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Developing language-specific curricula in the Australian Curriculum

Biennial Conference of the AFMLTA

Australian National University, Canberra

6-8 July 2013

Presenters: Angela Scarino, Andrew Scrimgeour, Michelle Kohler,Michael Walsh, Jaky Troy

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Presentations

Part 1: Language-specific curriculum development1. Angela Scarino: The Languages Curriculum Design

2. Andrew Scrimgeour: Development of Chinese in the Australian Curriculum

3. Michelle Kohler: Developing Indonesian in the Australian Curriculum

4. Discussion

Part 2: Developing the Australian Languages Framework5. Michael Walsh: Developing a framework for teaching Australian Languages

6. Jaky Troy: Reflections on the process

7. Discussion

Part 3: Overall discussion

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The Languages Curriculum Design

Angela ScarinoResearch Centre for Languages and CulturesUniversity of South AustraliaEmail: angela.scarino@unisa.edu.au

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Context

• Learning languages in the context of super-diversity (Vertovec 2009; Blommaert, 2010)

• A recognition of the changing nature of multilingualism and multiculturalism (Leung 2005; Kramsch & Whiteside 2008)

• The centrality of language and communication in the new economy (Heller 2009)

• Changing curricula and pedagogies that engage with and build on the diversity in semiotic modes that learners bring to the classroom (Stroud & Heugh 2011)

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Expanded conception of language, culture and learning and their relationship

• An expanded conception of language; language as personal, expressive - how we want to be in a language (Shohamy 2007).

• Learning a language is not a monolingual activity as there are always at least two languages at play (Kramsch 2009).

• Language mediates learning – learning how to mean (Halliday 1993).

• Language is not only something that we use; we are “at home” in language; to learn a language is to learn an inheritance (Gadamer 2004).

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The shifts• Understanding language as form, as practice and as the

interpretation and creation of meaning. As Kramsch (2006) states:“Today it is not sufficient for learners to know how to communicate meanings. They have to understand the practice of meaning-making.”

• Understanding the crucial role of language and culture in meaning-making; learners learn through the lens of their culture; learning languages is not only about how to see through this lens but also to bring to learners’ awareness that they have this lens.

• Understanding the crucial role of language and culture in learning (‘learning how to mean’)

within an interlinguistic and intercultural perspective (Liddicoat & Scarino 2013)

within an interpretive, reflective, reflexive (reciprocal) orientation

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A further expansion to consider

Hasan (2003) on the changing nature of literacy in the globalised world: Three forms of literacy: (1) recognition literacy: the regular kinds of literacy practices typical in education such as

encoding and decoding language (2) action literacy: enables learners to “write to mean” including self-expression and the

production of texts in genres that are educationally valued (3) reflective literacy:

“it aims to create in the pupil an understanding of reading and writing as bearers of deep social significance, not simply a vehicle for information but as a potent instrument of social formation: it is a form of literacy that goes beyond simple interpretation to reflection on how the “same” words can be made to construe different meanings and what is the significance of such semantic construals. This implies that reflection literacy moves from comprehensive into enquiry: the literate person should be able to interrogate the wording and the meaning of the utterance – why these words, what might they achieve, to whose loss and to whose benefit (pp.446-447.)

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The Languages Design - Aims

• communicate in the target language

• understand language, culture, and learning and their relationship, and thereby develop an intercultural capability in communication

• understand themselves as communicators

And for Australian Languages:• understand the process of language building ( to develop

knowledge of linguistic techniques and processes of language revitalisation)

Strands and sub-strands

Communicating

• Socialising and taking action

• Obtaining and using information

• Responding to and expressing imaginative experience

• Moving between/translating

• Expressing and performing identity

• Reflecting on intercultural language use

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Understanding

• Systems of language

• Variability in language use

• Language awareness

• Role of language and culture

• Language building for Australian Languages)

 

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Socialising and taking action

Sub-strand 1.1: Socialising and taking action

Socialising with others (orally and in writing) to exchange ideas, opinions, experiences, thoughts, feelings, intentions and plans, and to take action with others.

Students learn to socialise with others in the target language (both orally and in writing); to interact with others to build relationships and participate in shared activities; to negotiate, to make decisions and arrangements and take individual and collective action.

