Reading a complex process some have likenedto rocket science (Moats 1999) has become lessof a mystery in recent years Reports such asthat from the National Reading Panel (NRP2000) have highlighted extensive research that

details how to best teach beginning reading Topics in theNRP report include phonemic awareness phonics instruc-tion comprehension computer technology and readingfluency Fluency in particular has received an increasingamount of attention

Kuhn and Stahl (2003) reviewed the literature forfluency used during developmental and remedial instruc-tion and concluded that teachers should use fluency in-struction more often because of the benefits to readingFluency serves as a bridge between decoding words andcomprehension (Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui amp Tarver2004) Moreover oral reading fluency has been shown topredict comprehension better than such direct measuresof reading comprehension as questioning retelling andcloze (Fuchs Fuchs amp Hosp 2001)

156 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC VOL 41 NO 3 JANUARY 2006 (PP 156ndash160)

Developing ReadingFluency With

RepeatedReading

WILLIAM J THERRIEN AND

RICHARD M KUBINA JR

How can teachers best provide fluency instructionfor their students One answer lies in a technique calledrepeated reading Repeated reading represents an educa-tional strategy for building reading fluency in which astudent rereads a passage until meeting a criterion level(Dahl 1977 Samuels 1979) Research shows that repeatedreading can facilitate growth in reading fluency and otheraspects of reading achievement (Adams 1990 NRP2000 Therrien 2004) We present four elements to con-sider when deciding whether and how to implement re-peated reading

Determine If Students Have the Necessary Prerequisite Skills

Regardless of present grade level repeated reading ap-pears beneficial for students who read between a first-and third-grade instructional level The interventionmay also be useful for students who although able to de-

Repeated reading has gained popularity as a tech-

nique for helping students achieve reading fluency It

is widely implemented and can be used for students

with and without disabilities Repeated reading has

several components that make it more efficient

This article shares those components and provides

a framework for setting up and using repeated read-

ing in the classroom

VOL 41 NO 3 JANUARY 2006 157

code words above a third-grade level read in a slow halt-ing manner Repeated reading is not recommended forstudents who read below a first-grade level as they haveyet to acquire foundational reading skills (eg letterndashsound correspondences blending words)

The research base for repeated reading covers non-disabled students (Bryant et al 2000 OrsquoShea Sindelar ampOrsquoShea 1985 Rasinski Padak Linek amp Sturtevant 1994)students with learning disabilities (Bryant et al 2000Freeland Skinner Jackson McDaniel amp Smith 2000Gilbert Williams amp McLaughlin 1996 Mathes amp Fuchs1993 Mercer Campbell Miller Mercer amp Lane 2000OrsquoShea Sindelar amp OrsquoShea 1987 Rashotte amp Torgesen1985 Sindelar Monda amp OrsquoShea 1990 Vaughn ChardBryant Coleman amp Kouzekanani 2000) high-functioningstudents with autism (Kamps Barbetta Leonard amp Del-quadri 1994) and students with low vision (Koenig ampLayton 1998) The intervention has also been used success-fully with students in second (Dowhower 1987) througheighth (Mercer et al 2000) grades who have an instruc-tional reading level between first (Weinstein amp Cooke1992) and fifth grade (Homan Klesius amp Hite 1993)

It is instructive to think of repeated reading within thecontext of stages of learning Mercer and Mercer (2001)described stages of learning as levels through which a stu-dent progresses As the student advances through thestages of learning the skill or behavior becomes increas-ingly more functional The stages of learning progress asfollows

1 entry level 2 acquisition 3 proficiency 4 maintenance 5 generalization and 6 adaptation

Teachers provide instruction in the acquisition stage andhelp foster an accurate performance of a skill At the pro-

ficiency stage the aim is to develop fluency or a behaviorthat can be performed with both accuracy and speed(Mercer amp Mercer 2001) Thus repeated reading can bethought of as a well-organized practice strategy resultingin sharpened decoding skills

Choose an Appropriate Format for the Intervention

Repeated reading has been effectively implemented in avariety of formats Interventions have been successfullyconducted by teachers (Dowhower 1987 OrsquoShea et al1987) paraprofessionals (Mercer et al 2000) and peertutors (Rasinski et al 1994 Stoddard Valcante SindelarOrsquoShea amp Algozzine 1993) Repeated reading has alsobeen conducted as both a whole-class activity (Homan etal 1993 Simmons Fuchs Fuchs Mathes amp Hodge1995) and a pull-out program (OrsquoShea et al 1985 Sin-delar et al 1990) Whole class administration can be ac-complished with a peer-tutoring format Peer-tutoringhas been demonstrated to be both flexible and empiri-cally sound (Miller Barbetta amp Heron 1994) Interven-tion sessions should be conducted with sufficientfrequency ranging from 3 to 5 times a week Administra-tion of repeated reading requires a time commitment be-tween 10 to 20 min per session

Implement Essential Instructional Components

Figure 1 shows that there are three essential instructionalcomponents to include in a repeated reading intervention(Therrien 2004) First passages should be read aloudto a competent tutor Carefully selecting and preparingcompetent tutors is imperative because monitoring stu-dentsrsquo oral reading and providing feedback is directly tiedto program success A recent meta-analysis (Therrien

1 Passages should be read aloud to a competent tutor bull Tutors must be trained to monitor studentsrsquo oral reading and provide feedback

2 Corrective feedback should be provided Feedback on word errors

bull Student hesitates for 3 secondsprovide word and have student repeat it

bull Student mispronouncesomits wordprovide word after reading is complete but prior to rereading

Performance feedback

bull Provide student with feedback on reading speed and accuracy after each passage reading

3 Passages should be read until a performance criterion bull Read passages until student reaches a predetermined is reached fluency level

Figure 1 Repeated reading essential instructional components

158 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC

2004) found that repeated reading interventions con-ducted by adults or well-trained peer tutors were on aver-age three times more effective Teachers must thereforeensure that all tutors are taught the skills needed to mon-itor tuteesrsquo oral reading and provide effective and timelyfeedback Additionally teachers should closely monitorpeer groups during repeated reading sessions If studentshave difficulty monitoring peersrsquo oral reading and pro-viding feedback additional instruction should be given oradjustments made to the peer groupings

The second instructional component is providingcorrective feedback Feedback on word errors and readingspeed needs to be communicated to students Dependingon the type of word error tutors should either give im-mediate or delayed corrective feedback If the studenthesitates on a word for 3 s or omits a word error correctionshould be given immediately Otherwise error correctionshould be provided after the passage has been read butprior to having the tutee reread the passage Error cor-rection in both cases can be as simple as providing theword and asking the student to repeat it After each pas-sage reading tutors should provide performance feed-back to tutees on their reading speed and accuracy Forexample upon reaching the goal on the fourth readingthe tutor could say ldquoGreat job Sarah You made the goalYou read 118 words and only made 1 mistake That was11 more words and 3 fewer errors than the last time youread itrdquo Providing performance feedback often motivatesstudents as it allows them to explicitly see their progress

