DEVELOPING HEALTH SCIENCES CURRICULA: PRINCIPLES AND …assignment+02+su1-3.… · 1.1 THE CONCEPT: CURRICULUM AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Traditionally curriculum is defined as a

HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Compiled: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 1

DEVELOPING HEALTH

SCIENCES CURRICULA: PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS

Only workbook for HSE 3704

SU1-3: Assignment 02


“The success of tomorrow’s students will be built upon the education we design today” Dr Linda Price


HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook

Contents Section B .................................................................................................................... 4

Study Unit 1: CURRICULUM THEORIES .................................................................. 4

1.1 THE CONCEPT: CURRICULUM AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ..... 5

1.1.1 Curriculum defined in terms of subject matter (content) ........................... 10

1.1.2 Curriculum defined in terms of outcomes (product) .................................. 12

1.1.3 Curriculum defined in terms of process (planned learning experiences) .. 14

1.1.4 Curriculum defined in terms of praxis (interactions) ................................. 16

1.1.5 Curriculum as having a conceptual and a cultural dimension................... 19

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT .............................. 22

1.3 THE PURPOSE OF A CURRICULUM ........................................................ 24

1.3.1 The academic-rationalist perspective ....................................................... 26

1.3.2 The cognitive processes perspective ....................................................... 27

1.3.3 The humanistic (personal relevance) perspective .................................... 28

1.3.4 The social reconstructionist (social adaptation and reconstruction) perspective / Critical theory ............................................................................... 28

1.3.5 The personal commitment perspective .................................................... 30

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF CURRICULA ........................................................... 35

1.5 CURRICULUM TERMINOLOGY ................................................................. 36

1.6 THE CURRICULUM COMMITTEE ............................................................. 37

1.7 SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 39

HSE 3704 Curriculum Development workbook Edited by: Dr JC (Irene) Lubbe Page 4

Section B

Study Unit 1: CURRICULUM THEORIES

In this first study unit you will be introduced to the field of curriculum studies. We will

focus on the following questions:

What is a curriculum?

What is the purpose of a curriculum?

What is meant by curriculum development?

How is a curriculum developed?

Specific outcomes:

After you have worked through this study unit you will be able to conceptualise the

meaning of the concept of curriculum and its purposes, based on your ability to

distinguish between different perspectives about the meaning of the concept

of curriculum

distinguish between different perspectives about the purpose of a curriculum

analyse a given definition of curriculum

explain what a curriculum is from a chosen perspective, or from a combination

of perspectives

argue in favour of a perspective, or combination of perspectives, about the

purpose of a curriculum within the context of your own profession

enhance effective communication by using curriculum

Before we start, remember:

Week 1 - 2

16 hours


1.1 THE CONCEPT: CURRICULUM AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Traditionally curriculum is defined as a course of study - those items that establish

the course (Wiles & Bondi 2011:3). The word curriculum is derived from the Latin

word curro or currere which means “to run'' (Billings & Halstead 2012:79; Iwasiw &

Goldenberg, 2015:4). In this sense curriculum refers to an educational journey or

race that learners embark on to achieve some educational goal.

This is a general definition of the concept of curriculum. Various more specific

definitions are to be found in the educational literature; but, as we have mentioned,

these definitions vary greatly.

How we define the concept of curriculum depends on our perspective about what a

curriculum is, as well as our perspective about the nature of education and the world.

It is for this reason that various, often diverse, definitions of curriculum are found in

the literature. It is important to understand these different perspectives because our

own view about what a curriculum is will influence the decisions we make about the

type of curriculum which we value.

Activity 1.1: In your own words, without consulting any sources, write down what

YOU think a curriculum is.

Curriculum is an accumulative study of work aimed to achieve a specified

outcome. It is a step by step approach with structured learning objectives.

The learning spread over a period of time with specified targeted objectives.

Let’s look at a few evidence-based definitions of a curriculum!

Ebert, Ebert and Bently (2013) defines curriculum as

“… the means and materials with which students will interact for the

purpose of achieving identified educational outcomes.”

The authors further state that

http://www.education.com/reference/article/curriculum-definition/


“A key concept to keep in mind is that the curriculum is only that

part of the plan that directly affects students. Anything in the plan

that does not reach the students constitutes an educational wish, but

not a curriculum.”

As an example, let us analyse Keating's definition of a curriculum. According to

Keating (2015:1), a curriculum is

... the formal plan of study that provides the philosophical

underpinnings, goals, and guidelines for delivery of a specific

educational program.

Underline each of the keywords in Keating's definition. Critically evaluate the

definition and then make notes on the implications for health sciences education.

Keating’s definition suggests three major points, the first being that learning is a

formal educational plan. We do plan theoretical and clinical teaching sessions and

learning opportunities. Usually we use a curriculum document to guide us. This

document includes the content and skills, for example, which learners should acquire

in order to achieve specified learning outcomes (goals), and an indication of how

learning assessment will occur. In addition the educational plan also specifies which

clinical areas the learners should be exposed to and the number of hours needed for

each exposure.

On the other hand, we need to ask ourselves whether we can really plan all possible

specific learning experiences. Learning is a private journey. It is not owned by the

educator. It can at times be quite spontaneous. Learning possibilities may arise that

have not been anticipated while the learners utilise planned learning opportunities

and interact with the learning material, with the educator and with one another. The

nature of health sciences education, and of education in general, is such that

learners are likely to learn in groups in both the classroom and clinical areas and will

also spend time working individually in both the educational institution and the

clinical field.

Learning may occur as a learner is pursuing some meaningful idea, triggered by

something that has been read, discussed or investigated, which may be quite

http://www.springerpub.com/media/samplechapters/9780826130273/9780826130273_chapter.pdf


different from where the educational plan was supposed to lead. For this reason

Keating's definition is restrictive because it does not make provision for the

curriculum as interactions in the educational setting, which may lead to intended and

unintended learning.

Secondly, the definition suggests that a curriculum provides the philosophical

underpinnings for the delivery of a specific educational programme. This adds

another perspective to our understanding of what a curriculum is. Keating's definition

makes provision for the fact that our philosophical views influence our decisions

during curriculum development and therefore also the nature of the curriculum which

we develop. The definition also accounts for the fact that we teach the learners the

values and wisdom which underlie the content and skills which they are supposed to

acquire.

Keating therefore suggests that a curriculum is a means by which we form the

learners in terms of ethics and their ability to seek to answer the basic questions of

what is real and true, and how truth differs from opinion. This is in addition to

teaching them what they need to practise a particular profession competently in

technical terms. Keating's definition therefore makes provision for the foundations of

a curriculum.

Thirdly, the definition suggests that a curriculum provides guidelines for the delivery

of a specific educational programme. This means that this definition sheds light on

the fact that a curriculum comprises an implementation guideline in addition to the

educational plan. A curriculum therefore communicates an educational plan and

guidelines on how the educational plan should be applied in practice. Therefore the

curriculum involves not only a formal educational plan but also what happens in the

teaching-learning situation.

Keating's definition does contribute something to our understanding of the meaning

of the concept of curriculum in terms of having a conceptual and cultural dimension.

We at least know that if we follow this viewpoint we need to plan carefully for all the

learning opportunities that a learner requires to become a competent health care

practitioner. We also know that we have to establish a guideline which educators and

learners can use to ascertain that teaching and learning actually contribute towards


achieving the goals as stated in the educational plan. In addition we need to

explicate the philosophical underpinnings (or foundations) of the curriculum.

If we look at the definition of a curriculum, it is clear that most of the definitions of a

curriculum have certain key-words in common.

Activity 1.2: Using Mindmeister™ (www.mindmeister.com), draw a mind map on the

definition of what a curriculum is/entails. Remember to include the sources that you

have consulted. (At Unisa we make use of the Harvard method.) The mind map must

be saved in your e-portfolio and pasted in the space provided below. Copy and paste

the link to your mind map here: https://www.mindmeister.com/517577990/curriculum

Tip: You may consult any relevant source, such as these suggestions:

http://www.edudemic.com/benefits-of-mind-mapping/ and/or http://www.education.com/reference/article/curriculum-definition/ and/or http://www.slideshare.net/UmairAshraf/curriculum-history-and-elements-of-

curriculum and/or http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/strengthening-education-

systems/quality-framework/technical-notes/different-meaning-of-curriculum/

http://www.mindmeister.com/

https://www.mindmeister.com/517577990/curriculum

http://www.edudemic.com/benefits-of-mind-mapping/

http://www.education.com/reference/article/curriculum-definition/

http://www.slideshare.net/UmairAshraf/curriculum-history-and-elements-of-curriculum

http://www.slideshare.net/UmairAshraf/curriculum-history-and-elements-of-curriculum

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/strengthening-education-systems/quality-framework/technical-notes/different-meaning-of-curriculum/

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/strengthening-education-systems/quality-framework/technical-notes/different-meaning-of-curriculum/


Activity 1.3: In the myUnisa discussion forum, under the topic “Curriculum

Development Definitions”, paste your Mind Map. Take a look at some of your co-

student’s mind maps and leave feedback (an academic comment). Your comment

will be graded and contributes to your semester mark. [“Nicely done” is not an

academic comment.]

Copy and paste the two responses that you have provided on two other

students’ mind maps here:

Student 1: 51074419 (number). Your response: Your mindmap of

curriculum definition is of high standard. It shows that you have really

put a lot of effort and widely researched topic. You have covered all the

key points making it easy to follow and understand.

The sub key point links are overlapping and make it a bit difficult to

follow. Otherwise it is well done.

Student 2: 51039702 (number). Your response: Your mindmap of

curriculum definitional demonstrates a very good understanding of the

subject matter. It is well spaced out and clearly shows all the links

between key points.

Copy and paste two responses that you have received on your mind map

here:

Student 1: 50406426 (number). Their response: I have also had a close look

at your mindmap, I am impressed with the presentation. Very clear and

bold. Your connections are flawless.

However the referencing was not done according to the Harvard

method. Great Job.

Student 2: 53345630 (number). Their response: I have looked at your mind

- map and you have included all the relevant information, it is

indeed very informative, well presented and neatly done.


Do you agree with the feedback you have received? Yes / No Yes

Motivate your answer: I looked at the proper way of writing down sources

consulted on mind map and realised my mistake.

A curriculum can be defined in terms of:

subject matter (content)

outcomes (curriculum as product)

planned learning experiences (curriculum as process)

interactions in the educational setting (curriculum as praxis)

and have a conceptual and a cultural dimension.

We will quickly discuss each of the above perspectives. As you read through these

descriptions, you must highlight or circle the basic concepts as it relates to this

definition/perspective. (You will use these keywords for the next activity.)

1.1.1 Curriculum defined in terms of subject matter (content)

Traditionally, curriculum is viewed in terms of content and education is viewed in

terms of the transmission of knowledge. Viewed from this perspective, a curriculum

is a pre-planned entity that consists of a collection of courses, subjects or subject

disciplines. This category represents a perspective that a curriculum is a written

description of the content that educators deem important and intend to teach their

learners. In this sense content refers to facts, concepts and generalisations that are

inherent in particular subjects or subject disciplines, as well as to related skills and

attitudes that learners need to acquire. Specialists in the academic fields teach

learners the modes of academic inquiry practised by them.

Learners are therefore exposed to the subject matter of a particular field of study, as

well as to the methods of inquiry by which knowledge is generated by experts.

Below is a definition that reflects the view that a curriculum is a collection of subject

matter.


Bell (Quinn 2007:107) defines curriculum as follows:

“A curriculum is the offering of socially valued knowledge, skills and

attitudes made available to learners through a variety of

arrangements during the time they are at school, college or

university.”

You might also want to look at Dr Asgari’s presentation (Slideshare, slide 12 of 63)

for her perspective on the content or subject based curriculum.

Figure 1: Curriculum Approaches (Asgari, n.d. 12/63)

This perspective supports the development of a curriculum consisting of an outline of

the subject disciplines and individual subjects that are taught to learners. Biological

sciences are an example of a subject discipline and anatomy, physiology and

microbiology are examples of subjects falling under a discipline. Each subject can

also be broken down into topics that should be covered by educators, for example

the anatomy of the respiratory system. It is the responsibility of the learner to master

the subject content and the reasoning processes inherent in the subject discipline.

Activity 1.4: Write down the key-words that you have circled for the CONTENT-based curriculum:

Focus is on subject matter

The focus is on transmission of knowledge

It is a pre-planned activity with collection of activities

http://www.slideshare.net/Azia1980/curriculum-development-evaluation?related=2


What would be some of the disadvantages of the content or subject-based

curriculum?

There is very little focus on students.

There is a very little opportunity for the students input.

There is one method of assessment. There is no time for

improvement.

In Billings and Halstead (2012:79) you will find another definition by RC Doll.

1.1.2 Curriculum defined in terms of outcomes (product)

According to this perspective, a curriculum is viewed as a pre-planned educational

guideline that consists of stated purposes, aims and objectives. Content to be taught

to learners is seen to be secondary to the intended results of learning as stated in

the form of, for instance, learning outcomes. The learning outcomes are indications

of what learners should be able to do or perform on completion of individual study

units, a collection of study units and the curriculum as a whole. A close link exists

between pre-specification of outcomes and testing of performance when learners are

required to demonstrate mastery of the learning outcomes.