Socialising and taking action

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Concepts

Text-types

Processes

friendship (experiences, values, conflict, reconciliation)relationships (family, generations)leisurecelebrationneighbourhood (geography, distance, environment)etiquette (greetings, politeness)naming

attitudeeducation (learning, knowledge)journeycommunitytimespace/placenegotiationhealth/wellbeinginterconnection across concepts and actions

Conversation:face-to-face interaction; telephone conversations; participating in shared communicative activities, discussions, debates

Correspondence:emails, text messages, class blog/chat forums, notes, invitations, greeting cards, letters, postcards

listening, speaking, reading and writing explainingexpressing preferences and feelings persuadingcomparing advisingnegotiating commentingmaking decisions and arrangements describinggiving and following instructions debatinginviting transactingaccepting and declining thankingdiscussing planning and participatingexpressing connecting/relatingjustifying

Socialising and taking action: sequencing

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Examples of sequencing in broad terms (predominantly for second language learning)

Early primary years

(pre-literacy/early literacy)

Upper primary

(developing literacy)

Junior secondary

(expanding literacy)

interacting/socialising is guided; often occurs as a whole-class response; is based on the learner’s own experience

interacting/socialising to give, share, roleplay; articulate and exchange ideas, feelings, preferences

interacting/socialising to state and exchange thoughts, feelings, plans; begin to discuss/debate; take social/community action; express opinion; reflect on and compare self with others; understand reciprocally

interacting/socialising takes place within the context of the classroom and is connected to the home and local environment

interacting/socialising takes place within the neighbourhood and local community; beginning to take community action

interacting/socialising takes place in diverse contexts, local and global, in real time and virtual; taking group action; understanding consequences; communicating with parents/others

student as participant with teacher; students participate by naming, pointing, miming, participating in games and action-related talk

peer to peer; student to teacher; student to known people; with one of multiple participants

student to diverse participants

repeated language; active listening accessing resources, including digital resources; can find out/research/ compare; supported writing

students vary their language according to age and gender; socialising through a range of texts, including narratives, diaries, records of experience; intercultural exchange

Moving between languages/translating:concepts, text-types, processes

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Concepts

Text-types

Processes

equivalencerepresentation (words, icons, symbols)individual (character, values, relationship)nation (origins, social order, politics, religion)taboo (transgression, respect, conformity)

linguistic landscape (language in the environment)sensitivity and empathy (values and beliefs, respect, tolerance)interconnection across concepts and actions

translatinginterpretingexplainingcomparing translationscomparing bilingual texts

analysingjudging adequacy/evaluatingconsidering the validity of different meaningsconnecting/relating interculturally

translating (written)interpreting (oral)explanation (oral and written)

Moving between languages/translating: sequencing

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Examples of sequencing in broad terms (predominantly for second language learning)

Early primary years(pre-literacy/early

literacy)

Upper primary(developing literacy)

Junior secondary(expanding literacy)

students know that some people use different codes in communicating; they can identify different codes, give equivalence, match real objects and words, and begin to navigate between the known and unknown at the level of code

students are aware of languages in the environment; they recognise cultural ways of behaving, can make comparisons, explain to others, and note the lack of word-for-word equivalence

students are able to compare and explain concepts, processes, views and experiences in culturally responsive and reciprocal ways; they understand that meaning can be ‘lost in translation’

Sequencing

Content descriptions: ItalianObtaining and using information

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Sub-strand 1.2: Obtaining and using information

Obtaining and processing information

Identify and order factual information from a range of spoken, written, digital and multimodal texts, and process and represent meaning, e.g. through classification, sequence and summary

[Key processes: ordering, classifying, tabulating]

obtaining information as a dimension of this sub-strand

the fact that it is factual information suggests the

appropriate level key processes here give a sense of the level of

information giving

Giving information

Convey ideas and information through a range of spoken, written, digital and multimodal texts in ways that allow comparison of diverse perspectives and practices

[Key processes: describing, presenting]

giving information as a dimension of the sub-strand the fact that it is factual information suggests the

appropriate level

key processes here give a sense of the level of information giving

Note: This is an introduction only to the reality of diverse perspectives.