The third instructional component is to reread pas-sages until a performance criterion is reached To ensurethat students receive sufficient practice to become fluenteach passage should be reread until the student attains a

performance criterion goal Appropriate performance cri-terion should be selected based on the studentrsquos instruc-tional reading level Here are examples of performancecriteria based on grade levels second grade 94 correctwords per minute third grade 114 correct words perminute (Hasbrouck amp Tindal 1992) Although the use ofa performance criterion is recommended passagesshould in general be at a difficulty level where the studentcan achieve the goal in a reasonable amount of time If astudent consistently needs to reread passages for ex-tended periods of time to meet the criterion easier pas-sages should be used Similarly if a tutee is consistentlyable to reach criterion in a few readings more challengingpassages should be used

Select Appropriate Reading Material and Obtain Additional Supplies

Three items are necessary to conduct a repeated readingintervention instructional-level reading passages a timerand data-tracking sheets Passages within studentsrsquo instruc-tional level (ie passages read with 85 to 95 word ac-curacy) that can be read by students in 1 to 2 min arepreferable Many teachers may find that their schools al-ready have suitable reading materials If materials are notavailable teachers may purchase commercially preparedpassages A digital countdown timer or stopwatch isneeded for tutors to be able to track the reading rate ofthe tutee If unavailable tutors can be taught to timereadings using the classroom clock A tracking sheetshould be designed and used to record progress throughthe intervention (see Figure 2 for an example)

Figure 2 Sample repeated reading tracking sheet

VOL 41 NO 3 JANUARY 2006 159

Follow Repeated Reading Instructional Sequence

Repeated reading can become a routine for students eachday during reading instruction Steps involved with re-peated reading may occur with a teacher or paraprofes-sional assuming the permanent role of tutor or followingin the peer-tutor format procedure

1 Students pair up and gather their reading materialMaterials consist of the reading passage (100- to 200-word passages) at the instructional level a copy ofthe passage or a transparency and dry-erase markerand a data sheet

2 One student begins as the reader and the other stu-dent acts as the counter The student who is thecounter may also be the timer depending onwhether the teacher starts the timing for the groupor has the students time each other

3 When the timer begins the reader reads and thecounter marks incorrect or missed words on thereading passage Should a reader hesitate on a wordfor 3 s or more the counter should provide the wordand have the reader repeat it and continue readingIf using a transparency the reader puts the transpar-ency over her copy of the passage and places an X on missed words with the dry-erase pen

4 After the timer or teacher indicates the 1-min inter-val has ended the counter provides feedback and hasthe reader repeat the correct pronunciation forwords she missed

5 The counter records the number of words read errors and correct words per minute on the datatracking sheet

6 The student engages in another repeated reading byrereading the passage and receiving feedbackStudents can reread a passage up to 4 times per session (Rashotte amp Torgesen 1985)

7 Students switch roles and Steps 2 through 5 are repeated

8 The teacher and students end the repeated readingprocedure on a positive note

Conclusion

A call has been made for incorporating techniques to de-velop reading fluency in the classroom (Kuhn amp Stahl2003 NRP 2000 Rasinski 2000) Repeated reading di-rectly targets oral reading fluency and can easily be inte-grated in an existing reading program Previous researchhas shown that repeated reading is effective with a vari-ety of students including students with disabilities Usingessential instructional components and selecting appro-priate materials maximizes the effectiveness of repeated

reading Following the guidelines suggested in this arti-cle teachers can easily incorporate repeated reading intotheir existing classroom routines

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

William J Therrien PhD is an assistant professor at MiamiUniversity His current research interests include effective read-ing instruction for students with special needs and classroommanagement Richard M Kubina Jr PhD is an assistantprofessor at The Pennsylvania State University His current re-search interests include measurably effective technologies suchas precision teaching and direct instruction Address William JTherrien Miami University Department of Educational Psy-chology McGuffey Hall Oxford OH 45056

REFERENCES

Adams M J (1990) Beginning to read Thinking and learning about printCambridge MA MIT Press

Bryant D P Vaughn S Linan-Thompson S Ugel N Hamff Aamp Hougen M (2000) Reading outcomes for students with andwithout reading disabilities in general education middle-school con-tent area classes Learning Disability Quarterly 23 238ndash252

Carnine D W Silbert J Kamersquoenui E J amp Tarver S G (2004)Direct instruction reading (4th ed) Upper Saddle River NJ PrenticeHallMerrill

Dahl P R (1977) An experimental program for teaching high speedword recognition and comprehension skills In J E Burton T Lov-itt amp T Rowland (Eds) Communications research in learning disa-bilities and mental retardation (pp 33ndash65) Baltimore University ParkPress

Dowhower S L (1987) Effects of repeated reading on second-gradetransitional readersrsquo fluency and comprehension Reading ResearchQuarterly 22(4) 389ndash406

160 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC

Freeland J T Skinner C H Jackson B McDaniel C E amp SmithS (2000) Measuring and increasing silent reading comprehensionrates Empirically validating a repeated reading interventionPsychology in the Schools 37(5) 415ndash429

Fuchs L S Fuchs D amp Hosp M K (2001) Oral reading fluency asan indicator of reading competence A theoretical empirical andhistorical analysis Scientific Studies of Reading 5(3) 239ndash256

Gilbert L M Williams R L amp McLaughlin T F (1996) Use of as-sisted reading to increase correct reading rates and decrease errorrates of students with learning disabilities Journal of Applied Behav-ior Analysis 29(2) 255ndash257

Hasbrouck J E amp Tindal G (1992) Curriculum-based oral readingfluency norms for students in grades 2 through 5 Teaching Excep-tional Children 24(3) 41ndash44

Homan S P Klesius J P amp Hite C (1993) Effects of repeated read-ings and nonrepetitive strategies on studentsrsquo fluency and compre-hension The Journal of Educational Research 87(2) 94ndash99

Kamps D M Barbetta P M Leonard B R amp Delquadri J (1994)Classwide peer tutoring An integration strategy to improve readingskills and promote peer interactions among students with autismand general education peers Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis27(1) 49ndash61

Koenig A J amp Layton C A (1998) Increasing reading fluency in el-ementary students with low vision through repeated reading Jour-nal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 92(5) 276ndash292

Kuhn M R amp Stahl S A (2003) Fluency A review of developmen-tal and remedial practices Journal of Educational Psychology 95(1)3ndash21

Mathes P G amp Fuchs L S (1993) Peer-mediated reading instructionin special education resource rooms Learning Disability Research andPractice 8(4) 233ndash243

Mercer C D Campbell K U Miller M D Mercer K D amp LaneH B (2000) Effects of a reading fluency intervention for middleschoolers with specific learning disabilities Learning Disability Re-search and Practice 15(4) 179ndash189

Mercer C D amp Mercer A R (2001) Teaching students with learningproblems (6th ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice HallMerrill

