c i e s r e p r o d u c e v e g e t a t i v e l y . Areas near J u l i a s d a l e a r e using b l a c k w a t t l e a s l i v e fences a s w e l l a s growing it i n sma l l woodlots. This spec i e s was introduced i n t o t h e a r ea by w a t t l e companies.

I nd igenous s p e c i e s can be l e f t s t a n d i n g t o s e r v e a s fences when c l e a r i n g land. This i s p o s s i b l e where t r e e s a r e growing f a i r l y c l o s e toge ther . The advantage i s an i n s t a n t fence which can provide some fuelwood.

TREES PLANTED AROUND ?'HE FARM

P re f e r ab ly t he se t r e e s should be easy t o e s t a b l i s h and f a s t growing. T r e e s i n t e r g r a t e d i n t o t h e fa rming sys tem should wherever p o s s i b l e be mult ipurpose wi th l i g h t crowns. The i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o t h e fa rming sys tem and management of m u l t i p u r p o s e t r e e s s h o u l d aim a t maximizing b o t h t r e e and a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s a s w e l l a s e n v i r o n m e n t a l b e n e f i t s . This should be achieved with a s l i t t l e land a s p o s s i b l e being p l a n t e d t o t r e e s . Farm t r e e s s h o u l d a l s o h a v e one o r m o r e of t h e fo l lowing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :

(1) Fixing n i t rogen:

( 2 ) Making e f f i c i e n t use of s o i l n u t r i e n t s ;

( 3 ) Fast-decomposing l i t t e r ;

( 4 ) Producing f u e l t i m b e r , f o d d e r , food a n d / o r o t h e r u s e f u l products : and

( 5 ) Coppicing a b i l i t i e s .

The s e l e c t i o n of s u i t a b l e farm t r e e s might i n v o l v e an i n i t i a l s u r v e y t o d e t e r m i n e t r e e s a l r e a d y i n t r o d u c e d i n t o different areas . Trees possessing d e s i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e farm system. Melia azadi rach which i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e neem t r e e grows v e r y w e l l i n t h e B ik i t a a r ea . This t r e e i s e x t e n s i v e l y grown i n dry a r e a s i n Sudan. A s c h o o l i n t h e a r e a a p p e a r s t o be t h e s o u r c e of seed. The t r e e can a l s o be e s t a b l i s h e d v e g e t a t i v e l y . Acacia b e l a n i t i s i s d e l i b e r a t e l y l e f t s tanding i n t he f i e l d probably

because of i t s func t ion a s a n i t r ogen f i x e r .

FRUIT TREES OR ORCHARDS

Depending on l a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y t h e s e c o u l d be p l a n t e d a round t h e house a s i n d i v i d u a l t r e e s o r i n b l o c k s . Pruned b r a n c h e s can be used f o r f u e l . The f r u i t b e a r i n g mango and avocado a r e wide ly p l an t ed i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s and can be regarded a s i d e a l f o r ag ro fo re s t ry .

14 . GENERAL DISCUSSION

The p r o d u c t i o n of wood i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s of Zimbabwe c a n b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d by p l a n t i n g t r e e s o n i n d i v i d u a l l andhold ings i n t h e form of sma l l woodlots, farm t r e e s , hedges, windbreaks and f r u i t t r e e s . By t h e year 2002, it i s est imated t h a t t h e r e w i l l be 0.91 m i l l i o n households i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s . I f e ach h o u s e h o l d i s a b l e t o p l a n t 300 t r e e s around t h e farm, a t o t a l of 273 m i l l i o n t r e e s w i l l have been p l an t ed . Assuming an average countrywide growth r a t e of 7 m3/ha /yr ( b a s e d on l G O O t r e e s / h a ) , each t r e e would b e expected t o produce 0.004 m3 pe r year . The expected biomass p r o d u c t i o n from such a n a g r o f o r e s t r y approach i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s i s e s t i m a t e d a t 0.94 m i l l i o n t o n s . T h i s w i l l r e d u c e t h e fuelwood s h o r t f a l l of 6.19 m i l l i o n t ons i n t h e year 2002 by 15 p e r c e n t . Th ree hundred t r e e s can meet 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e fuelwood requirements of an average household.

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o remember t h a t fuelwood i s n o t t h e o n l y problem f aced by t h e r u r a l p e o p l e . They a l s o r e q u i r e wood f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n pu rposes . I n some a r e a s t h e s h o r t a g e o f s u i t a b l e c o n s t r u c t i o n p o l e s might be more c r i t i c a l t h a n t h e fuelwood problem. Food i s a l s o a s e r i o u s problem i n t h e d r i e r r e g i o n s o f Zimbabwe. The f o o d p r o b l e m h a s b e e n e x a c e r b a t e d by t h r e e d r o u g h t y e a r s . The p rob l ems of t h e r u r a l p e o p l e s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e n o t be viewed i n i s o l a t i o n . Farm f o r e s t r y a p p e a r s t o be a l a n d u s e sys tem t h a t c a n address t h e problems of t h e people l i v i n g i n f r a g i l e systems i n an i n t e g r a t e d manner. With w e l l de s igned farm f o r e s t r y p r o j e c t s , i t w i l l b e p o s s i b l e t o produce more wood f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n and fue lwood, a d d r e s s t h e p rob l ems of l a n d p r o d u c t i v i t y , and reduce p r e s su re on t h e land.

One of t h e most gene ra l c o n s t r a i n t s on farm f o r e s t r y i n a d d r e s s i n g t h e p rob l ems of t h e r u r a l poor i s t h e v e r y magnitude of t h e problem i t s e l f . Nine hundred thousand r u r a l f a r m e r s a r e s p r e a d o v e r t h e d i f f e r e n t e c o l o g i c a l zones o f Zimbabwe. These p e o p l e a r e f aced w i t h p h y s i c a l and s o c i o - economic l i m i t a t i o n s t o r a t i o n a l l a n d use . There a r e subsequent problems of rap id popu la t i on growth and subsequent l a n d p r e s s u r e , poor i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , s o i l e r o s i o n , d r o u g h t , d e c l i n i n g s o i l f e r t i l i t y and l a n d t e n u r e i s s u e s . Farm f o r e s t r y must t h e r e f o r e be s een i n t h e c o n t e x t o f p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l development problems. For i n s t ance , many farmers who a r e u n c e r t a i n a b o u t t h e i r t e n u r i a l s t a t u s may b e

unwi l l i ng t o make long- term investments . Changes w i l l h a v e t o be made i n t h e many f a c e t s o f

s e c t o r deve lopmen t f rom p o l i c y t h r o u g h i n s t i t u t i o n a l , l e g i s l a t i v e and r e g u l a t o r y framework t o t e c h n i c a l op t i ons and p r a c t i c e s i n t h e f i e l d . For such changes t o o c c u r , t h e f o r e s t e r s t h e m s e l v e s must a l s o change t h e i r a t t i t u d e s and ways o f do ing t h i n g s . The o v e r a l l p o l i c y and d i r e c t i o n of f o r e s t r y must change t o s e r v i c e t h e l a r g e s t g roup i . e . t h e r u r a l people.

The c o n v e n t i o n a l methods o f e x t e n s i o n s h o u l d a l s o change . E x t e n s i o n must p e r m i t d i a l o g u e between t h e p e o p l e and t h e s e r v i c e being provided.

S i n c e t h e deve lopmen t of farm f o r e s t r y a s a c o n c e p t i s r e cen t , t h e r e i s a l a ck of hard f a c t s . The methodologies of farm f o r e s t r y a r e no t w e l l developed and documented a s they a r e i n o t h e r a r e a s of a g r i c u l t u r a l o r s i l v i c u l t u r a l science. O the r f i e l d s h a v e a v a s t body o f d a t a a g a i n s t which t o compare r e s u l t s . However, t h e importance of farm f o r e s t r y i s b e i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y r e a l i s e d and a d e q u a t e and a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y must be i n j e c t e d i n t o i t . There i s t h e r e f o r e , a g r e a t need f o r f u r t h e r research .

C l e a r l y , a dilemma e x i s t s . While on t h e one hand, i t i s apparent t h a t f u r t h e r research i n farm f o r e s t r y systems i s n e c e s s a r y , on t h e o t h e r hand , t h e r e i s an u r g e n t need t o p r even t o r reduce environmental c o l l a p s e . The b e s t s o l u t i o n i s t o a d d r e s s t h e p rob l em from b o t h a n g l e s . Where t h e need i s apparen t and cond i t i ons s u i t a b l e , farm f o r e s t r y p r o j e c t s should be introduced drawing on experience and r e s u l t s from comparab l e c o n d i t i o n s i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s o r l o c a l i t i e s . A t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of such p r o j e c t s , it i s recommended t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e r e s e a r c h programs be i n i t i a t e d t o p r o v i d e d a t a f o r l a t e r adjustment of cont inu ing a g r o f o r e s t r y p r o j e c t s .

The i n t e g r a t i o n of t r e e s i n t o t h e farm systems i s not an a l i e n c o n c e p t t o Zimbabwe's r u r a l p e o p l e . Farm f o r e s t r y p r a c t i c e s a r e c a r r i e d o u t by communal p e o p l e a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f c o m p l e x i t y and i n d i f f e r e n t forms. R e s e a r c h e r s s h o u l d examine such sys t ems where t h e y e x i s t and a d v i s e farmers on how they can i n t e n s i f y and improve t h e i r p r a c t i c e s s o a s t o d e r i v e t h e maximum b e n e f i t from b o t h t r e e and a g r i c u l t u r a l crops.

I n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d d u r i n g t h e R u r a l Energy Su rvey e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t r e e p l a n t i n g i s being c a r r i e d o u t and t h a t t h e r u r a l people do r a i s e t h e i r own seed l ings . The ma jo r i t y of those p l a n t i n g t r e e s a r e doing so on t h e i r own i n i t i a t i v e . C l e a r l y , t r e e p l a n t i n g knowledge a l r e a d y e x i s t s i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t b e f o r e a n y t r e e p l a n t i n g p r o j e c t s a r e p roposed , we c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h t h e e x i s t i n g knowledge and l e v e l of t r e e p l a n t i n g .

I f t h e r e i s t r e e p l a n t i n g i n an a r ea , then t h e approach should be t o b u i l d on t h a t e x i s t i n g knowledge and i n t e n s i f y t r e e p l an t i ng . P r o j e c t s t h a t t ake t h i s approach and cons ider t h e needs , a s p i r a t i o n s and c u l t u r a l v a l u e s o f t h e l o c a l people a r e l i k e l y t o have a g r e a t e r impact on t h e community than t hose imposed on t h e community. E f f o r t s should a l s o be

made t o promote t r e e growing a t t h e farm a s w e l l a s t h e community l e v e l . The community approach w i l l no t always be s u c c e s s f u l s i n c e t h e r u r a l p e o p l e pe r fo rm most of t h e i r farming a c t i v i t i e s i n d i v i d u a l l y . However, t h e community woodlot approach such a s t h a t being promoted by t h e Fo re s t ry Commission s h o u l d c o n t i n u e . The method w i l l work i n some a r e a s and h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e of i n t r o d u c i n g t r e e p l a n t i n g knowledge i n t o an a r ea .

I f r u r a l p e o p l e a r e t o b e e n c o u r a g e d t o c a t e r f o r t h e i r own wood resource needs, then t h e necessary i npu t s should be l o c a l l y a v a i l a b l e a n d a t l i t t l e o r no c o s t . The es tab l i shment of seed orchards on communal a r e a s w i l l avo id t he es tab l i shment of c o s t l y c e n t r a l i z e d n u r s e r i e s , and w i l l i n t r o d u c e new knowledge i n t o t h e s e a r e a s . The o r c h a r d s can be s u b- d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r s u b - u n i t s , e ach o f which can b e p l a n t e d t o d i f f e r e n t spec ies . The s i z e of each orchard w i l l v a r y from a r e a t o a r e a w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e p e o p l e , b u t s h o u l d be s m a l l i n s i z e . The s p e c i e s p l a n t e d s h o u l d p roduce s eed q u i c k l y ( 3 - 5 y e a r s ) and s h o u l d s e r v e numerous purposes. The orchard i s fenced and then p l an t ed wi th a l i v e hedge . Once t h e hedge i s e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e f e n c e can b e removed and re-used. The hedge i s then a b l e t o provide bo th fodder and wood.

The seed orchard j u s t d i scussed can be e s t a b l i s h e d a s a one- t ime p r o j e c t . I t becomes a s o u r c e o f s e e d f o r t h e communal a r e a s . Once p e o p l e h a v e p l a n t e d t h e i r own t r e e s , t h e s e i n t u r n become a s o u r c e f o r f u t u r e s e e d . T h i s approach has t h e advantage of no t r equ i r i ng t h e development of a c e n t r a l i z e d nursery o r s p e c i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e which a r e very c o s t l y . The r a i s i n g of s e e d l i n g s does no t pose a major problem s i n c e most households a r e a l r e a d y doing so.

D i f f e r en t approaches t o t r e e e s t ab l i shmen t w i l l have t o be adop ted depending on p r e v a i l i n g l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s . One p o s s i b l e method of e s t a b l i s h i n g p rosop i s i n t h e d r i e r reg ions of A f r i c a i s t o u se a w a t e r c a t chmen t program. T h i s might h a v e some a p p l i c a t i o n s i n Zimbabwe, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h o s e a r e a s where land i s a v a i l a b l e .

T h i s method had been used t o e s t a b l i s h t r e e s i n a r e a s with a r a i n f a l l of about 800 mm per annum (van Gelder 1984.) T h i s approach may n o t b e p o s s i b l e i n t h e communal a r e a s b u t i n o t h e r d r i e r zones where l a n d i s a v a i l a b l e , i t s h o u l d be t r i e d . S e v e r a l o f t h e s e w a t e r ca tchment a r e a s can be c o n s t r u c t e d i n a n y c h o s e n a r e a p r o v i d e d t h e l a n d i s a v a i l a b l e . Where p o s s i b l e t he t r e e s can be in te rc ropped wi th s u i t a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l crops

Most a g r i c u l t u r a l crops i nc lud ing hardy v a r i e t i e s cannot s u r v i v e t h e s eve re c l i m a t i c condi t ions under which t r e e s can grow. I t i s recommended the re fo re , t h a t f o r n a t u r a l reg ions I V and V, a g r e a t e r emphas is b e p l a c e d on growing t r e e s f o r f r u i t and fodder. Fodder t r e e s should be emphasised i n a r e a s where c a t t l e a r e found. By so doing, people can spread t h e i r r i s k s e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g d rough t y e a r s when c r o p s f a i l and g r a z i n g i s s c a r c e . The t r e e s w i l l a l s o h e l p improve t h e f e r t i l i t y o f t h e s o i l . S o i l f e r t i l i t y i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t

b e c a u s e it i s n o t o n l y r a i n t h a t i s a l w a y s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r lower y i e l d s . The t r e e s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o such env i ronmen t s should a 1 s o provide some f uelwood.

R u r a l p e o p l e l i v i n g i n d r i e r a r e a s , l i k e t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n o t h e r s e c t o r s of t h e economy want t o s e c u r e an income. This can be guaranteed through p l a n t i n g f r u i t and o t h e r mult ipurpose t r e e s which can provide f r u i t fodder f o r t h e i r c a t t l e , and some fuelwood " s t i c k s " w h i l e a t t h e same time improving t h e s o i l f e r t i l i t y .

The s e l e c t i o n of s u i t a b l e s p e c i e s i n t h e f r a g i l e and b r i t t l e environments i s very important . Eucalypts , because of t h e i r h i g h demand f o r s o i l m o i s t u r e s h o u l d n o t b e t h e c h o i c e f o r t h e s e d r y r e g i o n s . Research on m u l t i p u r p o s e s p e c i e s s h o u l d be i n t e n s i f i e d . The t r e e s s h o u l d h a v e d e s i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

15. CONCLUSIONS

Woodfuel f u l f i l s t h e b a s i c e n e r g y needs o f o v e r 80 percent of Zimbabwe's popula t ion and c o n s t i t u t e s 46 percent o f t h e t o t a l ene rgy consumed. I n s p i t e o f i t s impor t ance , very l i t t l e investment was made i n t h e a r ea of fuelwood p r i o r t o independence . The domes t i c e n e r g y s o u r c e of t h e b u l k of t h e r u r a l and urban popula t ion was ignored. To provide both a g r i c u l t u r a l land and fuelwood f o r t he se two s e c t o r s , l a r g e a r e a s of r u r a l Zimbabwe h a v e been d e f o r e s t e d . The heavy r e l i a n c e on and consequen t i n d i s c r i m i n a t e e x p l o i t a t i o n of wood resources i s causing s e r i o u s environmental degradat ion.

The out look f o r t h e f u t u r e i n terms of woodfuel and t he s u s t a i n e d v i a b i l i t y of Zimbabwe's wood s u p p l i e s i s r a t h e r grim. A t p r e sen t , s u p p l i e s a r e being drawn from both s tanding s tocks and sus t a ined y i e l d . The s i g n i f i c a n t c u t t i n g of wood s tocks has caused supply s h o r t f a l l s i n many communal a r ea s .

According t o t h e p r o j e c t i o n s unde r t aken a s p a r t o f t h e ZEAP e f f o r t , more t h a n 45% of t h e n a t i o n a l fue lwood demand w i l l go unmet i n 1997 and 2002 u n l e s s c u r r e n t supply t r ends undergo c o n s i d e r a b l e change. I f t h i s p roblem i s n o t f aced now, t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e i n communal a r e a s c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o d e t e r i o r a t e d r a m a t i c a l l y . P a r t I of t h i s c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e d t h e na tu re and s e v e r i t y of t h e problem, and presen ted s e v e r a l p o t e n t i a l s o l u t i o n s .

I n p a r t 11 , s u r v e y r e s u l t s were p r e s e n t e d i n d i c a t i n g t h a t most r u r a l housholders a r e f a m i l i a r wi th t r e e- p l a n t i n g and h a v e p l a n t e d t r e e s i n t h e r e c e n t p a s t . Whi le a few of those in te rv iewed purchased t h e seed1 ings , most r a i s e d them o r g a t h e r e d them i n t h e w i l d . R u r a l h o u s e h o l d e r s t e n d t o p l a n t t r e e s on t h e i r own f a r m l a n d , and n o t i n communal w o o d l o t s o r p l a n t a t i o n s . A s a r e s u l t , farm f o r e s t r y , o r a g r o f o r e s t r y , h o l d s t h e g r e a t e s t p romise a s a p a r t i a l s o l u t i o n t o t h e woodfuel problem. Emphasis should be p laced not on g e t t i n g r u r a l households t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n community wood lo t schemes, b u t r a t h e r on s u p p o r t i n g c u r r e n t t r e e - p l a n t i n g p r a c t i c e s and spec i e s choice. I n p a r t i c u l a r , r u r a l

f a r m e r s , e s p e c i a l l y women, must b e p r o v i d e d w i t h s u p p o r t i n p l a n t i n g t r e e s f o r f i r e w o o d , f r u i t , p o l e s , a n d o t h e r p r o d u c t i v e p u r p o s e s . By h a r n e s s i n g t h e k n o w l e d g e a n d a c t i v i t i e s o f r u r a l Z i m b a b w e a n s , f a r m f o r e s t r y o r a g r o f o r e s t r y c a n p r o v i d e a m u l t i - f a c e t e d c o n t r i b u t i o n t o s o l v i n g t h e woodfue l and e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s f a c i n g r u r a l Zimbabweans.

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Energy Sys tems Resea rch Group, 1983 "LDC Energy A l t e r n a t i v e s P l a n n i n g System." Volume 1.

Bos ton , M a s s a c h u s e t t s : ESRG.

FAO, 1981 "Map o f t h e F u e l w o o d S i t u a t i o n i n t h e D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s a t a S c a l e 1 : 2 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . " W i t h E x p l a n a t o r y N o t e ( i n E n g l i s h ) , pp . 1 - 11. Rome : FAO.

King, K.F.S., 1 9 7 9 " A g r o f o r e s t r y a n d t h e U t i l i s a t i o n o f F r a g i l e Ecosystems." F o r e s t Eco logy and Management 2: 1 6 1- 168.

Mburu , O.M., 1 9 8 0 " A g r o f o r e s t r y i n F o r e s t M a n a g e m e n t i n K e n y a . " P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e K e n y a N a t i o n a l S e m i n a r o n A g r o f o r e s t r y N a i r o b i : ICRAF.

R e p u b l i c o f Zimbabwe, 1982 T r a n s i t i o n a l N a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t P l a n 1 9 8 2 / 8 3 - 1 9 8 4 / 8 5 . Vo lume 1. Hara re : Government o f Zimbabwe.

V a n G e l d e r , B., 1 9 8 4 P e r s o n a l communica t ion . N a i r o b i : B e i j e r I n s t i t u t e .

World Bank, 1981 " M o b i l i z i n g Renewable Energy Techno logy i n D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s : S t r e n g t h e n i n g L o c a l C a p a b i l i t i e s a n d R e s e a r c h . " W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. : W o r l d Bank .

Zambia F o r e s t r y Depa r tmen t , 1980 P e r s o n a l communica t ion . Ki twe: Resea rch D i v i s i o n .

VIII. WOODFUEL HARVESTING AND SOIL EROSION IN ZIMBABWE

David K . Munasirei

1 , INTRODUCTION

The most i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e of e n e r g y i n t h e economy of Zimbabwe i s woodfue l which accoun ted f o r a b o u t 46.8 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l e n e r g y consumed i n t h e c o u n t r y i n 1982 ( B e i j e r I n s t i t u t e , 1984). Commercial wood, an e n e r g y r e s o u r c e used l a r g e l y f o r r u r a l p o l e s , i n d u s t r i a l sawn t i m b e r , and cons t ruc t i on m a t e r i a l s , accounted f o r another 11 percent of t o t a l ene rgy consumpt ion . Woodfuel and commerc ia l wood combined accoun ted f o r 57.8 p e r c e n t o f a l l e n e r g y used i n Zimbabwe i n 1982 (Bei j e r I n s t i t u t e ) .

These f i g u r e s s e r v e t o h i g h l i g h t t h e heavy dependence on wood i n Zimbabwe. However, t h e r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s , and t h e h i g h - d e n s i t y u r b a n h o u s e h o l d s e c t o r a c c o u n t e d f o r consumpt ion of more t h a n h a l f o f a l l t h e e n e r g y used i n Zimbabwe i n 1982. Most o f t h i s e n e r g y i s i n t h e form of wood. Most o f t h e wood-energy r e s o u r c e s a r e o b t a i n e d from open woodlands used f o r grazing. Conventional c lo sed f o r e s t s s u p p l y a v e r y s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e of wood i n t h e c o u n t r y . I n 1982 Zimbabwe's wood r e s o u r c e s were n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o meet es t imated woodfuel demand from s u s t a i n a b l e y i e l d s (Katerere , 1984 ) . T r e e- s t o c k s a r e b e i n g c u t a t a more r a p i d pace t h a n t h e y a r e a b l e t o r e g e n e r a t e t h e m s e l v e s .

The demand f o r fuelwood i n urban and r u r a l a r e a s i s t h e s i n g l e l a r g e s t d r a i n on Zimbabwe's f o r e s t r e s o u r c e s . The demand f o r wood w i l l grow t o n e a r l y 13.4 m i l l i o n t ons by t h e y e a r 2002 ( K a t e r e r e , 1984 ) . T h i s w i l l r e s u l t i n a s e r i o u s wood s h o r t a g e , where n e i t h e r y i e l d s nor s t o c k s w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t t o meet t h e demand i n t h e mos t- sca rce p r o v i n c e s . Already t h e communal a r e a s of Manicaland, Mashonaland East and Masvingo p r o v i n c e s a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g a wood s h o r t a g e ( K a t e r e r e 1 9 8 4 ) . I t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e s e p r o v i n c e s w i l l each begin t o experience an a b s o l u t e shor tage of a c c e s s i b l e wood resources i n 1997. Midlands, Mashonaland C e n t r a l , and Matebeleland North provinces w i l l a l l be a t t h e s t a g e of an i n c i p i e n t wood shor tage by t h e year 2002.