An example: Signs in every-day life

Learners will be taught to:• recognise, identify, interpret and respond to the meaning being

communicated in signs (e.g. warning, instruction, direction) and other graphic representation (e.g. illustrations, cartoons)

Concept presentation• presentation and comparison of signs and placards used in signs• discussion of language used in signs (commands, instructions, warnings)

and their function in society• examination and discussion of cultural values reflected by the language

of signs e.g. responsibility of state for providing warning, expectations of public, shorthand ways of mediating meanings

Concept’s key language features• linguistic structures that convey commands, instructions and warnings

that require actions (Do x; Don’t’ do Y); demands (More parks now!)• examination of social consequences of language structures that indicate

power relations

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The interrelationship of the strands and sub-strands

The interrelationship of the strands and sub-strands is best seen as three facets of the same experience:

1. performance and experience of communication (performance)

2. analysis of various aspects of language and culture involved in communication (analysis)

3. reflection on the comparative and reciprocal dimensions of language learning and use (reflection)

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ReferencesAustralian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority [ACARA]. (2011). Shape of the Australian Curriculum: Languages.

Sydney: ACARA. http://cuture.arts.gov.au/sites/default/files/discussion-paper/national-cultural-policy-discussion-paper.pdf

Blommaert, J. (2010). The sociolinguistics of globalization. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.

Gadamer, H-G. (2004). Truth and method (2nd ed.) (J. Weinsheimer & D.G. Marshall, Trans.). New York. Continuum.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1993). Towards a language-based theory of learning. Linguistics and Education, 5, 93–116.

Heller, M. (2009). Multilingualism and transnationalism. In P. Auer and L. Wei (Eds.) Handbook of multilingualism and multilingual communication. Berlin. Mouton de Gruyter (pp.539-553).

Kramsch, C. (2009). The Multilingual Subject. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kramsch, C. & Whiteside, A. (2008). Language ecology in multilingual settings. Towards a theory of symbolic competence. Applied Linguistics, 1–27, doi:10.1093/applin/amn022.

Leung, C. (2005). Convivial communication: Recontextualising communicative competence. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 15, 119–144.

Liddicoat, A.J. & Scarino, A. (2013) Intercultural language teaching and learning. Malden. Wiley-Blackwell.

Shohamy, E. (2007). Language Policy. Hidden agendas and new approaches. London and New York. Routledge.

Stroud, C. & Heugh, K. (2011). Languages in education. In R. Mesthrie (Ed.) Cambridge handbook of sociolinguistics (pp. 413–429). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Vertovec, S. (2009). Transnationalism. London: Routledge.

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The development of Chinese in the Australian Curriculum

Andrew ScrimgeourResearch Centre for Languages and CulturesUniversity of South AustraliaEmail: andrew.scrimgeour@unisa.edu.au

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Outline: the development of Chinese curriculum

Context

the distinctiveness of Chinese learner diversity in Chinese classrooms

Curriculum responses

developing oral & print literacy in Chinese

developing learner pathways for Chinese

Future challenges teacher knowledge & experience in classroom contexts

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The distinctiveness of Chinese

澳大利亚人口少地方大。 àodàlìyàrénkǒushǎodìfāngdà

Àodàlìyà rénkǒu shǎo, dìfāng dà .

Australia population few, area big. Australia has a small population and a large area.

The challenge capturing the distinctiveness of each mode

– oral & writtendetermining the nature and rate of conceptual development and performance in each mode

Learner diversity learner background data (SAALE)

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Learner diversity

a complex cohort a diversity of knowledge, experience, engagement

complex histories, blurred boundariesdiversity of needs, interests, aspirations within each group

The challenge Determining the nature of the learner group and the pitch for each pathway

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The curriculum development challenge

Conceptualising the language Determining developmental sequences of concepts and processes for learning and using Chinese language

Representing language use experiences providing access to & promoting exploration of the nature of the spoken & written language in diverse contexts of use

for young learners of diverse background

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How does the Australian Curriculum Chinese address issues of character learning and literacy

development in Chinese ?