Miller A D Barbetta P M amp Heron T A (1994) START tutoringDesigning training implementing adapting and evaluating tutor-ing programs for school and home settings In R Gardner D Sai-nato J Cooper T Heron W Heward J Eshleman amp T Grossi(Eds) Behavior analysis in education Focus on measurably superiorinstruction (pp 265ndash282) Belmont CA Brooks-Cole

Moats L C (1999) Teaching reading is rocket science What expert teach-ers of reading should know and be able to do Washington DCAmerican Federation of Teachers

National Reading Panel (2000) Report of the National Reading PanelTeaching children to read [Online] Available httpwwwnichdnihgovpublicationsnrp-pubskeycfm [2000 November 10]

OrsquoShea L J Sindelar P T amp OrsquoShea D J (1985) The effects of re-peated readings and attentional cues on reading fluency and com-prehension Journal of Reading Behavior 17(2) 129ndash141

OrsquoShea L J Sindelar P T amp OrsquoShea D J (1987) The effects of repeated reading and attentional cues on the reading fluency andcomprehension of learning disabled readers Learning Disabilities Re-search 2(2) 103ndash109

Rashotte C A amp Torgesen J K (1985) Repeated reading and read-ing fluency in learning disabled children Reading Research Quarterly20 180ndash188

Rasinski T V (2000) Speed does matter in reading The Reading Teacher54(2) 146ndash151

Rasinski T Padak N Linek W amp Sturtevant E (1994) Effects offluency development on urban second-grade readers The Journal ofEducational Research 87(3) 158ndash165

Samuels S J (1979) The method of repeated readings The ReadingTeacher 41 756ndash760

Simmons D C Fuchs L S Fuchs D Mathes P amp Hodge J P(1995) Effects of explicit teaching and peer tutoring on the readingachievement of learning-disabled and low-performing students inregular classrooms The Elementary School Journal 95(5) 387ndash408

Sindelar P T Monda L E amp OrsquoShea L J (1990) Effects of re-peated readings on instructional- and mastery-level readers TheJournal of Educational Research 83(4) 220ndash226

Stoddard K Valcante G Sindelar P T OrsquoShea L amp Algozzine B(1993) Increasing reading rate and comprehension The effects ofrepeated readings sentence segmentation and intonation trainingReading Research and Instruction 32(4) 53ndash65

Therrien W J (2004) Fluency and comprehension gains as a result ofrepeated reading A meta-analysis Remedial and Special Education25(4) 252ndash261

Vaughn S Chard D J Bryant D P Coleman M amp KouzekananiK (2000) Fluency and comprehension interventions for third-grade students Remedial and Special Education 21(6) 325ndash335

Weinstein G amp Cooke N L (1992) The effects of two repeatedreading interventions on generalization of fluency LearningDisability Quarterly 15 21ndash28

VOL 41 NO 3 JANUARY 2006 157

code words above a third-grade level read in a slow halt-ing manner Repeated reading is not recommended forstudents who read below a first-grade level as they haveyet to acquire foundational reading skills (eg letterndashsound correspondences blending words)

The research base for repeated reading covers non-disabled students (Bryant et al 2000 OrsquoShea Sindelar ampOrsquoShea 1985 Rasinski Padak Linek amp Sturtevant 1994)students with learning disabilities (Bryant et al 2000Freeland Skinner Jackson McDaniel amp Smith 2000Gilbert Williams amp McLaughlin 1996 Mathes amp Fuchs1993 Mercer Campbell Miller Mercer amp Lane 2000OrsquoShea Sindelar amp OrsquoShea 1987 Rashotte amp Torgesen1985 Sindelar Monda amp OrsquoShea 1990 Vaughn ChardBryant Coleman amp Kouzekanani 2000) high-functioningstudents with autism (Kamps Barbetta Leonard amp Del-quadri 1994) and students with low vision (Koenig ampLayton 1998) The intervention has also been used success-fully with students in second (Dowhower 1987) througheighth (Mercer et al 2000) grades who have an instruc-tional reading level between first (Weinstein amp Cooke1992) and fifth grade (Homan Klesius amp Hite 1993)

It is instructive to think of repeated reading within thecontext of stages of learning Mercer and Mercer (2001)described stages of learning as levels through which a stu-dent progresses As the student advances through thestages of learning the skill or behavior becomes increas-ingly more functional The stages of learning progress asfollows

1 entry level 2 acquisition 3 proficiency 4 maintenance 5 generalization and 6 adaptation

Teachers provide instruction in the acquisition stage andhelp foster an accurate performance of a skill At the pro-

ficiency stage the aim is to develop fluency or a behaviorthat can be performed with both accuracy and speed(Mercer amp Mercer 2001) Thus repeated reading can bethought of as a well-organized practice strategy resultingin sharpened decoding skills

Choose an Appropriate Format for the Intervention

Repeated reading has been effectively implemented in avariety of formats Interventions have been successfullyconducted by teachers (Dowhower 1987 OrsquoShea et al1987) paraprofessionals (Mercer et al 2000) and peertutors (Rasinski et al 1994 Stoddard Valcante SindelarOrsquoShea amp Algozzine 1993) Repeated reading has alsobeen conducted as both a whole-class activity (Homan etal 1993 Simmons Fuchs Fuchs Mathes amp Hodge1995) and a pull-out program (OrsquoShea et al 1985 Sin-delar et al 1990) Whole class administration can be ac-complished with a peer-tutoring format Peer-tutoringhas been demonstrated to be both flexible and empiri-cally sound (Miller Barbetta amp Heron 1994) Interven-tion sessions should be conducted with sufficientfrequency ranging from 3 to 5 times a week Administra-tion of repeated reading requires a time commitment be-tween 10 to 20 min per session

Implement Essential Instructional Components

Figure 1 shows that there are three essential instructionalcomponents to include in a repeated reading intervention(Therrien 2004) First passages should be read aloudto a competent tutor Carefully selecting and preparingcompetent tutors is imperative because monitoring stu-dentsrsquo oral reading and providing feedback is directly tiedto program success A recent meta-analysis (Therrien

1 Passages should be read aloud to a competent tutor bull Tutors must be trained to monitor studentsrsquo oral reading and provide feedback

2 Corrective feedback should be provided Feedback on word errors

bull Student hesitates for 3 secondsprovide word and have student repeat it

bull Student mispronouncesomits wordprovide word after reading is complete but prior to rereading

Performance feedback

bull Provide student with feedback on reading speed and accuracy after each passage reading

3 Passages should be read until a performance criterion bull Read passages until student reaches a predetermined is reached fluency level

Figure 1 Repeated reading essential instructional components

158 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC

2004) found that repeated reading interventions con-ducted by adults or well-trained peer tutors were on aver-age three times more effective Teachers must thereforeensure that all tutors are taught the skills needed to mon-itor tuteesrsquo oral reading and provide effective and timelyfeedback Additionally teachers should closely monitorpeer groups during repeated reading sessions If studentshave difficulty monitoring peersrsquo oral reading and pro-viding feedback additional instruction should be given oradjustments made to the peer groupings