Therefore, criteria are specified according to which the outcomes of learning should

be evaluated. This perspective is underpinned by a belief that the purpose of

education is to equip learners with the necessary skills to function effectively in

society. It has had an impact on especially vocational training courses.

Spady, who is considered to be the ‘father’ of outcomes-based curriculums and

education concluded that:

“In its briefest form, an outcome is a culminating demonstration of

learning. It is a demonstration: what it is the kids will actually do.

Most people have thought over the years that the outcomes were the

curriculum content: What will the kids know? What can they recall

on a test? But outcomes are not content, they're performances.”

According to Tyler (1950:5) education (curriculum) is

http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational_leadership/dec92/vol50/num04/On_Outcome-Based_Education@_A_Conversation_with_Bill_Spady.aspx


.. a process of changing people's behaviour patterns.

Johnson (1967:130) defines curriculum as

... a structured series of intended learning outcomes.

According to Pratt (1980:4), a curriculum is

... an organised set of formal educational or training intentions.

A definition of curriculum as a set of planned outcomes supports the development of

a behavioural objectives-based or an outcomes-based curriculum in which learning

outcomes, together with learning areas and assessment criteria, are outlined. The

learners systematically achieve the stated objectives or outcomes and demonstrate

what they have learnt by using the curriculum content to perform certain skills

competently. Nicholson provides a concise summary and quote Spady’s 1994

original publication by stating that:

“Outcome-Based Education means clearly focusing and organizing

everything in an educational system around what is essential for all

students to be able to do successfully at the end of their learning

experiences. This means starting with a clear picture of what is

important for students to be able to do, then organizing the

curriculum, instruction, and assessment to make sure this learning

ultimately happen.”

If one then needs to visually illustrate the process, it would look something like my

diagram below:

Activity 1.5: Taking all the above definitions and explanations into account, write

down the key-words that you have circled for the OUTCOMES-based curriculum:

It focuses on skills development.

http://cll.mcmaster.ca/COU/pdf/Brief%204%20Outcome-Based%20Education.pdf

http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED380910


It focuses on performance of activities.

Carry out the tasks independently. The major focus is on the ability

to be able to

What would be some of the disadvantages of the outcomes-based curriculum?

Mastery of skills with no proper theoretical knowledge.

The students lack theoretical foundation.

The students are unable to bridge the gap between theory and

practice.

There are quite a number of presentations on Slideshare™ and YouTube™ where

lecturers and students elaborate on the value and constraints regarding an

outcomes-based curriculum. If you find a presentation that is useful (any topic),

kindly share the link with the rest of the class via myUnisa. You do not need to

upload the clip – you can use my example to guide you:

Useful OBE-links (downloadable presentations): Outcomes-based Education

http://www.slideshare.net/crlmgn/outcomnesbased-education?related=1 and

http://www.slideshare.net/alwynlau/outcomebased-

education?next_slideshow=1

**Please bear in mind that not all content on the World Wide-Web is always 100%

accurate – so use viewer discretion.**

1.1.3 Curriculum defined in terms of process (planned learning experiences)

Curriculum as a set of planned learning experiences represents a view that a

curriculum is a plan according to which personal experiences, which are intended to

contribute to learning, are brought to learners. This view considers almost anything

which the learners encounter in school and outside the school (as long as it is

planned) as being part of the curriculum.

Asgari (2010:8) describes planned learning experiences as:

“… any activity that provides a practicing administrator with

knowledge or skills, or that changes attitudes, and is deliberately

planned and presented as a learning event. Each learning experience

http://www.slideshare.net/crlmgn/outcomnesbased-education?related=1

http://www.slideshare.net/alwynlau/outcomebased-education?next_slideshow=1

http://www.slideshare.net/alwynlau/outcomebased-education?next_slideshow=1


should contribute to the development of at least one learning

outcomes.”

Examples of definitions that are based on the process-based perspective are that of

Ornstein and Levin (2006:414):

... planned experiences provided through instruction,

and that of Print (1993:9):

... all the planned learning opportunities offered to learners by the

educational institution and the experiences learners encounter when

the curriculum is implemented.

and Kerr (Quinn 2007:108):

... all learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it

is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school.

A definition of curriculum as a set of planned learning experiences represents a shift

of focus away from curriculum content and outcomes in favour of a focus on

learning.

Activity 1.6: Write down the key-words that you have circled for the PROCESS-

based curriculum:

It is a planned learning process.

It uses a step by step approach.

It is given over a period of time.

For which subjects or learning would a process-based curriculum works best?

Subjects that requires repetition of information and activities

Learning that involves complex activities

Learning of activities that involves high risk procedures.

What would be some of the disadvantages of the process-based curriculum?

Restrictive, with very little opportunity for student input

There is very little opportunity for students to explore

It could be boring to inquisitive students.


Do you think that it is possible to plan for all learning experiences? What happens if

a teaching/learning opportunity presents itself, but the lecturer did not plan for this?

If you want to read more about the process-based curriculum, try this (rather old)

article: Knight, P. 2001. Complexity and curriculum: a process approach to

curruculum-making. Teaching in Higher Education, 6 (3). pp. 369-381. ISSN 1356-

2517.

1.1.4 Curriculum defined in terms of praxis (interactions)

The word praxis implies practice. Therefore, a praxis-based curriculum focusses on

real-life problems (as opposed to theoretical statements and assumptions). The

student and the lecturer form a team. The ideal is that real life problems are

confronted (together) by the students and their lecturers. They then critically think

about and reflect on it and find application and meaning of content to real-life

situations (Yek & Penney, 2006:7-8).

Grundy (in Yek & Penney, 2006:7) describes the teaching and learning process as:

“a process which takes the experiences of both the learner and the

teacher and, through dialogue and negotiation, recognizes them both

as problematic.”

Grundy (in Yek & Penney, 2006:7) further states that:

“the curriculum is not simply a set of plans to be implemented, but

rather is constituted through an active process in which planning,

acting and evaluating are all reciprocally related and integrated into

the process”

Bevis and Watson (1989:5) define curriculum as

... the interactions and transactions that occur between and among

students and teachers with the intent that learning occur.

http://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3345&context=ecuworks


Study Billings and Halstead (2012:79–80) and add the definitions by William E Doll

(2002) and Nelms (1991) to this section. You will notice that WE Doll (in Billings &

Halstead, 2012:79) focusses on the shifting paradigm where the focus is not solely

on the individual undertaking the study. Look at the five major concepts as used by

him:

Currere

Complexity

Cosmology

Conversation

Community

These definitions indicate that all other aspects of curriculum such as programmes of

study, written plans, and extracurricular activities are adjuncts to educator-learner

and learner-learner interactions. This perspective is based on the assumption that a

curriculum is what actually happens in the teaching-learning setting as opposed to a

written plan, which might not be realised in practice as intended.

This perspective also underscores the principles of interactive learning (interaction

between the learners and the learning material) and collaborative learning

(interaction among learners and educators). Interaction and collaboration enable the

learners to internalise and apply curriculum content in order to solve problems.

Activity 1.7: Write down the key-words that you have circled for the PRAXIS-based

curriculum:

It involves hands on experiences.

It deals with real life situations.

There is room for sharing of information and active interactions

between students and educators.

What would be some of the disadvantages of the praxis-based curriculum?

Lack of enough educators.

Lack of enough clinical facilities for practice.

Lack of enough time for reflection of all activities encountered.


If we look at the definition of a curriculum, it is clear that most of the definitions of a

curriculum have certain key-words in common, although their application may differ.

Activity 1.8: In table format (see outline provided) differentiate between the different

perspectives on curriculum development / curriculum delivery model. Use the

keywords that you have written down. You must upload the final table to your

portfolio.

For this activity, you may work in groups of four (4). One of the easiest ways to do

group work over a distance, is by using collaborative online documents. Remember

that you will also need to include YOUR perspective on the rest of the team’s

contributions towards the project. The total must add up to 100%.

Enter the names and student numbers of the four group members here:

Name: Kenan Mwenda Student nr: 46443568 Contributed 25%

Name: P. Nemaheni Student nr: 34173552 Contributed ______%

Name: Verosha Student nr: 51074419 Contributed ______%

Name: NP Kedama Student nr: 32489986 Contributed ______%

A few websites that you might want to consult for information regarding the table: http://infed.org/mobi/curriculum-theory-and-practice/

UCD teaching and learning @ www.ucd.ie and

http://www.ucd.ie/t4cms/ucdtlp00631.pdf

http://www.sabes.org/curriculum/instruction/bit-about-curriculum.pdf

You might also want to consult Uys and Gwele (2005:13-14).

Perspectives on curriculum development / curriculum delivery model

Content Outcome/Product Process Praxis

Theorist

Academic rationalist

Humanistic perspective

Cognitive Processes

Social Reconstructionist

Curriculum is:

- Concerned with academic excellence

- Concerned with individual development

- Concerned with academic development and empowerment

- Concerned with needs and problems of society

Consist of

- Preservation of Cultural heritage of the profession

- Individual basic needs

- Rewarding learning experience

- Problem solving skills

- Critical think skills

- Thinking skills development

http://www.google.com/google-d-s/tour2.html

http://infed.org/mobi/curriculum-theory-and-practice/

http://www.ucd.ie/

http://www.ucd.ie/t4cms/ucdtlp00631.pdf

http://www.sabes.org/curriculum/instruction/bit-about-curriculum.pdf

http://toniau.ac.ir/doc/books/curriculum%20development%20in%20nursing.pdf


Focus

- Conserving the existing social order

- The individual learner

- The learner - The society and its needs

Emphasize

- Transmission of intellectual tradition or culture of society from generation to generation

- Self actualization - Develop creative

thinking skills

- Problem solving skills

- Thinking skills - Communication

skills

- Positive relationshipss

Education is seen as:

- A way to transmit culture from one generation to another

- A way to total personal growth

- Away to develop integrity

- A way to equip students with intellectual and learning skills to enable them to adapt to ever changing social environment.

-Change agent -A way to equip students with skills to develop innovative skills to change the society

Learners expectancies

- Proud of their own professional culture

- Activits of their profession

- Develop quest fro personal growth

- -Aim for self actualisation

- Self directed - Use discovery

learning techniques

- Active - involvemen

- Conduct critical survey of the society

-Analyse political practices and decisions

- Consider proposals for change

Evaluation

- Examinations - Tests - Campaigns -

- Examinations - Tests - Interviews

- Examinations - Tests

-Debates -Community projects -Campaigns

Purpose

-Develop knowledge,skills and values by which civilisation was shaped in the past and still be shaped in the present.

It is to develop: -intellectual -emotional -moral and -spiritual skills

- Teach intellectual skills to solve problems

-

-To encourage students to to shape their own destiny -Take control of their own lives.

Known as

- Professional heritage culture

- Self actualisation - Intellectual development curriculum

-Liberatory education

Dangers

-Over exaggeration

-Lacks development of group skills

Lacks skills development

-Looses focus on health curriculum

1.1.5 Curriculum as having a conceptual and a cultural dimension

From the above categories, we can distinguish between two major uses of the

concept of curriculum. Some educators use the concept to refer to a written

description of what is intended to happen in the educational setting. For instance, a

curriculum is seen to constitute pre-specified content which educators are supposed


to teach, the outcomes which the learners should achieve and the learning

opportunities which the educators should create and the learners should utilise.

Others use it to refer to what actually happens in the educational setting (e.g. the

learning experiences which the learners encounter as well as their interactions and

collaboration which result in their learning). These educators use the concept to refer

to the teaching-learning strategies which they actually employ, the learners' clinical

learning experiences, and so on. The resultant learning may be either intended or

unintended.

Grundy (1987:5,7) combines these two uses of the concept by stating that a

curriculum consists of a conceptual and a cultural dimension. The conceptual

dimension refers to a plan according to which education should be rendered. This

plan consists of pre-specified content, outcomes and learning opportunities which

are presented to the learners. The cultural dimension is the learning experiences of

learners as a result of the implementation of the educational plan in practice. It is

clear that this perspective encompasses all of the above perspectives; it is therefore

an eclectic approach.

The following definition of Print (1993:9) reflects this perspective:

“... all the planned learning opportunities offered to learners by the

educational institution and the experiences learners encounter when

the curriculum is implemented. This includes those activities that

educators have devised for learners which are invariably represented

in the form of a written document and the process whereby educators

make decisions to implement those activities given interaction with

context variables such as learners, resources, educators and the

learning environment.”

Curriculum development based on this perspective will result in the establishment of

an educational plan in which general outcomes, subject matter, planned learning

opportunities and assessment criteria are outlined.

This perspective even goes further in that the concept of curriculum is understood to

include guidelines according to which the educational plan could be implemented in


practice. Specific learning outcomes, study guides, learning contracts and learning

assessment tools could be incorporated in the implementation guidelines. The

implementation guidelines would then serve as point of departure for personnel

development on how to implement the educational plan in practice. This is to ensure

that the experiences of learners during their interactions with the educational plan

and with educators do in fact contribute to achievement of the intended outcomes as

stated in the educational plan. Figure 2 serves as an example.

