Developing the Research Proposal file– Formulation of a research proposal requires the investigator to • specify the problem and related components ... Selection of the Problem

Chapter 2 Lecture

Research Techniques: For the Health Sciences

Fifth Edition

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Developing the Research Proposal

Agyen Kwaku James

Developing the Research Proposal

•  To be successful, the researcher must have a detailed plan as well as an overall conceptualization of the problem.

•  Research Proposal –  Formulation of a research proposal requires

the investigator to • specify the problem and related components • elaborate on the significance of the

research to the health profession • review related literature • outline the appropriate methodology within

an equitable time frame © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Selection of the Problem

•  One of the most difficult tasks confronting the beginner is to select a researchable problem.

•  Tackling an exotic issue often makes the problem either too broad or too narrow in scope.

•  Many factors should be considered in the ultimate selection.


Selection of the Problem (cont'd)

•  Factors involved in the selection (Bailey, 1994): –  Interest: The researcher should be interested

in pursuing the problem, have the appropriate background and career interests, and develop the required skills

–  Operability: The researcher should have both the resources and the time available to complete the study

–  Scope: The study must be manageable and relevant in terms of conclusions and inferences

–  Theoretical and practical values: The research should contribute to the health field and be beneficial to health practitioners


Selection of the Problem (cont'd) – Health paradigm: The school of thought or

model employed by the researcher – Values of the researcher: The researcher

should be aware of his or her own values and how they may prejudice or bias the study

– Research methodology: The researcher must be certain that hypotheses are well written and that appropriate criteria are used to interpret the data

– Reactivity: The method of data collection should be scrutinized for reactivity of the participants, or the Hawthorne effect


Selection of the Problem (cont'd)

– Unit of analysis: The researcher must ascertain if the unit of analysis is an individual or an entire population

– Time frame: The researcher must have a feasible amount of time to conduct the study

– Budget: The researcher should write a budget and include such things as costs, travel, and postage


Sources of Problems

•  The problem must be researchable. •  At the outset, look around at the

immediate environment; it teems with researchable problems.

•  Many problems lend themselves to investigation.

•  Textbooks, periodicals, seminar reports, and conference proceedings can introduce the mind into the research world.

•  Indices and abstracts provide valuable sources for research ideas.


Sources of Problems (cont'd)

•  University faculty can be the impetus for health research.

•  Consultation with experienced faculty

is desirable to check operability, significance, and value.


Statement of the Problem

•  Offers focus and direction in the research proposal.

•  It can be written either as a question or as a declarative statement.

•  It must be written clearly and concisely. •  Each word of the statement should be definitive,

indispensable, and expressive. •  It should be such that it can be read and

understood by anyone without the researcher's presence.


Research Questions •  Should be specific to the topic and

population. •  Parameters are established within the

statement of the problem. •  The ideas of the researcher must be

clearly stated. •  Clichés, colloquialisms, slang, and jargon

obscure thought and should be avoided when research is edited.

•  Sometimes the use of a research question indicates that the research project is not experimental and does not lend itself to the formulation of hypotheses.


Components Comprising the Setting of the Problem •  Even with focus, direction, and a

means to stay on course, further delineation may be necessary.

•  It is important to indicate what limitations, delimitations, and assumptions surround the problem, as well as to define terms that may be new to the reader.

•  Assumptions made, if any, must be specified.


Components Comprising the Setting of the Problem (cont'd)

•  Limitations – The boundaries of the problem

established by factors or people other than the researcher.

•  Delimitations – Deal with the boundaries but are set by

the researcher. – An answer to the question, What are the

precise limits of the problems? – Rule out the peripheral considerations,

allowing the researcher to concentrate on the central effort. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Components Comprising the Setting of the Problem (cont'd) •  Assumptions

– Condition that is taken for granted and without which the research effort would be impossible.

– Believed to be a fact but cannot be verified as one.

•  Definition of Terms – Many research studies employ terms

that may have special meaning to the study itself.

– Researchers must define each term as it relates to the project at hand. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Formulation of Hypotheses •  Hypotheses

–  May be included in components that comprise the setting of the problem but is considered separately because of its significance to the problem.

•  A hypothesis is a:

–  logical supposition –  reasonable guess –  suggested answer to a problem statement or

research question •  A hypothesis provides further direction for the

research effort by setting forth a possible explanation for an occurrence.


Formulation of Hypotheses (cont'd)

•  There are two types of approaches appropriate for developing hypothesis statements: –  Inductive Reasoning

•  A generalization is made based on relationships that have been observed.

– Deductive Reasoning •  The researcher begins with a theoretical tenet and

then makes a prediction as to how it can be applied to a specific situation.


Formulation of Hypotheses (cont'd) •  Generally, a hypothesis should:

1.  be stated clearly and concisely 2.  express the relationship between two

or more variables 3.  be testable

•  The purpose of testing a hypothesis is to ascertain the probability that it is suggested by fact.

•  The acceptance or rejection of a hypothesis is based on fact rather than on a preconceived bias.


Research Hypotheses

•  Researchers may state a scientific or research hypothesis as a prediction of the outcome of the test–this is called a research hypothesis


Null Hypotheses •  Hypotheses are rephrased into a negative

or null form when it is difficult to obtain unequivocal support for them.

•  The null hypothesis asserts that minor

differences between the variables can occur because of chance errors, and thus are not significant differences.

•  Testing of a null hypothesis reveals either

that some force or factor has resulted in a statistical difference or that it has not resulted in such a difference.


Null Hypotheses (cont'd) •  When rejected, the researcher will probe

deeper into the problem to discover what has caused the difference and how.

•  If the researcher rejects a null hypothesis, then the research hypothesis is accepted.

•  If the research hypothesis is accepted,

then the next step is to explore the dynamics underlying the differences.

•  The research effort should not stop with rejection of the null hypothesis.


Significance and Justification of the Problem •  In a research proposal, the researcher

has an opportunity to explain why the research effort is so important.

•  The relevance needs to be stated in a way that the layperson will comprehend.

•  The researcher must be able to justify the study by explaining how the project will further knowledge and extend theory.

•  The researcher should be very familiar with and able to articulate any opposing viewpoints through a thorough review and critical analysis of the literature.


Résumé of Related Literature

•  The more one knows about similar research, the more likely it is the study can be conducted in an intelligent, comprehensible fashion.

•  Everything reviewed should serve as an aid in confronting the problem.

•  Similar studies should be checked for: –  population and sampling techniques –  study design, including data-gathering

instruments –  variables measured –  extraneous variables that influenced findings –  recommendations for future research –  findings and conclusions


Résumé of Related Literature (cont'd)

•  The researcher should commence a literature review early so that he or she can: – define the problem statement – develop components that comprise

the setting of the problem –  justify the study – plan the design


Methodology or Proposed Research Procedures •  A detailed research plan must be

outlined to include: – sampling techniques – methodological steps –  instruments employed – administration of instruments – data required – method of analyzing data


Budget Considerations

•  Researchers should review such expenditures as: – subject payments – duplication of materials – Postage – Travel – software


Time Schedule & Research Proposal Checklist •  Time Schedule

–  An invaluable device to assist in the budgeting of time and energy.

–  Time is limited and academic deadlines are rarely negotiable.

–  Dividing the research effort into operable portions with realistic dates also helps organization and reduces procrastination.

•  Research Proposal Checklist

–  The research proposal is the initial step in developing the research project.

–  The investigator should check each area. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Documents

Developing the Research Proposal file– Formulation of a research proposal requires the investigator to • specify the problem and related components ... Selection of the Problem