The second instructional component is providingcorrective feedback Feedback on word errors and readingspeed needs to be communicated to students Dependingon the type of word error tutors should either give im-mediate or delayed corrective feedback If the studenthesitates on a word for 3 s or omits a word error correctionshould be given immediately Otherwise error correctionshould be provided after the passage has been read butprior to having the tutee reread the passage Error cor-rection in both cases can be as simple as providing theword and asking the student to repeat it After each pas-sage reading tutors should provide performance feed-back to tutees on their reading speed and accuracy Forexample upon reaching the goal on the fourth readingthe tutor could say ldquoGreat job Sarah You made the goalYou read 118 words and only made 1 mistake That was11 more words and 3 fewer errors than the last time youread itrdquo Providing performance feedback often motivatesstudents as it allows them to explicitly see their progress

The third instructional component is to reread pas-sages until a performance criterion is reached To ensurethat students receive sufficient practice to become fluenteach passage should be reread until the student attains a

performance criterion goal Appropriate performance cri-terion should be selected based on the studentrsquos instruc-tional reading level Here are examples of performancecriteria based on grade levels second grade 94 correctwords per minute third grade 114 correct words perminute (Hasbrouck amp Tindal 1992) Although the use ofa performance criterion is recommended passagesshould in general be at a difficulty level where the studentcan achieve the goal in a reasonable amount of time If astudent consistently needs to reread passages for ex-tended periods of time to meet the criterion easier pas-sages should be used Similarly if a tutee is consistentlyable to reach criterion in a few readings more challengingpassages should be used

Select Appropriate Reading Material and Obtain Additional Supplies

Three items are necessary to conduct a repeated readingintervention instructional-level reading passages a timerand data-tracking sheets Passages within studentsrsquo instruc-tional level (ie passages read with 85 to 95 word ac-curacy) that can be read by students in 1 to 2 min arepreferable Many teachers may find that their schools al-ready have suitable reading materials If materials are notavailable teachers may purchase commercially preparedpassages A digital countdown timer or stopwatch isneeded for tutors to be able to track the reading rate ofthe tutee If unavailable tutors can be taught to timereadings using the classroom clock A tracking sheetshould be designed and used to record progress throughthe intervention (see Figure 2 for an example)

Figure 2 Sample repeated reading tracking sheet

VOL 41 NO 3 JANUARY 2006 159

Follow Repeated Reading Instructional Sequence

Repeated reading can become a routine for students eachday during reading instruction Steps involved with re-peated reading may occur with a teacher or paraprofes-sional assuming the permanent role of tutor or followingin the peer-tutor format procedure

1 Students pair up and gather their reading materialMaterials consist of the reading passage (100- to 200-word passages) at the instructional level a copy ofthe passage or a transparency and dry-erase markerand a data sheet

2 One student begins as the reader and the other stu-dent acts as the counter The student who is thecounter may also be the timer depending onwhether the teacher starts the timing for the groupor has the students time each other

3 When the timer begins the reader reads and thecounter marks incorrect or missed words on thereading passage Should a reader hesitate on a wordfor 3 s or more the counter should provide the wordand have the reader repeat it and continue readingIf using a transparency the reader puts the transpar-ency over her copy of the passage and places an X on missed words with the dry-erase pen

4 After the timer or teacher indicates the 1-min inter-val has ended the counter provides feedback and hasthe reader repeat the correct pronunciation forwords she missed

5 The counter records the number of words read errors and correct words per minute on the datatracking sheet

6 The student engages in another repeated reading byrereading the passage and receiving feedbackStudents can reread a passage up to 4 times per session (Rashotte amp Torgesen 1985)

7 Students switch roles and Steps 2 through 5 are repeated

8 The teacher and students end the repeated readingprocedure on a positive note

Conclusion

A call has been made for incorporating techniques to de-velop reading fluency in the classroom (Kuhn amp Stahl2003 NRP 2000 Rasinski 2000) Repeated reading di-rectly targets oral reading fluency and can easily be inte-grated in an existing reading program Previous researchhas shown that repeated reading is effective with a vari-ety of students including students with disabilities Usingessential instructional components and selecting appro-priate materials maximizes the effectiveness of repeated

reading Following the guidelines suggested in this arti-cle teachers can easily incorporate repeated reading intotheir existing classroom routines

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

William J Therrien PhD is an assistant professor at MiamiUniversity His current research interests include effective read-ing instruction for students with special needs and classroommanagement Richard M Kubina Jr PhD is an assistantprofessor at The Pennsylvania State University His current re-search interests include measurably effective technologies suchas precision teaching and direct instruction Address William JTherrien Miami University Department of Educational Psy-chology McGuffey Hall Oxford OH 45056

REFERENCES

Adams M J (1990) Beginning to read Thinking and learning about printCambridge MA MIT Press

Bryant D P Vaughn S Linan-Thompson S Ugel N Hamff Aamp Hougen M (2000) Reading outcomes for students with andwithout reading disabilities in general education middle-school con-tent area classes Learning Disability Quarterly 23 238ndash252

Carnine D W Silbert J Kamersquoenui E J amp Tarver S G (2004)Direct instruction reading (4th ed) Upper Saddle River NJ PrenticeHallMerrill

Dahl P R (1977) An experimental program for teaching high speedword recognition and comprehension skills In J E Burton T Lov-itt amp T Rowland (Eds) Communications research in learning disa-bilities and mental retardation (pp 33ndash65) Baltimore University ParkPress

Dowhower S L (1987) Effects of repeated reading on second-gradetransitional readersrsquo fluency and comprehension Reading ResearchQuarterly 22(4) 389ndash406

160 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC

Freeland J T Skinner C H Jackson B McDaniel C E amp SmithS (2000) Measuring and increasing silent reading comprehensionrates Empirically validating a repeated reading interventionPsychology in the Schools 37(5) 415ndash429

Fuchs L S Fuchs D amp Hosp M K (2001) Oral reading fluency asan indicator of reading competence A theoretical empirical andhistorical analysis Scientific Studies of Reading 5(3) 239ndash256

Gilbert L M Williams R L amp McLaughlin T F (1996) Use of as-sisted reading to increase correct reading rates and decrease errorrates of students with learning disabilities Journal of Applied Behav-ior Analysis 29(2) 255ndash257

Hasbrouck J E amp Tindal G (1992) Curriculum-based oral readingfluency norms for students in grades 2 through 5 Teaching Excep-tional Children 24(3) 41ndash44

Homan S P Klesius J P amp Hite C (1993) Effects of repeated read-ings and nonrepetitive strategies on studentsrsquo fluency and compre-hension The Journal of Educational Research 87(2) 94ndash99