Figure 2: Curriculum dimensions

At this point, note the fact that a curriculum is influenced by its context. If you read

the previous/above definition by Print (1993:9) again you will discover that the author

specifies context variables, namely learners, educators and the environment. This

matter will be elaborated on in study units 2 and 4 where we discuss the context of

the curriculum and the situation analysis which is aimed at investigating the context

of a particular curriculum.

Activity 1.9: Consider your personal view about curriculum that you have written

down at the beginning of this study unit. Now reflect on the following:

Do you think your stated view was realistic? (Motivate your answer)

Yes


What misconceptions did you have prior to studying the various perspectives

about what a curriculum is?

None

How would you define curriculum at this point? Use your own words.

A well organised method of study with goals, objectives and outcomes.

There are different opinions from different theories. Each model is

determined by the educator’s personal approach and belief.

None of them work in isolation. It is a combination of different models

from different theorists.

It is quite acceptable if you were unable to explain what curriculum meant to you in

activity 1.1. We trust that you were able to do so now. Defining curriculum now was

probably difficult because there are various perspectives about what a curriculum is,

and you had to consider each of these perspectives. You might even be a bit

confused. At this point it is sufficient for you to understand that various perspectives

exist and to be able to formulate your own definition, based on what you have read

so far.

By now you are probably wondering how you, as a potential educator, are to make

sense of these widely differing approaches. The implications of each of the various

perspectives will become clear to you as you proceed through this and the other third

level health sciences education modules. At this point you should note that the

perspective which is adopted by your profession will influence the type of curriculum

which will be developed to educate health care professionals.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

The development of a curriculum forms part of the basic competencies expected of

an educator. In this workbook, you will look at the various approaches to curriculum

development as well as the application of all of the theories underpinning the actual

process of developing a curriculum.

In recent times the responsibility for curriculum planning, development and

evaluation has shifted from national professional councils, such as nursing councils

http://www.nln.org/profdev/corecompetencies.pdf


and other health professional councils, to educational institutions. This shift is a

worldwide trend and stems from the belief that curriculum decisions should be made

by the educators who implement them and that the decisions should be shared by all

who are involved in some way in planning the curriculum. Therefore, once you have

been appointed to a teaching post, you will be involved in some way in planning,

developing and evaluating a curriculum which will guide your teaching practices.

You may be involved as a member of a team planning a new curriculum, or planning

improvements to or updating an existing curriculum. Alternatively you may be asked

to comment on a curriculum which has been developed by other people. You will

even be involved in curriculum development when you are teaching a course

because you will be constantly developing lesson plans and other learning materials.

Regardless of the nature of your involvement with the curriculum, it is important to

have in-depth knowledge of the theory of curriculum development. This will enable

you to apply its theoretical principles successfully in educational practice. This is why

curriculum theory is included in your course.

Activity 1.10: As stated above, all teaching staff are involved in curriculum

development. Compiling your lesson plans is viewed as crucial to your teaching

responsibilities and form part of your class preparation. Watch the following video-

clip on Curriculum Development (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AAkKSgSChJA)

and explain which of the two members’ views are correct. [Remember to include the

sources that you have consulted. At Unisa we make use of the Harvard method.]

The member who called the other member to develop a curriculum is right.

She is right as curriculum development is not done by a single individual. A

curriculum is done in a closed room by the curriculum committee. It goes for

review by different committees before it gets approved for implementation.

Sources 1. Developing Health Science curricula. Principles and processes. Only study guide for HSE 3704 University of South Africa Pretoria, 2009.

2. Billings, D.M Halstead, JA 2009 Teaching in nursing: a guide for faculty 3rd edition. St Louis: Elsevier Saunders

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AAkKSgSChJA


Can you teach/facilitates from someone else’s lesson plan? Why / Why not?

Yes you can teach or facilitate someone else’s lesson plan.

Knowledge of the subject is a prerequisite to be able to do that.

Research of the subject matter is another requirement

1.3 THE PURPOSE OF A CURRICULUM

The curriculum serves a particular educational purpose. You have learnt that various

perspectives exist about the meaning of the concept of curriculum. Similarly, various

perspectives exist about the purpose of a curriculum. Each perspective has

implications for curriculum development. It is therefore important for educators to

clarify their views about the purpose of a curriculum before embarking on a

curriculum development project, or implementing an existing curriculum in a specific

educational setting. In this module we focus on curriculum development for the

health sciences and not for education in general. You should therefore specifically

concentrate on the purpose of a curriculum within the context of your own

profession.

Activity 1.11: What is your opinion about the purpose of education and by

implication the curriculum? State your opinion by circling the option that reflects your

opinion best:

(1) The purpose is to transmit and preserve a cultural heritage, for example the

existing culture of your profession.

SA A D SD

(2) The purpose is to develop thinking, problem solving and learning skills among

learners.

SA A D SD

SA = strongly agree

A = agree

D = disagree

SD = strongly disagree


(3) The purpose is to promote personal development of each individual learner (self-

actualisation).

SA A D SD

(4) The purpose is to promote social transformation.

SA A D SD

NB: My options are underlined, as I could not circle them.

At some point, we will ask you to review your responses. In the meantime, we will

continue to explore various perspectives about the purpose of a curriculum, as found

in the literature.

You may use and add any reliable source such as Glatthorn, Boschee, Whitehead

and Boshee, (2012, Chapter 1) to add depth to our discussions below by integrating

the content into our discussions in the study guide.

Manley-Delacruz (1990:5) provides an overview of the different perspectives. (I know

it is a very old article, but the content is still good.) Try to compile your own.

Figure 3: Curriculum perspectives (Manley-Delacruz, 1990:5)

http://www.uk.sagepub.com/books/Book233462/samples


http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/44334_1.pdf

http://www.elizabethdelacruz.com/uploads/5/4/3/6/5436943/delacruz_revisiting.pdf

http://www.elizabethdelacruz.com/uploads/5/4/3/6/5436943/delacruz_revisiting.pdf


1.3.1 The academic-rationalist perspective

According to this view, the purpose of a curriculum is to foster academic excellence

and to transmit the intellectual tradition or culture of society from generation to

generation. Learners are taught to recognise the finest achievements in their cultural

heritage (which includes the cultural heritage of a particular profession) and, where

possible, to add to these achievements through their own efforts. The purpose of the

curriculum can therefore be stated as conserving the existing social order. A

curriculum is developed to teach learners the knowledge, skills and values by which

civilisation was shaped in the past and is still being shaped today. The focus is on

the development of a rational mind and on teaching learners the standards of

reason, as well as on how to do research. The aim is to develop the insight and

intellectual skills that are required to study academic subjects or subject disciplines.

Another aim is to prepare learners to function effectively in society, for instance to be

a competent occupational therapist, a nurse or a physiotherapist. Decisions on what

to teach are based on the consideration of the usefulness or vocational value of

certain kinds of knowledge (McNeil 1996:1).

An expression of the purpose of a curriculum, in terms of conveyance of the

intellectual tradition or culture of a particular health profession, supports the

development of a content-centred, a behavioural objectives-based or an outcomes-

based curriculum.

According to Barone (2012:3) there are eternal truths that one needs to discovered.

However, an overstuffed curriculum should be avoided and

“the most worthwhile learning centers on those enduring ideas and

artifacts that have stood the test of time.”

Activity 1.12: Look at the presentation uploaded by Chan on Academic Rationalism

or the article by Barone (2010). Which types of institutions will ideally teach from an

academic-rationalist perspective?

Content Curriculum based institutions

Process curriculum based institutions

http://www.slideshare.net/syaochan/academic-rationalism

http://www.sage-ereference.com/view/curriculumstudies/n2.xml


1.3.2 The cognitive processes perspective

According to this perspective, the purpose of a curriculum is viewed in terms of the

development of critical thinking skills among learners. The aim is to equip learners

with the knowledge, skills and processes that are needed to solve problems and to

learn how to learn.

The assumption is that society is in a process of constant change and that subject

content constantly becomes outdated. Learners should therefore be equipped with

the intellectual and learning skills that will enable them to adapt to social change and

keep up to date with new developments. They should be taught to apply intellectual

skills to solve problems. Content relating to the academic disciplines is specified in

the curriculum, but this content is seen to be the source of knowledge necessary to

solve problems successfully, as opposed to knowledge that should simply be

memorised and regurgitated. The curriculum content is learnt by means of self-

directed learning and discovery learning techniques, which require active learner

involvement. It is not simply transmitted by the educators (McNeil 1996:1).

Activity 1.13: Given the statement above, reflect on how you were taught certain

practical skills (e.g. wound-dressing) when you were a student. Where you taught a

sequence of steps that you had to follow, or were you taught the basic principles of

wound-dressing?

I was taught the step by step approach.

Do you think this was a good ‘way’ of teaching? (Motivate your answer.)

Yes, it was a good way of teaching.

This method of teaching does not only teach steps about wound healing. It

also teaches about prevention and control of infection. Infection prevention

and control is the main principle in wound healing.

An expression of the purpose of the nursing curriculum in terms of the intellectual

development of learners paves the way for the development of a process curriculum

which is organised according to a problem-based design.


1.3.3 The humanistic (personal relevance) perspective

This perspective focuses on the learner as an individual and on meeting the basic

needs and aspirations of each learner. Humanists believe that the purpose of a

curriculum is to provide each learner with intrinsically rewarding learning experiences

that contribute to personal liberation and development, namely self-actualisation.

The ideals of personal growth, integrity and autonomy are pursued. The aim is the

development of the total person, namely the intellectual, emotional, moral and

spiritual development of learners. In terms of thinking skills, the aim is to develop

creative thinking abilities of learners. The curriculum consists of intrinsically valuable

learning experiences that will promote the self-actualisation of each learner. An

individualised approach is maintained to meet the needs of each learner in his or her

quest for personal development (McNeil 1996:1).

An expression of the purpose of the nursing curriculum in terms of self-actualisation

supports the development of a learner-centred, flexible curriculum which makes

provision for experiential learning. You may want to read the article by Cannell and

Macintyre (2013:4-12).

Activity 1.14: What are the unique features of a flexible curriculum? You can consult

the CHE’s (2013) document for some insight into this.

1. It is leaner centred.

2. Aims at the development of the total person.

3. It aims to offer personal reward to the student, .i.e. personal liberation and

development, self-actualisation.

1.3.4 The social reconstructionist (social adaptation and reconstruction)

perspective / Critical theory

Social reconstructivists are concerned with the relation of the curriculum to society

as it should be, as opposed to society as it is. According to social reconstructivists,

the primary concern of education is to deal with the needs and problems of society,

rather than those of the individual learner, and to contribute to the creation of a better

social order. Theodore Brameld believed that the purpose of a curriculum is the

http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Full_Report.pdf

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R5qyQGltJa8

http://oro.open.ac.uk/38321/

http://oro.open.ac.uk/38321/

http://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/Full_Report.pdf

http://ctle.hccs.edu/facultyportal/tlp/seminars/tl1071SupportiveResources/comparison_edu_philo.pdf


enhancement of social reform by providing liberatory education. Learners are

empowered by acquiring the ability to contribute to social reform as opposed to

accepting current realities and practices or merely adapting to social change. This is

done by developing thinking skills that will enable learners to show a healthy

scepticism about the world, their community and their schooling (McNeil 1996:1).

Learners are encouraged to ask critical questions and have meaningful dialog – they

are guided, but NOT told what to think or believe (Education.com). Freire opposed

the thought that educators ‘deposit’ knowledge into the students’ heads. He believed

that, through a process of inquiry, the child/student must “invent and reinvent the

world” (Houston Community College System, n.d.). The needs of society are seen as

greater than those of the individual and the focus of the curriculum is therefore to

meet the most urgent needs of society. Learners are confronted with the many

severe problems that humankind experiences. They are equipped with the skills to

analyse arguments, look for valid evidence and reach sound conclusions. They are

taught to use these skills to conduct a critical survey of the community, analyse

political practices, consider proposals for change and determine which of the

proposals for change suit the needs of the community. On an individual level,

learners are also taught how to shape their own destiny; thus they take control over

their own lives, bearing in mind that empowered individuals can contribute towards

social change.

An expression of the purpose of the curriculum, in terms of social reform, supports

the development of a curriculum that will empower learners to contribute to building a

more just society. This perspective is consistent with the development of a praxis

curriculum which supports community-based education. See Uys and Gwele

(2005:153+).

Activity 1.15: Do you think that all teaching institutions will be able to adopt a social

reconstructive curriculum? (As always, motivate your answer.)

Yes is very possible. The curriculum should focus on outcomes and

achievement of activities. The learning environment should be dynamic and

provide positive learning environment to students. The curriculum should

allow for flexible to the educators.

http://www.education.com/reference/article/Ref_Student_Centered/

http://ctle.hccs.edu/facultyportal/tlp/seminars/tl1071SupportiveResources/comparison_edu_philo.pdf

http://toniau.ac.ir/doc/books/curriculum%20development%20in%20nursing.pdf


1.3.5 The personal commitment perspective

The central concern of this perspective is commitment on the part of the educator

and the learners. According to this perspective the purpose of a curriculum is to

develop, in learners, a personal commitment to intellectual inquiry and learning. The

aim is to encourage the personal liberation that comes from understanding and

appreciating the questions that the traditional disciplines ask - and from being able to

synthesise them to appreciate a variety of modes of knowing. The outcome is

knowledgeable and competent practitioners who are committed to whatever they do.