The continued heavy r e l i a n c e on wood energy can l ead t o a c c e l e r a t e d d e f o r e s t a t i o n and environmental degradat ion. The s p a r s e n e s s o f t r e e s and t h e s m a l l - t r e e s i z e s o f r e g e n e r a t e a r e a s i n communal a r e a s o f M a n i c a l a n d , M a s v i n g o and Mashonaland E a s t p r o v i n c e s a r e t e s t i m o n y t o a c c e l e r a t e d d e f o r e s t a t i o n . I n t h e same a r e a s where t r e e s h a v e been c l e a r e d f o r fuelwood and c u l t i v a t i o n , s o i l e ro s ion has been acce l e r a t ed . Where t h e n a t u r a l vege t a t i on has been c l e a r e d , s o i l s p l a s h and e ro s ion have increased; d ra inage d e n s i t y i s increased through r i l l i n g and g u l l y i n g ; and headward r a t e s of e r o s i o n and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e d i m e n t a t i o n i n t h e main

v a l l e y s a r e increased . The cha in r e a c t i o n from a decrease i n v e g e t a l c o v e r i s a l r e a d y s e e n i n t h e i n c r e a s e d number o f c h a n n e l s ( g u l l i e s ) and i n c r e a s e d r i l l and s h e e t e r o s i o n evidenced by heavy sedimentat ion i n t h e main v a l l e y s . The t h r e e provinces mentioned above have communal a r e a s where t h e r a t e s of e ro s ion a r e considered c r i t i c a l ( e s p e c i a l l y Mutoko i n Mashonaland Eas t ) .

E r o s i o n r a t e s i n Zimbabwe a r e a l r e a d y h i g h enough t o g e n e r a t e conce rn a b o u t t h e t h i n n i n g of s o i l p r o f i l e s . The h i g h e s t r a t e s o f e r o s i o n o c c u r i n t h e most d e n s e l y s e t t l e d communal l ands of t h e t h r e e provinces .

2 . FACTORS INFLUENCING SOIL EROSION AND EROSION RATES I N Z IMBABHE

An u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s o i l e r o s i o n i s l a r g e l y ba sed on emp i r i ca l s t u d i e s . In t he se s t u d i e s , a wide range of d a t a and independent v a r i a b l e s a f f e c t i n g s o i l l o s s have been ana l yzed. The g r e a t number of permutat ions of vege t a t i on cove r , d e n s i t y of c o v e r , c r o p management t y p e s , s o i l t y p e and r a i n f a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s make t h e t a s k o f t ho rough and c o n t r o l l e d r e s e a r c h f o r m i d a b l e . However, S t o c k i n g and E l w e l l ( 1973a ) i d e n t i f y t h e fo l l owing a s t h e major f a c t o r s i n f l uenc ing s o i l e r o s i o n i n a s t u d y o f t h e e r o s i o n a l h a z a r d o f Zimbabwe: e r o s i v i t y , r e l i e f , v e g e t a l cove r , s o i l e r o d i b i l i t y and human o c c u p a t i o n . Whi le a b r i e f summary of each o f t h e f a c t o r s w i l l be considered, emphasis w i l l be g iven t o v e g e t a l c o v e r , a s i t i s a f f e c t e d g r e a t l y b y w o o d f u e l h a r v e s t i n g a n d c u l t i v a t i o n .

EROSIVITY

E r o s i v i t y i s def ined a s t h e p o t e n t i a l a b i l i t y of r a i n t o c a u s e s o i l e r o s i o n . The p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n t h a t a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o e r o s i v i t y a r e i n t e n s i t y , and q u a n t i t i e s , such a s k i n e t i c energy, which a r e f u n c t i o n s of b o t h r a i n d r o p mass and t e r m i n a l v e l o c i t y ( i l i s chme ie r e t a 1 1958 ) . A r a i n d r o p f a l l i n g on b a r e ground g e n e r a t e s a s p l a s h which d i s p e n s e s and m o b i l i z e s s o i l , a l l o w i n g i t t o be t r a n s p o r t e d . The s i z e of t h e s p l a s h and t h e amount of s o i l moved a r e l a r g e l y de t e rmined by t h e k i n e t i c energy of t h e ra indrop (ii ischmeier e t a 1 1958). Thus t h e e n e r g y of r a i n s t o r m s d u r i n g a y e a r h a s been shown t o be h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d with t h e annual s o i l e ros ion r a t e ( E l w e l l and Stocking, 1975).

RELIEF FACTORS

Re l i e f i s an energy o r c a u s a t i v e f a c t o r of erosion. I n t h e form of p o t e n t i a l energy, g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r ce s not o n l y cause run- off bu t a l s o a step-by- step migra t ion of sp lashed s o i l p a r t i c l e s ( S t o c k i n g and E l w e l l , 1973a ) . The r e l i e f parameter used commonly a s a major f a c t o r i n s o i l e ros ion i s

slope. Slope affects the velocity of run-off and the shearing force which it can apply toward mobilizing and transporting soil.

SOIL ERODIBILITY

The ability of soil to resist erosion depends upon those physical and chemical properties which determine its detachability and transportability. Erodibility has been correlated with a bewildering array of soil characteristics. Elwell (1971) lists and discusses as the dominant soil characteristics, texture, structure, and organic content of the surface layer.

HUMAN INFLUENCES

Land-use is commonly associated with the radical alteration of the vegetation cover often resulting in an increased erosion rate (Dunne et al. 1981). On the other - -- hand, soil conservation practices such as terracing, and crop-residue management may decrease soil erosion. The variability of erosion in different areas can be explained in terms of the human influence independent of other factors. Stocking and Elwell (1973a) introduced population density as a suitable parameter for estimating the erosional potential which might result from man's interference. Population density reflects the absolute number of people living in a unit area and, in rural areas, it directly measures the number of people who attempt to gain a living from the land. Somewhat less directly, population density suggests such parameters as the degree of land utilization, the extent to which lands unsuitable for cultivation are opened up and the numbers and densities of cattle (Stocking and Elwell, 11973a). All these direct and indirect factors add up to creating different erosional situations.

VEGETATION COVER

Vegetation cover is manifestly one of the most important control ling influences of soil erosion. The total protective value of vegetation to soil is provided by ground cover, canopy and litter. Vegetation cover intercepts rainfall kinetic energy and thereby decreases the mobilization of soil particles. It is generally agreed that soil erosion is extremely sensitive to the type and density of vegetation cover. Vegetation cover is also an important factor of erosion because i t i s e a s i l y manipulated b y man. Unfortunately very little is known concerning the relationship between vegetation cover and soil erosion. However, there are basic relationships which have been established through empirical studies.

Screenivas et a1 (1947) compared the .mass of soil splashed from small trays and concluded that the height and percentage of cover were important. In Z+mbabwe, Hudson

(1971) demonstrated t h e remarkable d i f f e r e n c e s i n s o i l l o s s between a bare p l o t and a p l o t p ro t ec t ed by mosquito gauze. I n t h e experiments c a r r i e d ou t a t Henderson Research S t a t i o n , Hudson demons t r a t ed t h a t i n t h e p e r i o d 953-56 mean a n n u a l s o i l l o s s from ba re ground was 4.63 kg/mi compared with 0.04 kg/m2 from ground covered with a dense D i g i t a r i a . This r o l e o f c o v e r i s emphasized by t h e mosqui to gauze expe r imen t i n which s o i l l o s s was compared from i d e n t i c a l ba r e s o i l p l o t s (Hudson and J a c k s o n , 1959) . Over one p l o t was suspended a f i n e wire gauze which had t he e f f e c t of breaking t h e fo r ce of ra indrops , absorbing t h e i r impact and a l l owing t h e water t o f a l l t o t h e ground from a low h e i g h t a s a f i n e sp ray . The mean annual s o i l l o s s ove r a s ix- year per iod was 141.3 m3/ha f o r t h e open p l o t and 1.2 m3/ha f o r t h e p l o t c o v e r e d by gauze. I n a more r e c e n t assessment of t h e i n f l u e n c e of cove r on s o i l l o s s , E l w e l l (1971) compiled t h e r e s u l t s of t he f u l l r e s e a r c h program, f o r a T a t a g u r a c l a y s o i l on 4.5 p e r c e n t s l opes . The r e s u l t s were astounding. The s o i l su r f ace which was p r o t e c t e d from t h e r a i n d r o p impact had 127 t i m e s l e s s s o i l l o s s than t h e unprotected p l o t . This seems t o i n d i c a t e t h a t s o i l l o s s v a r i e s according t o t h e degree of p r o t e c t i v e cover provided by p l a n t s . To confirm t h i s , s o i l l o s s v a l u e s f o r a v a r i e t y of cover condi t ions were compiled and a r e shown i n Table VII-1. From these f i g u r e s , t h e percentage of v e g e t a l c o v e r would a p p e a r t o be t h e most r e a s o n a b l e measure of t h e p r o t e c t i v e v a l u e of vege ta t ion .

TABLE VIII-1 SOIL LOSS FROM CROPS HAVING VARYING COVER VALUES (Aver- o F f i v a r a r ; ; 7 - - p

....................................................... Crop Cover S o i l Loss

Rat ings ( t / h a / a ) ....................................................... Bare S o i l N i l 96.6 Late-planted legumes Poor 6.9 Low-density maize Average 2.3 Napier fodder Good 2 . 0

Notes : Ta t agu ra c l a y s o i l s on 4.5 p e r c e n t s l o p e s a t Henderson Research S t a t i o n (Elwel l 1971) .

The v e g e t a t i o n component which p r o t e c t s s o i l most e f f i c i e n t l y a g a i n s t e r o s i o n a p p e a r s t o be ground c o v e r and t h e a s soc i a t ed l i t t e r r a t h e r than canopy cover (Dunne e t a l , 1981 ) . Many o f t h e c a n o p i e s i n communal a r e a s l y i n g i n n a t u r a l r e g i o n s 111 , I V and V a r e t h i n because o f i n t e n s e woodfuel h a r v e s t i n g and c u l t i v a t i o n . I n n a t u r a l regions I V and V t h e sparseness of t h e canopy i s a l s o a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e amount and v a r i a b i l i t y of r a i n f a l l . Thin c a n o p i e s a 1 low ra indrops t o s t r i k e t h e ground su r f ace d i r e c t l y . However, i n a r e a s , such a s i n Manica land p r o v i n c e ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i n n a t u r a l reg ions I and I I a ) , where dense canopies a r e common,

soil erosion is effectively reduced. For adequate erosion protection at least 70 percent of the ground surface must be covered (Fournier, 1972; Elwell and Stocking, 1976). Where canopy is sparse there is a large difference between herb density under and between canopies. In such areas, however, the proportion of the area having a high cover density is small, and the removal of the canopy could reduce the ground cover on only a small area. For such areas in natural regions IV and V, particularly in Matebeleland provinces, rainfall erosivity is low.

Apart from very dense canopies, basal (ground) cover, a dense growth of grass with an associated litter, protects soil most efficiently against erosion. In Table VIII-2 five arbitrary categories into which basal cover is divided in Zimbabwe, are shown (Stocking and Elwell, 1973a). Figures vary from about 1 000 mm of rainfall for good cover conditions and therefore lowest erosion - to below 400 mm for the poor cover conditions indicating the greatest erosion hazard. While basal cover is effective in reducing erosion it should be noted that the effect is related to total vegetation cover. It is also the factor least influenced by the normal range of management conditions, although radical changes can be brought about by extremes of mismanagement (Stocking and Elwell, 1973a). Such radical changes are experienced in communal areas where the human factor has contributed to high rates of soil erosion.

TABLEVIII-2 THE CATEGORIES OFEROSION I N ZIMBABWE

.................................................................................. Category Natural R a i n f a l l Basal Cover Slope Hunan Cccupation

Region (mm) Estimated % (degrees) .................................................................................. Low I Above 1000 7 - 10 0 - 2 Extensive European Ranching

National Parks

Below Average I 1 800 - 1000 5 - 8 2 - 4 Mostly European Farms

Average I 1 1 600 - 800 3 - 6 4 - 6 Low Density Communal Areas and SSCF below 5 p.p. lan2

Above Average I V 400 - 600 1 - 4 6 - B Moderately- sett led Communal Areas 5 - 30 p.p. km2

High IV Below 400 - Above 8 Densely Sett led Communal Areas above 30 p.p. km2

..................................................................................

Notes: Cover, and Huma'n Occupation are only tentative and cannot be expressed on a farm quantitative basis. (Stocking and Elwell, 1973a)

p.p. km2 = persons per square kilometer SSCF = Small Scale Commercial Farms

3. SOIL EROSION HAZARD

Stocking and E l w e l l (1973a) used f a c t o r a l scor ing on a s c a l e of 1 t o 5 i n v o l v i n g t h e f a c t o r s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e preceding s e c t i o n ( i . e . e r o s i v i t y , s l o p e , e r o d i b i l i t y , ground c o v e r and human o c c u p a t i o n ) . Each of t h e f a c t o r s was g i v e n equa l weight and t h e v a l u e s summed t o g,ive an o v e r a l l r e s u l t . The re i s , however , a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l weakness i n such a n a n a l y s i s , i n t h a t , summing t h e f a c t o r s , i n s t e a d o f m u l t i p l y i n g them, may a l l o w s y n e r g i s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n . Another weakness l i e s i n g i v i n g equa l weight t o each f a c t o r , a s some f a c t o r s , such a s e r o s i v i t y , may be more i m p o r t a n t t h a n o t h e r s . However, t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s a r e v e r y r e v e a l i n g i n terms of c r i t i c a l e r o s i o n a l a reas .

TABLE V I I I - 3 SOIL EROSION HAZARD I N SELECTED COMMUNAL AREAS

......................................................................................... Province/Communal Area Natura l Region Erosion Category Major Factors

Mashonaland East Chinmora-Chinmano I I a Above average E r o a i v i t y

Uzumba I I I / I V High E r o s i v i t y and Slope Mutoko I I I / I V Very High E r o s i v i t y , Slope and

Human Occupation Manicaland

St Swilhinis-Matizi-Saunyama 11s-V High E r o s i v i t y and Slope Manyika I I b / I I I Above Average Human Occupation Makoni I I b / I I I Above Average Hman Occuptation

Masvlngo Manga I V / V Above Average Hman Occupation Ch ib i V Above Average Hman Occupation

.........................................................................................

Based on A f a c t o r i z e d E ros ion Su rvey Map o f Zimbabwe by Stocking and E l w e l l (1973a)

Notes: The f a c t o r s t h a t a r e r e l a t e d t o vege t a t i on cover a r e e r o s i v i t y and human occupat ion. E r o s i v i t y and cover f a c t o r s a r e i n l a r g e p a r t complementary.

Communal a r e a s experiencing wood shor tage i n Mashonaland E a s t , Manica land and Masvingo a r e shown, i n t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , a s e x p e r i e n c i n g c r i t i c a l r a t e s o f e ro s ion (Table VII I- 3) . However, t h i s does no t imply t h a t t h e major f a c t o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o e r o s i o n i s t h e c u t t i n g down of t r e e s f o r w o o d f u e l . The c u t t i n g down o f t r e e s and t h e c l e a r i n g o f v e g e t a t i o n f o r c u l t i v a t i o n n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e t o t a l e ro s iona l s i t u a t i o n i n t h e s e a reas . Mutoko (Mashonaland Eas t ) i s a good example of an a r e a where a c o m b i n a t i o n o f f a c t o r s h a s r e s u l t e d i n t h e h i g h e s t e r o s i o n a l h a z a r d i n t h e c o u n t r y , To t h e n o r t h of Mutoko v i l l a g e t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f h i g h e r o s i v i t y , s l o p e and

popu la t i on d e n s i t y makes t h e a r ea very v u l n e r a b l e t o e ros ion . B e i t b r i d g e ( i n N R V o f M a t e b e l e l a n d Sou th ) e x p e r i e n c e s e ro s ion r a t e s which a r e very h igh because of poor vege t a t i on cover and e r o d i b i l i t y . Poor vege t a t i on cover i n a r e a s l y ing i n n a t u r a l region IV o r V i s a t t r i b u t e d p a r t l y t o l i m i t e d and u n r e l i a b l e r a i n f a l l and, c u l t i v a t i o n and woodfuel ha rves t i ng . Areas i n Manicaland, Mashonaland East and Masvingo provinces , c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e f a c t o r a n a l y s i s a s e x p e r i e n c i n g e r o s i o n r a t e s above a v e r a g e , h i g h o r v e r y h i g h a s a r e s u l t of vege t a t i on cover and r e l a t e d f a c t o r s l i k e e r o s i v i t y and human occupat ion, a r e shown i n Table VIII- 3 above.

I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e s e a r e a s h a s b e e n e x a c e r b a t e d by t h e i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n . Some communal a r e a s i n Manica land p r o v i n c e were v i s i t e d by t h e w r i t e r i n 1984. O b s e r v a t i o n s were made on t h e e r o s i o n and fuelwood s i t u a t i o n i n t he se a r ea s .

4 . SOIL EROSION OBSERVATIONS

The s h o r t du ra t i on of t h e consul tancy d id no t a l l o w the use of r e l i a b l e means o f a s s e s s i n g s o i l e r o s i o n , namely d i r e c t monitoring of s o i l l o s s from p l o t s under d i s t u rbed and u n d i s t u r b e d v e g e t a t i o n o v e r many y e a r s . I n s t e a d , s i t e i n d i c e s of s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o e r o s i o n were o b s e r v e d f o r a per iod of one week. Systematic f i e l d obse rva t i ons were made exp re s s ly f o r t h e purpose of a s se s s ing t h e impact of woodfuel h a r v e s t i n g on s o i l erosion.

E ight communal a r e a s were v i s i t e d i n t h r e e d i s t r i c t s of Manica land ( T a b l e s V I I I - 4 and V I I I - 5 ) . Each a r e a was examined f o r i t s s tanding c rop of fuelwood and an assessment of t h e e ros ion s t a t u s was made. The q u a l i t a t i v e assessment was based upon:

(1) Slope

( 2 ) Ground cover

( 3 ) Populat ion d e n s i t y

( 4 ) The r o l e p l a y e d by t h e p r e s e n t wood canopy i n s o i l e ros ion . This i nvo lved cons ider ing whether t h e canopy f o s t e r s a g round c o v e r of h e r b s o r l i t t e r ; whether t h e ground c o v e r i s g r a z e d o r t r a m p l e d b e n e a t h t h e canopy; and whether t h e t r e e r o o t s t r a p s i g n i f i c a n t amounts of s o i l .

( 5 ) S i g n s o f r i l l s h e e t o r g u l l y e r o s i o n . R i l l e ro s ion i s t h e removal of s o i l through t h e concent ra t ion of o v e r l a n d f l o w i n t o numerous smal l b u t consp i cuous channels o r r i v u l e t s . Sheet e ro s ion can be descr ibed a s " I n t e r i l l " e r o s i o n , meaning b o t h movement by r a i n s p l a s h and t r a n s p o r t o f r a i n d r o p s- d e t a c h e d s o i l by s u r f a c e f l o w whose e r o s i v e c a p a c i t y i s i n c r e a s e d by

raindrop impact turbulence (Meyer, 1979). Gully erosion is the removal of soil resulting from the excessive concentration of run-off water which causes the formation of relatively large channels.

TABLE VIII- 4 EROSION OBSERVATIONS IN MAKONI DISTRICT

........................................................................................................ Eros ion C l a s s o f Major D e s c r i p t i o n and remarks Fuelwood S t a t u s Type Eros ion F a c t o r s

Tandi Communal Area

Shee t S l i g h t Human Occupat ion Eros ion deduced from poor c o v e r , Bare o f t r e e c o v e r , o v e r wide Vege ta t ion Cover sed imen t d e p o s i t s on p l a n t p e d e s t a l s a r e a s and t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e

Moderate P l a n t Cover v e r y poor and sediment wood s h o r t a g e . The v e g e t a t i o n d e p o s i t s e x t e n s i v e . Small r i l l s a r e is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e e v i d e n t . s p a r s e n e s s o f t r e e c o v e r and

t h e s m a l l t r e e s i z e .

R i l l S l i g h t

Gul ly S l i g h t

Moderate

Small s h a l l o w (maln ly "O.lm) r i l l s a r e p r e s e n t .

G u l l i e s , u s u a l l y up t o 1 m deep on f o o t s l o p e s o f h i l l s and a long secondary roads . A l i m i t e d number o f g u l l i e s o f d e p t h s ma in ly 1 t o 3 m .

Gandanzara/Rugoyi Area ........................................................................................................ Shee t Moderate Human Occupat ion P l a n t cover ve ry poor and sedlment This is a n o t h e r wood-shortage

Vege ta t ion Cover d e p o s i t s e x t e n s i v e , e s p e c i a l l y a long a r e a w i t h v e r y few s t a n d i n g r i v e r v a l l e y bo t toms . t r e e s .

R i l l Moderate R i l l s o f d e p t h s 0.1 t o 0.4 m .

Gully Moderate Deep g u l l i e s 1 t o 3 m d e e p , expos ing s o i l p r o f i l e s .

Chendmbuya Area

Sheet S l l g h t Human Occupat ion Eros ion deduced from poor cover and Vege ta t ion Cover sediment d e p o s i t s i n f i e l d s .

Moderate P l a n t c o v e r v e r y poor and sediment d e ~ o s i t s e x t e n s i v e .

R i l l S l i g h t

Gul ly S l l g h t

Smal l , s h a l l o w r i l l s e v i d e n t on b a r e l a n d ( 0 . 1 m).

G u l l i e s u s u a l l y up t o 1 m deep a long b a d l y c o n s t r u c t e d r o a d s and around deep t a n k s and g r a z i n g a r e a s .

Lack o f fuelwood is a s bad a s i n Tandi . There is no none i n

communal a reas . Communal f a rmers depend f o r t h e i r f u e l wood on t h e ne ighbor ing Mayo and Chinyika r e s e t t l e m e n t a r e a s where l and i s be ing c l e a r e d f o r cultivation.

TABLE VIII- 5 EROSION OBSERVATIONS IN MARANGE DISTRICT

....................................................................................................... Eros ion C l a s s o f Major D e s c r i p t i o n and r emarks Fuelwood S t a t u s Type Eros ion F a c t o r s ........................................................................................................

Zimunya Communal Area

Shee t Moderate Human Occupa t ion P l a n t c o v e r v e r y p o o r , c u l t i v a t i o n 1s Tree c o v e r 1s d e f i n i t e l y E r o s i v i t y , S l o p e common on s l o p e s , and sed imen t g r e a t e r t h a n a r e a s v i s l t e d i n V e g e t a t i o n Cover d e p o s i t s on f l o o r s : c o a r s e t e x t u r e s , i n Makoni D i s t r i c t

r o l l e d p e b b l e s .

R i l l Moderate R i l l s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e d e p t h , 0 .1 t o 0 .3 m .

Gul ly S l i g h t G u l l i e s u s u a l l y up t o 1 m d e e p , and o c c u r a long r o a d s and between f i e l d s .

........................................................................................................ b c h a Communal Area

........................................................................................................ Sheet Moderate Human Occupa t ion P l a n t c o v e r is v e r y poor and Tree c o v e r is q u i t e

E r o s i v i t y , S l o p e d e p o s i t i o n is e v i d e n t comparab le t o Zimunya a r e a i n V e g e t a t i o n Cover some locations, l i k e t h e

homesteads n e a r W z l Rlver , b u t 5 t o B lan sway, t r e e s a r e a r a r e s i t e and t h e s e a r e a r e a s o f d e f i n i t e wood s h o r t a g e .

........................................................................................................

5. EROSION CLASSIFICATION SCHEME

The system used for systematically cataloging evidence of soil erosion intensity was developed by the Southern African Regional Commission for the Conservation and Utilization of the Soil (SARCCUS, 1981). The system identifies the degree and intensity of erosion within a given area of land or agro-ecological zone unit. The identification of different classes in the eight areas visited was done through field checks. The fol lowinq five classes of erosion are specified in the system.

CLASS 1 No apparent erosion

No visible signs of sheet or rill gully erosion. The general stand of crop and veld management is high. Plant cover is adequate to provide effective protection against accelerated erosion.

CLASS 2 Slight Erosion

Erosion is noticeable, but not obvious, with sheet and very occasionally rill erosion. Plant cover is somewhat poor and it is not effective in providing adequate protection of the soil. Occasional rills and broken conservation structures may be observed on arable land. small alluvial deposits are often discernible in grazing lands where s o i l displacement and surface compaction by trampling have taken place.

CLASS 3 Moderate Erosion

A considerable area of bare eroded soil is clearly discernible. Erosion of various lands has reached a stage where tillage operations are hindered and the potential for crop and livestock production is significantly reduced.

CLASS 4 Severe Erosion

CLASS 5 Very Severe Erosion

For the eight communal areas visited there were no visible signs of severe and very severe erosion on a large scale, hence descriptions of these classes have been omitted.

6. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS FROM FIELD OBSERVATIONS

Many of the sites to which the erosion classification scheme was applied showed signs of moderate erosion. This is a critical situation which was identified about ten years ago by Stocking and Elwell (1973a). A combination of the field observations and the work of Stocking and Elwell (1973a) on the erosion situation in the areas visited is highlighted in Tables VIII-4 and VIII-5. Note that the major factors that are considered as contributing significantly to soil erosion are vegetation cover and the related factors of human occupation and erosivity. The implication of this is that woodfuel harvesting, clearing for cultivation and grazing play a significant role in causing a critical erosion situation.

The situations detailed in the tables can be considered similar to a number of communal areas in Zimbabwe. It is in these areas that man, strongly backed by natural forces, has created for himself the greatest actual or potential erosional situation. The pattern of population density, as documented by Kay (1972), shows strong clustering of population in communal areas to the north, east and south of Harare. Equally high densities of up to 60 persons per square kilometer are shown north of Mutoko and generally in a wide arc coincident with the south-east Middleveid,

s t r e t c h i n g i n t h e n o r t h f rom t h e e d g e s o f t h e Zambezi e sca rpmen t , t h r o u g h Mutoko, Rusape and t h e d e n s e l y s e t t l e d communal a r e a s of t h e Sabi-Gutu-Buhera-Bikita-Chibi a r e a (Kay 1972). High popu la t i on dens i t y , whi le no t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t i n g e r o s i o n , must be t a k e n i n c o n t e x t a s a major c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r of e ros ion . A h igh d e n s i t y of popula t ion on land t h a t a t t h e p r e s e n t s t a g e o f t e c h n o l o g y i s i n c a p a b l e o f support ing such a popula t ion u n l e s s l a r g e and ever- increas ing a r e a s a r e brought under t he plough, and which i s s e t t l e d i n an a r e a where t h e n a t u r a l inc idence of e ros ion i s p o t e n t i a l l y v e r y g r e a t , must be conduc ive t o e r o s i o n ( S t o c k i n g , 1973 ) . The s i t u a t i o n i s b e s t e x e m p l i f i e d i n p a r t s o f Man ica l and , Masvingo and Mashonaland provinces where s l o p e s a r e s t eep , and v e g e t a t i o n i s poo r , due t o l i m i t e d and u n r e l i a b l e r a i n f a l l and i n d i s c r i m i n a t e c l e a r i n g . The p r e s s u r e of popula t ion on t h e land i s accentuated by t h e pauc i t y of a r e a s s u i t a b l e f o r c u l t i v a t i o n and s e t t l emen t . Some communal a r e a s i n t h e s e p r o v i n c e s a r e a l r e a d y e x p e r i e n c i n g a c u t e fuelwood sho r t ages .

The t h r e e t y p e s of e r o s i o n i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e a r e a s v i s i t e d were r i l l , s h e e t and g u l l y e r o s i o n . R i l l e r o s i o n w i t h subsequen t d e p o s i t i o n on lower s l o p e c o n c a v i t i e s and v a l l e y f l o o r s was noted. " s l i g h t " t o "moderate" r i l l e ro s ion was cha rac t e r i zed by r i l l s ranging from sha l l ow r i l l s (mainly be low 0.1 m i n d e p t h ) t o t h o s e of c o n s i d e r a b l e d e p t h ( a b o u t 0.3 m ) . R i l l s o c c u r r e d i n a r e a s where n a t u r a l ground c o v e r i s poor and where f i e l d s were abandoned.

The s h e e t e r o s i o n o b s e r v e d ranged from " s l i g h t " t o "modera te" . S l i g h t s h e e t e r o s i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by poor c o v e r and s ed imen t d e p o s i t s , where modera te s h e e t e r o s i o n occurred e s p e c i a l l y on f i e l d s where p l a n t cover i s very poor. Sediment d e p o s i t s a r e e x t e n s i v e on t h e downslope of f i e l d s a long roads and on v a l l e y bottoms. Small r i l l s a s soc i a t ed wi th t h i s type of e ros ion were ev iden t .

The g u l l y e r o s i o n o b s e r v e d a l s o ranged from " s l i g h t " , wi th g u l l i e s of up t o 1 m deep, t o "moderate", wi th a l i m i t e d number of g u l l i e s of cons ide rab l e depth (mainly between 1 t o 3 m ) . Some of t h e g u l l i e s observed i n t h e vege ta ted a r e a s of Mapungwana, Rugoyi and Tamandayi were p r o b a b l y a r e s u l t o f n a t u r a l f o r ce s . However, most were caused, e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , through t h e misuse of l and by man. I n a r a b l e a r e a s , g u l l i e s occurred a s a r e s u l t of broken contours . Some of t h e c o n t o u r s b roke e i t h e r b e c a u s e of s i l t a t i o n o r due t o t h e i r s u b- s t a n d a r d s i z e . The absence of c o n t o u r s i n some a r e a s a l lowed t h e accumulation of run-off which l e d t o r i l l e ros ion and e v e n t u a l l y t h e formation of g u l l i e s . Discharge of storm water from contours i n t o uns t ab l e a r e a s , e s p e c i a l l y a long bad ly cons t ruc ted roads ( a t y p i c a l s i g h t i n t h e a r e a s v i s i t e d ) , l e d t o g u l l y i n g .

I n communal graz ing a r ea s , poor l i v e s t o c k management l e d t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of ground c o v e r . T h i s r e s u l t e d i n exces s ive run-off a long l i v e s t o c k t r a c k s and t h e c o l l a p s e of d r a i n a g e l i n e s which l o s t t h e i r e q u i l i b r i u m when f o r c e d t o c a r r y e x c e s s i v e r u n- o f f . The d r a i n a g e l i n e s and some

l i v e s t o c k t r a c k s h a v e r e s u l t e d i n g u l l i e s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e d e p t h . Road c u l v e r t s and d r a i n s o f t e n h a v e t h e e f f e c t o f concent ra t ing runoff t o a r e a s which c o l l a p s e . Along most of t h e d u s t y r o a d s v i s i t e d , t h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n of run- o f f was evidenced by t h e formation of g u l l i e s .

A l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of t h e communal a r e a s v i s i t e d had l i t t l e o r no fue lwood because o f t h e s p a r s e n e s s of t r e e c o v e r , due t o i n d i s c r i m i n a t e c l e a r i n g , and because of t h e s m a l l t r e e s i z e . Many of t he e x i s t i n g canopies were t h i n and a 1 lowed r a i n d r o p s t o s t r i k e t h e ground d i r e c t l y . T h i s had r e s u l t e d i n r a i n s p l a s h s o i l detachment, and r i l l and s h e e t e ro s ion , e s p e c i a l l y where t he ground cover was poor. Many of t h e t r e e s t h a t had been removed had a l s o a f f e c t e d t he l i t t e r which would h e l p p r o t e c t t he s o i l . The con t r i bu t i on of t r e e canopy was l o c a l i z e d beneath t he few t r e e s i n t h e a r ea s . The t r a p p i n g o f d e p o s i t s b y t h e r o o t s o f t r e e s was a l s o i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o c a l i z e d . Because of t h e t h i n c a n o p i e s , poor ground cover and a l im i t ed amount of l i t t e r , t h e ground was not s u f f i c i e n t l y p ro t ec t ed from t h e impact of raindrops. Thus, a v a r i e t y of s i gns of a c c e l e r a t e d e ros ion beneath t r e e canopies and bushes and between canopies was observed.

The canopy cover i n dense ly fo r e s t ed a r e a s i n which t h e s tanding s tock i s not a c c e s s i b l e t o communal farmers p l a y s a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n p ro t ec t i ng t h e s o i l . These a r e a s (Large S c a l e Commercial Farms, Pa rks and Wild L i f e a r e a s and T ree P l a n t a t i o n s ) , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Manicaland showed no apparent s i gns of e ros ion .

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IX. THE PROSPECT FOR APPLICATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN ZIMBABWE'S RURAL DOMESTIC

AND AGRICULTURAL SECTORS

T. N. Harris

1. INTRODUCTION

Discussions of the prospects for application of new and renewable energy technologies are often couched in broad generalizations based on one or another form of utopian technological fetishism. Proponents of improved woodstoves project that tremendous savings in rural domestic fuel use will be achieved when their stoves are adopted, as of course they must be, given their unambiguous advantages. Photovoltaic enthusiasts extrapolate curves of declining costs to project the imminent availability of inexpensive solar electrification. And advocates of biogas sketch visions of self-sufficient rural communities enjoying the fruits of modern technology on the basis of elaborate systems for the conversion of dung to electricity.

These visions are attractive and not altogether fanciful, but they ought not be taken seriously without a critical review of the feasibility, costs and benefits of the alternative technologies. All too often they are based on little more than the intuition that renewable energy must be cheaper than commercial fuels and the sense that supply creates its own demand. Experience with the slow pace of adoption of novel renewable energy technologies, and observation of the frequent and often costly failure of programs designed to support them, suggests that application of the alternative technologies is conditioned by factors more extensive and complex than the simple technical capacity to convert available but unuseful natural energy to some potentially more useful form.

A realistic appraisal of the prospects for significant application of novel energy technologies will be conducted most logically if it begins with a review of the pattern of energy demand, identifying the socio-economic context and functions performed by current and forecast applications of energy. It could attempt to locate unmet energy demand in applications and contexts which have particular social value in terms of potential increase in production or other enhancement of welfare. The significant tasks and contexts might then be characterized in terms of technical, social and economic factors which condition the match to appropriate forms of supply. Finally, this demand side analysis could be used to screen consideration of the potentially available alternative energy technologies, themselves characterized in terms of their technical, social and economic attributes.

This report follows that plan. It commences with a review of current and forecast patterns of energy use in

Zimbabwe's household and a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r s . The da t a and p r o j e c t i o n s used f o r t h i s review were developed i n t h e course of t h e Zimbabwe Energy Accounting P r o j e c t and a r e f ea tu r ed i n t h e LEAP energy accounting model e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e p ro j ec t . F i g u r e s used h e r e a r e t a k e n from t h e " b a s e c a s e " s c e n a r i o , t h e p a t t e r n of demand expec t ed t o d e v e l o p i n t h e absence o f s u b s t a n t i a l changes i n government p o l i c y o r u n f o r e s e e n e v e n t s . The s t r u c t u r e of t h e LEAP model and t h e i n p u t d a t a employed i n i t s r e a l i z a t i o n a r e d i scussed i n o t h e r r e p o r t s of t h e p r o j e c t , and w i l l no t be e l abo ra t ed here .

2. DEMAND

SECTORAL DEMAND

TableIX-l i l l u s t r a t e s t h e f i n a l demand f o r f u e l s i n t h e household and a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r s i n 1988, wi th a base ca se f o r e c a s t f o r 2002. Fuel demand i s shown a s percentage sha re s of t o t a l demand by t h e s e c t o r and t o t a l demand f o r t he f u e l .

TABLE IX-1 FINAL CONSUMPTION BY SECTOR

................................................................................................. Pe t ro l eum Coal /Coke E l e c t r i c i t y Commercial Fuelwood T o t a l P r o d u c t s Wood Nat ion S e c t o r Nat ion S e c t o r Na t ion S e c t o r Na t ion S e c t o r Nat ion S e c t o r Energy

................................................................................................. Rura l Househo lds 2.8 0.6 5.6 2.0 0.5 0.1 9 2 8 28.6 90.5 76.7 54.6 Urban Househo lds 1.0 3.4 1.8 9.2 13.4 45.4 - 2.8 42.0 3.1 A g r i c u l t u r e 10.3 13.3 10.3 42.2 7.3 9.3 - 6.5 35.1 8.5 ................................................................................................. T o t a l Energy 11.0 19.7 10.8 12.1 46.3

R u r a l Househo lds 2.6 0.6 2.8 0.8 0.4 0.1 92.7 21.2 90.7 77.3 54.3 Urban Househo lds 1.5 3.6 3.4 11.1 15.3 3 9 8 - 5.0 45.5 5.0 A g r i c u l t u r e 6.2 13.6 13.3 41.9 3.9 9.7 - 4.0 34.8 5.3

T o t a l Energy 11.6 16.6 13.1 12.4 46.3 ................................................................................................. Notes:

( 1 ) F i g u r e s a r e t a k e n from t h e Base Case P r o ~ e c t i o n o f t h e LEAP Model used i n t h e Zimbabwe Energy Account ing P r o j e c t .

( 2 ) Nat ion = X o f N a t i o n a l Consumption o f Fue l ( 3 ) S e c t o r = % o f S e c t o r a l Consumption o f Fue l (4 ) Energy = X o f N a t i o n a l Energy C o n s m p t i o n

The m o s t s t r i k i n g a s p e c t o f t h e f i g u r e s i s t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y dependence o f t h e r u r a l h o u s e h o l d s e c t o r on

wood. The use of wood in rural households embodies a very large proportion of the national energy budget. The urban households are also highly dependent upon a single fuel, in this case, electricity, and this dependence is expected to increase during the forecast period. Agriculture has only a minor, and declining share of national fuel demand, mostly in the form of coal and wood fuel.

FUEL SCARCITY AND SECTORAL DEMAND

The significance of the shares of fuel demand attributable to the household and agricultural sectors lies in their relation to current and forecast problems in the supply of some fuels. The LEAP model's base case projections show serious shortfalls in national fuelwood supply developing in the late 1990s. It is clear that any demand- side amelioration of the wood scarcity problem will have to come from conservation or substitution in the household sectors, in as much as these sectors are almost entirely responsible for the demand on wood resources.

Construction plans will allow electricity supply to increase with demand, but there will be an accompanying increase in electric rates, which could have a damaging impact upon urban households. However, electricity consumption in urban households is only a small portion of national electricity demand.

Petroleum products are expensive and scarce in Zimbabwe since they are entirely imported. They do not constitute a major source of energy in Zimbabwe but substitution could have a significant impact upon the importation requirement nevertheless.

Coal, of course, is locally produced and available in quantities far in excess of current demand. The rising costs have, however, been a factor in rising input costs for agriculture.

END-USE DEMAND

A much better sense of the distribution of energy demand can be gained in an examination of the fuel consumption for different types of application (or end-use) and the economic context in which this demand is realized. The characteristics restrict the range of potentially appropriate options for conservation or substitution, and the economic context determines the effective cost of alternatives and the ability to undertake them.

Tables IX-2, IX-3 and IX-4 display the final consumption of fuel by end-use for each sector, and then proceed to a further disaggregation of end-use consumption for domestic and agricultural subsectors. The end-uses are differentiated according to fundamentally different types of output or bases of demand. The subsectors are established on the basis of substantially different patterns of consumption, access to resources or capacities for transformation and innovation.

TABLE IX-2 FUEL CONSUMPTION BY END-USE -

............................................................. 1982 2002

End-Use Fuel Sector Nation Sector Nation ............................................................. Rural Households Energy 54.6 54.3 .............................................................

Cooking/Heating Fuelwood 82.8 90.2 79.3 90.5 Lighting Paraffin 2.4 15.1 8.3 10.8

Electricity 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Ironing Fuelwood 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 Construction Fuelwood 16.5 100.0 20.0 100.0

Communal Area Energy 82.4 85 .O .............................................................

Cookingl~eating Fuelwood 62.0 69.2 65.5 74.6 Lighting Paraffin 0.2 9.4 0.2 7.8 Ironing Fuelwood 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Construction Poles 18.8 97.2 19.0 95.0

Resettlement Area Energy 4.0 6.3 .............................................................

CookingIHeating Fuelwood 2.7 3.0 5.2 5.9 Lighting Paraffin 0.0 0.5 0.0 1.0 Ironing Fuelwood 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Construction Poles 0.5 2.9 1.0 5.0 .............................................................

SSCF Energy 2.1 3.1 .............................................................

Cooking/Heating Fuelwood 2.1 2.4 3.0 3.5 Lighting Paraffin 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.6 Ironing Fuelwood 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 .............................................................

LSCF Energy 14.1 5.1 .............................................................

Cooking/Heating Fuelwood 14.0 15.6 5.6 6.4 Lighting Paraffin 0.2 4.5 0.0 1.4

Electricity 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 Ironing Fuelwood 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0

.............................................................

Notes : (1)Figures are taken from the Base Case Projection of the LEAP Model used in the ZEAP.

(2) Nation = % of National Consumption of Fuel (3) Sector = % of Sectoral Consumption of Fuel (4) Energy = % of National Energy Consumption

TABLE IX-3 FUEL CONSUMPTION BY END-USE

............................................................. 1982 2002

Sector Nation Sector Nation ............................................................. Urban Households Energy 3.1 0.2 0.6 0.2 .............................................................

Cooking Fuelwood 26.0 2.7 29 .l 4.9 Paraffin 7.7 14.5 8.1 18.2 LP Gas 6.5 100.0 6.0 100.0 Electricity 28.1 5.7 28.4 7.7

Lighting Paraffin 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.6 Electricity 13.0 2.8 12.3 3.4

Refrigeration Electricity 4.2 0.8 3.9 1 .l WaterHeating Electricity12.3 2.6 9.6 2.6 Ironing Fuelwood 1.2 0.2 0.5 0.0

Paraffin 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 Electricity 1.8 0.4 1.9 0.5

............................................................. High Density Area Energy 53.2 64.0 .............................................................

Cooking Fuelwood 21.5 2.3 25.7 4.3 Paraffin 5 .O 9.1 5.9 13.4 LP Gas 2.5 38.5 3.0 49.5 Electricity 15.8 3.3 18.9 5.1

Lighting Paraffin 0 .O 0.0 0.0 0.1 Electricity 5.4 1.1 6.5 1.7

Refrigeration Electricity 0.1 0.3 1.7 0.5 Water Heating Electricity 0.3 0.1 2.4 0.1 Ironing Fuelwood 0.5 0.0 0.5 0.0

Paraffin 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 Electricity 1.2 0.3 1.3 2.7

Low Density Area Energy 46.8 36.0 .............................................................

Cooking Fuelwood 4.5 0.4 3.3 0.6 Paraffin 2.7 4.8 2.1 4.8 LP Gas 4.0 61.5 3.0 50.5 Electricity 12.3 2.6 7.2 2.5

Lighting Paraffin 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.4 Electricity 7.5 1.6 5.8 1.5

Refrigeration Electricity 2.5 0.6 2.2 0.6 Water Heating Electricity 12.0 2.5 9.2 2.4 Ironing Electricity 0.7 0.2 0.6 0.2

.............................................................

Notes: (1)Figures are taken from the Base Case Projection of the LEAP Model used in the ZEAP. (2) Nation = % of National Consumption of Fuel (3) Sector = % of Sectoral Consumption of Fuel (4) Energy = % of National Energy Consumption

TABLE IX-4 FUEL CONSUMPTION BY END-USE .............................................................

1982 2002 Sector Nation Sector Nation .............................................................

Agriculture Energy 8.5 5.3 .............................................................

Traction & Tran. Diesel/Gas. 13.8 19.5 13.0 8.7 Curing Coal 32.3 19.8 31.7 9.7

wood 25.1 4.7 25.0 2.4 Irrigation Electricity 9.2 7.3 10.0 3.2 Drying Coal 9.9 6.1 9.9 3.0

liood 5.8 1.8 9.9 0.9 ............................................................. LSCF Energy 90.2 88.2 .............................................................

Traction & Trans. Diesel/~as. 12.3 18.0 12.1 7.3 Curing Coal 29.4 18.1 28.8 8.8

\Jood 20.0 3.7 19.6 1.9 Irrigation Electricity 8.5 6.7 8.4 2.7 Drying Coal 9.9 6.1 9.7 3.0

Wood 2.4 1.8 9.5 0.9 ............................................................. State Farms Energy 1.2 2.8 .............................................................

Traction & Trans. Diesel/Gas. 0.6 0.8 1.1 0.7 Irrigation Electricity 0.6 0.5 1.4 0.5 Drying Coal 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1

............................................................. Model B Coops Energy 8.3 8.6 .............................................................

Traction & Trans. ~iesel/Gas. 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 Curing Coal 2.8 1.7 2.9 0.9

Wood 5.3 0.1 5.4 0.5 Irrigation Electricity 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 .............................................................

Small Scale Irrigation Energy 0.0 0.1 Irrigation Electricity 0.0 0.0 0 .l 0.0

............................................................. SSCF Energy 0.0 0.1

Traction & Trans. ~iesel/Gas. 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 ............................................................. Resettlement A Energy 0.0 0.1

Traction & Trans. Diesel/Gas. 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 ............................................................. Communal Area Energy 0.1 0.2

Traction & Trans. Diesel/Gas. 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 ............................................................. Notes :

(1)Figures are taken from the Base Case Projection of the LEAP Model used in the ZEAP.

(2) Nation = % of National Consumption of Fuel (3) Sector = % of Sectoral Consumption of Fuel (4) Energy = % of National Energy Consumption

RURAL HOUSEHOLDS

E s s e n t i a l l y a l l o f t h e fue lwood consumed by t h e household s e c t o r i s used f o r a s i n g l e end-use; cooking and h e a t i n g . Most of t h i s wood i s burned i n communal a r e a households. None of the households appear t o have e f f e c t i v e access t o a l t e r n a t i v e cooking and heating f u e l s .

Therefore , i n o r d e r t o p l a y a n a t i o n a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n the r u r a l household sector , subs t i tu t ion by new and renewable energy t e c h n o l o g i e s must a p p l y t o cooking and h e a t i n g . In a d d i t i o n , an a p p l i c a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e i n energy fo r l igh t ing which cur ren t ly consumes the sec to ra l share of pa ra f f in .

URBAN HOUSEHOLDS

The pat tern of energy use i n urban households r e f l e c t s a greater access t o a va r i e ty of f u e l s and an increased a b i l i t y t o a f f o r d t h e h i g h e r q u a l i t y f u e l s and a broader range of end-uses such a s ironing, water-heating, and re f r ige ra t ion .

Cooking i s aga in t h e dominant end-use, a l t h o u g h t h e demand i s spread o v e r s e v e r a l f u e l s of which t h e most important c o n t r i b u t i o n s a r e made by e l e c t r i c i t y and f u e l wood. The demand i s , however, t r i v i a l i n terms of n a t i o n a l demand.

S u b s t i t u t i o n of renewable energy i n water h e a t i n g and l igh t ing might be economically advantageous t o households i n t h e low d e n s i t y a r e a s , b u t it could have l i t t l e impact on nat ional e l e c t r i c i t y demand.

AGRICULTURE

The a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r a s a whole consumes 8.5% of nat ional energy demand, the majority of which i s consumed by t h e l a r g e s c a l e commercia l farm s u b s e c t o r . C l e a r l y , t h e r e f o r e , any e x p l o r a t i o n of means of conse rv ing s c a r c e f u e l s i n a g r i c u l t u r e must be focused h e r e , b u t w i l l ve ry l i k e l y a l s o be a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e s t a t e farm and coops subsectors.

I n t e r m s o f demand p r e s s u r e on s c a r c e f u e l s , t h e subs tan t i a l claims exerted on the suppl ies of d i e s e l and coal (curing and drying play a l a rge r o l e ) and the minor claim on e l e c t r i c i t y can be expected t o become r e l a t i v e l y much more modest i n t h e f a i r l y near term. On t h i s b a s i s they do not appear t o warrant spec ia l government e f f o r t i n conservation or subst i tu t ion.

OTHER POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS

Al though t h e p o t e n t i a l r o l e o f r e n e w a b l e e n e r g y technologies t o mi t igate dependency upon scarce f u e l s i s the c e n t r a l concern of t h i s r e p o r t , t h e s e t e c h n o l o g i e s might u l t ima te ly achieve greater s ignif icance through provision of energy t o s u b s e c t o r s which do not c u r r e n t l y enjoy adequate

a c c e s s t o f u e l s , f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s now powered by a n i m a t e e n e r g y o r fo r egone . Energy made a v a i l a b l e f o r some s u c h a p p l i c a t i o n s could have a s u b s t a n t i a l impact on a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y , t h e l a b o r requirements of domestic reproduct ion o r o t h e r a spec t s of gene ra l we l f a r e .

The ene rgy r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e s e p r e s e n t l y u n r e a l i z e d a p p l i c a t i o n s w i l l n o t b e found a s s e s s e d and q u a n t i f i e d i n a c c o u n t i n g t a b l e s . By t h e i r v e r y n a t u r e t h e y do n o t y e t e n t e r economic s t a t i s t i c s , t h u s t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n i s o f n e c e s s i t y somewhat more q u a l i t a t i v e , dependen t on judgment and a sense of n a t i o n a l development p r i o r i t i e s . A n a t tempt t o i d e n t i f y t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e p o t e n t i a l l y p roduc t ive o r w e l f a r e enhancing a p p l i c a t i o n s i s none the l e s s worthwhile. A b r i e f review, on a s e c t o r a l b a s i s , £01 lows.