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ACARA Languagesresponding to learner diversity

• Three learner pathways will be developed to cater specifically for second language learners, background language learners and first language learners of Chinese

Learner Groups – the pitch

Second language learners• Learners who are introduced to learning Language at school

= new learnersBackground language learners • Learners who use the Language at home (not necessarily

exclusively) and have knowledge of Language (to varying degrees) and have a base ready for literacy development in Language = Bilingual learners

First language learners • Learners who are Language first language users who have

undertaken at least primary schooling in the Language; they have had their primary socialisation as well as initial literacy development in Language = think in the Language

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Responding to distinctiveness the curriculum structure

Communicating Strand using CHINESE for communicative purposes involves

Oral interaction (listening and speaking)Written interaction (reading and writing)

Understanding strand analysing the systems and characteristics of Chinese

• Phonology , Orthography, Morphology • Grammar, Text

Appreciating diversity – in communities of speakers – in spoken languages / in writing – in contexts of communication

The role of technology in language The power of language The role of culture in language use

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Oral-written distinction

  Years 7 and 8 (Level 1) Years 9 and 10 (Level 2)

  Socialising and taking actionOral Interacting and responding

exchange information and opinions about interests, routines and family life and establish and maintain friendships with others in conversations and class discussions

request information and compare experiences, opinions and preferences relating to daily life, such as routines at home, study habits, extracurricular activity

Transacting Make choices from available options and request quantities of items in transactions

Negotiate and comment on prices, quantities or quality to complete transactions

Taking Action Participate in group action to share aspects of Chinese culture with others through performance

participate in planning and presenting a social or cultural event such as conducting a speech competition or performance

Classroom Interaction

Ask and respond to questions, seek permission and make requests, and follow instructions in classroom routines

share opinions and experiences, clarify understandings and take initiative in Chinese language learning and use

Written Interacting and responding

Relate aspects of their daily experience to others such as sporting and leisure interests, home and school routines via social media or correspondence

Share perspectives on people, places and activities across cultures through social media or correspondence

Taking Action Collaborate with others to promote Chinese language and culture at school by producing bilingual signs and posters

Create visual displays to promote for example well-being and intercultural understanding among peers

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Systems …

  Foundation to Year 2(Level 1)

Years 3 and 4(Level 1)

Years 5 and 6(Level 2)

Years 7 and 8 (Level 3)

Years 9 and 10 (Level 4)

Phonology Mimic pronunciation, tone and rhythm in Chinese speech  

Recognise the tone-syllable nature of Chinese spoken language and compare Chinese and English sounds

Discriminate between similar or related syllables and words by listening with attention to tone, stress and phrasing

Discriminate differences in pronunciation and tone and recognise systems of sound flow in Chinese speech

Identify differences in intonation, rhythm and pronunciation when listening to speakers of diverse age, gender and regional background

Orthography Recognise Chinese characters as a form of writing and associate character forms with their meanings 

Explore structural features of Chinese characters, such as stroke types and sequences, and component forms and their arrangement

Analyse character structure, sides and component sequences to relate the form of a character to its particular sound and meaning

Relate characters containing a common component or side to explore the degree of reliability in how sound and meaning are conveyed

Relate prior knowledge of character form and function to infer information about sound and meaning

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Learner pathways

  Obtaining and using information 

L2 9-10 BL 9-10 Oral Obtaining and processing information

Summarise, and compare factual information obtained from for example video podcasts and interviews about people, places and lifestyles in diverse communities

Evaluate diverse interpretations of contemporary social issues or events heard in media such as documentaries and current affair programs, related to for example natural disaster and human endeavour in diverse communities

Using information engage in class discussions to share information gathered about everyday life experiences in diverse communities such as significant or distinctive cultural, social, leisure or educational practices

Present a position by referring to sources to connect with ideas and perspectives of others on issues of interest to young people such as popular music, film, TV and fashion in diverse communities  

Written Obtaining and processing information

collate information about education experiences and daily life drawn from diverse sources such as websites and brochures

Collate information under topical headings from brochures, advertisements and websites to develop an insight into for example features of contemporary society across the Chinese speaking world

Using information create visual and textual displays to report on topics of interest such as distinctive features of life and education and compare lifestyles across communities

Connect information drawn from personal sources and correspondence with others comparing  experiences of youth across cultures  to present  in online multimedia displays to share with readers overseas

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Challenges in implementation