Kamps D M Barbetta P M Leonard B R amp Delquadri J (1994)Classwide peer tutoring An integration strategy to improve readingskills and promote peer interactions among students with autismand general education peers Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis27(1) 49ndash61

Koenig A J amp Layton C A (1998) Increasing reading fluency in el-ementary students with low vision through repeated reading Jour-nal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 92(5) 276ndash292

Kuhn M R amp Stahl S A (2003) Fluency A review of developmen-tal and remedial practices Journal of Educational Psychology 95(1)3ndash21

Mathes P G amp Fuchs L S (1993) Peer-mediated reading instructionin special education resource rooms Learning Disability Research andPractice 8(4) 233ndash243

Mercer C D Campbell K U Miller M D Mercer K D amp LaneH B (2000) Effects of a reading fluency intervention for middleschoolers with specific learning disabilities Learning Disability Re-search and Practice 15(4) 179ndash189

Mercer C D amp Mercer A R (2001) Teaching students with learningproblems (6th ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice HallMerrill

Miller A D Barbetta P M amp Heron T A (1994) START tutoringDesigning training implementing adapting and evaluating tutor-ing programs for school and home settings In R Gardner D Sai-nato J Cooper T Heron W Heward J Eshleman amp T Grossi(Eds) Behavior analysis in education Focus on measurably superiorinstruction (pp 265ndash282) Belmont CA Brooks-Cole

Moats L C (1999) Teaching reading is rocket science What expert teach-ers of reading should know and be able to do Washington DCAmerican Federation of Teachers

National Reading Panel (2000) Report of the National Reading PanelTeaching children to read [Online] Available httpwwwnichdnihgovpublicationsnrp-pubskeycfm [2000 November 10]

OrsquoShea L J Sindelar P T amp OrsquoShea D J (1985) The effects of re-peated readings and attentional cues on reading fluency and com-prehension Journal of Reading Behavior 17(2) 129ndash141

OrsquoShea L J Sindelar P T amp OrsquoShea D J (1987) The effects of repeated reading and attentional cues on the reading fluency andcomprehension of learning disabled readers Learning Disabilities Re-search 2(2) 103ndash109

Rashotte C A amp Torgesen J K (1985) Repeated reading and read-ing fluency in learning disabled children Reading Research Quarterly20 180ndash188

Rasinski T V (2000) Speed does matter in reading The Reading Teacher54(2) 146ndash151

Rasinski T Padak N Linek W amp Sturtevant E (1994) Effects offluency development on urban second-grade readers The Journal ofEducational Research 87(3) 158ndash165

Samuels S J (1979) The method of repeated readings The ReadingTeacher 41 756ndash760

Simmons D C Fuchs L S Fuchs D Mathes P amp Hodge J P(1995) Effects of explicit teaching and peer tutoring on the readingachievement of learning-disabled and low-performing students inregular classrooms The Elementary School Journal 95(5) 387ndash408

Sindelar P T Monda L E amp OrsquoShea L J (1990) Effects of re-peated readings on instructional- and mastery-level readers TheJournal of Educational Research 83(4) 220ndash226

Stoddard K Valcante G Sindelar P T OrsquoShea L amp Algozzine B(1993) Increasing reading rate and comprehension The effects ofrepeated readings sentence segmentation and intonation trainingReading Research and Instruction 32(4) 53ndash65

Therrien W J (2004) Fluency and comprehension gains as a result ofrepeated reading A meta-analysis Remedial and Special Education25(4) 252ndash261

Vaughn S Chard D J Bryant D P Coleman M amp KouzekananiK (2000) Fluency and comprehension interventions for third-grade students Remedial and Special Education 21(6) 325ndash335

Weinstein G amp Cooke N L (1992) The effects of two repeatedreading interventions on generalization of fluency LearningDisability Quarterly 15 21ndash28

158 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC

2004) found that repeated reading interventions con-ducted by adults or well-trained peer tutors were on aver-age three times more effective Teachers must thereforeensure that all tutors are taught the skills needed to mon-itor tuteesrsquo oral reading and provide effective and timelyfeedback Additionally teachers should closely monitorpeer groups during repeated reading sessions If studentshave difficulty monitoring peersrsquo oral reading and pro-viding feedback additional instruction should be given oradjustments made to the peer groupings

The second instructional component is providingcorrective feedback Feedback on word errors and readingspeed needs to be communicated to students Dependingon the type of word error tutors should either give im-mediate or delayed corrective feedback If the studenthesitates on a word for 3 s or omits a word error correctionshould be given immediately Otherwise error correctionshould be provided after the passage has been read butprior to having the tutee reread the passage Error cor-rection in both cases can be as simple as providing theword and asking the student to repeat it After each pas-sage reading tutors should provide performance feed-back to tutees on their reading speed and accuracy Forexample upon reaching the goal on the fourth readingthe tutor could say ldquoGreat job Sarah You made the goalYou read 118 words and only made 1 mistake That was11 more words and 3 fewer errors than the last time youread itrdquo Providing performance feedback often motivatesstudents as it allows them to explicitly see their progress

The third instructional component is to reread pas-sages until a performance criterion is reached To ensurethat students receive sufficient practice to become fluenteach passage should be reread until the student attains a

performance criterion goal Appropriate performance cri-terion should be selected based on the studentrsquos instruc-tional reading level Here are examples of performancecriteria based on grade levels second grade 94 correctwords per minute third grade 114 correct words perminute (Hasbrouck amp Tindal 1992) Although the use ofa performance criterion is recommended passagesshould in general be at a difficulty level where the studentcan achieve the goal in a reasonable amount of time If astudent consistently needs to reread passages for ex-tended periods of time to meet the criterion easier pas-sages should be used Similarly if a tutee is consistentlyable to reach criterion in a few readings more challengingpassages should be used

Select Appropriate Reading Material and Obtain Additional Supplies

Three items are necessary to conduct a repeated readingintervention instructional-level reading passages a timerand data-tracking sheets Passages within studentsrsquo instruc-tional level (ie passages read with 85 to 95 word ac-curacy) that can be read by students in 1 to 2 min arepreferable Many teachers may find that their schools al-ready have suitable reading materials If materials are notavailable teachers may purchase commercially preparedpassages A digital countdown timer or stopwatch isneeded for tutors to be able to track the reading rate ofthe tutee If unavailable tutors can be taught to timereadings using the classroom clock A tracking sheetshould be designed and used to record progress throughthe intervention (see Figure 2 for an example)

Figure 2 Sample repeated reading tracking sheet

VOL 41 NO 3 JANUARY 2006 159

Follow Repeated Reading Instructional Sequence

Repeated reading can become a routine for students eachday during reading instruction Steps involved with re-peated reading may occur with a teacher or paraprofes-sional assuming the permanent role of tutor or followingin the peer-tutor format procedure

1 Students pair up and gather their reading materialMaterials consist of the reading passage (100- to 200-word passages) at the instructional level a copy ofthe passage or a transparency and dry-erase markerand a data sheet