One of t h e most conspicuous needs of t he r u r a l household s e c t o r i s an improved s u p p l y o f d r i n k i n g w a t e r . C u r r e n t sources , i n most a r e a s su r f ace water , a r e o f t e n d i s t a n t from t h e p o i n t o f u se and f r e q u e n t l y u n c l e a n . The t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r w a t e r c a r r y i n g can occupy a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t o f t h e household l abo r budget.

The d i s t i n c t l y unequal a cces s t o f u e l s seen i n t he urban h o u s e h o l d s e c t o r i s m a n i f e s t c l e a r l y i n t h e low l e v e l o f w a t e r h e a t i n g en joyed by t h e h o u s e h o l d s of t h e h i g h d e n s i t y a r ea s . There a r e no p re sen t p l a n s t o a s s i s t t he se households t o o b t a i n w a t e r h e a t i n g f a c i l i t i e s , b u t i t seems c l e a r t h a t w a t e r h e a t i n g c o u l d p r o v i d e a c o n s i d e r a b l e b e n e f i t t o t h e q u a l i t y of urban l i f e , were it t o become a v a i l a b l e .

The most n o t a b l e p o t e n t i a l new a p p l i c a t i o n s l i e i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r . As t he a n a l y s i s of end-use demand made c l e a r , t h e communal and r e s e t t l e m e n t a r e a a g r i c u l t u r a l s u b s e c t o r s c u r r e n t l y consume v e r y l i t t l e f u e l i n t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s . They h a v e v i r t u a l l y no a c c e s s t o mechanical draught power o r t r a n s p o r t and a r e forced t o r e l y e n t i r e l y upon a n i m a l o r human l a b o r f o r t h e s e f u n c t i o n s . L i k e w i s e , t h e y h a v e no a c c e s s t o m e c h a n i c a l means o f i r r i g a t i o n .

Another a g r i c u l t u r a l a p p l i c a t i o n i n which new e n e r g y resources could prove v a l u a b l e l i e s i n p rov i s ion of water f o r l i v e s t o c k . The p r o v i s i o n of a d e q u a t e e a s i l y r eached w a t e r s u p p l i e s could reduce t h e impact of drought damaged grazing.

O the r s e t t i n g s and a p p l i c a t i o n s i n which new e n e r g y t e c h n o l o g y c o u l d be v a l u a b l e i n c l u d e s u p p l y of a r ange o f energy based s e r v i c e s (water pumping, water hea t i ng , e l e c t r i c l i g h t i n g , r e f r i g e r a t i o n , e t c . ) f o r r u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s such a s s choo l s , c l i n i c s and t h e l i k e , and p rov i s ion of e l e c t r i c i t y o r mechanical s h a f t power f o r c rop process ing and o the r r u r a l i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s . These a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e somewhat o u t s i d e t h e s cope o f t h i s r e p o r t , b u t w i l l b e mentioned i n t h e d i s cus s ion of t h e technologies themselves.

3. RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES ( )

The a c t u a l f e a s i b i l i t y of employing r enewab le ene rgy t echno log i e s i n Zimbabwean a p p l i c a t i o n s i s , a t afundamental l e v e l , cont ingent upon t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of t h e primary energy r e s o u r c e s upon which t h e y depend. These r e s o u r c e s must be a v a i l a b l e i n s u f f i c i e n t power t o be economical ly cap tured f o r a p p l i c a t i o n . They must be a v a i l a b l e proximate t o t h e po in t of use, t o minimize expensive t ransmiss ion . And t h e temporal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e i r a v a i l a b i l i t y must approximate those of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n u n l e s s they can be economical ly s t o r e d i n o r i g i n a l o r converted form. The fo l l owing pages o u t l i n e t he c o n d i t i o n s o f e n e r g y s u p p l y f o r t h e r e n e w a b l e e n e r g y t e c h n o l o g i e s which might p o s s i b l y be employed f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s d i scussed above.

SOLAR ENERGY

S o l a r i n s o l a t i o n i n Zimbabwe i s h igh by world s tandards , and t h e amount o f r a d i a t i o n r e c e i v e d d a i l y i s f a i r l y even throughout t h e year . The n a t i o n a l average d a i l y i n s o l a t i o n i s approximately 20.5 ~ j / m ~ / d a ~ .

The geographic d i s t r i b u t i o n of s o l a r i n s o l a t i o n i s a l s o f a i r l y even, a l though annual i n s o l a t i o n i s s l i g h t l y graded a c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y , w i t h t h e e a s t e r n d i s t r i c t s r e c e i v i n g a b o u t 8 % l e s s e n e r g y t h a n t h e ex t reme w e s t e r n p a r t o f t h e country.

The monthly average i n s o l a t i o n f o r recording d e v i c e s i n Zimbabwe shows a modera te s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n i n r a d i a t i o n i n t e n s i t y : t h e minimum f o r Harare occurs i n June, t h e maximum i n O c t o b e r . F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r a i n y s e a s o n , a n d i t s a s soc i a t ed c loud cover , occurs dur ing t h e h o t t e s t months of t h e y e a r , from November t o March, and c l e a r sky c o n d i t i o n s o b t a i n d u r i n g most o f t h e r e s t o f t h e y e a r . N o n e t h e l e s s , a s e r i e s of obse rva t i ons i n Harare f o r t h e per iod May-December 1976 r e c o r d e d 20 o c c a s i o n s i n w h i c h t h e r e w e r e t h r e e succes s ive days wi th l e s s than 51% of annual average s u n l i g h t h o u r s . The peak s o l a r f l u x f o r t e a v e r a g e c l e a r day i n Ha ra re r a n g e s f r o 3 a low of 830 W/mq a t t h e end of J u n e up t o a h igh of 1190 1i/m a t t h e end of December.

The n e t d a i l y r a d i a t i o n on a c l e a r day i n Harare v a r i e s i n p a r a l l e l , from a 1 W of a b o u t 20.1 ~ j / m ~ / d a ~ i n J u n e t o a 2 h igh of about 328 Mj/m /day i n January. However, t h e annual v a r i a t i o n i n a v e r a g e d a i l y r a d i a t i o n r e c e i v e d i s v e r y much dampened by t h e o b s t r u c t i o n of c loud cover dur ing t h e per iod when c l e a r day r ecep t ion i s h ighes t .

WIND

Wind ene rgy i n Zimbabwe i s n o t a s w e l l documented a s s o l a r ene rgy . A l though t h e Department o f M e t e o r o l o g i c a l S e r v i c e s h a s wind d a t a go ing back many y e a r s f o r a f a i r number o f s i t e s , t h e d a t a h a s n o t been g a t h e r e d i n a form which permi ts a ccu ra t e e v a l u a t i o n of t h e a c t u a l a v a i l a b i l i t y

of wind energy. The r e c o r d o f a v e r a g e mon th ly wind s p e e d s p r o v i d e s a n

i n d i c a t i o n of a v a i l a b l e wind power. T h i s r e c o r d i n d i c a t e s few s i t e s i n Zimbabwe enjoy average wind speeds c o n s i s t e n t l y above t h e minimum speed g e n e r a l l y t a k e n a s a t h r e s h o l d f o r d e l i v e r y o f u s e f u l power, 2.6 m/s ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 9.7 !l/m2) .

In f a c t , t h a t n a t i o n a l annual average measured windspeed i s o n l y 2.9 m / s . However , t h e r e c o r d d o e s i n d i c a t e cons ide rab l e seasona l and geographic v a r i a t i o n i n wind speed, w i t h some s i t e s m a i n t a i n i n g h i g h e r a v e r a g e speeds and d r a m a t i c a l l y h i g h e r s e a s o n a l peaks , such a s Chip ingo , Masvingo and Harare.

I n gene ra l , t h e average wind speed reaches i t s nad i r i n F e b r u a r y , and r e m a i n s l o w t h r o u g h t h e r e s t o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e a s o n , c l i m b i n g i n J u l y t o r e a c h i t s peak i n October, then descending aga in through t h e r a i n s .

The d i u r n a l v a r i a t i o n of wind speed i s , i n most s i t e s , s u b s t a n t i a l , w i t h mean h o u r l y wind speed r i s i n g from a morning low t o a peak a t midday, t h e n d ropp ing a g a i n i n t h e evening.

A more i m p o r t a n t s t a t i s t i c , p e r h a p s , i s t h e number of o c c a s i o n s on which t h e 2.6 m/s t h r e s h o l d was n e v e r a t t a i n e d d u r i n g a l o n g p e r i o d ( 3 6 h o u r s o r more) . The l i m i t e d d a t a a v a i l a b l e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s f a c t o r i s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r some s i t e s and i s not c l e a r l y a s soc i a t ed wi th d a t a on average wind speed.

WATER

The d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y r e s o u r c e a v a i l a b l e i n s m a l l s c a l e w a t e r power i s p e r h a p s b e s t i n t r o d u c e d i n r e l a t i o n t o r a i n f a l l , a s i t i s r a i n f a l l t h a t determines t h e f low of water a v a i l a b l e .

The r a i n y s e a s o n i s , a t mos t , of f i v e months d u r a t i o n , a p p r o x i m a t e l y November-March, and t h e r e s t o f t h e yea r h a s l i t t l e o r no r a i n . Only t h e nar row mountainous band of t h e e a s t e r n border reg ion escapes t h e drought of May-September.

The g e o g r a p h i c d i s t r i b u t i o n of r a i n f a l l i s f a r from even. Although t h e average annual r a i n f a l l i s approximately 675 mm f o r t h e c o u n t r y a s a whole ( c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n 2 5 % ) , a r e a s of t h e low v e l d r e c e i v e a s l i t t l e a s 300 m m , wh i l e l o c a t i o n s i n t h e e a s t e r n mountains may r e c e i v e a s much a s 3000 mm. I n g e n e r a l , t h e r a i n f a l l g r ad i en t i nc r ea se s from s o u t h t o n o r t h and f r o m l o w t o h i g h e l e v a t i o n .

Af te r t he e a s t e r n mountains, reg ions of r e l a t i v e l y h igh r a i n f a l l i nc lude t h e c e n t r a l p l a t e a u and t he h igh watershed running southwest toward Bulawayo, a s w e l l a s i s o l a t e d a r e a s of h igh ground. The seasona l d i s t r i b u t i o n of r a i n f a l l i s i n most a r e a s p ropo r t i ona t e t o t he annual r a i n f a l l .

Zimbabwe may be d i v i d e d i n t o t e n r a i n f a l l ca tchment zones , s u p p o r t i n g e i g h t i n t e r n a l r i v e r sy s t ems . The ca t chmen t which r e c e i v e s by f a r t h e h i g h e s t amount of r a i n f a l l i s Eastern Border, which does not d r a i n i n t e r n a l l y .

The m a j o r i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e p a t t e r n o f r a i n f a l l i s t h a t t h e f l o w s o f r i v e r s t h r o u g h o u t Zimbabwe a r e h i g h l y s e a s o n a l . E x t r e m e l y l a r g e s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d t o dampen t h e f l u c t u a t i o n and r e t a i n a d e q u a t e r e s e r v e s f o r o f f s e a s o n use .

TABLE IX-5 AVERAGE MONTHLY RAINFALL CATCHMENT =A

Catchment

Hunyani Lundi S a b i S a n y a t i Gwaai Limpopo Mazoe Ruenya E a s t e r n Border K a l a h a r i Sebungwe

Oct . Nov. Dec. J a n .

1 7 . 5 82 .8 183.4 198 .9 2 4 . 1 89 .4 153.4 150 .9 3 3 . 5 96 .0 165.6 1 6 3 . 8 29.7 1 0 0 . 1 174 .8 177 .6 26 .9 8 3 - 8 1 5 0 . 6 1 4 7 . 8 2 0 . 8 6 6 . 8 9 9 . 6 1 0 0 . 3 1 8 . 8 8 6 . 1 177 .8 219.2 5 0 . 8 133 .4 259.8 284.2 24 .1 76 .2 1 3 1 . 1 1 2 4 . 0 1 8 . 0 79 .2 173 .5 1 9 2 . 8

Feb. - - - - - - - 173 .2 1 3 9 . 1 1 3 5 . 9 154 .2 124.2

8 6 . 9 170 .9 251.2 119 .9 1 6 0 . 5

Mar. Apr. T o t a l

77 .2 32 .0 765.0 6 1 . 0 29.7 647 .6 6 7 . 8 34 .5 697 .1 7 1 . 4 32 .5 740.3 56 .6 26.7 616.6 4 1 . 4 25 .7 441 .5 8 7 . 9 34 .5 795.2

148 .8 70 .9 1199 .1 5 4 . 4 27.7 557.4 8 1 . 3 24 .1 729.4

S o u r c e : Rain f a 1 l Repor t f o r Season 1980 /81 - Zimbabwe Depar tment o f M e t e o r o l o g i c a l S e r v i c e s .

E x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e t o p o g r a p h y o f Zimbabwe's r i v e r d r a i n a g e i n d i c a t e s t h a t , a p a r t f r o m m a j o r p r o j e c t s o n t h e Zambesi o r o t h e r l a r g e r i v e r s , s e t t i n g s i n which w a t e r c o u l d b e impounded w i t h r e a s o n a b l e economy i n s i g n i f i c a n t v01 umes o r a t h i g h h e a d s , e x i s t o n l y i n t h e m o u n t a i n o u s e a s t e r n d i s t r i c t s , a r e g i o n a l r e a d y f a i r l y w e l l s e r v e d w i t h g r i d b a s e d e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n .

The numerous s m a l l s t r e a m s and w a t e r f a l l s o f t h e e a s t e r n moun ta ins m i g h t w e l l o f f e r s i t e s a d e q u a t e f o r i n s t a l l a t i o n o f m i c r o - h y d r o g e n e r a t i n g s e t s , i n t h e r a n g e o f 5 - 20 kW, a l t h o u g h s u p p o r t i n g d a t a o n f l o w r a t e s d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o e x i s t a t t h i s t i m e . C o n s t r u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r c i v i l w o r k s i n t h e s e s i t e s w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y b e s t r i n g e n t , d u e t o t h e h i g h d i s c h a r g e r a t e s a t t h e peak o f t h e r a i n s .

E x i s t i n g dams c o n s t r u c t e d f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s migh t a l l o w more e c o n o m i c a l i n s t a l l a t i o n o f m i c r o - h y d r o p l a n t s , b u t a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e p e r h a p s 1 0 , 0 0 0 dams i n t h e c o u n t r y , t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s a r e q u i t e l i m i t e d . La rge dams c o n s t i t u t e d o n l y 97 o f t h e o v e r 7 ,000 dams e x t a n t i n 1978. Of t h e l a r g e dams, 57% were d e d i c a t e d e n t i r e l y t o i r r i g a t i o n . The 7 ,207 s m a l l dams w e r e a l s o c o m m i t t e d l a r g e l y t o i r r i g a t i o n , a n d a p a r t from s e a s o n a l o v e r s p i l l , e x c e s s c a p a c i t y i s v i r t u a l l y n i l .

WOOD

Zimbabwe i s f o r t u n a t e t o h a v e a n e x t e n s i v e r a n g e o f n a t i v e h a r d w o o d s , many o f w h i c h make e x c e l l e n t f u e l w o o d .

Quite uncultivated, these trees grow naturally throughout the "bush" and grazing land of the country. The rural households are dependent upon this supply. Their wood is easily gathered by hand or with simple tools, its accessibility governed by physical proximity to the point of use and by tenurial considerations. Transport is predominantly by means of human and animal labor.

A considerable quantity of wood is also produced from exotic species such as the eucalypts, pine and wattle grown for fuel or commercial purposes, which primarily supplies the agricultural sector. Urban households draw from both exotic and indigenous sources.

Indigenous and exotic woods both contain a large fractional weight of water when harvested and must be allowed to dry before they will support combustion. Air dried to a moisture content of 12 - 15% (dry weight basis) they embody about 16.3 MJ/kg.

The rate of wood consumption for fuel and construction, combined with the destruction due to agricultural clearing, currently exceeds the rate of regrowth in many areas of Zimbabwe. A severe scarcity of accessible fuel is already felt in some localities by households dependent upon natural growth. The situation can be expected to worsen, becoming widespread as general shortages develop in several provinces during the 1990s.

Much of the scarcity of fuelwood could be mitigated by a vigorous program of rural afforestation. However, tree growth is not instantaneous, and even an extremely rapid rate of forestry development could not be expected to yield significant fuel for ten years or more.

In view of the shortages of wood, fuelwood can scarcely be considered an uncommitted resource. Yet, because fuelwood is a relatively heavy fuel which is awkward and expensive to transport, and because the market for fuelwood is as yet poorly developed, some regions with excess supply do exist. It is estimated that the government and commercial timber and wattle plantations of the eastern districts allow 80% - 90% of the wood that they grow to waste as unused bits or through senescence. Only 40% of the timber harvested reaches the mill, and just 50% of that which enters the mill emerges as product. As much as 60% of the timber harvested annually is thus potentially available for no more than the cost of col lection and transport. The proportion of wood available on the wattle plantations is even greater, as currently most of the wood is burnt on site for disposal after the bark is stripped.

Another stock of underutilized wood can be found on large scale commercial farms, many of which have switched from wood to coal for their curing and drying requirements. Where these plantations are accessible to adjacent communal areas they are often a shared resource, but in many situations there is no adjacent demand or the rule of private property remains in force.

These excess local stocks do not, however, constitute a

s i g n i f i c a n t n a t i o n a l resource. In most p l a c e s , they could be consumed by nearby popu la t i ons whose s u p p l i e s a r e i n d e f i c i t , i f made a v a i l a b l e .

CHARCOAL

The p r o d u c t o f p a r t i a l combus t ion of wood o r o t h e r o r g a n i c m a t t e r , c h a r c o a l i s a l i g h t , e a s i l y h a n d l e d f u e l wi th , a t 29.1 MJ/kg, a lmos t twice t he energy conten t per u n i t of mass a s a i r- d ry wood. Charcoal burns e v e n l y and c l e a n l y , without t a r s o r smoke, and i s g e n e r a l l y considered supe r io r t o wood f o r both domestic and i n d u s t r i a l use. I t i s prepared by burning a c a r e f u l l y s t r u c t u r e d s t ack of wood enc losed i n a k i l n which a l l o w s p r e c i s e r e g u l a t i o n of a i r f low t o t h e f i r e .

S i n c e a p a r t of t h e i n i t i a l c h a r g e of wood i s burned i n t h e p r o c e s s , t h e e n e r g y c o n t e n t o f t h e c h a r c o a l p roduced i s n e c e s s a r i l y l e s s t h a n t h a t o f t h e wood which s u p p l i e d it. The e f f i c i e n c y of c h a r c o a l p r o d u c t i o n can v a r y g r e a t l y , t y p i c a l l y from 20 - 4 5 % , depending upon t h e t y p e of k i l n used. S t a t i ona ry masonry k i l n s and t r a n s p o r t a b l e metal k i l n s a c h i e v e e f f i c i e n c i e s a t t h e upper end o f t h e r ange . S imp le p i t k i l n s tend t o perform a t t h e lower end of t h e range.

Despi te t h e i r i n e f f i c i e n c y , p i t k i l n s a r e used wide ly by i t i n e r a n t p r o d u c e r s i n r e g i o n s where c h a r c o a l i s a common commodity, p r i n c i p a l l y because they e n t a i l no c a p i t a l c o s t s and minimize t h e l a b o r of t r a n s p o r t by a l l owing t h e charcoa l t o be produced a t t h e s i t e o f f e l l i n g . The more e f f i c i e n t k i l n s a r e r e l a t i v e l y e x p e n s i v e ( i n t h e r a n g e o f $2 ,000 - 3,000) and e i t h e r r e q u i r e t r a n s p o r t o f t h e wood t o t h e s i t e of product ion o r a r e themselves f a i r l y d i f f i c u l t t o move.

Charcoal i s a f u e l very l i t t l e used i n Zimbabwe. Most o f t h e n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n goes t o i n d u s t r i a l f i r m s i n t h e mining and automotive i n d u s t r i e s , a l though a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of t h e market i s comprised of upper income urban households.

The l a r g e s t m a n u f a c t u r e r o f c h a r c o a l i s t h e W a t t l e Co. ( P v t ) Ltd., of Mutare. This f i rm produces about 1,100 t ons a n n u a l l y . The W a t t l e Co. employs M i s s o u r i - s t y l e masonry k i l n s , which y i e l d 15 t o n s o f c h a r c o a l p e r 60 t o n c h a r g e of wood: an e f f i c i e n c y of a b o u t 44%. The company r e c k o n s t h e c o s t o f p r o d u c t i o n a t a b o u t $ 1 0 5 / t o n , a b o u t 112 t h e c u r r e n t r e t a i l charge of $1.27 per 5 kg bag ( i n c l u d i n g t a x ) .

They e s t i m a t e t h a t t h e c o s t c o u l d be c u t t o $ 9 0 / t o n w i t h increased product ion. The c u r r e n t c apac i t y of t h e Wa t t l e Co. ope ra t i on i s about 3300 tons . The company would be eager t o expand i t s o p e r a t i o n s i f a l a r g e r marke t were t o d e v e l o p . They es t imate they could u l t i m a t e l y produce a s much a s 25 000 t o n s / y e a r (0.7 x 106 G J ) from t h e wood was t e of t h e i r own ope ra t i ons .

There i s v i r t u a l l y no p i t k i l n product ion of cha rcoa l i n Zimbabwe d e s p i t e t h e w idesp read u se o f t h e t e c h n i q u e i n c o u n t r i e s a d j a c e n t on t h e n o r t h and t h e f a c t t h a t many Zimbabweans must be b o t h a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e t e c h n i q u e and d e s p e r a t e l y i n need of income.

The concent ra t ion and low l e v e l of charcoa l product ion

i n Zimbabwe i s a lmos t c e r t a i n l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e very low l e v e l o f deve lopmen t of t h e marke t . The p o t e n t i a l f o r expansion of product ion based on t h e wood c u r r e n t l y going t o w a s t e i n t h e government and commerc ia l p l a n t a t i o n s of t h e e a s t e r n d i s t r i c t s i s c o n s i d e r a b l e . I f 5 0 % of t h e s a w m i l l w a s t e and 60% of t h e h a r v e s t i n g w a s t e were e f f i c i e n t l y c o n v e r t e d t o c h a r c o a l , p r o d u c t i o n would amount t o o v e r 899 000 t ons (2.59 X 106 G J , t h e e q u i v a l e n t of f o r e c a s t urban d o m e s t i c fue lwood demand i n 1992 ) . I f i t i n e r a n t p r o d u c e r s o p e r a t i n g o u t s i d e t h e demarca ted f o r e s t a r e a s c o u l d f i n d a market and were permi t ted t o f r e e l y engage i n product ion, t h e i n c r e a s e i n charcoa l s u p p l i e s would be f a r g r e a t e r .

T h e r e h a v e b e e n a number o f p r o p o s a l s t h a t t h e government encourage expans ion of c h a r c o a l p r o d u c t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e u r b a n m a r k e t f o r t h e f u e l . T h e s e p r o p o s a l s a r e g e n e r a l l y based on t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e bu rden o f t h e u rban domes t i c demand f o r fuelwood c o u l d be s h i f t e d from t h e d e p l e t e d a d j a c e n t communal and commercial farm a r e a s t o more remote reg ions enjoying an excess s tock of wood. The i n c r e a s e d d i s t a n c e f o r t r a n s p o r t wou ld b e m i t i g a t e d by t h e g r e a t e r ene rgy d e n s i t y and e a s e of b u l k handl ing of charcoa l .

The ch ie f problem wi th expansion of charcoa l product ion i s t h a t i t r e s u l t s i n a d i m i n u t i o n o f t h e n e t wood e n e r g y a v a i l a b l e , a s w e l l a s a s h i f t o f wood r e s o u r c e s from t h e r u r a l a r e a s . U n l e s s c h a r c o a l p r o d u c t i o n draws o n l y upon s t o c k s o f fuelwood which a r e n o t o t h e r w i s e a c c e s s i b l e and normal ly go t o waste, o r a l l o w s use of more e f f i c i e n t end-use d e v i c e s , t h e s a c r i f i c e of ene rgy i n v o l v e d i n c o n v e r s i o n s h o u l d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d , i n v i ew of t h e f o r e c a s t f u e l sho r t ages .