This commitment is characterised by a passion for working hard and experiencing

the joys of intellectual exploration (Vallance 1986:27-28).

The personal commitment perspective paves the way for developing a praxis

(practice) curriculum, using an eclectic approach by incorporating the academic

rationalist and humanist perspectives. A committed individual is able to embrace a

personal ethic of social responsibility and service, and exhibit ethical behaviour in all

professional activities.

Activity 1.16: Let's revisit your own views about the purpose of a curriculum. Without

looking back at your previous responses, answer the questions below:

What is your opinion about the purpose of a curriculum in your own profession?

State your opinion by circling the option in the box that reflects your opinion best:

(1) The purpose is to transmit and preserve the existing culture of your profession.

SA A D SD

(2) The purpose is to develop thinking, problem solving and learning skills in

learners.

SA = strongly agree

A = agree

D = disagree

SD = strongly disagree

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/eclectic


SA A D SD

(3) The purpose is to promote personal development of each individual learner.

SA A D SD

(4) The purpose is to promote social transformation.

SA A D SD

(5) The purpose is to develop in learners a personal commitment to intellectual

inquiry, learning and social transformation.

SA A D SD

NB: My options are underlined, as I could not circle them.

Let us reflect: Did your view on the purpose of a curriculum change? What,

according to your own opinion, contributed to a changed view? If your views

remained the same, can you give any reasons why? (Remember: The above options

do not represent right or wrong answers. Your responses depend on your personal

views.)

Not really. Personally I believe that for an individual to be able to change the

society, the person must face change them self. A curriculum must first

change an individual before he/she can change the community and society.


Table 1: Perspective Definitions of Curriculum (Glatthorn, Boschee, Whitehead and Boshee, 2012:3)

Comparing content is usually easier if it is in table format. In the table below a

condense summary of what was discussed in section 1.3.1 – 1.3.5 is provided.

Please add your own notes to this as well. You will see that some of the blocks are

either empty or need additional information. On myUnisa, contribute to the

discussion regarding this table.



Table 2: Perspectives about the purpose of a curriculum

Perspectives about the purpose of a curriculum

Academic-rationalist

Cognitive process

Humanistic / Personal

Social Reconstruc-tionist

Personal commitment

Focus - Academic excellence

- Academic subject

- Intellectual processes

- Individual / Holistic

- Student / Personal

- Self-actualization

- Community-based

- Society (ideal) - Contributing to

social reform (needs and problems)

- Commitment - Ethical

behaviour

Goal and purpose

- Foster academic excellence

- Transmit tradition or cultural heritage

- Conserve the existing social order

- Improve critical thinking and problem solving skills and abilities

- Provide intrinsically rewarding learning experiences

- Motivate personal interests in learning

- Develop thinking skills (scepticism) via a Liberatory education

- Focus on the greater good of society

-

- Personal commitment to intellectual inquiry and learning

- Intellectual exploration

- Knowledgeable and competent practitioners

Aim - Prepare students to function effectively in society

- Prepare students to solve problems

- Students adapt to ever changing society (change=constant)

- Learn how to learn (?life-long learners)

-

- Prepare students to be creative thinkers

- Empower student to contribute/create a better social order

- To develop a healthy scepticism about the world

- Create students who will work hard

- Students who enjoy intellectual exploration

Content source

- Constructs and concepts

- Recognise achievements

- Contribute to the body of knowledge

- Cognitive processes

- Student interests – with subject context

- Societal needs - Problems

experienced by humankind

- Successful work behaviours

-

-

Curriculum content

- Teach knowledge, skills and values that shaped civilisation and profession

- Usefulness and has vocational

- Content specific

- Knowledge needed for problem-solving

- Self-directed learning and discovery

- Experiential learning

- Consists of intrinsically valuable learning experiences

- Holistic focus

- Needs and problems of society (contemporary issues?)

- Community surveys

- Political practices

- Eclectic


Perspectives about the purpose of a curriculum

Academic-rationalist

Cognitive process

Humanistic / Personal

Social Reconstruc-tionist

Personal commitment

value

Structure of curriculum

- Content-centred

- Objective/ outcome based

- Behavioural

- Content specific

- Problem-based curriculum

- Process curriculum

- Learner-centred / Individualised approach

- Flexible curriculum

- Experiential learning

- Community-based education

- Praxis curriculum

- Eclectic (academic rationalist + humanist)

Student competencies

- Develop rational mind

- Standards of reason

- Insight and intellectual skills

- Research

- Active learner involvement

- Problem-solving

- Autonomy - Personal

growth - Integrity - Self-

actualization -

- Analyse arguments

- Find Evidence - Reach sound

conclusions - Students shape

own destiny – take control over own lives

- Knowledgeable and competent practitioners

- Create students who will work hard

- Students who enjoy intellectual exploration

Structuring elements

- Taxonomies - Scaffolding of

knowledge

- Problem solving and trouble-shooting processes

- Student research and projects

- Social problems or work adjustment skills

-

Technology Educational goals

- Industry and Technology: appreciate the evolution of industry and technology

- Intellectual Processes: develop creative solutions to present and future societal problems using technical means.

- Career Exploration and Vocation: develop human potential for responsible work, leisure, and citizenship roles in a technological society.

- Critical Consumerism: establish values on the impact of industry and technology and how it alters our environment.

-

Curriculum model

- Lawton’s cultural analysis model

-

- - - Lawton’s cultural analysis model

-


1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF CURRICULA

There are many ways of classifying curricula. In the figure below, an overview is

provided to illustrate the different types of curricula.

Figure 4: Relationship of types of curricula (Glatthorn, Boschee, Whitehead and Boshee, 2012:31)

Although this is adequately covered in the prescribed and recommended books, I

have included a table with a few quotes on the different types of curricula.

Activity 1.17: Look at the definitions below and in any of your prescribed books

(such as Billings and Halstead, 2012:80-82; Glatthorn, Boschee, Whitehead and

Boshee, 2012) and formulate your OWN definitions.

Add your definition to the table.

Provide an example of each type of curricula.

This table must be uploaded in your electronic e-portfolio.

Table 3: Types of Curricula

Type of curriculum

Description

Legitimate / Official

-Consits of curriculum framework with philosophy and mission. -It states list of competences,objectives and individual courses. EXAMPLE: -A detailed set of objectives for a Midwifery Module. -Competences to be achieved to pass the module. -Total number of competences to be achieved.





Actual / Operational

-Consits of the actual teaching plan that is being taught to the students by the educators. -It focuses on all domains of learning in the classroom(knowledge,skills and attitude. EXAMPLE: -Lesson pal on the anatomy and physiology of the airway syste. -Assessment fo the airwat system. -Abnormalities of the airway ststem. -Use of miniques is used to inforce learning.

Illegitimate -Consits of known and actively taught curriculum by the educators. -There is no written evaluation method for this type of curriculm. EXAMPLE: -Role play to teach caring,compassionate and stimulate feelings of sensitivity. -Story telling to create a rel life situation an d stimulate carong feelings.

Hidden -Consists of verbal and non verbal communication. -The focus is on beleiefs,values and morals. EXAPMLE: -Dress code-the personal grooming of educators indirectly affects the students. -Body language_how educators use body language when communicating with students passess over to the students.Educators who demonstrats caring and respect will provide likewise students.

Null curriculum -Consists of both content and behaviours that are not tauht. -Consists of curriculum that is being overlooked. EXAMPLE: -A decision making development must be developed to students.The faculty might think they are teaching tis skill wheres they are actual not. Facilty must constantly evaluate the the curriculum to avoid misconceptions.

1.5 CURRICULUM TERMINOLOGY

Many terms are used in curriculum theory and you need to comprehend these in

order to understand curriculum theory. Some of the more frequently used

terminology are described below.

A syllabus is a subsection of a curriculum and is typically a list of content areas to

be addressed. The syllabus is a detailed indication of the aspects of a subject to be

presented to the learner. It is normally organised in themes, topics and activities. For

instance the table of contents of this module represents the syllabus for HSE3704.

The content, outcomes, learning activities and assessment strategies of HSE3704,

together with those of all the other modules which you have to complete before you

can graduate, constitute the curriculum for the educational programme for which you

are registered.

The timetable lists the specific theoretical and clinical learning sessions that the

learners should attend, their times, the venues and the educators involved.


The core curriculum consists of the fundamental knowledge, attitudes and skills

that are considered to be essential in order to know and understand the subject or to

practise effectively in a particular field. The list of courses or learning opportunities

from which the learners may choose a number of options to meet their unique

learning needs are called electives.

Curriculation, according to Carl (1995:38),

is regarded as the systematic and effective planning action during

which components such as inter alia objectives, goals, situation

analysis, selection and classification of content, selection and

classification of teaching experiences, planning of teaching methods

and teaching media, planning of the instructional learning situation,

implementation and evaluation figure strongly.

In other words, curriculation is the activity in terms of which each phase of curriculum

development is actually brought into being.

Curriculum development is a very broad concept that encompasses all the

processes involved in the production and implementation of a curriculum, from the

initial idea through to monitoring and review. Curriculum development and

curriculation are often regarded as synonymous.

1.6 THE CURRICULUM COMMITTEE

So far we have discussed the meaning of the concept of curriculum, the purpose of a

curriculum, the terms that are used in curriculum theory and the fact that you will in

some way or other be involved in curriculum development. But will you develop the

curriculum alone or will you be working with colleagues? In most educational

institutions the curriculum is developed by a team, known as the curriculum

committee. The composition of the committee may vary from institution to institution.

In a small educational institution all educators may serve on the committee, together

with some representatives of the clinical area. At large institutions only the subject

heads, together with the principal and representatives of the clinical areas, may

constitute the curriculum committee. The principal generally serves as chairperson of

the committee. At some university departments, academics and subject experts,


media specialists and graphic designers, as well as respected colleagues from other

educational institutions, may serve on the curriculum committee.

In the ideal situation, the committee will be constituted with the following members:

Project leader

Module leader

Project manager from Directorate of Curriculum and Learning Development:

education consultant and specialist

Course coordinator

Teaching assistants

External moderator

Instructional designer

Scriptwriter

Sound-and-Video production

Graphic designer/artist

Programmer and ICT consultant:

Librarian

Member from departmental quality assurance team

Language editor

Previous students who have completed the module

Any partners or providers

Financial department

The work of the curriculum committee is on-going. Once the course is running, the

curriculum committee still meets regularly in order to evaluate and improve the

curriculum.

We discussed various matters related to curriculum development in this study unit. It

is the curriculum committee who is responsible for curriculum development. The

functions of the curriculum committee will therefore become apparent to you as you

proceed through this study guide. Make notes on the functions of the curriculum

committee as you work through each study unit.


1.7 SUMMARY

By actively working through this study unit, you should have acquired a perspective

on the many interpretations of the concept of curriculum, its purpose and the way it

can be classified. By now you should also be familiar with the terms that are used in

curriculum theory. We will continue with our orientation to curriculum theory in study

unit 2, by examining and analysing some of the major curriculum models found in the

literature.

Curriculum is what we “do with what we believe it is all about” (Gurr, 2012).

http://allthingslearning.wordpress.com/2012/02/20/the-mother-of-all-curriculum-myths/


DEVELOPING HEALTH



“The success of tomorrow’s students will be built upon the education we design today” Dr Linda Price



Contents Study Unit 2: CURRICULUM MODELS .................................................................... 42

2.1 OVERVIEW ................................................................................................. 42

2.2 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 42

2.3 MODELS DEPICTING THE NATURE OF A CURRICULUM ...................... 43

2.4 MODELS DEPICTING THE NATURE OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 50

2.5 THE CURRICULUM DEBATE: PROCESS OR PRAXIS? ........................... 63

2.6 SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 66


Study Unit 2: CURRICULUM MODELS

2.1 OVERVIEW

& & & & & & & & & & & &

Study unit 2 of this study guide, Developing Health Sciences Curricula: Principles

and Process, deals with curriculum models.

We provide an outline of selected models depicting the nature of the curriculum and

curriculum development. Note that models help us to visualise the curriculum and

the curriculum development process. This greatly enhances our understanding of

these abstract concepts. S

After you have worked through this study unit you should be able to conceptualise

the nature of a curriculum and curriculum development, based on your ability to &

discuss specified models depicting the nature of a curriculum

discuss specified models depicting the nature of curriculum development

debate the relative value of specified curriculum development models for

curriculum development in your profession

debate the merits of the process and praxis curriculum for health sciences

education

You will be able to achieve most of the learning outcomes by working through this

study unit. Where necessary, we will refer you to appropriate supplementary sources

such as sections in textbooks, video-clips, SlideShare presentations or articles.

Should you come across any valuable sources that can assist your co-students,

kindly share them with the group on myUnisa.