Context– Dealing with composite classes –attending to needs of specific

cohorts – Acknowledging Community schooling experience

Teacher background - experiences – expectations – practices – as Native speaker teachers of Chinese (esp. as a second

language) – Teacher ‘positioning’ in relation to the language & the learner– converting experiential knowledge into pedagogical knowledge – conceptualising and representing Chinese as appropriate to

learner background – understanding the task from the learners perspective

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Developing language specific curricula: the case of Indonesian in the Australian

Curriculum

Michelle KohlerResearch Centre for Languages and CulturesUniversity of South AustraliaEmail: michelle.kohler@unisa.edu.au

A welcome opportunity

• Language specific curricula is welcome after previous generic orientation

• Opportunity to convey sense of distinctiveness of the language and culture, its teaching and learning – greater clarity and shared understanding

• Many considerations in development

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The design construct

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Two major influences on language specific development(1) The AC construct:

Feature Expectations

Content Descriptions

Single statement of what will be taught (2 year period)Includes concepts, processes, text types

Elaborations Examples to illustrate and exemplify content descriptionsImplicit stem ‘this may involve students…’ Commence with verb in present continuous tense, e.g. ‘identifying’, ‘exploring’, ‘describing’

Achievement Standards

Statement of skills and understanding in two paragraphs1: students’ performance/‘doing’ in the target language2: students’ understanding related to performance/ doingLanguage-specific examples to capture level of sophistication

The design construct

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(2) The Shape and design papers for Languages: - Contemporary understandings of language teaching and learning -

intercultural orientation e.g. social, experiential, interpretive, reflective- Described through strands and sub-strands (cascading representation)

Strand Sub-strand

Communicating Socialising and taking actionObtaining and using informationResponding to and expressing imaginative experienceMediating (translating, interpreting)Expressing and performing identityReflecting on intercultural language use

Understanding System of languageVariabilityLanguage AwarenessReflecting on role of language and culture

Language specificity: content

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How to conceive/represent distinctiveness?Both from current practice and intention of ‘new’ aspects of design e.g. mediating, reflection on intercultural language use

Process Examples

Map ’culturally fruitful’ concepts

nasib (fate), gotong royong (mutual support), pulang kampung (return home/to one’s origins)

Map linguistic content (functional orientation)

- identifying things using concrete nouns, for example, school (ruang kelas); objects (bak mandi) and places (desa, masjid) - referring to numbers of things using cardinal number system (puluh, ratus) and things in sequence using ordinal number system (pertama, ke-) - telling others to do something using imperatives, for example, Duduklah, Diamlah- specifying place and location, for example, di sini, di atas

Language specificity: content

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An example:

Language specificity: achievement

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• How to render achievement at a give point?• How to render achievement over time/progression?

– 2 year intervals, not just more but qualitative shift in learning, important to select ‘indicative’ language use and understandings

• Two paragraphs:– Communicating: evidence base for Year 6 & 10 (SAALE study)– Understanding: anecdotal evidence (writing panel experience)

– Overall, intercultural orientation – anecdotal, experimental, hypothetical

Language specificity: achievement

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Extracts from Year 7 and 8 (Level 1)(Communicating) Students refer to others using a range of pronouns (saya, kamu, dia, mereka, Bu/Pak), and use these in possessive form, including using -nya (sepatunya trendi, filmnya menarik). They refer to events in time and place using prepositions (pada, di and ke) as well as tense markers, such as sebelum/sesudah, … yang lalu, … depan.

(Understanding)Students recognise that Indonesian has similarities with English, such as the same alphabet, and similar word order, apart from possessives and noun-adjective order. They are aware of major features such as base words (main, makan, tidur, jalan) and how to apply affixes such as -an to create nouns and ber- to create verbs.

Reflections on the experience

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• Working with the design construct: struggles and benefits for language specificity

• Complexity of holding multiple frames at once e.g. AC construct, Languages design, language specific/generic content, current and new dimensions of teaching and learning, existing and envisaged practice - at a given point (2 years) and over time (F-10)

• It is a process of conceptualising, abstracting/specifying, weaving, foregrounding/backgrounding, crafting the language for maximum meaning

• In practice, teachers integrate, build connections between various dimensions to shape programs

• The AC Indonesian is a reference point, a contribution to professional dialogue and a potential lever for enhancing teaching and learning of Indonesian into the future

Introducing the Draft Framework for Australian Languages

Michael Walsh

AIATSIS Centre for Australian Languages,

Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Languages

Oversight of the curriculum development process

The ACARA Board [the ultimate bosses]