A l o o k a t t h e f u e l w o o d s u p p l y / d e m a n d b a l a n c e f o r Manicaland i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p r o v i n c i a l demand f o r fuelwood i s expected t o exceed t h e r a t e of growth of a c c e s s i b l e s t ock by a lmos t 4.6 X 106 G J by 1992. Unless t h i s imbalance can be co r r ec t ed , it would seem most unwise t o mine t h e wood s tocks of Manicaland f o r t h e sake of t h e urban consumer. Moreover, t h e r e i s a g r e a t danger t h a t expansion of charcoa l product ion could l e a d t o a f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t he fuelwood supply p o s i t i o n o f r e g i o n s a l r e a d y i n c r i s i s . R e g u l a t i o n o f c h a r c o a l p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s and s o u r c e s of s u p p l y i s l i k e l y t o prove ex t remely d i f f i c u l t , once an expanded market o f f e r s income gene ra t i on p o t e n t i a l t o t h e r u r a l poor.

There i s good e v i d e n c e t h a t w e l l managed wood f i r e s under low g r a t e s can match t he e f f i c i e n c y of charcoa l s t o v e s , s o t h e r e i s l i t t l e t o b e g a i n e d i n t e rms o f f i n a l ene rgy demand by means of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r f u e l s u b s t i t u t i o n .

CROP RESIDUES AND DUNG

Crop r e s i d u e s and dung a r e o t h e r forms of b iomass from w h i c h e n e r g y may b e e x t r a c t e d d i r e c t l y , by means o f c o m b u s t i o n , o r i n d i r e c t l y , b y means o f b i o l o g i c a l decompos i t i on i n t o c o m b u s t i b l e p r o d u c t s . T h e i r e n e r g y

c o n t e n t , l i k e t h a t o f wood and c h a r c o a l , r e s i d e s i n o r g a n i c chemica l bonds which r e l e a s e h e a t i n o x i d a t i o n . I t i s t h u s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e i r d r y mass and c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n . I n g e n e r a l t h e e n e r g y c o n t e n t o f c r o p r e s i d u e s d o e s n o t v a r y g r e a t l y , r ang ing between a low of 13.4 MJ/kg f o r wheat s t r a w and a h i g h o f 16.1 kg f o r maize s t o v e r ( d r y m a t t e r b a s i s ) . The r a n g e o f t h e g r o s s e n e r g y c o n t e n t o f dung i s somewhat g r e a t e r , f rom 14.8 kg kg f o r p o u l t r y t o 19.0 MJIkg f o r p i g s ( d r y m a t t e r b a s i s ) .

The a n n u a l p r o d u c t i o n o f c r o p r e s i d u e s i n Zimbabwe i s q u i t e s u b s t a n t i a l , a s would b e e x p e c t e d f rom t h e e x t e n s i v e development of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l i n d u s t r y . C e r e a l r e s i d u e s , e s p e c i a l l y maize s t o v e r , form t h e dominant s h a r e , b u t c o t t o n s t a l k s and s u g a r c a n e t o p s a r e a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t . O t h e r r e s i d u e s i n c l u d e groundnut and p o t a t o v i n e s , v e g e t a b l e was tes and t h e l i k e . The a n n u a l t o t a l y i e l d o f c e r e a l r e s i d u e s a l o n e amounts t o a l m o s t 3 X 1 0 6 t o n s , and h a s a n e n e r g y c o n t e n t o f o v e r 46.5 x 1 0 6 G J .

The a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h e t h e s e c r o p r e s i d u e s f o r u s e a s a n e n e r g y r e s o u r c e i s c o n t i n g e n t on t h e c o s t o f c o l l e c t i o n and t r a n s p o r t and on t h e i r v a l u e i n a l t e r n a t i v e u s e s . Depending on c o n d i t i o n s and t e c h n i q u e s , t h e c o s t o f g a t h e r i n g r e s i d u e s on c o m m e r c i a l f a r m s c a n r a n g e f rom $ 0 . 3 5 1 ~ ~ t o $ 0 . 8 9 1 ~ ~ .

Most of t h e s e r e s i d u e s a r e , however, a l r e a d y u t i l i z e d a s f o r a g e on commercial farms where a n i m a l s a r e t u r n e d l o o s e t o g r a z e on t h e l a n d s a f t e r h a r v e s t , o r a s k r a a l r a t i o n s on s m a l l s c a l e f a r m s where r e s i d u e s a r e b r o u g h t i n and s t o r e d f o r d r y s e a s o n f e e d i n g . T h e i r economic v a l u e a s f e e d , e s p e c i a l l y where t h e y need n o t be g a t h e r e d i n from t h e l a n d s , i s g e n e r a l l y s u p e r i o r t o t h e i r v a l u e a s f u e l , and i s enhanced by t h e r e t u r n o f dung t o t h e l a n d s .

The t o t a l e n e r g y c o n t e n t o f dung p r o d u c e d b y d o m e s t i c s t o c k i n Zimbabwe i s a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l e . I t amounts t o o v e r 96 x 1 0 6 G J i n t o t a l , o v e r 90% o f which comes f rom c a t t l e . Most o f t h i s dung i s however, e s s e n t i a l l y u n c o l l e c t a b l e , a s t h e s t o c k on l a r g e s c a l e commercial farms i s g e n e r a l l y f r e e rang ing , and t h e domes t i c s t o c k o f t h e s m a l l - s c a l e s e c t o r i s k r a a l l e d o n l y a t n i g h t . Where dung i s c o l l e c t a b l e , i n d a i r y f a r m s , f e e d l o t s and k r a a l s , it i s u s u a l l y found w e t , w i t h a m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t r a n g i n g a s h i g h a s 90% ( d r y b a s i s ) when f r e s h . The h i g h f r a c t i o n a l mass of wa te r and o t h e r h a n d l i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s r e n d e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of f r e s h dung c o s t l y and make d r y i n g i m p r a c t i c a b l e . Most c o n c e n t r a t e d s u p p l i e s o f dung a r e g a t h e r e d m o i s t and t r a n s p o r t e d s h o r t d i s t a n c e s t o be s p r e a d on t h e l a n d s a s f e r t i l i z e r , i n which u s e t h e i r v a l u e i s q u i t e high.

SUPPLY SUMMARY

The a b o v e r e v i e w o f t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f p r i m a r y r e n e w a b l e e n e r g y r e s o u r c e s h a s l i m i t e d t h e f i e l d o f n a t i o n a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e r e n e w a b l e e n e r g y t e c h n o l o g i e s , c o n c l u d i n g t h a t w h i l e f u e l w o o d w i l l r e m a i n t h e p r i n c i p a l

rural fuel its increasing scarcity precludes conversion to charcoal or other expansion of its application. Solar energy has been shown to be widely available, although with important temporal constraints, and crop residues and dung are shown to be produced in substantial quantities, although alternative uses and the cost of collection limit their economic availability. Wind and water are dismissed as nationally significant energy resources, present in insufficient quantity or distribution to have general utility.

There is no doubt that all of the renewable energy resources are in some sites present in quantities sufficient to be useful, and technologies based on each of the basic resources may well play roles of great local importance. However, a consideration of the national impact of renewable energy devices can more or less be limited to those technologies which use woodfuels more efficiently than present devices and those which exploit available solar energy, crop residues or dung.

4 . REVIEW OF APPLICATIONS AND TECHNOLOGY

Having in earlier sections identified the significant potential applications for renewable energy technologies in the domestic and agricultural sectors, and assessed the availability of the various primary renewable energy resources in Zimbabwe, this report now moves to a consideration of the capacity of technologies based on available resources to meet the conditions for successful adoption in significant applications. It begins with a brief review of some of the issues which condition adoption of technology, then characterizes in terms of a few key variables the applications previously identified. The available energy supply technologies are similarly characterized, and potential matches noted. The appropriateness of selected application/technology combinations is then explored further in the following pages.

The first criterion for assessment of t h e appropriateness of a technology for use in a particular application is its technical capacity to perform the job required. In the case of energy technologies and applications the job can be characterized, in a crude way, by a few key variables; output/input type, power, availability, timing, and reliability.

Although in principle all forms of energy are interconvertible (and energy technologies are devices designed to make such conversions, to useful forms from others which are available but less useful), the cost in equipment and efficiency of most such conversions is high. In considering the characteristics of energy based tasks and potential means of supplying them it is necessary to ensure that the task's requirement for a particular form of energy, e.g., heat, shaft drive, light, etc., is met as directly as

possible by the supply technology. Otherwise, the coupling will likely be inefficient. and economically inappropriate.

Power, another key characteristic, is the measure of the amount of energy transferred per unit of time.

Availability is another key variable. Some applications may be performed intermittently over a long period of time, contingent upon the availability of energy. Others must be performed as needed, with energy available on demand. Problems of supply availability can to a certain extent be bridged by storage of input energy on product, but storage is generally expensive, and often impractical.

Timing is essentially a second order factor of availability; it represents the seasonal or diurnal scheduling requirements of the application or of energy availability.

Finally, reliability indexes the criticality of a demand and the consistency with which supply conditions are normally met.

The key technical characteristics of applications identified in the discussion of demand are described in Table IX-6

The renewable energy technologies can be similarly characterized, although a certain amount of judgment must be used. Table IX-7 describes the key technical characteristics of technologies based on the primary renewable energy resources identified above.

Comparison of the input requirements of potential applications and the output characteristics of potential technologies reveals a limited set of possible matches. 17hen technologies general l y unavailable because of an insufficiency of resources are discarded, the list of possibly significant matches between application and technology reduces to the following:

Once the condition of basic technical matching is met, a host of other factors enter into the determination of the appropriateness or attractiveness of a technology for a particular application and setting. These factors might generally be described as the cost/benefit matrix of an application/technology combination.

Cost benefit analysis is straightforward for commercial settings where distinct processes may be assessed, Even here, though, there is a complex array of different types of cost and benefit. Each technology cost is evaluated at its opportunity cost.

But in the household many elements of cost and benefit depend on preferences and the immediate material economy of the household. Moreover, tasks tend to be integrated so that one device serves several aspects of work or leisure.

In such a setting, instead of relying upon the computation of mere financial costs, the adoption of successful technology will be a result of trial and error, and the devices used will meet several objectives at once.

TABLE IX-6 TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SELECTED APPLICATIONS

Sector App l i ca t i on Energy Type Power A v a i l a b i l i t y Timing R e l i a b i l ~ t y -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Rural H.H. Cooking/Heating High/Low Temp Heat 4 kW On Demand 3 X Da i l y , Year Round High/Not

Evenings, Especial l y C r i t i c a l ........................................................................................................ Urban H.H. Water Heating Low Temp Heat 2 kW On Demand, Year Round, Espec ia l l y Not C r i t i c a l

Storage Mornings & Evenlngs ........................................................................................................ Ag r i cu l t u re

LSCF Traction/Trana. I n t e r n a l Combust. 30-90 kW On Demand Year Round High/Not

Motor Fue l C r i t i c a l

Curing/Drying Low Temp Heat Scheduled June-August Not C r i t i c a l

SSCF Traction/Trans. I n t e r n a l Combuat. 10-90 kW On Demand Year Round, Espec ia l l y Very High Motor Fue l October-December C r i t i c a l

I r r i g a t i o n Shaft D r i v e Scheduled Dry Season, Especially Very Hlgh Min Storage March-June C r i t i c a l

General Stock Watering Shaft D r i v e Scheduled Dry Season High/Not

Storage C r i t i c a l ........................................................................................................

I n s t i t u t i o n s Water Supply Shaft D r i v e On Demand Year Round Very High

Storage

Water Heating Low Temp Heat OnDemand YearRound Not C r i t i c a l Mln Storage

L i gh t i ng L i gh t Scheduled Year Round Var ies

Cool ing E lec t r i c i t y /Gas Scheduled Year Round Very High

C r i t i c a l

Cooking High Temp Heat Scheduled Year Round Hlgh ........................................................................................................

F i n a l l y we m u s t r e c o g n i z e t h a t c h o i c e s wh ich a r e d e s i r a b l e from t h e p r i v a t e v i e w p o i n t o f e ach i n d i v i d u a l member of a community a r e o f t e n i n imica l t o t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e w e l f a r e , and t h i s j u s t i f i e s a n e x p l i c i t conce rn f o r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l i m p a c t s o f g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y t o w a r d s technology change.

Two f a c t o r s of v i t a l importance a r e t he degree of a cces s t o r e s o u r c e s , m a r k e t s o r a l t e r n a t i v e i n v e s t m e n t s , and t h e d i s c o u n t r a t e . The former i s de t e rmined f o r a househo ld by i t s own l abo r c o n s t r a i n t and t h e heavy c o n s t r a i n t on c a p i t a l investment f e l t by households l i v i n g under t h e r i s k of c rop f a i l u r e without access t o c r e d i t .

TABLE IX- 7 KEY TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SELECTED TECHNOLOGIES

tmary Resource Technology Energy Type Power A v a i l a b i l i t y Re l i ab i l i t y /T im inc

l a r Energy k r Heater Low Temp Heat Contingent Year Round High-Dry Season

Midday Low-Rains

Water Heater Low Temp Heat Contingent Year Round High-Dry Season

Storage Midday Low-Rains

Pho tovo l t a i c E l e c t r i c i t y , Etc. Contingent Year Round High-Dry Season

Min Storage Midday Low-Rains

Ref lect . Cooker Med. Temp Heat Contingent Year Round High-Dry Season

Midday Wind Energy

Mechanical M l l l Shaft D r l v e Contingent Seasonal Moderate-Rains

Peak-Rains Low-Dry Season

Generator E l e c t r i c i t y , Etc. Contingent Seasonal Moderate-Rains

Peak-Rains Low-Dry Season .----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- :er Energy Mechanical M i l l Shaft D r i v e Contingent High1 y Seasonal Moderate-Rains

Storage Var ies Peak-Rains V. Low-Dry Seas.

Generator E l e c t r i c i t y , Etc. Contingent High1 y Seasonal Moderate-Rains

Storage Varies Peak-Rains V. Low-Dry Seas.

~d Hearth High/Low Temp Heat On Demand Any Time Complete

Stove High/Low Temp Hest On Demand Any Time Cornpl e te

Producer Gas I n t e r n a l Combustion On Demand Any Time Moderate

%coa l Stove High/Low Temp Heat On Demand Any Time Complete

Producer Gas I n t e r n a l Combustion On Demand Any Time High

Generator Fuel

)p Residue Stove Hlgh/Low Temp Heat On Demand Seasonal Complete

Biogas Generat. High Temp Heat, L l gh t On Demand, Year Round Moderate Intern. Combust. Fue l I f Storage

Producer Gas I n t e r n a l Combustion On Demand Seasonal Moderate

Generator Fuel

19 Stove High/Low Temp Heat On Demand Seasonal Complete

Biogas Generat. Hlgh Temp Heat, L i gh t On Demand, Year Round Moderate

Intern. Combust. Fue l If Storage

CookingIHeating . . . . . . . . . . Solar Cookers Hearths & Stoves Burning Liood, Crop

Residues or Dung Biogas Generators Fuelled With Crop

Residues or Dung ............................................................. Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . Solar IJater Heaters

Hearths & Stoves Burning Wood, Crop Residues or Dung

Biogas Generators Fuelled with Crop Residues or Dung .............................................................

Traction/Transport . . . . . . . Producer Gas Generators Fuelled with Wood, Crop Residues or Dung

............................................................. Irrigation, Stock........Solar Photovoltaic~ Watering & Water Producer Gas Generators Fuelled With supply Wood, Crop Residues or Dung

Biogas Generators Fuelled with Crop Residues or Dung

Animal Traction Mechanisms ............................................................. Crop CuringIDrying . . . . . . . Solar Air Heaters Lighting & Cooling . . . . . . . Solar Photovoltaics

Biogas Generators Fuelled with Crop Residues or Dung

.............................................................

The discount rate reflects the benefits of alternative uses foregone as a consequence ofthe use of capital for some particular purpose. It is a function of access to financial resources and of the degree of desperation for the benefits of capital spending.

For renewable energy technology, the effect of the discount rate is to raise the cost of current expenditure as compared to future expenditure. Typically, diminished fuel costs are traded off for inflated equipment charges. This is one of the key reasons that several capital intensive renewable energy technologies have been adopted much less wide1 y than their proponents had forecast.

In summary, costs and benefits might be said to be the restrictions on and motivations for adoption of technologies. Accurate evaluation of the comparative cost of alternative technologies can be extremely complex, and is highly contingent on the specific attributes of the economic setting. The most complicated setting is often the one ordinarily thought most simple; the household, with its resource constraints, partially unpriced production, integrated labor and material processes and high discount rate. A precise determination of the "optimum" technology is

generally not possible outside the actual experience of the use. An indicative comparison based on the considerations discussed above may be drawn, however, and is all that will be attempted in this paper.

In the application/technoiogy review of the £01 lowing pages the significant potential applications for renewable energy technologies identified earlier in this report are briefly described in terms of current practices and technology, and some of the issues and constraints that affect potential substitutions or innovations are highlighted. The candidate technologies for each application are described and reviewed in light of this discussion, application by application, and inferences drawn as to their prospects for introduction and general adoption.

CURRENT PRUCTICES AND TECHNOLOGY

Virtually a l l cooking and heating in the rural Zimbabwean household is carried out with fuelwood, although dried dung may be used to some extent in critically wood- short localities, and crop residues may be used as a supplemental fuel when they are readily available at the end of the harvest season. Except on large scale commercial farms, where fuel 1s often supplied as part of the labor contract and may be grown in plantations, most fuelwood is gathered by hand from indigenous trees and bushes growing on grazing lands, kopjes and other odd lands. In most cases it is carried by headload.

Wood gathering can impose significant costs on the household, not only in terms of the effort undertaken and leisure foregone, but also in terms of the opportunity cost of time which could have been devoted to other productive activities.

This conflict is partially mitigated by the fact that fuelwood can be stored. Most women make an effort to gather and store fuelwood in the dry season so as to reduce the labor required for this purpose during the rains, when labor for agriculture is at a premium.

Cooking is done almost exclusively by women. It is generally conducted indoors in the kitchen, the household -enter for cooking, eating and social intercourse. The fire is built in a small depression in the center of the floor of the kitchen. The fireplace may be a traditional three stone hearth or, more commonly now, a low welded iron grate.

The cholce of the grate is quite interesting, in light of the fact that most women acknowledge that its use consumes ane and one-half to three times as much wood as the use of the three stone hearth. The explanation, given by women themselves, for this apparent irrationality provides an instructive example of the complexity of economic 3ptimization within the household. The near universal

exp lana t i on i s t h a t because t h e g r a t e suppor t s s e v e r a l p o t s s imul taneous ly , u n l i k e t h e t h r e e s t one hea r th , it a l l ows t h e cook ing of m e a l s t o be conc luded i n a s h o r t e r span of t i m e , t h u s l e a v i n g more l a b o r a v a i l a b l e f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l work d u r i n g t h e r a i n s . The a d d i t i o n a l t ime r e q u i r e d f o r f u e l g a t h e r i n g i s n o t v a l u e d s o h i g h l y , s i n c e i t can be s p e n t d u r i n g t h e d r y s e a s o n , when l a b o r i s r e l a t i v e l y f r e e . A t y p i c a l p a t t e r n of u se o f t h e f i r e i s shown i n F i g u r e I X - 1 below.

Three m e a l s a r e p r e p a r e d d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of t h e day . The f i r s t i s t y p i c a l l y t e a , p e r h a p s w i t h b r e a d . The second and t h i r d a r e more s u b s t a n t i a l ; sadza ( s t i f f maize por r idge) wi th vege t ab l e , o r o c c a s i o n a l l y meat, r e l i s h . The l a t t e r two m e a l s i n v o l v e two s e p a r a t e p o t s i n t h e i r p r e p a r a t i o n : t h e sadza po t , which may con t a in f i v e ki lograms of water o r more and r e q u i r e s a h i g h power h e a t f l u x o v e r a p e r i o d of t h i r t y minutes o r so , and t h e r e l i s h po t , conta in ing a much s m a l l e r q u a n t i t y o f food which must be simmered a t low power f o r a more prolonged per iod .

FIGURE IX-1 TYPICAL DAILY RURAL COOKING/HEATING SCHEDULE

F l r e Burning XXXIXX I~XXXX~XX XXXXXXXXX+ *XIXXIXXXIXIXX

Cooking ~ X X I X X xxxxxx ***+X

Water Heating L X X *X

Space Heating XXXXXXXIXX

Cook Present xxxxxxxxx ~ X X X X X *,X***

Others Present ****** X X X ~ X X X X X X X

The f i r e i s used f o r s p a c e h e a t i n g and a s a s o c i a l c e n t e r f o r a b r i e f p e r i o d i n t h e e a r l y morning and f o r s e v e r a l hours i n t h e evening, even during t h e h o t t e r months o f t h e y e a r . During t h e c o l d n i g h t s of t h e d r y s ea son some members o f t h e f a m i l y may a l s o s l e e p i n t h e k i t c h e n t o s t a y warm.

F o r much o f t h e r e s t o f t h e d a y t h e f i r e i s l e t smou lde r , t h e f u e l p u l l e d a p a r t t o r educe b u r n i n g , b u t t h e c o a l s kep t a l i v e f o r easy r ek ind l ing .

Asked about advantages of t h e i r s t o v e s , a l a r g e number o f u s e r s of t h e g r a t e comment t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o a l l o w i n g s imultaneous and t hus f a s t e r cooking, it ease s management of t h e f i r e b y f a c i l i t a t i n g a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e f u e l a n d p e r m i t t i n g t h e u se o f l a r g e r s t i c k s . O the r a d v a n t a g e s commonly noted i nc lude increased s a f e t y through g r e a t e r p o t s t a b i l i t y and a g r e a t e r th row o f l i g h t t h r o u g h t h e open

frame. Asked what cooking dev i ce they would most l i k e t o have

and use, most r u r a l cooks respond t h a t they p r e f e r t h e g r a t e , though n e a r l y a l l a l s o , when prompted, respond t h a t they want an oven f o r baking.

ALTERNATIVES

S o l a r Cookers

S o l a r cookers may t ake a v a r i e t y of forms; concent ra t ing p a r a b o l o i d r e f l e c t o r s which f o c u s r a d i a n t ene rgy on an absorbent cooking chamber o r t h e po t i t s e l f , i n s u l a t e d h e a t t r a p boxes w i t h g l a s s c o v e r s and a r i n g of r e f l e c t o r s t o i n c r e a s e t h e f l o w of l i g h t i n t o t h e box i n which t h e p o t s i ts , and even concen t r a t i ng c o l l e c t o r s which d i r e c t r a d i a n t ene rgy t o a h e a t t r a n s f e r f l u i d , convey ing h e a t t o an i n s u l a t e d s t o r age r e s e r v o i r i n which t h e po t may be p laced .

No s o l a r c o o k e r h a s y e t met w i t h a c c e p t a n c e b y a s i g n i f i c a n t number of people anywhere i n t h e world, d e s p i t e t h e i r ve ry obvious advantage of r equ i r i ng no f u e l whatsoever. T h i s i s n o t t o s a y t h a t s o l a r c o o k e r s d o n ' t work; t h e y do o f t e n cook food q u i t e w e l l and wi th s u r p r i s i n g speed.

The problems of s o l a r cookers h inge on t h e contingency o f t h e i r u se upon t h e s u p p l y of a d e q u a t e s o l a r e n e r g y a n d t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s e n e r g y i s a v a i l a b l e i n h i g h power o n l y a t midday, and then no t r e l i a b l y through t h e year. Since midday i s b u t one o f t h r e e d a i l y p e r i o d s o f cooking , and n o t t h e t i m e when t h e l a r g e s t meal o f t h e day i s p r e p a r e d , which i s evening, a s o l a r cooker unequipped t o s t o r e energy s u f f i c i e n t t o a l l o w cooking a t o t h e r t i m e s of day can p r o v i d e a t b e s t o n l y a s m a l l p o r t i o n of cooking ene rgy . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , s t o r age cookers a r e no t w e l l developed. The c o s t of proposed s t o r a g e d e s i g n s i s q u i t e h i g h , w e l l o v e r $100.00, and none have been t e s t e d i n p r a c t i c e .