2.2 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 1 of this module you became acquainted with various perspectives on

what a curriculum is and the purpose of a curriculum. You were also introduced to

curriculum terminology used in curriculum studies. In this study unit we will focus on

curriculum models that will enable you to gain a better understanding of what

Week 3-4

16 hours


constitutes a curriculum and what curriculum development entails. The curriculum

committee frequently selects a particular model to provide a structure or map which

will make coherent development possible. It is therefore desirable that you, as future

educators and curriculum developers, have a thorough knowledge of relevant

curriculum models so that you can determine the extent to which each model meets

your requirements. Being familiar with various models will enable you either to select

an existing model or to make adjustments to an existing model, to plan or to improve

your curriculum.

There are a variety of conceptions about what constitutes a model. Broadly

speaking, a model is a symbolic representation of reality which enables us to

understand something which occurs in the world (De Villiers, 2001:34). A curriculum

model denotes a simplified representation of reality which helps to clarify thinking

about the nature of a curriculum. Curriculum development models provide a

structure, enabling coherent development. Models are usually represented in graphic

form (i.e. diagrams with some explanatory text).

A variety of curriculum models are found in the literature on curriculum matters.

Models in curriculum studies are used to explain the nature of a curriculum, the

nature of curriculum development and the organisation of a curriculum. In this study

unit we focus on the former two types of models. We trust that these models will

enable you to visualise the nature of a curriculum and the curriculum development

process.

2.3 MODELS DEPICTING THE NATURE OF A CURRICULUM

In study unit 1, we indicated how curriculum is defined according to various

perspectives on what a curriculum is. The stated definitions give a broad indication of

what is meant by the concept. The question that arises at this point is: What does a

curriculum consist of? In other words, it is necessary for us to determine what the

components of a curriculum are. We need to answer this question in order to

understand what the nature of a curriculum is. For the purpose of determining the

nature of a curriculum, we will examine Zais's and Lawton's curriculum models.


2.3.1 Zais's curriculum model

Zais (1976:96-98) developed a very useful model that gives us a clear indication of

what a curriculum comprises.

Activity 2.1: Before continuing, please watch the PowerPointPresentation: ZIAS

MODEL FOR CURRICULUM DESIGN - NWIC Blogs. Keep figure 2.1 at hand.

Zais's model is presented in Figure 2.1. According to this model, a curriculum

consists of a foundation and a structure.

Figure 2-5: Zais's model depicting the nature of a curriculum

The curriculum's foundation is its philosophical underpinnings.

The philosophical underpinnings of a curriculum, according to De Villiers (2001:34)

“…refer to the underlying values and beliefs that influence the

curriculum structure and its substance. Any decision that educators

make about a curriculum is influenced by their philosophical

assumptions about the epistemology (the nature of knowledge),

http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&ved=0CDUQFjAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.nwic.edu%2Fteachinglearning%2Ffiles%2F2010%2F04%2FZaisModel.pps&ei=rWepVNjtI4XGPbP3gIgP&usg=AFQjCNH42zMv_CpMmhXJIiykNUrxZGtl8Q&bvm=bv.82001339,d.ZWU&cad=rja

http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&ved=0CDUQFjAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.nwic.edu%2Fteachinglearning%2Ffiles%2F2010%2F04%2FZaisModel.pps&ei=rWepVNjtI4XGPbP3gIgP&usg=AFQjCNH42zMv_CpMmhXJIiykNUrxZGtl8Q&bvm=bv.82001339,d.ZWU&cad=rja


society/culture, the individual (human nature and specifically that of

the learner) and learning…”

These matters are discussed in detail in the HSE3703 module. At this point it is

sufficient for you to understand that any curriculum is based on and is influenced by

a set of philosophical assumptions or by the values of those who are involved in its

planning, development and/or implementation.

The curriculum structure refers to the aims/goals/objectives or outcomes, content,

learning activities (teaching and learning strategies) and evaluation (learning

assessment).

Aims/ goals/objectives or learning outcomes are statements about the

intended results of learning.

Content refers to the subject matter, values, processes or skills that should

be taught to and mastered by learners.

Learning activities are those activities offered to learners in the teaching-

learning situation that are designed to enable them to acquire the designated

content and thereby achieve the stated outcomes.

Evaluation refers to assessment of learning by means of, for instance, tests

and examinations.

In short, from Zais's model we can deduce that a curriculum consists of a structure

that is influenced by a set of underlying philosophical assumptions.

Zais's model contributes to our understanding of what a curriculum is by stating what

it consists of. Now that you have been introduced to this model, you should realise

that, when we speak about a curriculum, we refer to both its foundation and its

structure.

Note that you already have knowledge about the curriculum structure. Many learning

activities of the first and second levels of the Health Sciences Education course

introduced you to the specifics of the curriculum structure. You already know how to

formulate learning outcomes, select and teach clinical and theoretical subject

content, facilitate learning in students and conduct learning assessments. We can

therefore say that you are already partly competent in curriculum development,

specifically at the micro level of development.


Activity 2.2: Refer to Study Unit 1 where we analysed Keating's definition of

curriculum. Which of the components of the curriculum were accounted for in the

definition?

1. It consists of a formal educational plan.

2. Consists of three different phases.

3. Theory forms the foundation phase, followed by the clinical sessions and

lastly is the learning opportunity phase.

According to Keating (2006:2),

“… a curriculum is the formal plan of study that provides the

philosophical underpinnings, goals, and guidelines for the delivery of

a specific educational program''.

This definition specifically accounts for the foundations of the curriculum and aspects

of the curriculum structure. With regard to its structure, only the goals were

specifically mentioned. The other components which constitute a curriculum were

implied in the definition, but not mentioned specifically. The definition suggests that a

curriculum provides guidelines for the delivery of a specific educational programme.

This possibly implies that the curriculum content and the teaching, learning and

learning assessment strategies are considered to be part of a curriculum.

At this point we should state that a curriculum is socially situated. This means that

a curriculum evolves from the needs and demands of a particular society and

that, once developed, it is implemented in the particular society, thus having

an impact on that society. For instance, the philosophical assumptions

underpinning a particular curriculum are closely related to the value system of the

broader society. Similarly, the curriculum structure is also influenced by society. If,

for instance, a need exists for graduates who are able to solve problems, then

problem solving will be one of the curriculum outcomes. Cognitive learning theories

should therefore underlie the curriculum. Curriculum content should then include

problem-solving strategies, learners should engage in learning activities that require

them to solve problems independently and strategies to assess their problem-solving

abilities should be devised. Curriculum implementation is also influenced by certain


conditions in society such as the nature of the learners, availability of resources and

the general environment in which learning will take place.

Activity 2.3: Given the above, do you think that it if feasible for a NEI (nursing

education institution) to buy or use a curriculum that was developed and successfully

implemented in another country? (Motivate your answer.) No it is not possible.

According to Keating (2006:2), curriculum is socially situated. Therefore you

cannot implement a curriculum that is attached to a particular society and

implement it to a total different society. Each society has unique demands and

needs that are totally different to another society. Many things affects these

needs, i.e. religion, politics and economic structure.

In the health sciences we strive to prepare health practitioners who can function in a

particular health care setting in order to contribute to meeting the health care needs

of society. It is therefore imperative that we also introduce you to a model that

specifically deals with the social context of a curriculum, namely Lawton's cultural

analysis model.

2.3.2 Lawton's cultural analysis model

Lawton (Kelly 2004:48) developed a cultural analysis model that is based on the

assumption that the main purpose of a curriculum is to initiate learners into the

cultural heritage of society or into what is best in it. Lawton (Gultig et al 2002:24)

defines curriculum as a selection from the culture of society.

This definition implies that content that represents the finest intellectual and artistic

achievements of society are selected for inclusion in a curriculum. The objectives

that we formulate and our decisions about the content to be included are derived

from an analysis of society. It is therefore clear that a curriculum develops from a

particular social context. However, it is also implemented in a particular context and

various factors in society will enhance or even impede successful curriculum

implementation. Therefore you need to understand the social and cultural context

of a particular curriculum before you can embark on curriculum development.


According to Lawton's model, curriculum development should be based on the

technique of cultural analysis. A situation analysis is done to become acquainted

with the social context of a particular curriculum. Situation analysis will be explored

further in study unit 4.

Lawton's model is designed for general education and is very broad. Nevertheless,

this model is thought particularly suitable for directing health sciences educators'

attention to the contextual nature of the curriculum at a time when health sciences

education is required to respond to the demands of an ever-changing world and to

meet the changing needs in society. The model can be easily adapted to health

sciences education if the notion of society is limited to the groups immediately

concerned.

Activity 2.4: You might want to read Lawton’s earlier publication on this: Lawton, D.

1975. Class, Culture and the Curriculum. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.

From the discussions above, it is possible to identify three major characteristics of a

curriculum:

It consists of a foundation.

It consists of a structure.

It is developed from and is implemented in a particular social context.

The context of a curriculum refers to all the factors inside and outside the

educational institution that influence a curriculum. Various global, national and

regional trends in society, the health care system, the educational system and your

profession influence what and how learners should learn. These factors are

discussed in the HSE3702 and the HSE150 modules. Figure 2.2 gives a visual

presentation of the context of a curriculum.


Figure 6.2: The social context of a curriculum

2.3.3 A comprehensive definition of curriculum

Quinn (2007:108-109) provides a comprehensive definition of curriculum:

A curriculum is a plan or design for education and training that addresses the

following questions:

Who is to be taught? This is the learners who experience the curriculum.

What is to be taught and/or learnt? This is about the intentions and content.

Why is it to be taught and learnt? This is about the ideology (underlying

foundations), namely the beliefs and values which underpin the curriculum.

How is it to be taught and/or learnt? This refers to the process of education, ie

teaching, learning and assessment approaches and the learning opportunities

which the learners should utilise.

Where is it to be taught or learnt? This is the context of the curriculum.

When is it to be taught? This is the timetabling of the curriculum.


Figure 2.: W5H

Consider the definition by Quinn (2007:108-109), did you recognise that the structure

of a curriculum has been incorporated in the definition? These are the intentions

(outcomes), content, teaching-learning strategies and learning assessment

strategies. In addition to this, Quinn also incorporates the curriculum foundation

(ideology) and its context. Would you agree that this definition is much more

comprehensive than the definitions which we discussed in study unit 1?

2.4 MODELS DEPICTING THE NATURE OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Now that you have more insight into what a curriculum comprises, we will proceed by

shifting our focus to curriculum development.

Activity 2.5: In your own words, explain the difference between the terms curriculum

and curriculum development:

Curriculum: It is the approved learning plan that has already agreed on

by the curriculum committee and approved and accredited by the

educational bodies.

Curriculum development: It is the process of deciding, selecting and

compiling all learning theorises, activities and evaluation methods that

are need to have it approved and implemented into a Nursing school.


Evaluate your own explanation by referring to the appropriate sections in the

previous study unit.

We shall use various curriculum development models to explain what curriculum

development is and the activities involved in developing a curriculum.

Print (1993:61-62) says that a curriculum development model is used to study

the components of a curriculum and the relationship between these

components.

According to Gosby (1989:67), a curriculum development model provides a

structure enabling coherent development. In other words, a curriculum

development model enables us to determine which curriculum components

require attention, what activities are involved in developing a curriculum and

how we should systematically perform these activities.

Various models depicting the nature of curriculum development are to be found in

the literature. These models are classified by Print (1993:63) into linear-prescriptive,

cyclic and dynamic-interactive models. Each of these classifications represents a

particular view about how curriculum development should proceed.

Activity 2.6: At the end of this study unit, you will have to complete this table below.

It must be pasted or uploaded into your e-portfolio. (It would therefore be a good idea

to keep the table next to you and to start entering data as you read through the

various sections). Please join the discussion on myUnisa regarding this activity.

Table 4: Perspectives on curriculum development / curriculum delivery model

Perspectives on curriculum development / curriculum delivery model

Content Outcome/Product Process Praxis

Theorist

Zias Ralph Tyler Ralph Tyler Lawton’

Curriculum is:

- Formal plan of study

- Based on outcomes - Based on objectives

- Based on society

Consist of

- Foundation - Structure

- Subjects - Discipline

- A linear fixed sequence

- Foundations - Structure - Social context

Focus

- Philosophical underpinnings

- Outcomes - Knowledgeable

- Objectives - Content

- Students - Educators


students - Learning experiences

- Evaluation

- Society

Emphasize

- Goals - Aims - Objectives

- Skills - Knowledge - Individual

- Student behaviour

- Achievement of goals

- Inclusion of social heritage into curriculum

- Education is seen as:

- The primary focus of the curriculum

- Sharing of knowledge

- A step by step approach

- One step must be achieved before moving to the next step

-Vehicle for the teaching of societal values, heritage

Learners expectancies

- The way people learn and learning theories

- Participative - Inquisitive - Explore

- Change of behaviour with acquisition of knowledge

-

- Social aware - Cultural sensitive - Respectful - Responsible

citizens

Evaluation

- Assessment of learning by means of texts and examinations.

- Skills stations - Exams - Tests

- Skills stations - Exams - Tests

- Skills -Tests - Role plays - Debate - Group work

Purpose

- To impact knowledge and skills to students

- To produce competent workforce who can easily adapt to the working environment

- To prepare the students step by step in acquisition of knowledge.