2 One student begins as the reader and the other stu-dent acts as the counter The student who is thecounter may also be the timer depending onwhether the teacher starts the timing for the groupor has the students time each other

3 When the timer begins the reader reads and thecounter marks incorrect or missed words on thereading passage Should a reader hesitate on a wordfor 3 s or more the counter should provide the wordand have the reader repeat it and continue readingIf using a transparency the reader puts the transpar-ency over her copy of the passage and places an X on missed words with the dry-erase pen

4 After the timer or teacher indicates the 1-min inter-val has ended the counter provides feedback and hasthe reader repeat the correct pronunciation forwords she missed

5 The counter records the number of words read errors and correct words per minute on the datatracking sheet

6 The student engages in another repeated reading byrereading the passage and receiving feedbackStudents can reread a passage up to 4 times per session (Rashotte amp Torgesen 1985)

7 Students switch roles and Steps 2 through 5 are repeated

8 The teacher and students end the repeated readingprocedure on a positive note

Conclusion

A call has been made for incorporating techniques to de-velop reading fluency in the classroom (Kuhn amp Stahl2003 NRP 2000 Rasinski 2000) Repeated reading di-rectly targets oral reading fluency and can easily be inte-grated in an existing reading program Previous researchhas shown that repeated reading is effective with a vari-ety of students including students with disabilities Usingessential instructional components and selecting appro-priate materials maximizes the effectiveness of repeated

reading Following the guidelines suggested in this arti-cle teachers can easily incorporate repeated reading intotheir existing classroom routines

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

William J Therrien PhD is an assistant professor at MiamiUniversity His current research interests include effective read-ing instruction for students with special needs and classroommanagement Richard M Kubina Jr PhD is an assistantprofessor at The Pennsylvania State University His current re-search interests include measurably effective technologies suchas precision teaching and direct instruction Address William JTherrien Miami University Department of Educational Psy-chology McGuffey Hall Oxford OH 45056

REFERENCES

Adams M J (1990) Beginning to read Thinking and learning about printCambridge MA MIT Press

Bryant D P Vaughn S Linan-Thompson S Ugel N Hamff Aamp Hougen M (2000) Reading outcomes for students with andwithout reading disabilities in general education middle-school con-tent area classes Learning Disability Quarterly 23 238ndash252

Carnine D W Silbert J Kamersquoenui E J amp Tarver S G (2004)Direct instruction reading (4th ed) Upper Saddle River NJ PrenticeHallMerrill

Dahl P R (1977) An experimental program for teaching high speedword recognition and comprehension skills In J E Burton T Lov-itt amp T Rowland (Eds) Communications research in learning disa-bilities and mental retardation (pp 33ndash65) Baltimore University ParkPress

Dowhower S L (1987) Effects of repeated reading on second-gradetransitional readersrsquo fluency and comprehension Reading ResearchQuarterly 22(4) 389ndash406

160 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC

Freeland J T Skinner C H Jackson B McDaniel C E amp SmithS (2000) Measuring and increasing silent reading comprehensionrates Empirically validating a repeated reading interventionPsychology in the Schools 37(5) 415ndash429

Fuchs L S Fuchs D amp Hosp M K (2001) Oral reading fluency asan indicator of reading competence A theoretical empirical andhistorical analysis Scientific Studies of Reading 5(3) 239ndash256

Gilbert L M Williams R L amp McLaughlin T F (1996) Use of as-sisted reading to increase correct reading rates and decrease errorrates of students with learning disabilities Journal of Applied Behav-ior Analysis 29(2) 255ndash257

Hasbrouck J E amp Tindal G (1992) Curriculum-based oral readingfluency norms for students in grades 2 through 5 Teaching Excep-tional Children 24(3) 41ndash44

Homan S P Klesius J P amp Hite C (1993) Effects of repeated read-ings and nonrepetitive strategies on studentsrsquo fluency and compre-hension The Journal of Educational Research 87(2) 94ndash99

Kamps D M Barbetta P M Leonard B R amp Delquadri J (1994)Classwide peer tutoring An integration strategy to improve readingskills and promote peer interactions among students with autismand general education peers Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis27(1) 49ndash61

Koenig A J amp Layton C A (1998) Increasing reading fluency in el-ementary students with low vision through repeated reading Jour-nal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 92(5) 276ndash292

Kuhn M R amp Stahl S A (2003) Fluency A review of developmen-tal and remedial practices Journal of Educational Psychology 95(1)3ndash21

Mathes P G amp Fuchs L S (1993) Peer-mediated reading instructionin special education resource rooms Learning Disability Research andPractice 8(4) 233ndash243

Mercer C D Campbell K U Miller M D Mercer K D amp LaneH B (2000) Effects of a reading fluency intervention for middleschoolers with specific learning disabilities Learning Disability Re-search and Practice 15(4) 179ndash189

Mercer C D amp Mercer A R (2001) Teaching students with learningproblems (6th ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice HallMerrill

Miller A D Barbetta P M amp Heron T A (1994) START tutoringDesigning training implementing adapting and evaluating tutor-ing programs for school and home settings In R Gardner D Sai-nato J Cooper T Heron W Heward J Eshleman amp T Grossi(Eds) Behavior analysis in education Focus on measurably superiorinstruction (pp 265ndash282) Belmont CA Brooks-Cole

Moats L C (1999) Teaching reading is rocket science What expert teach-ers of reading should know and be able to do Washington DCAmerican Federation of Teachers

National Reading Panel (2000) Report of the National Reading PanelTeaching children to read [Online] Available httpwwwnichdnihgovpublicationsnrp-pubskeycfm [2000 November 10]

OrsquoShea L J Sindelar P T amp OrsquoShea D J (1985) The effects of re-peated readings and attentional cues on reading fluency and com-prehension Journal of Reading Behavior 17(2) 129ndash141

OrsquoShea L J Sindelar P T amp OrsquoShea D J (1987) The effects of repeated reading and attentional cues on the reading fluency andcomprehension of learning disabled readers Learning Disabilities Re-search 2(2) 103ndash109

Rashotte C A amp Torgesen J K (1985) Repeated reading and read-ing fluency in learning disabled children Reading Research Quarterly20 180ndash188

Rasinski T V (2000) Speed does matter in reading The Reading Teacher54(2) 146ndash151

Rasinski T Padak N Linek W amp Sturtevant E (1994) Effects offluency development on urban second-grade readers The Journal ofEducational Research 87(3) 158ndash165

Samuels S J (1979) The method of repeated readings The ReadingTeacher 41 756ndash760

Simmons D C Fuchs L S Fuchs D Mathes P amp Hodge J P(1995) Effects of explicit teaching and peer tutoring on the readingachievement of learning-disabled and low-performing students inregular classrooms The Elementary School Journal 95(5) 387ndash408

Sindelar P T Monda L E amp OrsquoShea L J (1990) Effects of re-peated readings on instructional- and mastery-level readers TheJournal of Educational Research 83(4) 220ndash226