Other problems wi th s o l a r cookers i nc lude t h e neces s i t y o f f r e q u e n t r e o r i e n t a t i o n t o t r a c k t h e p a s s a g e of t h e sun , t h e n e c e s s i t y of cooking outdoors i n t h e h e a t of t h e sun, t h e p r e c l u s i o n o f normal cook ing p r a c t i c e s such a s s t i r r i n g , which would c a u s e u n a c c e p t a b l e h e a t l o s s , and c o m p l e t e i n a b i l i t y t o p rov ide space h e a t o r s e r v e a s a s o c i a l c en t e r .

For t h e s e r e a s o n s a s w e l l a s t h e i r c o s t and g e n e r a l u n f a m i l i a r i t y it seems u n l i k e l y t h a t s o l a r cookers could come t o p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n Zimbabwe w i t h o u t s u b s t a n t i a l and unant ic ipa ted innovat ion .

Biogas Generators

Biogas gene ra to r s a r e l a r g e volume r e a c t i o n v e s s e l s i n which o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s a r e p a r t i a l l y decomposed under t h e a c t i o n g f a n a e r o b i c b a c t e r i a t o a medium e n e r g y g a s (24 M J / ~ ) . Composed o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 60% methane and 40% c a r b o n d i o x i d e , b i o g a s l e n d s i t s e l f t o a v a r i e t y o f a p p l i c a t i o n s . I t may b e b u r n t t o p r o v i d e l i g h t o r h e a t o r

used t o f u e l i n t e r n a l combustion engines. Biogas g e n e r a t i o n h a s one o v e r w h e l m i n g l y a t t r a c t i v e

f e a t u r e ; i t s i n p u t m a t e r i a l s a r e v i r t u a l l y c o s t l e s s . The most common feeds tocks f o r b iogas gene ra t i on a r e wet manure a n d c r o p r e s i d u e s (Wood, w h i c h h a s a h i g h c o n t e n t o f i n d i g e s t i b l e l i g n i n s , i s n o t a s u i t a b l e f e e d s t o c k . ) . The v a l u e of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s a s compost o r f e r t i l i z e r i s n o t reduced by t h e i r p a s s a g e t h rough t h e d i g e s t o r b u t enhanced. A t t h e same t i m e , t h e a c t i o n of t h e methanogenic b a c t e r i a d e s t r o y s many pa thogens and s e r v e s a s an e f f e c t i v e sewage t r e a t m e n t . T h i s a b i l i t y t o g e n e r a t e a v a l u a b l e g a s w h i l e t r e a t i n g and improv ing t h e q u a l i t y of manure h a s prompted i n t e r e s t i n biogas throughout t h e world.

Cons t r a in t s on t h e use of b iogas a r i s e b a s i c a l l y because of t h e r a t e l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e b i o l o g i c a l p rocess with which it i s g e n e r a t e d . The p r o c e s s of a n a e r o b i c decompos i t i on i s r e l a t i v e l y s l o w , s o p r o d u c t i o n o f g a s a t a u s e f u l r a t e r e q u i r e s a l a r g e volume permanent c u l t u r e . Such sys t ems p roduce c o n t i n u o u s l y and a r e n o t e a s i l y r e g u l a t e d . Thus b i o g a s c a n n o t be produced on an " a s neededlwhere needed" b a s i s , b u t must b e g e n e r a t e d a t f i x e d s i t e s and s t o r e d . Since compression of t h e medium energy gas i s not economical, b i o g a s must be s t o r e d i n l a r g e l e a k- p r o o f c o n t a i n e r s and d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h p i p i n g . These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p r e c l u d e m o b i l e a p p l i c a t i o n s and impose h e a v y s t o r a g e c o s t s on i n t e r m i t t e n t h igh demand uses.

The mos t common f o r m s o f b i o g a s g e n e r a t o r a r e m o d i f i c a t i o n s of t h e t y p e s of g e n e r a t o r d e v e l o p e d f o r household use i n Ind i a and China. The Indian model c o n s i s t s of a l a r g e r e s e r v o i r , 3 - 10 m3 f o r domestic use, over which i s f i t t e d a f l o a t i n g s t e e l gasholder equipped wi th a p ipe t o a l l o w o f f t a k e of t h e gas which bubbles up from t h e manure o r c rop r e s idue s l u r r y and i s caught w i th in t h e gasholder . The g a s c o l l e c t e d i s k e p t a t more o r l e s s c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e by t h e weight of t h e suspended gasholder . The r e s e r v o i r i t s e l f maybe an above ground t a n k , b u t i s u s u a l l y b u i l t o f s t o n e o r b r i c k s e t i n t h e ground. I t i s equipped w i t h an i n l e t t u b e through which raw manure, r e s idues and water a r e fed, and an o u t l e t t u b e s e t a t s l i g h t l y l ower e l e v a t i o n t o a l l o w t h e d i g e s t e d m a t e r i a l t o b e exhaus t ed by d i s p l a c e m e n t w i th new feeds tock .

The Chinese des ign d i f f e r s i n t h a t t h e r e s e r v o i r i s no t f i t t e d wi th t h e f l o a t i n g gasholder , b u t i s s e a l e d a t cons t an t volume s o t h a t a s g a s i s c o l l e c t e d i t s p r e s s u r e r i s e s and s l u r r y i s d i sp l aced .

Both des igns have t h e i r d e f i c i e n c i e s ; t h e f l o a t i n g s t e e l gasholder of t h e Indian model i s ve ry expensive, over $300.00 f o r t h e 10 m3 d i g e s t o r s u i t a b l e f o r a h o u s e h o l d ' s g e n e r a l n e e d s , w h i l e t h e h i g h p r e s s u r e s accumula t ed i n t h e Ch inese model make it prone t o l e a k s which can be q u i t e d i f f i c u l t t o r e p a i r .

The c u r r e n t c o s t o f t h e 10 m 3 I n d i a n model , a s b u i l t by t h e m i n i s t r y , i s a b o u t $1467.00, n o t i n c l u d i n g s and , s t o n e and t h e 3000 b r i c k s n o t n o r m a l l y bought b u t l o c a l l y made.

Mate r i a l s c o n s t i t u t e $767.00 of t h i s c o s t ; t he r e s t i s l a b o r and t r a v e l expenses f o r t h e Harare based b u i l d i n g team. The c o s t of t h e Chinese model of 6 m3, a s c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e S i l v e i r a House team, comes t o a b o u t $400.00, o f which a b o u t one- half i s m a t e r i a l s , no t counting t h e sand, s t one and 1500 b r i c k l o c a l l y obtained.

P r o d u c t i o n o f g a s r a n g e s b e t w e e n 0.45 m3/da 1 . 5 m3/day, depending upon t h e temperature, f o r t he 6 m y a n d Chinese d i g e s t e r f e d w i t h 9 kg dung and 9 kg w a t e r p e r day , according t o l o c a l measurements. This i s s u f f i c i e n t gas t o cook two m e a l s a day f o r an o r d i n a r y f a m i l y o r p r o v i d e s e v e r a l hours of h igh q u a l i t y l i g h t i n g , from t h e dung of 3-5 cows k r a a l e d a t n igh t .

Biogas gene ra to r s c u r r e n t l y e x t a n t i n Zimbabwe inc lude b o t h Chinese and I n d i a n models r a n g i n g i n s i z e from 3 m3 t o 10 m 3 . One, a s m a l l I n d i a n model l o c a t e d a t Domboshawa T r a i n i n g C e n t e r , h a s been i n s t a l l e d and working we1 l s i n c e 1979. Most o f t h e o t h e r s a r e i n s t i t u t i o n a l , l o c a t e d a t schools , c l i n i c s , c reches , e t c .

Seve ra l Zimbabwean biogas p l a n t s a r e working q u i t e w e l l , b u t , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e r e g i o n , 1 3 % - 3 0 % o f t h e owner/operators own 3 cows o r l e s s . And i n many r u r a l a r e a s t h e f e t c h i n g o f w a t e r i s more p r o b l e m a t i c t h a n t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of f u e l .

F i n a l l y , t h e e x t e n t t o which i n t roduc t ion of b iogas t o t h e household would reduce t h e consumption of fuelwood i s no t c l e a r . I t would be extremely c o s t l y t o b u i l d a genera tor of s u f f i c i e n t s i z e t o supply t h e space hea t i ng needs now met by t h e cooking f i r e . Households which d e s i r e space hea t i ng and t h e s o c i a l c e n t e r p r o v i d e d b y t h e f i r e w o u l d f i n d i t necessary t o use fuelwood f o r t h i s purpose even i f a l l t h e i r cooking was done w i t h b i o g a s . I ndeed , t h e h o u s e h o l d i n Chishawasha which d i s p l a y s an exemplary Chinese type biogas genera tor does b u i l d a f i r e most evenings, a l though fuelwood i s by no means immediately a c c e s s i b l e .

There i s no ques t ion b u t t h a t biogas gene ra to r s can make a v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o r u r a l energy supply i n Zimbabwe i f they a r e w e l l cons t ruc ted , adequate ly supp l i ed wi th dung o r c r o p r e s i d u e s and w a t e r and w e l l managed. But v e r y few h o u s e h o l d s a r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o i n v e s t i n and manage a b i o g a s p l a n t f o r f u e l p u r p o s e s . And it i s n o t c l e a r t h a t fuelwood corlsumption would be s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduced i f b i o g a s were s u c c e s s f u l l y in t roduced , s i n c e b iogas cannot be expected t o meet space hea t i ng and s o c i a l needs.

I t would b e b e t t e r t o l e a v e b i o g a s t e c h n o l o g y t o t h e r u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . These p o t e n t i a l u s e r s w i l l b e b e t t e r equipped wi th t h e funds and management c a p a c i t i e s t o i n s t a l l and m a i n t a i n a g e n e r a t o r , and w i l l a l s o h a v e need o f t h e s p e c i f i c s e r v i c e s which biogas can provide , l i g h t i n g , cooking and c o o l i n g . I f w e l l s i t u a t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o s u p p l i e s of manure and w a t e r (e .g . , a d j a c e n t t o a d i p ) t h e y may p o s s i b l y be a b l e t o ex t end t h e s e a p p l i c a t i o n s t o d r i v i n g a pump o r o t h e r dev i ce equipped wi th an engine.

Hearths and Stoves

Perhaps the most straightforward approach to tackling the cooking/heating fuel supply problem lies in increasing the efficiency of devices which use the existing fuels.

This approach has been taken over the last twenty years by many institutions concerned with rural development in Asia, Latin America and Africa, and more recently, by a number of institutions in Zimbabwe, including the Department of Energy, Silveira House and the Hlekweni Training Center. Substantial sums have been invested in programs intended to bring improved stoves to the rural areas, but few of these efforts have met with any success. Spontaneous diffusion and adoption of the stoves promoted has been extremely rare and there is very little evidence of aggregate fuel savings having been achieved.

Reviews of the stove promotion programs reveal that most have been poorly conceived efforts to distribute devices which are from the potential users' point of view actually inferior to existing hearths and stoves. In fact, many of the "improved" stoves have proven, on careful examination, to be less fuel efficient than the traditional hearths they were intended to replace.

One conclusion that has emerged very clearly from these failures is that improvement of traditional devices can be a very demanding task, requiring attention to the multiple roles performed by the device, the integration of its use with other activities and the highly developed values and preferences of its users. Technical improvement of performance on one parameter, such as fuel efficiency, may involve unacceptable compromise of performance on others. Thus successful designs will likely be developed out of an iterative process of trial and modification, incorporating both the insights of engineering and the sophisticated evaluation of users.

Some guidance as to the prospects for development of an improved hearth or grate for use in Zimbabwe might be found in a review of some of the valued characteristics of the grate currently in use and some of those which would be desired in an improved stove. Valued characteristics of the grate include:

(1) Provision of cooking and space heating energy, and to a limited extent, light

(2) Minimal fuel preparation (esp. for long or large sticks)

(3) Ease of observation and adjustment

(4) Ability to cook several pots simultaneously

(5) LOW cost

( 6 ) A wide power range ( f o r bo th f a s t and s low cooking)

D e s i r a b l e a t t r i b u t e s o f a n improved h e a r t h o r s t o v e would inc lude :

(1) Increased s a f e t y

( 2 ) Smoke reduc t ion

( 3 ) Improved e f f i c i e n c y

Some of t he se d e s i d e r a t a a r e probably incompat ib le with some o f t h e v a l u e d q u a l i t i e s o f t h e e x i s t i n g g r a t e . There may w e l l be some room f o r compromise, bu t it should be c l e a r t h a t f u e l e f f i c i e n c y i s o n l y one of a s e t of characteristics t h a t must be p o s s e s s e d by a s t o v e t h a t i s t o be s e e n a s "improved" and f r e e l y adopted.

A c a r e f u l e v a l u a t i o n of t h e range of s t o v e s a v a i l a b l e i n Zimbabwe, i n c l u d i n g known "improved" d e s i g n s , r e v e a l e d something of t h e d i r e c t i o n f o r p o t e n t i a l s t o v e development. T h i s work i s r e p o r t e d i n c h a p t e r V 1 o f t h i s vo lume, s o w i l l no t be repeated h e r e .

I t would a p p e a r from t h e r e s u l t s of t h e p r e l i m i n a r y t e s t s repor ted i n chapter V 1 t h a t :

(1) Cooks who choose t h e open g r a t e o v e r t h e t h r e e s t o n e h e a r t h a r e s a c r i f i c i n g f u e l e f f i c i e n c y i n f avo r of convenience and time e f f i c i e n c y .

( 2 ) Cooks who use o r d i n a r y g r a t e s c o u l d m a i n t a i n t h e advantages of t h e g r a t e and rega in a h igh degree of f u e l e f f i c i e n c y a t no c o s t , by s i m p l y l o w e r i n g t h e g r a t e .

( 3 ) No o t h e r wood b u r n i n g cooking d e v i c e among t h o s e t e s t e d i s s u p e r i o r t o t h e low g r a t e , i n t e r m s of f u e l and time e f f i c i e n c y .

( 4 ) The Hlekweni s t o v e i s t h e c l e a r l y s u p e r i o r c h o i c e f o r wood b u r n i n g h o u s e h o l d s which a r e w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t mode ra t e f u e l e f f i c i e n c y i n r e t u r n f o r t h e c l e a n l i n e s s and s a f e t y advantages of a c lo sed h igh mass s t o v e .

I n summary, i t w o u l d seem t h a t t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r a c h i e v i n g an improvement i n cook ing e f f i c i e n c y t h r o u g h l o w e r i n g of t h e g r a t e a r e q u i t e good. The p o t e n t i a l impact on fuelwood consumption i s no t e n t i r e l y c l e a r , bu t i f i t i s assumed t h a t a l l h o u s e h o l d s u s i n g t h r e e s t o n e f i r e s w i l l l i k e l y b e a b l e t o o b t a i n g r a t e s w i t h i n t h e n e x t few y e a r s , t h e n a program which p e r s u a d e s u s e r s t o lower t h e g r a t e might r e d u c e t h e consumpt ion o f f u e l n e c e s s a r y f o r cooking by a s much a s 50% and a s u c c e s s f u l prornot ion of t h e Hlekweni s t o v e might a c h i e v e r e d u c t i o n s i n cook ing f u e l

consumpt ion of a s much a s 10% i n a d o p t i n g h o u s e h o l d s . I f cook ing ene rgy demand a c c o u n t s f o r pe rhaps 75% o f a c t u a l fuelwood use i n t h e cooking/heat ing f i r e , a s u se r s es t imate , then t h e reduc t ion i n fuelwood demand might range a s high a s 30%, g i v e n u n i v e r s a l l o w e r i n g of t h e g r a t e . I f n e c e s s a r y cook ing e n e r g y i s a smal l e r p r o p o r t i o n o f a c t u a l h o u s e h o l d demand, i t may b e t h a t p o t e n t i a l improvements i n cooking e f f i c i e n c y would have a l e s s e r e f f e c t . O r aga in , t h e e f f e c t of a f u e l e f f i c i e n c y program could be g r e a t e r i f heightened consciousness of f u e l conserva t ion r e s u l t e d i n more e f f i c i e n t f i r e management.

Eva lua t ion of t h e p o t e n t i a l v a l u e of t h e improved g r a t e o r s t o v e c a n n o t r e a l l y be conducted w i t h o u t more e x t e n s i v e f i e l d d a t a on h o u s e h o l d needs and u se of f u e l and a c t u a l f i e l d t e s t s o f t h e l o n g t e rm change i n consumption o f h o u s e h o l d s a d o p t i n g t h e new d e v i c e s . I n v i e w o f t h e s u b s t a n t i a l p o s s i b i l i t y of ach iev ing reduc t ions i n fuelwood demand and improvements i n household s a f e t y and h e a l t h t h i s work would seem t o be a p r i o r i t y .

6 . WATER HEATING

CURRENT PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES

Water h e a t i n g i s n o t c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e h o u s e h o l d s of Zimbabwe's r u r a l and h i g h d e n s i t y a r e a s w i t h a s p e c i a l a p p l i a n c e s t o r i n g a r e a d y s u p p l y . R a t h e r , w a t e r i s h e a t e d when needed on t h e h e a r t h o r s t o v e used f o r cook ing . Water hea t i ng may be conducted a s p a r t of t h e cooking process o r it rnay b e done s p e c i a l l y . I n e i t h e r c a s e t h e amount of ene rgy devoted t o water hea t i ng i s f a i r l y minimal. Few households i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s h e a t water f o r ba th ing . P rov i s ion of h o t water a t an a f f o r d a b l e c o s t would be a cons ide rab l e amenity i n e i t h e r s e t t i n g , a l t h o u g h a c c e s s t o c l e a n w a t e r i s t h e p r i o r need i n much of t h e r u r a l a r ea .

Urban households of t h e low d e n s i t y a r e a s a r e equipped wi th e l e c t r i c geysers s t o r i n g h o t water f o r supply on demand. Supply i s no t a problem with t h i s equipment, bu t t h e c o s t of e n e r g y used f o r w a t e r h e a t i n g amounts t o 35% - 50% of t h e household e l e c t r i c b i l l , a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of t h e household budge t . A t e c h n o l o g y which reduced t h i s c o s t c o u l d be a s i g n i f i c a n t b e n e f i t t o t h e urban household.

ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES

Hearths and S toves

There a r e no c l e a r means of i m p r o v i n g t h e open g r a t e f o r t h e purpose of water hea t ing .

S toves , u n l i k e g r a t e s , can be designed t o incorpora te a water tank heated by t h e chimney gases a f t e r they have passed t h e cooking p o t s and i n s u l a t e d from h e a t l o s s by t h e warm body o f t h e s t o v e . The H l e k w e n i s t o v e , f o r i n s t a n c e ,

includes a 5 gallon water tank which attains a very respectable temperature during the cooking of a meal and remains warm for some hours thereafter, provided the stove has been used sufficiently to warm its mass, Water heating is seen by users to be a valuable capacityin a stove. Since it is an ancillary feature which actually increases net efficiency, it should be incorporated in any high mass stove which is promoted for fuel conservation. Widespread adoption of such improved stoves will, however, not occur without an extensive effort to train builders and bring knowledge of the virtues of these stoves to the rural population.

Biogas Generators

In so far as domestic use is concerned, biogas generators are no more feasible for water heating purposes than for cooking. They cannot be expected to play a significant role in provision of domestic hot water.

Rural institutions, on the other hand, may well be in a position to manage the construction and operation of biogas generators for a combination of cooking, water heating, lighting and other applications, provided they have access to construction funds and adequate supplies of manure and water. Institutional plants currently constructed are quite small, at most 10 m3, and thus insufficient to supply water heating energy as we1 l as the fuel for th priority uses of cooking and lighting. However, the 88 m' plant now being built at Kushinga Phikelele should demonstrate the capacity of biogas in this type of setting.

Solar Water Heaters --

Solar water heaters designed for domestic use usually consist of a collector attached to a storage tank. The collector is a flat plate, coated with black paint or other materials selected to enhance the capture of solar radiation and its conversion to heat energy, and equipped with tubes through which the water to be heated circulates. The collector plate is usually insulated with one or two layers of glass on the side facing the sun, and with solid insulation on the back and sides to minimize heat loss. The storage tank and any piping are also insulated. In the standard configuration, water, supplied from the mains, circulates in a gravity convection loop between the tank and the collector and is drawn directly, or as input to an electric geyser, as needed. The amount of energy delivered is contingent mainly upon the size of the collector, although a host of other factors have an effect.

Three firms manufacture solar water heating systems in Zimbabwe. Their designs and construction techniques vary, but all systems are fabricated to a reasonable standard, and some are of a very high quality. Models suited to urban domestic use range from an integral collector/storage unit of 45 liter capacity to a 220 liter design with separate panels

and storage. Costs range from $485.85 for the small integral system to $2109.75 for the large ther~nosyphon system. These costs imply, accounting for current electricity prices and a1 lowing generous efficiency and hot water demand estimates, payback periods of 6 - 12 years for high volume consumers in the low density areas, and much longer times for low volume consumers in the high density areas.

The only solar water heater manufactured explicitly for the rural market is a 45 liter stand-alone integral model costing $225.00, clearly too much for all but the most wealthy of rural households.

The number of units sold for domestic use is quite small, amounting to perhaps 200 m2 of col lector last year. The private market is declining rapidly due to economic circumstances. Government has stepped in to assist the industry, with purchases by the Ministry of Construction for institutions and rural government housing.

Unless the costs of solar water heating systems can be considerably decreased, the rate of adoption of the technology will remain very low. According to the major manufacturer, costs could be reduced by one-third and quality greatly improved if foreign exchange allocations for the substantial fraction of imported components were made available and import duties relaxed. Such action has been recommended to government as an indirect means for encouraging adoption of solar water heating, as have more direct means such as regulations requiring installation of solar water heating systems in all new construction. However, little short of complete subsidy would bring the cost of solar water heating within reach of the rural population which commands priority in government aid.

7. TRACTION AND TRANSPORT

CURRENT PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGIES

There is a fundamental division in the agricultural sector between the capital intensive mechanized farms of the large scale commercial and state farm subsectors and the labor intensive animate powered farms of the communal and resettlement subsectors. The small scale commercial and coops subsectors occupy a somewhat ambiguous intermediate position.

All traction and transport on the large scale farms is carried out with tractors and trucks, almost all diesel powered. Their use is highly efficient, but the cost of fuel remains a significant factor in the overall cost of production. Since capital intensive production is highly dependent upon timely performance of tasks, and since there is no ready substitute for imported diesel, an interruption in supply could have a catastrophic effect on agricultural yields.

Small scale agriculture depends mostly upon oxen for

draught power and transport. There are however not enough animals to service its needs. Fully half of the communal area households of some provinces own no cattle at all. Households dependent on hiring or borrowing animals for ploughing are often unable to plough or plant at the optimum time to take advantage of the rains, consequently suffering substantially decreased yields.

ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES

Producer Gas Generators

Producer gas is a medium energy combustible gas formed by the partial pyrolysis and high temperature reduction of carbonaceous solid fuels, most commonly wood chips, charcoal or crop residues. Its principal combustible components are carbon monoxide and hydrogen, although it also contains some methane. The relative composition varies with feedstocks and conditions of production. When made from dry wood it approximates 20% CO, 15% H 2 and 3% CH4 as well as some 60% incombustible gases, e.g., N2. Depending upon composition the energy content varles between 4.1 - 5.4 MJ/M~.

Producer gas is an efficient substitute for the liquid hydrocarbons in all their fuel applications, including internal combustion engines. It can fuel existing equipment from boilers to diesel engines with only minor modifications and little additional training of operators. And it can be generated as needed/where needed in a simple compact and relatively inexpensive apparatus, free of the storage and distribution problems which plague the use of biogas.

Producer gas technology is well known, antedating World War 11, when it was widely used in oil-short Europe and to a lesser extent in other areas such as the then Rhodesia. Although the technology fell into disuse with the post-war flood of inexpensive Mid-Eastern oil, rising oil prices have prompted renewed interest in producer gas. Large scale industrial and agricultural processing plants throughout the world, including Zimbabwe, and a few countries, notably the Philippines, are pursuing transport fuel substitution programs based on extensive use of producer gas.

In large scale applications, the gas may be producedin continuous flow processes, with efficiencies as high as 85% - 90% in heating uses. Most installations, however, are relatively small batch type generators. These units may be constructed of masonry in stationary applications, with cast iron fittings for the combustion zone. Many models are small enough to be mounted on a truck, tractor or car, and in fact they can be built to a scale appropriate for any engine, from 3 klJ up.