The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Advisory Group

Languages Advisory Group

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Languages Advisory Group

Languages National Panel

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Panel

Consultations with the public

Overview of the curriculum development process

Shape paper – lead writer: Angela Scarino; companion writer: Jaky Troy

Draft Framework for Australian Languages – writers: Doug Marmion; Jaky Troy; Michael Walsh

various drafts looked over by the advisory groups and national panels before going out to consultation

12 August – Languages Advisory Group discusses proposed directions for revision of the Framework

12 September - Languages Advisory Group considers the revised Framework

Timetable for consultations on the Draft Framework for Australian Languages

Online consultations: 20 May – 25 July 2013

18 face-to-face consultations, one for each capital city as well as other key centres for larger areas e.g. Northern Territory: Alice Springs 14 June; Darwin 29 July

Western Australia: Broome 17 June; Hedland 18 June; Perth 19 June; Kalgoorlie 20 June

others: Hobart, Melbourne, Adelaide, Port Augusta, Sydney, Vincentia, Port Macquarie, Parkes, Canberra, Brisbane, Cairns, Thursday Island

Overview of the Framework

Rationale

Aims

Principles and protocols

Pathways

Strands

Sub-strands

Sub-sub-strands: content descriptions; content elaborations

An example from Japanese

Strand: Communicating

Sub-strand: Socialising and taking action

Sub-sub-strand: “1.1 Interact in simple exchanges … everyday intercations”

Content description [blue]

Content elaborations [black]

Overview of the Framework

Rationale why are we doing this?

Aims what do we hope to achieve

Principles and protocols show some respect!

Pathways catering to 3 different kinds of learners

Strands broad organizing principle for any language

Sub-strands the nitty-gritty

Sub-sub-strands: content descriptions; content elaborations even nittier-grittier

Rationale why are we doing this?

The overall rationale for learning Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander languages in Australian schools is that they are the original languages of this country. Through learning them all students gain access to knowledge and understanding of Australia that can only come from an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander perspective. The languages by their nature embed this perspective. Developing the ability to use these unique languages can play an important part in the development of a strong sense of identity and self-esteem for all Australian students.

and five more

Aims what do we hope to achieve

To communicate in the target language

To understand language, culture, and learning and their relationship and thereby develop an intercultural capability in communication

To understand oneself as a communicator (as performer and audience)

To understand the process of language building (to develop knowledge of linguistic techniques and processes of language revitalisation).

Aims

To communicate in the target language

To understand language, culture, and learning and their relationship and thereby develop an intercultural capability in communication

To understand oneself as a communicator (as performer and audience)

To understand the process of language building (to develop knowledge of linguistic techniques and processes of language revitalisation).

the 4th aim is unique to Australian Languages

Principles and Protocols - excerpts

Appropriate consultations with relevant Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander communities are always the touchstone for the development and provision of language learning programs. Before, during and after the introduction of such programs the following guiding principles and protocols should be integral to the development and delivery of Australian languages programs:

Each Australian language is recognised as belonging to a group of people who are the language owners or custodians.

Sufficient time and resources should be allowed for thorough and ongoing consultation processes in accordance with local situations..

The ultimate authority regarding the choice of target language rests with the local community. …

Issues to be considered might include:

whether the target language is the language of the land on which it will be learned

the level of documentation for that language

the proportion of students identifying with the language

availability of appropriate human resources for teaching the language.

Curriculum architecture: Pathways

Languaging the content elaborations: before

Languaging the content elaborations: afterSample content elaborations for L1 non-Pama-Nyungan: Murrinh-Patha.

Errata: white blossom orange blossom; thitay thithay

Languaging the content elaborations

Languaging the content elaborations

Erratum: thitay thithay

Languaging the content elaborations

Languaging the content elaborations

Languaging the content elaborations

What it’s all for?!

It is intended that the Framework will be used by state and territory jurisdictions and schools to develop language-specific programs. Of necessity a framework is general and abstract. This is because it needs to be potentially applicable to the entire range of all 250 Australian languages which display a very wide variety of language ecologies. There will be a number of instances of specific language exemplification in which content descriptions and elaborations which have hitherto been general and abstract are applied in a concrete fashion to these specific languages.