- To have a structured approach in learning

-To prepare students who are cultural sensitive and aware of their own and others’ cultures. -Aware of the needs of the society

Known as

- Epistemology - OBE - Prescriptive - Praxis

Dangers

-Lacks student focus

- Students might lack theoretical foundation

-Restrictive to both students and educators

-lacks research

2.4.1 Linear-prescriptive curriculum development models

Two linear-prescriptive curriculum development models will be discussed: (1) Tyler's

model and an (2) outcomes-based model.

2.4.1.1 Tyler's objectives-driven model

Tyler contributed to curriculum theory by developing an objectives model (figure 2.4)

which depicts curriculum development as a logical and systematic process.


According to Tyler (1950:7), curriculum developers should ask four basic questions

that have to be dealt with during curriculum development:

What educational purposes shall the school seek to attain (objectives)?

What educational experiences can be provided that is likely to attain those

purposes (content and educational strategies)?

How can these educational experiences be effectively organised (curriculum

organisation)?

How can we determine whether these purposes have been attained (learning

assessment)?

Look at the presentation by Herren, Duncan and Ricketts for a quick overview of

Tyler’s curriculum development model. According to Tyler's model, curriculum

development proceeds in a linear fashion, following a fixed sequence. The major

activities that are involved in curriculum development are to:

state objectives,

specify the curriculum content and educational strategies,

organise the curriculum and develop learning assessment strategies.

Figure 2-7:Tyler’s objectives-driven model

First, objectives (the behaviour that a learner should be able to display through his

or her thoughts, actions or feelings) are formulated, usually in behavioural terms.

These objectives are organised in a hierarchy of aims, goals and objectives that

http://www.slideserve.com/odell/tyler-s-model-of-curriculum-development


enables learners to proceed in a step-by-step manner through lower levels to higher

levels of behaviour.

Second, relevant curriculum content is selected and organised to ensure that the

stated objectives are met in a logical fashion.

Third, teaching and learning strategies are designed.

Finally, assessment criteria to measure achievement of the stated objectives are

developed. These assessment criteria are open to measurement, so that learning

can be quantified.

As in the case of curriculum development, this model also supports the notion that

learning takes place in a linear fashion. Learning experiences are planned to ensure

that step-by-step procedures are followed to effect learning. Tyler's model is called

prescriptive because the stated hierarchy of objectives is a predetermined

educational plan, or blueprint, to be followed by educators and learners, thus

allowing little scope for creativity or making few allowances for the interests and

needs of individual learners.

Tyler's model is used to develop a behavioural objectives curriculum.

To summarise the main characteristics of Tyler's model:

It is a model that is prescriptive in terms of curriculum development and

teaching.

It is objectives-driven.

It is a linear model that assumes that curriculum development and learning

take place in a linear fashion.

The model accounts for the curriculum structure because it involves activities

relating to objectives, content, teaching and learning strategies and learning

assessment.

The model makes provision for curriculum organisation.

Remember to populate the table in Activity 2.6)


2.4.1.2 Curriculum development using an outcomes-based model

The outcomes-based movement has its roots in the work of Ralph Tyler, among

others.

Outcomes-based approaches to curriculum development are based on the

assumption that knowledge is negotiable and that the study of certain bodies of

knowledge (subjects/ disciplines), as the main focus of education, might no longer be

sufficient to equip learners with the knowledge and skills required to cope with a

rapidly changing technological world. Instead, the acquisition of skills and

understandings that are required for modern ways of life should be the focal point

of learning and teaching. These skills and understandings can be developed in a

variety of ways, of which the academic study of certain bodies of knowledge is but

one. The process and product of learning are seen to be interdependent. Each

outcome, once attained, becomes the starting point for a new process in which

learners strive to demonstrate competence in progressively more complex

outcomes.

Activity 2.7: Read this light-hearted blog (Why Don’t We Teach the Telephone

Book?) by Dr Klionsky (2014) where he shares this view. Do you agree with him? Be

thought (Motivate your answer.)

Not at all. Teaching a phone book will teach the students memorizing skills. To

memorize is a negative skill that does not promote critical thinking.

The students can be taught how to navigate the book instead of just merely

memorizing the numbers.

Note that the outcomes-based curriculum development model is currently in

operation in South Africa.

The following activities are involved in outcomes-based curriculum development:

Formulate outcomes.

Explore the curriculum context.

Specify the curriculum content and the weighting of the content.

Specify the teaching-learning strategies.

Specify the learning assessment strategies.

http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/curriculum-development/dont-teach-telephone-book/




If you compare Tyler's curriculum development model and the outcomes-based

model, you will notice that both models proceed through the stages of:

formulating objectives or outcomes,

selecting content,

specifying teaching and learning strategies, and

specifying learning assessment strategies.

Both models therefore incorporate the curriculum structure.

Tyler's model makes provision for organising the content and learning experiences to

optimise learning, while the outcomes-based model indicates that relative

weighting should be allocated to the content. The outcomes-based model makes

provision for exploring curriculum context and developing a curriculum which is

specific to and suitable for a specific context, while Tyler's model does not make

provision for the curriculum context. None of the models make provision for

considering the curriculum foundations, namely the underlying philosophical

assumptions which influence the decisions that educators make during curriculum

development and which will determine the characteristics of the resultant curriculum.

Read Uys and Gwele (2005, Chapter 12) for more information on OBE.

2.4.2 Cyclic curriculum development models

Cyclic curriculum development models depict curriculum development as a

continuing process. These models indicate that the curriculum development

actions are interrelated and interactive. None of the actions in the model takes

place in a vacuum but each is influenced by the others. Also, because curriculum

development is not regarded as linear, there is no particular starting point. Any of

the actions in the model can serve as stimulus for curriculum development. The point



of departure for curriculum development is therefore not necessarily the statement of

objectives or outcomes.

Nicholls and Nicholls (1978:21) identify five actions in their cyclic curriculum

development model, as represented in figure 2.5.

Figure 2-8: The curriculum development model of Nicholls and Nicholls

The curriculum development actions are

conducting a situation analysis to investigate the curriculum context

selecting objectives (outcomes)

selecting and organising content (focussing on validity, significance, interest

and learnability)

selecting and organising teaching methods

evaluating, namely specifying learning assessment strategies

You will notice that, apart from being cyclical, Nicholls and Nicholls's model also

differs from Tyler's model in that it is not objectives-driven. Provision is also made for

conducting a situation analysis to investigate the curriculum context and assess the

needs of society. Remember that we have stated that a curriculum evolves from


and is implemented in a particular social context. The purpose of a situation analysis

is to ensure that a curriculum that is relevant to the needs and demands of society

(including the learner) is being developed.

You can read the paper by De Mesa (pg 5 - 6) for more information on the model of

Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls.

2.4.3 Dynamic-interactive curriculum development models

In the section on the nature of a curriculum you have learnt that a curriculum

consists of a foundation and a structure, and that it evolves from and is implemented

in a particular social context. If you review the curriculum development models that

have been discussed so far (Tyler's model, the outcomes-based model, and Nicholls

and Nicholls's model) and compare them with the models that depict the nature of a

curriculum (those of Zais and Lawton), you will realise that, up to now, curriculum

development has been seen as involving the structure of the curriculum, and that the

social context of a curriculum has been acknowledged by including a situation

analysis (context analysis) as one of the actions involved in curriculum development.

None of the above curriculum development models involves actions that allow the

curriculum committee to reflect on the foundations of a particular curriculum during

its development. It is therefore appropriate to consider another category of

curriculum development models: dynamic-interactive curriculum development

models.

You might have noticed that the models of Tyler and Nicholls and Nicholls, and the

outcomes-based model, represent curriculum development as a rather simple

phenomenon - which it certainly is not. We will therefore explore curriculum

development in more depth, by introducing the model of Print (1993:81-89), which

adds more dimensions to this complex phenomenon (figure 2.6).


http://www.academia.edu/4657356/Curriculum_Models


Figure 0-9: Print's curriculum development model

Print's model provides us with an opportunity to view curriculum development as

involving not only a situation analysis and decision making about the structure of the

proposed curriculum (its structure), but also deliberations and decision making about

its foundation. It represents curriculum development as a complex, multi-phased

process.

According to Print's model, curriculum development proceeds through three phases:

organisation,

development and

application.

Organisation is a conceptualisation and planning phase. According to Print, this is

the phase of curriculum presage. Presage means to have a presentiment of (an

intuition or feeling of what is going to happen). Curriculum development is influenced

by the personal value systems of those who are involved in the process. Those

involved also have preconceived visions about what should be gained through

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/presage


education as well as a notion about the philosophical assumptions that should

underpin a proposed curriculum. The value systems and visions of those involved in

curriculum development and implementation will affect the way a curriculum is

conceptualised, planned, constructed and implemented. It is therefore important that

a curriculum development model should also include activities aimed at exploring

and debating the pre-existing views of those persons who are involved in curriculum

development. Issues dealt with include views about what a curriculum is, its purpose

(refer to study unit 1), as well as the philosophical assumptions (refer to

HSE3703) that should guide curriculum planning, development and application. The

aim is to reach consensus about the approach that will be adopted for a particular

curriculum. Based on the discussions and consensus decisions, criteria for the

proposed curriculum are formulated. This represents a curriculum planning exercise

that influences decisions which are consequently arrived at during the development

and application phases. Print (1993:25- 26) describes this phase as follows:

Curriculum presage refers to those activities and forces which

influence curriculum developers in their curriculum decision-making

tasks. These activities and forces are brought with the developers

when they come to the task of constructing a curriculum. As such

they consist of the curriculum backgrounds (activities and

experiences), curriculum representations (organisations), curriculum

foundations of the various curriculum developers and curriculum

content with which they work.

Print (1993:46) says that any curriculum document should include a description of

the curriculum perspectives of the curriculum developers. This can include the

consensus decisions that were made, as well as the curriculum criteria that were

formulated, based on those decisions.

Activity 2.8: Sometimes it is easier for learners to depict what they have learnt in a

graphical sketch such as a mind-map than to summarise it in words. A mind-map

enhances insight into the learning material and learners' ability to remember what

they have learnt. Now draw a mind-map of the actions that are involved in the

organisation phase.

SEE MINDMEISTER

You must include the following:


exploring and debating personal values and preconceived ideas about

education and the curriculum

debating and reaching consensus about the meaning attached to the concept

of curriculum

debating and reaching consensus about the purpose of a curriculum in your

profession

debating and reaching consensus about the philosophical underpinnings of

the proposed curriculum

You should have indicated that the end-result of this phase is as follows: formulating

criteria for the proposed curriculum.

The curriculum development phase is the phase during which a workable

curriculum is developed. During this phase the curriculum developers will follow the

cyclical procedure of the model. On the grounds of the findings of a situation

analysis, substance is given to the curriculum structure by specifying the:

goals (e.g. outcomes),

content,

learning activities, as well as

evaluation (learning assessment) criteria and procedures.

These decisions are influenced by the consensus decisions and curriculum criteria of

the organisation phase.

Activity 2.9: Now draw a mind-map of the actions that are involved in the

development phase. (Remember, that the criteria formulated in the previous phase

influence the decisions which the educators make during the development phase.)

SEE MINDMEISTER

The activities that you should have included in your mind-map are:

conducting a situation analysis

specifying the aims/goals and objectives or outcomes

outlining curriculum content (theoretical and clinical)


outlining learning activities that are planned for learners (learning

opportunities which the learners should utilise)

specifying how learning will be evaluated (assessed)

You should have indicated that the end-result of this phase is as follows: a workable

curriculum by which teaching and learning will be effected in practice.

The application phase involves implementing the proposed curriculum and

modifying it to eliminate any limitations that may have been identified in practice.

This phase also involves formal curriculum evaluation to determine the extent to

which the intended aims and purposes were in fact achieved in practice. Based on

the curriculum evaluation results, the curriculum development process is repeated to

ensure its continuing relevance and effectiveness.

You might have noticed that Print's model differs from the other two models for

different reasons:

The linear-prescriptive and cyclic models do not allow explicitly for

deliberations about the foundation of a curriculum. Print's model bridges that

gap because educators, together with interested parties such as learners,

community leaders and practitioners, can participate in the deliberations of the

organisation phase.

Print's model is unique in the sense that curriculum application (curriculum

implementation and evaluation) is seen as part of the curriculum

development process. Curriculum development is therefore not complete

once a curriculum has been designed and a curriculum document has been

produced.

Another feature of this model is that a clear distinction is made between

assessment of learning and evaluation of the entire curriculum. At some

point you will learn that assessment of learning is only one of many strategies

educators use to evaluate a curriculum.

When curriculum is viewed in terms of planned, structured, learning outcomes,

content is considered secondary to the intended results of learning, as stated in the


form of aims/goals/objectives or outcomes (depending on whether a behavioural

objectives or an outcomes-based approach is followed). The stated consensus

definition's perspective is consistent with the academic-rationalist perspective

about the purpose of a curriculum, namely to foster academic excellence and

transmit the culture of society (or a particular profession). Both these perspectives

are also consistent with curriculum development, using a linear-prescriptive model

such as Tyler's model or an outcomes-based model.