The typical engine fuel generator is a downdraught design; a cylindrical fuel hopper surmounting a funnel-like reaction chamber where combustion takes place, then an ash dump and the take-off for gas. In use, air-dry wood blocks, charcoal or crop residues are loaded through an air-tight

door i n t o t h e h o p p e r / r e a c t i o n chamber, t h e bo t tom of which i s c o n s t r i c t e d , l i n e d with r e f r a c t o r y m a t e r i a l and equipped wi th s e v e r a l s m a l l t uye re through which a r egu l a t ed f low of a i r may be i n t r o d u c e d . A f i r e i s l i t i n t h i s c o n s t r i c t e d combus t ion zone. I t q u i c k l y a t t a i n s h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s . Exposure t o t h i s h e a t c a u s e s a spec t rum of r e a c t i o n s i n t h e f u e l above: d r y i n g i n t h e most d i s t a n t upper r e g i o n of t h e r e a c t i o n chamber, d i s t i l l a t i o n i n t h e n e x t c l o s e s t r e g i o n , and thermal decomposition i n t h e reg ion immediately above t h e combus t ion zone. The gaseous p r o d u c t s o f t h e d i s t i l l a t i o n and t h e r m a l decompos i t i on r e a c t i o n s a r e drawn a s demanded t h r o u g h t h e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e combus t ion zone where t h e y undergo f u r t h e r breakdown and reduc t ion , then through s imple p a r t i c u l a t e f i l t e r s where they a r e c leaned of t a r and d e b r i s , through a r a d i a t o r f o r coo l ing , and a r e f i n a l l y fed d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e i n t a k e m a n i f o l d of a s p a r k i g n i t i o n o r d i e s e l engine.

A spark i g n i t i o n engine ( a convent iona l p e t r o l engine) running on producer gas ope ra t e s a t about t h e same e f f i c i e n c y a s on p e t r o l , consuming 1 - 2 kg of d r y wood p e r l i t e r o f former p e t r o l consumption, bu t produces o n l y 40% - 60% of t h e power a s when r u n on p e t r o l . O r d i n a r y modern e n g i n e s w i t h l a r g e v a l v e s and r e l a t i v e l y h igh compression run a t t h e upper end of t h i s power r a n g e a f t e r a s i m p l e advance of t i m i n g . The power r e d u c t i o n may b e compensated by use o f o v e r s i z e d engines, o r a p e t r o l cu t- in may be f i t t e d t o boos t power f o r i n t e r m i t t e n t heavy loads .

D i e s e l e n g i n e s runn ing on p r o d u c e r g a s s t i l l r e q u i r e some d i e s e l f u e l , a b o u t 1 0 % - 1 5 % o f t h e i r f o r m e r consumpt ion . D i e s e l s r unn ing on t h i s m i x o p e r a t e a t t h e i r fo rmer e f f i c i e n c y , u s i n g 3 - 4 kg o f d r y wood and 0.1 l i t e r of d i e s e l per l i t e r of d i e s e l used i n convent iona l opera t ion , and produce 8 5 % - 90% of t h e i r former power ou tput .

The most s e r i o u s problem w i t h t h e use of p roduce r g a s l i e s i n t h e damage done t o e x p e n s i v e e n g i n e s i f t a r s a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t l y c leaned from t h e gas. As it t u r n s ou t , it i s extremely d i f f i c u l t t o maintain adequate c l ean ing of t h e ga s produced from wood. This f u e l ha s g e n e r a l l y been r e j e c t e d a s a f e e d s t o c k f o r p roduce r g a s e x c e p t under c o n d i t i o n s of t h e most d i r e neces s i t y . Charcoal , coke and hard c o a l have ve ry low t a r c o n t e n t and make e x c e l l e n t f u e l s f o r p roduce r g a s . C h a r c o a l i s g e n e r a l l y t h e f u e l o f c h o i c e , and was t h e f u e l p r e v i o u s l y used f o r p roduce r g a s i n Zimbabwe. I t seems, however, i n a d v i s a b l e t o encourage t h e conversion of fuelwood t o t h i s purpose, g iven t h e s c a r c i t y a l r e a d y developing. Coke and c o a l , on t h e o t h e r hand, a r e l o c a l l y produced and compare v e r y f a v o r a b l y t o d i e s e l f u e l i n p r i c e p e r u n i t o f ene rgy . I n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e l o c a l f e a s i b i l i t y of use of t he se f u e l s a s gas feedstock may be q u i t e worthwhile.

C rop r e s i d u e s a r e a n o t h e r l o c a l f u e l w o r t h y o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n f o r p o s s i b l e u se i n p roduce r g a s g e n e r a t i o n . I f a v a i l a b l e on farm a t t h e c o s t o f c o l l e c t i o n , t h e i r c o s t p e r u n i t o f e n e r g y amounts t o o n l y 5 % - 10% t h a t o f d i e s e l . For a number o f c r o p s , t h e e n e r g y v a l u e of t h e r e s i d u e

produced is greater than that of the fuel used in field operations. If residues were seen as an energy crop, harvested, dried and stored they could well help to reduce both costs and dependence on imported diesel.

Crop residues, however, share some of the problems of tar production which constrain the use of wood in producer gas generators, Moreover, many of the crop residues produce substantial amounts of ash and slag in the high temperature reduction environment of the generator.

Minimization of the production of harmful by-products and optimization of the production of useful gas requires that the generator be designed for the specific characteristics of the material to be used as fuel. The work of experimentation and adaptation of gas generators for use with crop residue fuelshasbegun onlyinthe last fewyears, and designs and information are not yet mature.

The potential for use of crop residues as a traction and transport fuel seems considerable, but premature adoption could result in severe damage to engines and a profound disenchantment with the possibility of substitution of biomass fuels for diesel.

8. IRRIGATION, STOCK WATERING AND DOMESTIC WATER PUMPING

CURRENT PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGY

Irrigation, stock watering and domestic water pumping have rather different demand characteristics, despite their obvious similarity in involving the transfer of water. Irrigation requires large volumes of water on a highly seasonal basis. Stock watering generally requires fairly small volumes of water, again on a seasonal basis. And domestic water supply requires fairly small volumes the year round. The need for reliability also varies among the three applications: irrigation and stock watering require a moderate degree of dependability, but the continuous reliability of domestic water supply is critical.

The differing characteristics o f the pumping applications are reflected in the technologies currently used to service them. Virtually all irrigation pumping in Zimbabwe is carried out with high capacity electric pumps running on mains service. Stock watering is conducted with a variety of devices: electric pumps where mains service is available, small diesel engine pumpsets in more remote locations and windmills at a relatively few sites where demand is low or wind conditions are particular1 y favorable. Domestic water pumping is done almost entirely by hand, except in some of the supplied service centers or growth points where electric or diesel pumpsets may be used, depending on the availability of mains service.

Electric pumpsets are preferred to diesel pumpsets where mains service is available because in most circumstances the capital, fuel and maintenance costs of diesel engines drive

t h e c h a r g e p e r u n i t o f w a t e r d e l i v e r e d t o a l m o s t t w i c e t h e charge f o r e l e c t r i c a l l y pumped water.

As w i t h o t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n o l o g i e s , t h e h i g h l y uneven d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e s o u r c e s among t h e Zimbabwean a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t o r s i s m a n i f e s t i n a c c e s s t o and use o f pumping devices . The l a r g e s c a l e farm s e c t o r and t h e l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n c e n t e r s a r e g e n e r a l l y a b l e t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e economy of e l e c t r i c pumping. Diese l pumps a r e i n s t a l l e d o n l y i n t h e m o s t r e m o t e l o c a t i o n s i n t h e s e s e c t o r s . Economies o f s c a l e , p r o x i m i t y t o r i v e r s , a c c e s s t o i n f r a s t r u c t u r a l and marketing f a c i l i t i e s , and ex t ens ive s t a t e s u b s i d i z a t i o n h a v e combined t o s u p p o r t i n s t a l l a t i o n o f i r r i g a t i o n equipment on a h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of l a r g e s c a l e farms i n t h e a r a b l e zone. S i m i l a r l y , t h e environmental and economic r e s o u r c e s of t h e l a r g e s c a l e fa rms i n v o l v e d i n c a t t l e r a n c h i n g h a v e e n a b l e d f r e q u e n t i n s t a l l a t i o n o f bo reho l e s and pumping equipment f o r s tock water ing.

The e l e c t r i c g r i d c u r r e n t l y e x t e n d s t o few of t h e communal and s m a l l s c a l e fa rming a r e a s , however . A l though t h e G o v e r n m e n t h a s made a p o l i c y c o m m i t m e n t t o e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n of s e r v i c e c e n t e r s and growth p o i n t s i n t h e s e a r e a s , f i s c a l and f o r e i g n exchange c o n s t r a i n t s w i l l a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y d e l a y i t s accomplishment f o r a cons ide rab l e time. The r e l a t i v e l y few mechanical pumping i n s t a l l a t i o n s i n t h e communal and s m a l l s c a l e f a rming a r e a s a r e p e r f o r c e t h u s mainly d i e s e l powered.

V i r t u a l l y a l l o f t h e pumping i n s t a l l a t i o n s i n t h e communal and s m a l l s c a l e fa rming a r e a s a r e i n s t i t u t i o n a l . Boreholes and mechanical pumps ope ra t e a t c a p a c i t i e s g r e a t l y i n e x c e s s of t h e i r r i g a t i o n of s t o c k w a t e r i n g needs o f i n d i v i d u a l sma l l s c a l e farmers and bear c o s t s f a r beyond t h e means o f i n d i v i d u a l f a r m e r s . E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e independent i r r i g a t i o n and s tock management coope ra t i ve s i n which sma l l farmers might join t o sha re resources and ach i eve e c o n o m i e s o f s c a l e a d e q u a t e t o s u p p o r t i n v e s t m e n t i n mechanical pumping has no t occurred.

U n s u i t a b l e t opog raphy and s o i l s p r o v i d e s u b s t a n t i a l b a r r i e r s t o i r r i g a t i o n i n much o f t h e s m a l l s c a l e f a rming a r e a . Some l o c a t i o n s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r s i z a b l e m u l t i - p l o t i r r i g a t i o n schemes do e x i s t , however , and a number of t h e s e s i t e s have been developed by t h e s t a t e . Watering po in t s have a l s o been i n s t a l l e d i n some a r ea s .

S u r f a c e s o u r c e s s t i l l p r o v i d e t h e p r i m a r y s u p p l y o f water f o r domestic a s w e l l a s a g r i c u l t u r a l purposes i n most o f t h e communal and s m a l l s c a l e fa rming a r e a s , a l t h o u g h d e v e l o p m e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t h e s t a t e h a v e r e c e n t l y undertaken an agg re s s ive program of borehole cons t ruc t i on and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n . Boreholes intended f o r domestic water supply a r e seldom equipped with mechanical pumping systems (except i n p o p u l a t i o n c e n t e r s , m i s s i o n s , e t c . ) , handpumps b e i n g p r e f e r r e d f o r t h e i r low c o s t and r e l i a b i l i t y . The e f f o r t r e q u i r e d t o pump t h e d a i l y d o m e s t i c w a t e r s u p p l y f o r a h o u s e h o l d i s n o t g r e a t , and t h e handpump i s p r o b a b l y t h e o p t i m a l t e c h n o l o g y f o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n . Pumping and

d i s t r i b u t i o n of s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t i e s of water wi thout t he a i d of powered d e v i c e s r e q u i r e s i m p r a c t i c a b l e amounts of l a b o r , however , s o u se of t h e s e b o r e h o l e s f o r i r r i g a t i o n o r ex t ens ive s tock water ing i s q u i t e r a r e .

Adoption of an a l t e r n a t i v e technology f o r ex t ens ive use i n e x i s t i n g l a r g e s c a l e i r r i g a t i o n would depend upon t h e capac i t y t o pump l a r g e volumes r e l i a b l y a t a c o s t lower than t h a t o f t h e e l e c t r i c pumps used f o r t h i s p u r p o s e i n most s i t e s . Adoption i n t h e i r r i g a t i o n s i t e s remote from t h e e l e c t r i c g r i d , c u r r e n t l y s e rv i ced with d i e s e l , would r e q u i r e e c o n o m i c s u b s t i t u t i o n f o r d i e s e l f u e l o r a l t e r n a t i v e p r o v i s i o n of l a r g e volume pumping a t a c o s t lower than t h a t of d i e s e l engines.

A technology which o f f e r ed comparable s e r v i c e a t a c o s t s u b s t a n t i a l l y l ower t h a n t h a t o f d i e s e l e n g i n e s c o u l d f a c i l i t a t e f u r t h e r development of i r r i g a t i o n schemes i n t h e communal and s m a l l s c a l e farming a r ea s . The e f f e c t i n t h i s regard of moderate reduc t ions i n pumping c o s t would be q u i t e l i m i t e d , however; t h e c o s t s o f pumping ene rgy a r e b u t a f r a c t i o n of t he development c o s t s of i r r i g a t i o n schemes and, i n a n y c a s e , e n v i r o n m e n t a l , g e o p h y s i c a l a n d t e n u r i a l cons ide ra t i ons remain s i g n i f i c a n t impediments i n many s i t e s .

Adoption of t e chno log i e s f o r s m a l l s c a l e i r r i g a t i o n w i l l b e c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e i r economic a c c e s s i b i l i t y t o s m a l l farmers and upon t h e i r a b i l i t y t o d e l i v e r moderate volumes of water wi th a h igh degree of dependab i l i t y . Here aga in , s i t e and s o c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w i l l p r o v e , inmany l o c a t i o n s , s i g n i f i c a n t o b s t a c l e s t o use of even t h e most economical of pumping d e v i c e s . The c o s t o f b o r e h o l e d e v e l o p m e n t effectively p rec ludes adoption of pumps by most sma l l farmers except where n a t u r a l s u r f a c e water , a d i v e r s i o n , impoundment o r a h igh water t a b l e provides a v a i l a b l e water.

S u b s t i t u t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e d e v i c e s f o r t h e d i e s e l o r e l e c t r i c pumps used i n c u r r e n t s t o c k w a t e r i n s t a l l a t i o n s c l e a r l y depends upon t h e a b i l i t y of t h e a l t e r n a t i v e dev i ce s t o p r o v i d e comparab l e mode ra t e volume pumping a t a lower cos t . Adoption i n new i n s t a l l a t i o n s w i l l r equ i r e performance s i m i l a r t o t h a t app rop r i a t e f o r sma l l s c a l e i r r i g a t i o n (and w i l l be cons t ra ined by many of t h e same f a c t o r s ) .

The s a t i s f a c t o r y performance and extremely low c o s t of t h e hand pumps used f o r most c u r r e n t r u r a l d o m e s t i c w a t e r s u p p l y i n s t a l l a t i o n s s e t a s t a n d a r d o f c o s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s probably u n a t t a i n a b l e by any powered dev i ce . Community water s u p p l i e s , t o be c o n s t r u c t e d a t g rowth p o i n t s and s e r v i c e c e n t e r s a s p a r t o f t h e r u r a l deve lopmen t programs, w i l l g e n e r a l l y be powered by s m a l l d i e s e l and e l e c t r i c pumps, u n l e s s a l t e r n a t i v e d e v i c e s can main ta in t h e necessary h igh s tandard of s e r v i c e a t a lower cos t .

ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES

Producer Gas

The l o c a l economics of p roduce r g a s s u b s t i t u t i o n i n

engines a r e c u r r e n t l y uncer ta in , due t o t h e i r dependence upon b a s i c f u e l a v a i l a b i l i t y , t h e need and c o s t o f f u r t h e r p r epa ra t i on f o r f u e l s such a s c rop r e s idues (e.g.; drying and b r i q u e t t i n g ) , and t h e deve lopmen t and t e s t i n g of f u e l - s p e c i f i c g e n e r a t i o n and f i l t r a t i o n equipment t o a s s u r e e f f i c i e n t gas gene ra t i on and sus t a ined engine l i f e . Nei ther b r i q u e t t i n g machines nor e n g i n e t y p e g a s g e n e r a t o r s a r e p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e i n Zimbabwe, a l t h o u g h b o t h t y p e s o f equipment could be manufactured l o c a l l y , and t h e i r c o s t s a r e no t known.

C u r r e n t i n d i c a t i o n s a r e t h a t i t i s n o t l i k e l y t h a t p a r t i a l s u b s t i t u t i o n of d i e s e l by producer gas would e f f e c t a pumping c o s t r e d u c t i o n s u f f i c i e n t t o d i s p l a c e e l e c t r i c pumping where mains s e r v i c e i s a v a i l a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y i n view of t h e f a r g r e a t e r l a b o r and process management requirements a t t e n d a n t on t h e u s e o f p roduce r ga s . Even i f p r o d u c e r g a s l d i e s e l pumps do prove t o be more a t t r a c t i v e than s t r a i g h t d i e s e l pumps, y e t remain l e s s so than e l e c t r i c dev i ce s , t h e i r r o l e may be l i m i t e d t o s u b s t i t u t i o n i n t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l f r a c t i o n of pumping c u r r e n t l y c a r r i e d o u t w i t h d i e s e l . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o p e r a t i n g e n g i n e s w i t h l o c a l l y de r ived biomass m a t e r i a l s r a t h e r than expensive and l o g i s t i c a l l y demanding impor ted p e t r o l e u m f u e l may a l l o w i n c r e a s e d i n s t a l l a t i o n o f e n g i n e s i n s i t u a t i o n s where t h e b a s i c c a p i t a l c o s t s can be met , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e s m a l l s i z e s f o r which f u e l p rov i s ion can be accomplished on a more c a s u a l ba s i s .

Crop r e s idue o r raw wood may no t be p r a c t i c a l f u e l s f o r most smal l s c a l e i n s t a l l a t i o n s however. E f f i c i e n t product ion o f c l e a n p roduce r g a s r e q u i r e s t h a t g e n e r a t o r s b e o p t i m i z e d f o r t h e s p e c i f i c combus t ion c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f u e l a s used . Apa r t from t h e b a s i c q u e s t i o n s of a v a i l a b i l i t y and a l t e r n a t i v e u s e s o f t h e s e f u e l s , v a r i a t i o n i n t h e t y p e o f m a t e r i a l , i t s m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t and p a r t i c l e s i z e c a n d r a m a t i c a l l y a f f e c t genera tor performance and engine l i f e .

The h igh c o s t of engine purchase and r e p a i r i n Zimbabwe renders any unnecessary r i s k of engine damage unacceptable . I t i s c l e a r t h a t p o s s i b l e u se of t h e raw f u e l s p rone t o exces s ive t a r product ion w i l l have t o await development of gas gene ra to r s capab l e of e l im ina t i ng t h i s t h r e a t . Promising evidence of t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r p r a c t i c a l use of raw f u e l s i n s m a l l s c a l e gene ra to r s i s being demonstrated i n experiments e l s e w h e r e , b u t t h e l o c a l f i e l d t r i a l s n e c e s s a r y f o r a c o n f i d e n t a s s e s s m e n t of t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f t h e i r use i n Zimbabwe have no t y e t been undertaken.

Although charcoa l i s t he t e c h n i c a l l y supe r io r f u e l f o r u se i n p roduce r g a s e n g i n e s , i t s u s e f o r t h i s pu rpose c o u l d tend t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e d e p l e t i o n of a l r e a d y s ca rce fuelwood s t o c k s . Fuelwood s h o r t a g e s a r e p r e d i c t e d t o become s o widespread and a c u t e t h a t ex t ens ive development of charcoa l ba sed p roduce r g a s seems dange rous and i n a d v i s a b l e . Even where l o c a l cond i t i ons might permit expanded use of fuelwood a s c h a r c o a l , t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r s i g n i f i c a n t a d o p t i o n o f p r o d u c e r g a s f u e l l e d pumpsets a r e v e r y much l i m i t e d by t h e

prevailing scarcity of capital, necessary for the prior investment in boreholes and diesel equipment as well as for installation of the gas generation devices.

Biogas

Biogas has a number of advantages over producer gas as a fuel for stationary engines. Unlike producer gas, biogas is not prone to causing engine damage; it requires no filtration and imposes no excess risks. Moreover, the wet dung or crop residues fed into the process are ultimately discharged unimpaired for their usual use as fertilizers. The dilution water requirement, which can pose difficulties for domestic installations distant from water sources, is clearly not a problem in pumping applications. Engine operation remains as simple with partial substitution of biogas as on straight diesel, since biogas production is a continuous process, not demand driven and coupled to engine operation as is producer gas generation.

On the other hand, biogas generation has some serious limitations as a means of fuelling engines. The rate constraints necessitate construction of expensive large volume reaction and storage chambers. The environmental stability required demands uniform feeding and management in a long term continuous culture. Problems with gas leaks often cause lengthy service outages for repair of the system.

The cost of a successfully operating biogas system is located almost entirely in amortization of the initial construction cost of the plant, since the primary feed materials are returned through the process and are usually available for the cost of collection. This cost can be quite high, indeed prohibitively so, for systems capable of generating sufficient fuel for large scale applications. Potential economies of scale in construction of larger systems tend to be outweighed by the costs of additional features required for safety and process management.

The high fixed cost component of biogas generation implies that the cost per unit of delivered energy is very much dependent upon the amount of gas usefully produced over time. Reductions in useful delivery of gas due to system problems or due to drops in demand for seasonal or other reasons can cause pronounced increases in the effective cost of delivered gas. The high discount rates applicable to development funds or to the scarce capital of the communal or small scale farming areas greatly exaggerate the impact of this effect. The prospects for economic application of biogas substitution in large scale irrigation or seasonal stock watering are thus much less bright than those for small scale continuous pumping.

The limited regional experience with biogas fuelled diesel does not suggest a bright economic forecast for even the most favored of applications. In a particularly well documented installation in Botswana, a 20 m3 Indian type plant provides approximately 80% of the fuel for a 6 kW

diesel stock watering pump operating about 6 hours daily, the year round. Even for this installation, a model plant of optimal scale, designed and supervised by experts and operating continuously on free manure, the effective cost of biogas fuel is equivalent to that of imported diesel, under economic assumptions comparable to the Zimbabwean situation. It does not appear, at this time, that biogas generatorswill offer substantial economic advantages in most diesel pumping installations, large or small.

A demonstration plant being built with international support at Kushinga Phikelele will in all probability confirm the feasibility of provision of biogas engine power, and hence mechanical pumping and electrification, as well as heat and light, from a larger multipurpose biogas system. The actual economics of such a system remain to be seen, but the general utility of biogas in stationary institutional uses is likely to favor this type of installation over single purpose plants for which less costly conventional substitutes are available.

The advantages of increased fuel autonomy may be significant in particularly remote locations, and other special circumstances may support the use of biogas in others. But, in view of the difficulty of financing boreholes and diesel engines themselves, the high additional capital costs of biogas systems will prove a great barrier to their use. Unless the cost and reliability of biogas generation can be greatly improved, the prospect for a significant contribution to pumping or other rural mechanical applications from this technology seem slight.

Photovoltaics

Photovoltaic devices are synthetic crystalline substances which convert light energy directly to electricity. Groups of photovoltaic cells, each capable of generating a small amount of power, can be configured in arrays to any voltage or power capacity. The electricity generated when the cells are exposed to sunlight can be stored in batteries for later use, used directly as generated or electronically conditioned to characteristics suitable for a particular application.

Since the actual output characteristics of photovoltaic arrays are contingent on the amount of light instantaneously incident upon them, such storage and conditioning are necessary for applications which cannot simply £01 low the diurnal and other variations in availability of energy. The batteries and equipment for storage and conditioning are expensive, frequently doubling the cost of a photovoltaic installation.

Pumping applications rarely require such additional electrical equipment. The scheduling of irrigation is not particularly critical. And the unmatched timing of stock and domestic water demand can be accommodated much less expensively with water storage tanks than with batteries.

Thegreatest advantage of photovoltaic devices is that, since the arrays themselves are solid state and are rarely fitted with mechanical tracking apparatus, they normally require little or no operation and maintenance expense.

The initial cost of the photovoltaic arrays themselves are extremely high, however, and may more than compensate for the absence of recurrent charges. This loading of cost on initial capital is a serious economic disadvantage in the high discount rate conditions of small scale farming or development aid. High fixed amortization charges have a dramatic impact on the cost per unit of energy usefully delivered in applications where system capacity 1s underutilized through seasonal or other variation in demand. The high initial capital cost also increases the risk posed by wilful or accidental damage.

Photovoltaic systems are far too expensive to be economically competitive with electric pumping where mains service is available. Nor are photovoltaic systems competitive with large scale diesel irrigation, for which economies of scale and the direct dependence of cost upon seasonal demand are significant factors. The extremely high capitalization charges of photovoltaics would, inanycase, preclude use of the technology on a large scale, in view of the competing demands and constraints on development spending.