Stoddard K Valcante G Sindelar P T OrsquoShea L amp Algozzine B(1993) Increasing reading rate and comprehension The effects ofrepeated readings sentence segmentation and intonation trainingReading Research and Instruction 32(4) 53ndash65

Therrien W J (2004) Fluency and comprehension gains as a result ofrepeated reading A meta-analysis Remedial and Special Education25(4) 252ndash261

Vaughn S Chard D J Bryant D P Coleman M amp KouzekananiK (2000) Fluency and comprehension interventions for third-grade students Remedial and Special Education 21(6) 325ndash335

Weinstein G amp Cooke N L (1992) The effects of two repeatedreading interventions on generalization of fluency LearningDisability Quarterly 15 21ndash28

VOL 41 NO 3 JANUARY 2006 159

Follow Repeated Reading Instructional Sequence

Repeated reading can become a routine for students eachday during reading instruction Steps involved with re-peated reading may occur with a teacher or paraprofes-sional assuming the permanent role of tutor or followingin the peer-tutor format procedure

1 Students pair up and gather their reading materialMaterials consist of the reading passage (100- to 200-word passages) at the instructional level a copy ofthe passage or a transparency and dry-erase markerand a data sheet

2 One student begins as the reader and the other stu-dent acts as the counter The student who is thecounter may also be the timer depending onwhether the teacher starts the timing for the groupor has the students time each other

3 When the timer begins the reader reads and thecounter marks incorrect or missed words on thereading passage Should a reader hesitate on a wordfor 3 s or more the counter should provide the wordand have the reader repeat it and continue readingIf using a transparency the reader puts the transpar-ency over her copy of the passage and places an X on missed words with the dry-erase pen

4 After the timer or teacher indicates the 1-min inter-val has ended the counter provides feedback and hasthe reader repeat the correct pronunciation forwords she missed

5 The counter records the number of words read errors and correct words per minute on the datatracking sheet

6 The student engages in another repeated reading byrereading the passage and receiving feedbackStudents can reread a passage up to 4 times per session (Rashotte amp Torgesen 1985)

7 Students switch roles and Steps 2 through 5 are repeated

8 The teacher and students end the repeated readingprocedure on a positive note

Conclusion

A call has been made for incorporating techniques to de-velop reading fluency in the classroom (Kuhn amp Stahl2003 NRP 2000 Rasinski 2000) Repeated reading di-rectly targets oral reading fluency and can easily be inte-grated in an existing reading program Previous researchhas shown that repeated reading is effective with a vari-ety of students including students with disabilities Usingessential instructional components and selecting appro-priate materials maximizes the effectiveness of repeated

reading Following the guidelines suggested in this arti-cle teachers can easily incorporate repeated reading intotheir existing classroom routines

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

William J Therrien PhD is an assistant professor at MiamiUniversity His current research interests include effective read-ing instruction for students with special needs and classroommanagement Richard M Kubina Jr PhD is an assistantprofessor at The Pennsylvania State University His current re-search interests include measurably effective technologies suchas precision teaching and direct instruction Address William JTherrien Miami University Department of Educational Psy-chology McGuffey Hall Oxford OH 45056

REFERENCES

Adams M J (1990) Beginning to read Thinking and learning about printCambridge MA MIT Press

Bryant D P Vaughn S Linan-Thompson S Ugel N Hamff Aamp Hougen M (2000) Reading outcomes for students with andwithout reading disabilities in general education middle-school con-tent area classes Learning Disability Quarterly 23 238ndash252

Carnine D W Silbert J Kamersquoenui E J amp Tarver S G (2004)Direct instruction reading (4th ed) Upper Saddle River NJ PrenticeHallMerrill

Dahl P R (1977) An experimental program for teaching high speedword recognition and comprehension skills In J E Burton T Lov-itt amp T Rowland (Eds) Communications research in learning disa-bilities and mental retardation (pp 33ndash65) Baltimore University ParkPress

Dowhower S L (1987) Effects of repeated reading on second-gradetransitional readersrsquo fluency and comprehension Reading ResearchQuarterly 22(4) 389ndash406

160 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC

Freeland J T Skinner C H Jackson B McDaniel C E amp SmithS (2000) Measuring and increasing silent reading comprehensionrates Empirically validating a repeated reading interventionPsychology in the Schools 37(5) 415ndash429

Fuchs L S Fuchs D amp Hosp M K (2001) Oral reading fluency asan indicator of reading competence A theoretical empirical andhistorical analysis Scientific Studies of Reading 5(3) 239ndash256

Gilbert L M Williams R L amp McLaughlin T F (1996) Use of as-sisted reading to increase correct reading rates and decrease errorrates of students with learning disabilities Journal of Applied Behav-ior Analysis 29(2) 255ndash257

Hasbrouck J E amp Tindal G (1992) Curriculum-based oral readingfluency norms for students in grades 2 through 5 Teaching Excep-tional Children 24(3) 41ndash44

Homan S P Klesius J P amp Hite C (1993) Effects of repeated read-ings and nonrepetitive strategies on studentsrsquo fluency and compre-hension The Journal of Educational Research 87(2) 94ndash99

Kamps D M Barbetta P M Leonard B R amp Delquadri J (1994)Classwide peer tutoring An integration strategy to improve readingskills and promote peer interactions among students with autismand general education peers Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis27(1) 49ndash61

Koenig A J amp Layton C A (1998) Increasing reading fluency in el-ementary students with low vision through repeated reading Jour-nal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 92(5) 276ndash292

Kuhn M R amp Stahl S A (2003) Fluency A review of developmen-tal and remedial practices Journal of Educational Psychology 95(1)3ndash21

Mathes P G amp Fuchs L S (1993) Peer-mediated reading instructionin special education resource rooms Learning Disability Research andPractice 8(4) 233ndash243

Mercer C D Campbell K U Miller M D Mercer K D amp LaneH B (2000) Effects of a reading fluency intervention for middleschoolers with specific learning disabilities Learning Disability Re-search and Practice 15(4) 179ndash189

Mercer C D amp Mercer A R (2001) Teaching students with learningproblems (6th ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice HallMerrill

Miller A D Barbetta P M amp Heron T A (1994) START tutoringDesigning training implementing adapting and evaluating tutor-ing programs for school and home settings In R Gardner D Sai-nato J Cooper T Heron W Heward J Eshleman amp T Grossi(Eds) Behavior analysis in education Focus on measurably superiorinstruction (pp 265ndash282) Belmont CA Brooks-Cole

Moats L C (1999) Teaching reading is rocket science What expert teach-ers of reading should know and be able to do Washington DCAmerican Federation of Teachers

National Reading Panel (2000) Report of the National Reading PanelTeaching children to read [Online] Available httpwwwnichdnihgovpublicationsnrp-pubskeycfm [2000 November 10]