Refer to where we analysed Keating's definition of curriculum. If you were to look for

a curriculum development model that is congruent with this definition by Keating,

you will find that Print's model is appropriate. Print’s model makes provision for

deliberating on the philosophical underpinnings of a curriculum, among other things,

during the organisation phase. It also makes provision for curriculum design and

implementation. The latter provision implies that the establishment of implementation

guidelines will be part and parcel of the curriculum development process.

2.5 THE CURRICULUM DEBATE: PROCESS OR PRAXIS?

There have been many debates whether curriculum should be process or praxis-

focussed. This argument was started in Study Unit 1.

2.5.1 Process curriculum

The process curriculum is learner-focused and focuses primarily on the learning

process. The central focus of the curriculum is the meaningfulness of learning

experiences, as opposed to how content is taught by the educators. The idea is that

a curriculum can be organised without having to specify in advance the behavioural



changes that should occur in learners. The curriculum is therefore not a physical

thing but rather the interaction of educators, learners and knowledge.

The curriculum is what actually happens in practice - in the teaching and learning

setting.

The primary concern of the process curriculum is a value issue, advising us to select

curriculum content in relation to its likely contribution to the learner's development.

Educators decide about the specifics that the learners must learn, but within the

boundaries of the broad curriculum guidelines. For example, the educator and

learners might decide what health problems learners should learn about - on the

basis of a community assessment to determine the most prevalent health problems

in the community where the learners will serve after graduation. This is in contrast to

an approach in which specific curriculum content is pre-selected and prescribed.

Subject matter serves as a basis for speculation and conjecture about a discipline,

rather than comprising mere facts that have to be studied and remembered.

Learners interpret and give meaning to subject matter within the context of the broad

aims of the curriculum. The problem-based design and the problem-based

learning method are appropriate for a process curriculum.

The process curriculum is aimed at developing the learners' intellect (cognition), their

ability to learn (metacognition) and to make independent judgements, in addition to

being technically proficient. The learners are taught how to practise higher order

thinking skills such as problem solving. They are taught to exercise judgement, for

example clinical judgement, which entails the ability to critically evaluate rules of

practice and to decide on the most appropriate actions in a given situation. This

is opposed to an approach requiring that rules, regulations and procedures should

be accepted without valuing their validity. Learners therefore learn to act based on

sound judgements as opposed to performing rule-driven or procedure-driven

behaviours.

The process curriculum is underpinned by the perspective that a curriculum is

defined as interactions in the educational setting and by the cognitive processes

perspective on the purpose of a curriculum.


2.5.2 Praxis curriculum

The praxis curriculum is considered a development of the process curriculum. It

serves a particular interest which goes beyond the needs and development of the

individual learner, namely to contribute to social reconstruction through

education. The purpose of a curriculum is therefore to contribute towards the

emancipation of learners and the development of their abilities to shape their own

destinies. However, emancipation is believed also to extend to society at large and

it is argued that well-educated graduates can contribute to social reconstruction. This

type of curriculum is also referred to as the emancipatory curriculum.

Learners are encouraged to adopt and maintain a critical disposition towards the

world and the learning material. In a praxis curriculum, knowledge, actions and

critical reflections are in constant interactions. The curriculum develops through the

dynamic interactions of action and reflection. At its centre is praxis, namely

committed and informed actions. Learning occurs through the learners' intellectual

responses to the actions. This means that concrete learning experiences are the

focus of critical reflections, by learners. The principles of experiential learning

underpin the praxis curriculum; therefore this curriculum lends itself to community-

based education.

The curriculum focuses less on structure and content, and more on the dynamic of

learning through discovery, dialogue and critical reflection. The study field and

problem-centred designs are appropriate for a praxis curriculum. The learning

material is closely related to the social issues and realities that the health

professionals encounter in the real world.

Critical reflections do not occur in isolation. Learning is seen as a social process and

the learning climate is characterised by dialogue. Dialogue and negotiation

characterise the learning process. The preferred teaching strategies include

collaborative learning.


The praxis curriculum is underpinned by the perspective that a curriculum is defined

as interactions in the educational setting and by the social reconstructionist and the

personal commitment perspectives on the purpose of a curriculum.

2.6 SUMMARY

By working actively through this study unit you should have acquired insight into how

models can be used to conceptualise the curriculum and curriculum development. In

the following study units you will study various aspects of the curriculum

development process in more depth. In subsequent study units you will learn more

about the curriculum development process and the activities involved in the process.

If you need more information, you can look at the SlideShare presentation by Dr

Mishra.

http://www.slideshare.net/mrutyunjaya33/curriclum-types?related=1


DEVELOPING HEALTH



Study Unit 3 “The success of tomorrow’s students will be built upon the education we design today” Dr Linda Price



Contents Study Unit 3 .............................................................................................................. 69

STAGES AND STEPS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT .................................. 69

3.1 OVERVIEW ................................................................................................. 69

3.2 3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 69

3.3 3.2 PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT .............................. 70

3.4 3.3 STAGES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ..................................... 75

3.5 SUMMARY ................................................................................................ 107


Study Unit 3

STAGES AND STEPS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

3.1 OVERVIEW

& & & & & & & & & & & &

We give an overview of the curriculum development process in this study unit. The

information given here will enable you to understand the stages of curriculum

development, the actions involved in each stage, as well as the principles on which

curriculum development is based. W

After you have worked through this study unit, you will be able to plan and implement

a curriculum development strategy, based on your ability to

& explain what curriculum development entails

& describe the principles of curriculum development

& discuss the constraints influencing curriculum development

& discuss the stages of curriculum development

You will be able to achieve most of the learning outcomes by working through this

study unit. Where necessary, we will refer you to appropriate text, articles or video-

clips. For further enrichment we suggest you read one or more of the books or

articles listed in the list of references and suggested readings at the end of the study

guide, or any relevant literature of your choice.

3.2 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 2, we discussed various curriculum development models. You should

therefore have a general idea about what curriculum development entails. In this

study unit, we will further elaborate on curriculum development by proposing and

discussing a specific curriculum development process suitable to health sciences

education. First we shall discuss the principles of curriculum development.

Week

5-6


3.3 PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

For a curriculum in the health sciences we need to consider both educational

principles and principles based on the trends and developments in health care.

3.3.1 Educational principles

We first list a number of educational principles with which curriculum developers

must be familiar. These principles are adapted from Carl's (1995:68) synthesis of

some principles found in the literature. Our list is therefore only a sample of

principles that we consider important. You can add to these to meet the

requirements in your setting.

Activity 3.1: After reading through the educational principles, create a Mind-map to

summarise the key-principles of each approach. Paste this Mind-map into your e-

portfolio.

The principle of curriculum development being a scientific approach:

Curriculum development must be approached in a systematic manner. It

cannot be dealt with on a trial-and-error basis with changes brought about

haphazardly. The curriculum development stages that we will discuss in

section 3.4 provide us with a systematic approach to curriculum development.

The rationale underlying curriculum development must be clear and

communicable.

Curriculum development must be based on a sound accountable curriculum

theory.

All members involved in curriculum development need some knowledge of

curriculum theory and skill in curriculum building.

The principle of curriculum development having a logical point of departure:

Curriculum development begins where the curriculum is; that is, existing

curricula are quite often the starting point. Curriculum development


commences when there is a need to revise or completely restructure an

existing curriculum.

Adequate learning must be an important point of departure. This indicates that

a learning approach is adopted as opposed to a content-based approach

whereby the point of departure comprises the views of educators on what

content learners should master.

Applicable educational principles for learning are essential items for

consideration.

Therefore curriculum development decisions should be measured against

educational principles to ensure that a sound educational programme is

developed.

The principle of curriculum development being a process:

Curriculum development is a never-ending process. This means that, once

the stages of curriculum development have been completed, the process is

repeated to develop yet another, new curriculum or to improve an existing

curriculum by improving upon identified limitations. These limitations are

recognised when the curriculum is evaluated informally during its

implementation or by means of a formal curriculum evaluation project.

The principle of curriculum development being a cooperative effort:

Curriculum development is basically a decision-making process. A variety

of decisions must be made in cooperation with other involved parties such as

learners and the management of health care institutions.

Curriculum development is influenced by the cooperative efforts of groups.

Those involved include the curriculum committee, educators, clinical

practitioners and educational experts.

The principle of relevance:

The curriculum must be relevant and true to life (incorporate the most

important health issues in society). The curriculum committee should ensure


that the new curriculum reflects the health problems and issues in society that

need to be resolved. It must be contemporary.

The curriculum should reflect the needs of the community. For instance

emphasis should be placed on the most important health needs and problems

in society.

Besides being guided by the educational principles, developers of a health

sciences curriculum must also be guided by principles based on trends and

developments in health care in general and their profession in particular.

The curriculum should be in line with the latest educational trends,

especially how the discipline of education has incorporated the latest

technological developments to apply innovative educational strategies.

The curriculum should be relevant to learners' needs - that is to the weak,

average and gifted learner. It should be appropriate to the developmental

level of learners (in line with the overall educational standards in society).

Curriculum developers need to examine and understand the micro context in

which the curriculum will be applied. They should be familiar with the realities

in the educational and health care institutions where teaching and learning will

occur and plan accordingly to ensure that the curriculum is effective in its

implementation.

The principle of the curriculum being learner-centred:

The curriculum committee should follow trends in both adult and higher

education to promote active involvement of the learners and allow learners

to take responsibility for their learning. Discovery learning and self-

directed learning strategies are appropriate here. Care should be taken to

ensure that the curriculum meets the learning needs of learners and that the

learning styles of the learners are catered for.

3.3.2 Professional principles

Apart from educational principles, curriculum development is also based on

professional principles. The professional principles of curriculum development were

developed by educators in the health sciences, after careful consideration of the


social factors influencing the curriculum in the health sciences, as indicated in the

following discussions. These are basic principles that apply to curriculum

development for any health profession.

Activity 3.2: After reading through the p principles, create a Mind-map to summarise

the key-principles of each approach. Paste this Mind-map into your e-portfolio.

Don’t you think that a mind-map is an extraordinary tool to assist someone to

summarise and condense information in a visual stimulating way?

The principle of comprehensiveness:

Referring to health care delivery, the curriculum should cover preventive,

promotive, curative and rehabilitative health care. It should also cover health

needs throughout the human life span.

Referring to the learner, the curriculum should support education of the

learner as a total person (holistic). It should accentuate the cognitive,

affective and psychomotor domains, and provide for moral development of the

learner. The curriculum must provide for personal, educational and

professional development of the learner.

The principle of integration:

Integrated curricula focus on common themes that unite various subjects. An

example is “the individual in pain''. Integration also requires close correlation

of theory and clinical practice. The theoretical content which the learners

learn must be closely related to what they encounter in clinical practice.

Integration also applies to learner groups, where learners from the different

health science disciplines learn together (Quinn 2007:135). This is also

referred to as inter-professional learning. The integrated curriculum is

discussed in more detail in study unit 6.

The principle of networking:

Integration of subject areas, of theory and practice, and of community and

hospital care experiences, requires that educators collaborate among


themselves and network with health service managers and professional

practitioners. Networking between college staff and clinical staff is perhaps

the most important continuing communication and collaborative attempt in

curriculum planning, implementation and evaluation. Networking will need to

be specified in the curriculum development strategy, so that everyone has

clarity about the communication channels.

The principle of the curriculum supporting problem-based learning:

Health care professionals approach their practice from a problem-solving

perspective rather than a task-oriented perspective. So when we are

developing a curriculum for health care professionals, we should adopt

problem-based learning as a principal educational strategy (refer to study unit

6).

The principle of curriculum development being an innovative endeavour:

In view of all the developments and suggested changes which are currently

emphasised, we need to move away from traditional types of curricula

(content-based and behaviouristic curricula) and include innovative strategies.

We have already referred to problem-based learning, which is an innovation.

Traditionally the curriculum made provision for a hospital-oriented focus with

regard to, for example, learning experiences of learners whereby clinical

placement was primarily hospital-based. By this time you should be aware of

the emphasis given to community-oriented care by the health departments.

This requires that a community-based approach should be adopted whereby

learners should also be placed in community settings to gain their clinical

experience, in addition to the hospital settings.

The principle of the curriculum developing a research orientation among

learners:

In developing a curriculum we have to plan to bring research into the health

sciences curriculum. This is done by including modules on research and

epidemiology in the curriculum. It is necessary to teach the learners the basic

principles and methods of research. Small, guided research-projects will


empower the students with the necessary skills to do basic research projects

under the watchful eye of the lecturer. This will enable them to initiate

research projects or to participate in other people's projects. Another

important issue is evidence-based practice. Learners have to be equipped

with the knowledge and skills to critique research reports and apply research

results to improve their own practice.

3.4 STAGES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

The process of curriculum development is a general process that can be followed

irrespective of the purposes for which curriculum development is done or where

curriculum development takes place. It is also not rigid and may therefore be applied

in a unique manner, by adapting it to suit the demands of a particular curriculum

development project. We will discuss four stages of curriculum development. The

purpose of this section is to give you an overview of the curriculum development

process suitable for health sciences education. Aspects of curriculum development

will then be discussed in detail in subsequent study units of this study guide.