The long run costs of photovoltaic pumping come closer to those of competing alternatives in small scale irrigation, where excess capacity in the minimum scale of diesel equipment available raises the effective cost of delivered energy. However, the far higher initial cost of photovoltaic systems imposes a financial barrier insurmountable by small farmers whose limited capital resources and elevated discount rates dispose them to avoid capital expenses in the present at the cost of increased recurrent charges in the future. The efforts of development agencies to circumvent this problem through organization of group purchase and equipment sharing schemes have met with little success because of management problems and the increased risk of costly equipment damage in multiple user schemes, as well as because of extreme financial scarcity.

If photovoltaic systems are uneconomic in irrigation, they are even less appropriate for stock watering. Due to the high fixed capital component of costs and the marked seasonality in stock watering demand, the cost per unit of energy usefully delivered from photovoltaic installations in this application would be considerably in excess of that from diesel engines, for which fixed charges are much lower.

The pumping application for which photovoltaic power is best suited is domestic water supply. Use in this application can exploit the full system capacity, showing little seasonal variation,yet can tolerate diurnal and other short term fluctuations in output by buffering supply with inexpensive tank storage. Most rural, mechanical l y pumped water supplies require only the lower power capacities for

w h i c h d i e s e l e n g i n e s a r e m o s t c o s t l y b u t f o r w h i c h p h o t o v o l t a i c s can be opt imal l y s i zed . Pho tovo l t a i c s w i l l n o t b e e c o n o m i c a l l y c o m p e t i t i v e i n s e t t i n g s w h e r e m a i n s e l e c t r i c i t y i s a v a i l a b l e o r where handpump s e r v i c e i s a d e q u a t e , b u t t h e y may become a t t r a c t i v e s u b s t i t u t e s f o r d i e s e l w a t e r s u p p l y , pumps i n l o c a t i o n s w h e r e t h e i r r e l i a b i l i t y and c a p a c ~ t y f o r un tended o p e r a t i o n would b e p a r t i c u l a r l y v a l u a b l e .

Animal Trac t ion

Animals, wide ly used f o r d raught and t r a n s p o r t power i n Zimbabwe, a r e n o t known t o h a v e been employed l o c a l l y f o r pumping. However, an ima l t r a c t i o n d e v i c e s a r e pe rhaps t h e o l d e s t non-human means of pumping and remain i n e x t e n s i v e use i n many p a r t s of t h e world.

Animal d r i v e n pumps can t a k e a v a r i e t y o f forms: t h e s i m p l e s t m e r e l y h i t c h t h e a n i m a l t o a l e v e r which p i v o t s , l i f t i n g and t hendumping a b u c k e t a s t h e an ima l w a l k s a l i n e , t h e n r e t u r n i n g t h e s t r o k e a s t h e an ima l r e t r a c e s i t s s t e p s . More advanced d e v i c e s t a k e a d v a n t a g e of c o n t i n u o u s r o t a r y power de r ived from one o r more an imals a t tached by s h a f t s t o a c e n t r a l p i v o t and walking i n a c i r c l e . Mechanical forms of energy a r e , i n p r i n c i p l e , i n t e r c o n v e r t i b l e through gea r s o r o t h e r mechanisms, s o t h e form i n which mechan ica l ene rgy i s de r ived need not be s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n which it i s u l t i m a t e l y used : r o t a r y d r i v e s can be c o u p l e d t h r o u g h t r a n s m i s s i o n d e v i c e s t o r ec ip roca t i ng pumps, and v i c e versa .

A w e l l d e s i g n e d t r a n s m i s s i o n a c h i e v e s o p t i m a l l y e f f i c i e n t c o u p l i n g b y m a t c h i n g t h e s p e e d , power a n d d i r e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of bo th i npu t and output dev i ce s , The d e g r e e t o w h i c h i t d o e s s o i s c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e m a t e r i a l s , d e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s and f a b r i c a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e producer.

T r a d i t i o n a l animal t r a c t i o n pumps have evo lved under t h e l i m i t s o f t r a d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s and c o n s t r u c t i o n methods. Ext raord inary examples e x i s t , bu t most such pumps a r e c rude ly b u i l t , and o f t e n u n r e l i a b l e . Some of t h e problem l i e s i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n m e c h a n i s m s , b u t a good p a r t o f i t i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e l i m i t e d q u a l i t y and capac i t y of t h e pumps themselves.

I t augers i l l f o r t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n of ve rnacu l a r pumps t o a r e g i o n u n f a m i l i a r w i t h them t h a t t h e y a r e s o l i m i t e d e v e n where t h e i r cons t ruc t i on and use b e n e f i t s from t h e p r a c t i s e d f a m i l i a r i t y of long t r a d i t i o n . I n any case , most t r a d i t i o n a l pumping systems a r e designed f o r low l i f t s from open hand-dug w e l l s , n o t f o r t h e h i g h l i f t s i n c o n s t r i c t e d b o r e h o l e s necessary t o reach t h e deep water t a b l e s p r e v a i l i n g i n much of Zimbabwe.

The f a c t t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l a n i m a l d r i v e n pumping mechanisms a r e n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t r a c t i v e f o r use i n Zimbabwe s h o u l d n o t d i s c r e d i t t h e p o s s i b l e u se of an ima l power i n modern v e r s i o n s o f such mechanisms. The p a s t decade 's enthusiasm f o r "appropr ia te" technology has matured

in a renewed appreciation of the benefits to be found in marriage of modern materials, design principles and techniques with indigenous resources and traditional processes. This approach is just beginning to be applied to animal powered mechanical drive systems, and the results are promising, if not yet all that might be hoped for.

One such modern animal drive pumping system has been designed and built in Botswana. It consists of a four stage gear and v-belt transmission, coupling three to six mulesor oxen, walking a ten meter circle at three revolutions per minute, to a small centrifugal shallow well pump operating at a design speed of 1500 rpm. Field tests being performed on a prototype indicate that the basic performance of the mechanism is satisfactory, but that the system has some problems. Animals operating the pump cannot maintain the four to five hour daily shifts they are expected to serve. And the capital cost of the system is high, about $5000.00.

It appears that the initial estimates of the power available from individual animals were somewhat high, as they were derived from measurements of the capacity of healthy grade stock such as is foundon the large scale farms, rather than the seasonally undernourished range animals typical of the small scale farm areas. The high starting torque attendant on the radical speed conversion contributes to the excessive difficulty experienced by relatively weak stock. It is also a principal factor in the cost of the machine, necessitating use of high strength bearings and gears.

The problem of misestimation of the actual work capacity of animals can be accommodated with a minor design adjustment. The problems £01 lowing from the radical speed increase required for the centrifugal pump are less tractable. Use of positive displacement rotary or piston pumps operating at lower speeds would almost certainly allow construction of more satisfactory animal-driven pumping systems at a reduced cost. It seems likely that a modest engineering effort would soon result in considerable improvement in the technology.

Animal traction pumps are inherently small scale devices, since the average draught animal can deliver, on a regular basis, only one-half kW or less for four to five hours a day. The technology is clear1 y not suited to large scale pumping. In smal ler scale applications, including irrigation, stock watering and domestic water supply, preliminary figures suggest that improved animal tractlon systems may become the most economic of pumping devices in remote rural areas where animals are kept for other uses. Although the labor involved in the care and handling of animals must be counted a cost of animal powered systems, the economies inherent in the complementary timing of demand for draught power and for irrigation or stock watering, should help to keep the effective cost of operation to a minimum, In addition, the possibility of applying some pumped water to production of the extra rations required for maintenance of animal strength in the dry season, could help in this regard.

The capital cost of boreholes, storage and distribution equipment will remain a barrier to installation, as will the absolute shortage of draught stock in many sites. But in view of the general scarcity of capital for rural development and the scant likelihood of tractorization of draught processes in the communal and small scale farming areas, animal traction mechanisms appear to have unusual potential to contribute to development through provision of economical power. The prospects for their doing so will hlnge on further work on the design and local manufacture of appropriate mechanisms.

9 . CONCLUSION

This paper has reviewed the prospects for significant new use of alternative energy technologies in the domestic and agricultural sectors of Zimbabwe. The assessment has been oriented to applications of potential national significance, in terms of conservation or substitution of scarce fuels or provision of valuable services. The availability of primary renewable fuels has been examined and technologies based on available fuels have been screened for their basic technical capacity to meet the requirements of the applications identified. Tine prospects for adoption of the selected technologies have been reviewed in a discussion of the technical, economic and social factors which condition their actual suitability to the applications and constrain the ability of prospective users to adopt them.

This discussion has been on the whole sceptical and discursive, raising the issues which generally affect the choice of technology, especially those which impede innovation, rather than attempting precise evaluation of the "optimality" of each type of device. As the discussion makes clear, many variables other than the easily quantified financial factors exercise a determinant influence on technical choice, and many of these variables are highly contextual.

The discussion of the prospects for application of the alternative technologies indicates that two types of devlces have the potential to make substantial contributions to Zimbabwe's national energy economy through roles in the domestic and agricultural sectors. Improved and more efficient hearths and stoves could help to reduce the demand on fuelwood for rural domestic cooking and could improve the convenience, safety and health impact of cooking and heating. Simple lowering of the height of the iron grate could nearly double its cooking efficiency at no cost. Poor stoves can be much worse in both efficiency and convenience than the open fire, but a well designed high mass stove could eliminate problems with safety and indoor smoke pollution, and provide a water heating or baking facility with no loss in efficiency. Animal traction devices based on modern transmission mechanisms and pumps could dramatically lower

the cost and improve access to pumping and other mechanical drive applications in the communal and small farm areas.

Other renewable energy technologies are likely to have much lesser roles. Producer gas substitution for diesel fuel could be useful in sites with wood resources sufficiently abundant to support charcoal production, although general application must await development of a generator capable of using raw biomass without passing engine damaging tars. Biogas may find limited application in institutional sites where access to capital is relatively good and where the multipurpose capacity of biogas is particularly useful. Management problems and the high construction costs preclude domestic use of biogas, however. Photovoltaics may also find limited application in institutional settings where electricity is particularly valuable, but are far too expensive for use in pumping or other applications requiring high output capacity. Solar water heaters are too costly for use by any but the high income households of the urban low density areas, for which they are only marginally economic.

Intensive efforts to support further development and extension of improved hearths and stoves and animal traction mechanisms are well warranted by the potential value of these technologies. The efficiency and reliability of these ancient technologies can be greatly enhanced by selective use of modern materials and design principles while preserving the advantages of their integration into the traditional domestic and agricultural practices and environment. The sorry history of "appropriate" technology promotion points up the danger of naive "improvement" however, and confirms the importance of field testing prior to promotion.

The prospects for application of other renewable energy technologies are too limited to justify extensive programs of promotion. Some further exploration of the economics of possible use of charcoal or coal based producer gas would be worthwhile, as would a search for generator designs capable of safely handling raw fuel. Appraisal of multipurpose institutional scale biogas economics might be valuable, as would efforts to develop less expensive biogas generation and storage tanks. Development and cost reduction of solar water heaters and photovoltaics will be done adequately by local or international commercial firms. A program to monitor and evaluate the economics and performance of these devices would be quite useful, however, both for potential investors and for future reconsideration as prices change and further information develops.

Many useful technologies were not discussed in this report because they are unsuited to the domestic and agricultural applications identified for this report or because they are based on primary energy resources not available on a nationally significant scale. Some of these technologies, as well as some of those given a second priority in the discussion above, will find very valuable application in particular settings in the domestic and agricultural sectors and in other sectors. then considering

t h e choice of technology f o r a s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n and s e t t i n g , the f u l l range of po ten t i a l technologies should be evaluated according t o l o c a l conditions.

G e n e r a l i z a t i o n on a n a t i o n a l s c a l e can s c a r c e l y be considered d e f i n i t i v e . I t i s t o be hoped, however, t h a t t h i s r e p o r t has c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e development of a sense of p r i o r i t i e s f o r r e s e a r c h , d e v e l o p m e n t and s u p p o r t f o r renewable energy d e v i c e s p o t e n t i a l l y capab le of p l a y i n g a u s e f u l r o l e i n d e v e l o p m e n t of two of Zimbabwe's most important sectors .

FOOTNOTES

(1) Climatological Data i n t h i s sect ion taken from: Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe, and R a i n f a l l Report - Season 1 9 8 0 / 8 1 ; P u b l i s h e d by Zimbabwe D e p a r t m e n t o f Meteorological Services.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

D. Q. Chandiwana holds degrees in Geography from the University of Freetown and Urban and Regional Planning from SUNY-Binghamton. She is currently a Planning Officer with the Energy Department of the Zimbabwean Ministry of Energy and Water Resources and Development.

Charles Chidiya holds a first degree in Business Administration and is a Planning Officer with the Energy Department of the Zimbabwean Ministry of Energy and Water Resources and Development.

Jeffrey Dowd served as a Peace Corps volunteer in Swaziland after finishing his BSc from Drexel University. He also holds an MSc from Princeton University and is currently finishing his PhD in Energy Management and Policy from the University of Pennsylvania.

Thomas N. Harris graduated from Amherst College in Biochemistry. He lives outside Amherst Massachusetts and specializes in the analysis of new and renewable energy systems and the social context of their deployment.

Richard Hosier was CO-Project Manager of the Zimbabwe Energy Accounting Project. He holds a PhD in Geography from Clark University and is currently Assistant Professor of City and Regional Planning and Energy Management and Policy at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia.

Kirsten Johnson holds a PhD in Geography from Clark University and specializes in the analysis of social and environmental impacts of development projects. She currently works for CARE as the director of an agroforestry program in Bolivia.

Yemi Katarere earned a PhD in Forestry specializing in entymology from the University of Idaho. He is currently Associate Director of the Zimbabwean Forestry Commission based in Harare.

Sam Moyo is an economist and a geographer working on issues in rural development as a Research Associate at the Zimbabwe Institute of Development Studies.

D. K. Munasirei is a geographer specializing in tropical geomorphology and soils. He is currently attached to the Department of Land Management of the University of Zimbabwe.

Daniel Weiner has completed a PhD in Geography from Clark University, and is currently engaged in research on agricultural development in Southern Africa* He is an assistant professor in the department of Geography and Planning at the University of Toledo.

AED 21 Afforestation 2, 210 Agricultural Marketing

Authority (AMA) 20, 28 Agricultural and Rural Developmen

Authority (ARDA) 26, 28, 64 Agriculture

distribution of cultivated lands 67-70

economic efficiency of 22 energetic analysis 20, 35-45 energy consumption of 32-35 energy efficiency of 21 energy inputs 16, 21-23 fertilizer and pesticide

use 21-23, 47-49 fuel use 201,205 productivity of 170 subsistence 12 uneven development of 52

Agriculture, Ministry of 28, 36, 39

Agritex 25, 53, 60, 64, 69 Agro-ecological zones 23-25,

60-61, 65 and fuel-use patterns 90 and land-use categories 61-63 high-potential regions 9 marginal areas 28 non-utilizable lands 71-72 percent cultivated 67-70

Agroforestry 137, 176, 177, 180, 181

Akinwume, J. 21 Alam, M., et al. 84 Alvord, E.D. 117 Animal residue 161, 167 Appropriate technologies 111,

214, 241 Arrighi, G. 28 Ascough, W.J. 146, 147, 157 ASTRA 8, 9 A.T. Zim Services Ltd. 146, 149 Bajracharya, D. 84 Barnes, C., et. al. 85 Beijer Institute 8, 9, 116, 126, 185

Biogas 2, 235 generators 221-223, 227, 236

Biomass 180, 234 opportunity costs of 85 woody 111

Botswana 235, 239 Briscoe, J. 8, 85 Brokensha, D. et. al. 8, 126

Browne, M. 39 t Brownstone, D. 93

Brush, S. 138 Callear, D. 120, 127, 130 Catterson, T.M. 176 Cecelski, E., et. al. 136 Central Statistical Office (CSO) 15, 28, 36, 37, 60, 63,

87, 113, 114, 115 Chadzingwa, J. 157 Charcoal 211, 234, 241

stoves 156 Chavunduka, G. L. 11 3 Cheater, A. 127 Coal 201

based producer gas 241 household use of 88-89 stoves 156

Cole, R.S. 55, 73 Colonialism 113-114 Commercial Farmers Union (CFU)

36, 37 Communal Areas 12, 28-29, 63

energy efficiency of, 39-42 percent cultivated 67-68 population pressure on 68 as Tribual Trust Lands 86

Communal woodlots 135 Community Development & ilomen's

Affairs, Ministry of 117, 126, 129, 130, 132, 135, 138

Compost 47-49 Conservation and Extension,

Department of 73 Construction

wood requirements 180, 210 Cost benefit analysis 215, 218 Craft production 121 Crops

cash 129-130 cotton 38, 69-70 energy consumption by 33-35 maize 59, 70 production by age & gender 129 rotation of 120

Crop residue 111, 161, 167, 212, 230, 234

Deforestation 114, 185-196 de Jong, J. 36, 44

Development agricultural 20 rural 2, 111-112 local/community 112 top-down 111

DEVRES 126 Dickenson, H. 21 Domestic Cookstove Performance

Testing Project 143 Donnelly, K. 157 Dubin, J.A. et. al. 93 Dung 111, 161, 212, 213 Dunne, T. et. al. 187, 188 ECA 126 Electricity

household choice of 95 household use of 84, 88, 95, 155

Hwange generation plant 86 Kariba dam complex 86 urban vs. rural use 201

Elwell, H.A. 187, 188 Energy

Department of 2, 110, 116, 224

end-use demand 201 ladder 83-85 and Water Resources, Ministry of 146

Energy planning demand-side 7, 16, 199 in developing countries 6 end-use models 5 LEAP model 6, 21, 165, 167, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204

reduced-form model 4 supply-side 5

Energy Systems Research Groups 165

Environmental degradation 176, 185

and livestock 50 impact by gender 131

Erosivity 186 FAO 22, 33, 177 Farms 11, 86 (See also

Communal Areas) large-scale commercial 12,

28, 63 small-scale commercial 11,

21, 26-28, 31, 63 environmental threats to

114

intensity of cultivation 68-70

productivity of 73 Fleuret, P.C. & A.K. 8, 126 Foreign exchange 2, 45 Forest lands 66-67

indigenous 71

Forestry Commission 64, 66, 182

Fournier, F. 189 French, D. 85 Fuels

in agricultural production 32-35

commercial vs. non- commercial 6, 99-104, 11 2

consumption patterns 88, 90, 96, 202-204

substitution of 4, 83-84, 99-105

Fuel wood consumption pattern 88 commodification of 12, 85,

112 dependence on 200 depletion of standing stocks 167

forestry of 171 household choice of 95 how obtained 163 shortages 114, 201, 210 sources of 163, 210 storage of 162, 210 transport of 164 types of 162, 177-179, 185

Gelfand, M. 117 Gill, J. 136, 157 Goett, A.A. 93 Grant, P. 55 Graham 135 Green, M. 21, 22 Griffen, K. 55 Harris, T. 142, 143, 158, 159 Haswell, M. 21 Haugerud, A. 126 Henderson Research Station 188 Hlekweni Training Center 224 Hosier, R. 8, 9, 85, 86, 87,

126 Hoskins, M. 112, 135, 136

Households 126 energy consumption 15 energy decisions 85, 87 fuel choice 91-92, 99, 102 fuel use 84-85, 201 heads of 115 labor 116 size 170 urban 15, 99

Howard, C. 56 Hudson, N.\{. 187, 188 Hwange coal-fired plant 86 Hymen, E.L. 85 Intermediate technologies 134 Irrigation 231, 233, 237 Ivy, P. 56, 74 Jackson, J.C. 188 Johnson, J. 8, 9 Juma, C. 86 Kariba dam complex 86 Katerere, Y. 185 Kay, G. 194. 195 Kennes, W . et. al. 84 Kenyan Fuelwood Project 9 Kerosene

household choice of 95-97 household use of 88-90

King, K.F.S. 177 Kinsey, B.H. 74, 119 Labor

affect of wood shortage on 170

distribution by age & gender 116-119, 122, 125, 132

household 116 reserve in Communal Areas

2 8 Land Apportionment Act 86 Lands Resettlement & Rural

Development, Ministry of (MLRRD) 26, 64, 74

LDC Energy Alternative Planning Program (LEAP). (See Energy planning)

Lewis, 0. 21 Livestock

control of 120, 129 draught animal power 49-52,

111, 238-240 watering of 231, 237

Luce, R. 92 Mangombe, F. 37 Mblinyi, M. 140 Mburu, O.M. 177

McFadden, D. 92 McGarry, Father 157, 158 Mechanical tillage 50-52 Meteorological Services,

Department of 207, 209, 242 Meyer, L.D. 197 Mtisi, J. 57 Muchena, O.N. 117, 120 Mudimo, C. 57 Muir, K. 49 Multinomial logit model 93 Mumbengegwi, C. 20 National Household Energy Survey

15, 87 Natural Regions 25, 61-64 (See also Agro-ecological zones)

fuel-use patterns in 90 Natural Resources & Tourism,

Ministry of 64 O'Keefe, P. et. al. 23, 85 Oleche, F. 8, 9 Openshaw, K. 8 Owen, F. 120 Palmer, R. 28 Paraffin 155, 161, 205 Parks and wildlife areas 64-65

Hwange National Park 65 Matetsi and Deka Safari

areas 65 Perelman, M. 23 Peterson, R. 58 Petroleum 201 Pimental, D. and M. 22, 23 Pitt, M. 109 Population 113-114, 119-120

1969 Census 113 1982 Census 60, 64

Producer gas generators 229, 233-235, 241

Rald, J. 140 Rappaport, F. 21

Reddy, A.K.N. et. al. 8, 9, 85 Renewable resources 2, 207-214 Resettlement Programs 13, 17,

8 7 and agricultural land use

45-47, 64, 69 energy surveys of 42-43 Model A (individual) 29-31 Model B (cooperative) 31

Residential fuel choice, national-level 94 suburbs 86

Revelle, R. 8 Vegetation cover 187 Rice, E.B. et. al. 74 Vincent, V. et. al. 60 Rodel, M. et. al. 58 Wage remittances 119 Rural growth Water

and service centers 17 drinking 206 -with-equity 1, 12, 20, 45, heating 205, 227

5 3 power 111, 208, 209 Rural energy centers 9 pumps 232 Rural industries 17 Wattle Company 211 Rural energy studies 8, 14 Weiner, D. et. al. 87

energy ecosystem 10 Weinrich, A.K.H. 116, 117, 120 energy supply/demand 8, 15 wood supply/demand 9 Whitall, P.C. 198

Rural Energy Survey 111, 116, Whitlow, J.R. 60, 64, 65, 67, 68, 118-120, 122-124, 129, 130, 160 114 173, 180 (See also Zimbabwe Whitsun Foundation 8, 28, 49, Energy Accounting Program) 114

Rural Energy System 11 Wiltshire, J.E.B. 75 Sandford, S. 50 Wind power 207, 208 Saunders, C.R. 74 Wischmeier, W.H. et. al. 186 Screenivas, L. et. al. 187, 188 Wisner, B. 23, 131, 137 SIDA 177 Uoodland depletion 120, 185 Silveira House 224 Woodlots 112 Skutch, M. 135 World Bank 5, 56, 184 Soil Yapa, L. 22 depletion 120, 176 Zambia Forestry Department 184 erosion 114, 185-198 Zimbabwe

Solar economy 86-87 cookers 221 Zimbabwe Energy Accounting energy 2, 207 Program (ZEAP) 1, 6, 8, photovoltaics 236, 241 10, 87, 111, 143, 149, 157,

Southern African Regional 183,200 (See also Rural Commission for the Energy Survey) Conservation and Utilization methodology of 60 of the Soil (SARCCUS) 194 Zimbabwe Institute of

Stocking, M.A. et. al. 186, Development Studies (ZIDS) 189, 190, 194, 195 45

Stoneman, C. 86 Zimbabwe National Household Stoves 142-155, 220, 224, 240 Energy Survey 84

fuel efficiency of 155-157 logit model applied to 94 Sudan 179 Zimbabwe Power Sector Tattersfield, J.R. 49 Development Plan 5 Technology Zimbabwe Women's Bureau 126,

availability by gender 129, 132, 135 120-121, 132

need for by project 137 Theisan, P. 58 Tinker, I. 126 Transnational National

Development Plan 1 Truscott, K. 58 UNIDO 17 van Gelder, B. 182

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