OrsquoShea L J Sindelar P T amp OrsquoShea D J (1985) The effects of re-peated readings and attentional cues on reading fluency and com-prehension Journal of Reading Behavior 17(2) 129ndash141

OrsquoShea L J Sindelar P T amp OrsquoShea D J (1987) The effects of repeated reading and attentional cues on the reading fluency andcomprehension of learning disabled readers Learning Disabilities Re-search 2(2) 103ndash109

Rashotte C A amp Torgesen J K (1985) Repeated reading and read-ing fluency in learning disabled children Reading Research Quarterly20 180ndash188

Rasinski T V (2000) Speed does matter in reading The Reading Teacher54(2) 146ndash151

Rasinski T Padak N Linek W amp Sturtevant E (1994) Effects offluency development on urban second-grade readers The Journal ofEducational Research 87(3) 158ndash165

Samuels S J (1979) The method of repeated readings The ReadingTeacher 41 756ndash760

Simmons D C Fuchs L S Fuchs D Mathes P amp Hodge J P(1995) Effects of explicit teaching and peer tutoring on the readingachievement of learning-disabled and low-performing students inregular classrooms The Elementary School Journal 95(5) 387ndash408

Sindelar P T Monda L E amp OrsquoShea L J (1990) Effects of re-peated readings on instructional- and mastery-level readers TheJournal of Educational Research 83(4) 220ndash226

Stoddard K Valcante G Sindelar P T OrsquoShea L amp Algozzine B(1993) Increasing reading rate and comprehension The effects ofrepeated readings sentence segmentation and intonation trainingReading Research and Instruction 32(4) 53ndash65

Therrien W J (2004) Fluency and comprehension gains as a result ofrepeated reading A meta-analysis Remedial and Special Education25(4) 252ndash261

Vaughn S Chard D J Bryant D P Coleman M amp KouzekananiK (2000) Fluency and comprehension interventions for third-grade students Remedial and Special Education 21(6) 325ndash335

Weinstein G amp Cooke N L (1992) The effects of two repeatedreading interventions on generalization of fluency LearningDisability Quarterly 15 21ndash28

160 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC

Freeland J T Skinner C H Jackson B McDaniel C E amp SmithS (2000) Measuring and increasing silent reading comprehensionrates Empirically validating a repeated reading interventionPsychology in the Schools 37(5) 415ndash429

Fuchs L S Fuchs D amp Hosp M K (2001) Oral reading fluency asan indicator of reading competence A theoretical empirical andhistorical analysis Scientific Studies of Reading 5(3) 239ndash256

Gilbert L M Williams R L amp McLaughlin T F (1996) Use of as-sisted reading to increase correct reading rates and decrease errorrates of students with learning disabilities Journal of Applied Behav-ior Analysis 29(2) 255ndash257

Hasbrouck J E amp Tindal G (1992) Curriculum-based oral readingfluency norms for students in grades 2 through 5 Teaching Excep-tional Children 24(3) 41ndash44

Homan S P Klesius J P amp Hite C (1993) Effects of repeated read-ings and nonrepetitive strategies on studentsrsquo fluency and compre-hension The Journal of Educational Research 87(2) 94ndash99

Kamps D M Barbetta P M Leonard B R amp Delquadri J (1994)Classwide peer tutoring An integration strategy to improve readingskills and promote peer interactions among students with autismand general education peers Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis27(1) 49ndash61

Koenig A J amp Layton C A (1998) Increasing reading fluency in el-ementary students with low vision through repeated reading Jour-nal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 92(5) 276ndash292

Kuhn M R amp Stahl S A (2003) Fluency A review of developmen-tal and remedial practices Journal of Educational Psychology 95(1)3ndash21

Mathes P G amp Fuchs L S (1993) Peer-mediated reading instructionin special education resource rooms Learning Disability Research andPractice 8(4) 233ndash243

Mercer C D Campbell K U Miller M D Mercer K D amp LaneH B (2000) Effects of a reading fluency intervention for middleschoolers with specific learning disabilities Learning Disability Re-search and Practice 15(4) 179ndash189

Mercer C D amp Mercer A R (2001) Teaching students with learningproblems (6th ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Prentice HallMerrill

Miller A D Barbetta P M amp Heron T A (1994) START tutoringDesigning training implementing adapting and evaluating tutor-ing programs for school and home settings In R Gardner D Sai-nato J Cooper T Heron W Heward J Eshleman amp T Grossi(Eds) Behavior analysis in education Focus on measurably superiorinstruction (pp 265ndash282) Belmont CA Brooks-Cole

Moats L C (1999) Teaching reading is rocket science What expert teach-ers of reading should know and be able to do Washington DCAmerican Federation of Teachers

National Reading Panel (2000) Report of the National Reading PanelTeaching children to read [Online] Available httpwwwnichdnihgovpublicationsnrp-pubskeycfm [2000 November 10]

OrsquoShea L J Sindelar P T amp OrsquoShea D J (1985) The effects of re-peated readings and attentional cues on reading fluency and com-prehension Journal of Reading Behavior 17(2) 129ndash141

OrsquoShea L J Sindelar P T amp OrsquoShea D J (1987) The effects of repeated reading and attentional cues on the reading fluency andcomprehension of learning disabled readers Learning Disabilities Re-search 2(2) 103ndash109

Rashotte C A amp Torgesen J K (1985) Repeated reading and read-ing fluency in learning disabled children Reading Research Quarterly20 180ndash188

Rasinski T V (2000) Speed does matter in reading The Reading Teacher54(2) 146ndash151

Rasinski T Padak N Linek W amp Sturtevant E (1994) Effects offluency development on urban second-grade readers The Journal ofEducational Research 87(3) 158ndash165

Samuels S J (1979) The method of repeated readings The ReadingTeacher 41 756ndash760

Simmons D C Fuchs L S Fuchs D Mathes P amp Hodge J P(1995) Effects of explicit teaching and peer tutoring on the readingachievement of learning-disabled and low-performing students inregular classrooms The Elementary School Journal 95(5) 387ndash408

Sindelar P T Monda L E amp OrsquoShea L J (1990) Effects of re-peated readings on instructional- and mastery-level readers TheJournal of Educational Research 83(4) 220ndash226

Stoddard K Valcante G Sindelar P T OrsquoShea L amp Algozzine B(1993) Increasing reading rate and comprehension The effects ofrepeated readings sentence segmentation and intonation trainingReading Research and Instruction 32(4) 53ndash65

Therrien W J (2004) Fluency and comprehension gains as a result ofrepeated reading A meta-analysis Remedial and Special Education25(4) 252ndash261

Vaughn S Chard D J Bryant D P Coleman M amp KouzekananiK (2000) Fluency and comprehension interventions for third-grade students Remedial and Special Education 21(6) 325ndash335

Weinstein G amp Cooke N L (1992) The effects of two repeatedreading interventions on generalization of fluency LearningDisability Quarterly 15 21ndash28