3.4.1 Exploratory stage

According to Quinn (2007:131) the first stage of the curriculum development process

is the exploratory stage. Other writers use different names, for example Brady (1999)

uses the term presage, referring to “what educators should consider prior to

designing the curriculum''.

Print (1993) uses the term organisation phase and indicates that this is the presage

phase (refer to section 2.4.3).

3.4.1.1 Conducting a situation analysis

Different authors use different terms to refer to the situation analysis. Quinn (2007)

and Rowntree (1981) refer to market research. Lindeque and Vandeyar (2004) use

the term context analysis. Another term which you may come across is needs

assessment. Regardless of the term used for the stage or the activities involved, it

involves examining the context of the curriculum to help the educators develop a

http://nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/TableofContents/Vol-18-2013/No2-May-2013/Impact-of-Evidence-Based-Practice.html


curriculum which serves the needs of society and which responds appropriately to

social trends.

The situation analysis will be discussed in detail in study unit 4 of this study guide.

Issues that should be considered include the following:

The curriculum committee must determine the educational needs of the

health science professions and the learners alike.

It is essential to conduct market research to obtain the views of employers

and other stakeholders on training of future health care personnel and the

competencies required for qualified health care professionals. Health services

managers and professional practitioners in the clinical settings will be able to

shed light on the kind of practitioner that has to be trained.

Ideas for new courses and/or new content should be obtained with due

consideration of the issues and trends which influence health, illness and

care.

Recent knowledge and technological innovations and trends have to be

identified and the curriculum should be updated accordingly.

3.4.1.2 Identifying constraints

During the exploratory phase, the curriculum committee should also consider

possible constraints that will require creative strategies to overcome.

a) Educators

The ratio of educators to learners may be very low (eg 1:30), making it

difficult to plan for learner accompaniment by educators. If availability of

educators is limited, it might be necessary to scale down expectations. For

instance, the curriculum committee might feel that learners should spend at

least a month at an AIDS clinic and receive individual attention because of the

relevance of AIDS in our society. However, a low educator learner ratio might

force the curriculum committee to allocate two weeks to this learning

opportunity and accept the fact that learners will be accompanied in groups

(and not on an individual basis) during those two weeks.


There may be a given number of educator posts, and you must plan within

that framework, taking shortages of educators into consideration. If shortages

of educators exist, it might be necessary to develop a curriculum that allows

for self-directed learning by the learners. This is of course a positive

development, provided that self-directed learning is applied in an

educationally sound manner and learners are not left alone to fend for

themselves.

The educators available to work on the course are of diverse backgrounds

and specialities, which may result in differences of opinion on what learners

should learn and how teaching should be done. For instance, an educator

who specialises in curative health care might be of the opinion that curative

health care issues are the most important thing in the curriculum. He or she

may be opposed by those who specialise in emergency care or community

health care. Therefore it will be necessary to compromise in the interest of a

balanced curriculum.

Educators will have only a certain time available to develop their lesson plans

and other learning material, to consult learners, to assess learners' work, and

so on. For instance, it will be difficult to develop a curriculum that depends on

regular formative evaluation by the educator if, in reality, it is impossible to

implement regular formative evaluation in practice because of a heavy

workload.

b) Learners

Learners will have a set amount of time to devote to each subject. Time must

also be spent on other subjects as well as other aspects of their lives. Often,

each member of the curriculum committee is of the opinion that his or her

subject is the most important and that a great proportion of available time

should be allocated to that subject. Learners may not, as a result of other

pressures, be able to cope with such a demand.

Existing knowledge, skills and relevant attitudes may constrain curriculum

development: therefore the learners' backgrounds must be taken into account.

For instance, the curriculum committee might have grand visions about what

should be taught to learners and how it should be done, while inadequate


secondary education standards might make it impossible to achieve these

visions with available candidates who enter a particular health sciences

educational programme. For instance, will problem-based learning succeed if

high school graduates are underprepared for the demands of self-directed

learning? And will computer-assisted instruction succeed if the learners are

computer illiterate when they enter the professional education programme?

Learners may have certain expectations about what constitutes an

acceptable course in terms of workload, teaching methods, assessment, and

so on. For instance, curriculum developers might believe that inquiry learning

strategies, using a problem-based approach, will prepare learners for the

demands of the modern world, while learner bodies might pressurise

educators to revert to giving lectures, a method that might be in conflict with

the notion of inquiry learning.

c) Facilities

Provision of library and laboratory facilities may be inadequate. For

instance, a lack of books, journals and educational media may make it very

difficult to develop a curriculum that supports inquiry learning.

Lecture rooms, seminar rooms and study spaces may be too small for the

kind of teaching and learning you wish to create. For instance, it might be

difficult to achieve a self-directed learning environment if there are no study

facilities that can be used on an individual basis.

The budget may be insufficient for extras you may need. For instance, the

curriculum committee might want to develop a curriculum that supports

media-based learning but finds that limited funds for equipment such as DVD

machines, televisions and computers make this virtually impossible.

d) Other people's expectations

Educators in other courses may have strong ideas about what ought to be

included in your course. So there should be negotiations about what to

include in each individual course and how various related courses should be

linked. Read this 2011 article by Weimer: I Won’t Mess with Your Course if

You Don’t Mess with Mine (Please join the myUnisa discussion on this topic.)

http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/curriculum-development/i-wont-mess-with-your-course-if-you-dont-mess-with-mine/

http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/curriculum-development/i-wont-mess-with-your-course-if-you-dont-mess-with-mine/


Statutory bodies (nursing, medical and/or health professions councils)

impose certain requirements. The curriculum committee might be of the

opinion that a certain topic should be removed from the curriculum, only to

find out that statutory requirements prevent them from doing so.

Potential employers have particular expectations which must be catered for.

For instance, employers might specify that the curriculum should include

computer literacy. This may shock those curriculum committee members who

believe that these important skills might conveniently be overlooked because

they themselves are not computer literate. Similarly the employers may

require that the learners have knowledge about certain medical laboratory

technology tests and be able to interpret the test results while the educational

institution struggles to create learning opportunities in modern laboratories

due to the unavailability of such laboratories.

Health and education authorities have requirements that must be taken into

account. Therefore, curriculum development decisions will be influenced by

health and educational policies.

3.4.1.3 Critical path analysis

According to Quinn (2007:131), the exploratory phase also involves a critical path

analysis, which results in a working schedule according to which the curriculum

committee will complete the various activities.

Activity 3.3: Compile a critical path analysis for your module (assume that you have

to re-curriculate). Paste it in your e-portfolio.

A critical path analysis identifies tasks to be completed and the deadlines for each

task. We should start off by deciding on a date for the validation event: this is the

date on which the curriculum document must be ready to be submitted to the

statutory registration authority (eg SANC or HPCSA) for approval. We then work

backwards from the date set for the validation event. The following are other

deadlines that need to be included: the first draft of the validation document (the

curriculum and other supporting documents), the internal validation event (the date

when the college/university senate must approve the curriculum document), and the

date for printing the document. Remember also to set deadlines for the tasks which

http://www.sanc.co.za/

http://www.mindtools.com/critpath.html

http://www.mindtools.com/critpath.html


you allocate to the curriculum committee, such as formulating the learning outcomes

and identifying the subjects and topics to be included in the curriculum. Ensure that

there is sufficient time for critical reading and for obtaining comments from experts.

Up to this point, we have discussed and elaborated on Quinn's views about the

exploratory curriculum development stage. Do you remember Print's (1993)

curriculum development model which we discussed in study unit 2? We will now

return to Print's model and integrate his first curriculum development stage (which he

calls the organisation stage) into Quinn's exploratory stage.

3.4.1.4 Curriculum presage deliberations

Quinn's exploratory stage omits important aspects of curriculum development,

namely attending to the curriculum presage. It is therefore necessary to incorporate

Print's curriculum development model into our discussion in this part of the study

guide. Look at the sketch by Brook and Oliver.

Activity 3.4: Page to activity 2.9 in study unit 2 in which you compiled a mind-map of

Print's organisation phase. Incorporate your mind-map and our discussions in

section 2.3.3 on the organisation phase into this section (section 3.4.1.4) on the

exploratory stage of curriculum development. Include the activities stated by Print in

this part of the study guide.it in the space provided below.

http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet19/brook.html


By completing the activity, you have learnt how to enhance your insight into a

phenomenon by integrating the works of two authors. Did you include the following

activities?

Preconceived ideas of those who are involved in curriculum development

are brought into the open (refer back to the activities where you reflected on

your own preconceived ideas on what a curriculum is).

Consensus is reached about the meaning that will be attached to the

concept of curriculum.

Consensus is reached about the purpose of a curriculum in your profession.

The philosophical underpinnings of the curriculum are decided upon

(revise the HSE3703 module).

3.4.1.5 Creating curriculum design criteria and a plan of action

The decisions that were made during the exploration stage are documented. These

decisions serve as a blueprint according to which curriculum design will be

conducted. Decisions pertaining to the following are documented:

the criteria that the new curriculum should adhere to

an outline of the activities to be completed up to the point of submitting the

new curriculum for validation by the statutory body

the foundations of the proposed curriculum, namely the

o mission, vision and philosophy of the educational institution

o the underlying educational paradigm and philosophy (refer to

HSE3703)

o the learning theories on which the curriculum is based (refer to

HSE3703).

We have created a visual representation of the exploratory stage in figure 3.1.


Figure 3-10: The Exploratory phase

3.4.2 Curriculum design stage

Once the exploratory stage has been completed, the curriculum committee can

proceed with the next stage: curriculum design. Curriculum design is the second

stage of curriculum development. The activities during this stage are focused on

establishing a workable curriculum that can be implemented in practice by educators

and learners alike. The points of departure for the stage of curriculum design are the

end-results of the exploratory stage, namely the stated foundations of the new

curriculum (philosophy, educational paradigm, learning theories; vision, mission and

institutional philosophy), the criteria for the new curriculum and the plan of action.


The foundations spell out the underlying philosophical and theoretical principles and

value system which underpin the curriculum. The plan of action provides the

curriculum committee with an outline of the activities that must be completed, as well

as the time frame in which this should be done. The criteria are an indication of the

requirements that the new curriculum should comply with.

Curriculum design does not only refer to the creation of an entirely new curriculum,

but may also entail re-planning an existing curriculum.

3.4.2.1 Setting up a team of experts

The first step in curriculum design would be to set up a team of experts who would

be able to interpret the stated foundations, and the criteria for a new curriculum. It is

their responsibility to make sound decisions on the nature of learning outcomes to

be formulated, the content to be included, how the curriculum will be organised and

the criteria and methods by which assessment of learning should be done. The

team will also recommend which teaching strategies and learning opportunities

would best serve the achievement of the learning outcomes. Needless to say, the

team should comprise of:

experts in the field of education,

the various subject disciplines,

as well as expert clinical practitioners.

This is necessary because they are supposed to oversee the development of the

substance of the curriculum.

Our discussion of aspects of curriculum design in the following sections will be brief,

because each was discussed in the first and second level modules of the health

sciences education course.


3.4.2.2 Developing an educational plan and implementation guidelines

Revise Print's (1993) development stage (which we refer to here as the curriculum

design stage) in study unit 2. Bring forward the discussion about Print's development

stage and integrate it into our discussions on curriculum design in section 3.4.1.4.

This will give you a good overview of what curriculum design entails.

During curriculum design the theoretical and clinical outcomes at various levels of

the educational programme are formulated. The theoretical and clinical content

that would support the achievement of the outcomes is specified. The content is also

organised and sequenced to reflect a particular curriculum organisation. It should

also be stated which teaching strategies and learning opportunities would best

help to achieve the outcomes and contribute towards optimal professional and

personal development of the learners. Lastly, criteria for the assessment of learning

(theoretical and clinical) are formulated. These criteria are incorporated into

assessment instruments and should closely reflect the stated outcomes.

Suitable assessment methods are also developed. All of these matters are

incorporated into an educational plan and implementation guide. The educational

plan and implementation guidelines should be congruent with the criteria that were

stated during the exploratory stage.

a) Formulating outcomes

You are already familiar with planning and formulating learning outcomes. Please

refer to the first and second level Health Sciences Education modules and revise the

sections which deal with learning outcomes.

Activity 3.5: Read the articles / webpages from the University of Sussex, the page

by Gardner, the article by Maher, as well as the webpage of UNSW. List the criteria

that outcomes must adhere to. They must be:

Specific

Active

Aligned

Achievable

http://www.thenationalacademy.org/readings/assessandeval.html

http://www.sussex.ac.uk/tldu/ideas/curr/learningoutcomes

http://www.thenationalacademy.org/readings/designing.html

http://reforma.fen.uchile.cl/Papers/Learning%20Outcomes%20in%20HD%20implications-Maher.pdf

https://teaching.unsw.edu.au/alignment-learning-outcomes-course-and-program


Assessed

Appropriate

Practical

Student centred

Accreditation-of-learning

Enhance-Employability

Open-educational-system

Do you agree with the proposed criteria? YES

Go online to www.wordle.net or tagxedo and try to make a “word cloud” by using the

criteria listed above. Please paste it in the space below AND in your e-portfolio.

Although the benefits of stating / creating outcomes are widely praised and

encouraged, Maher alludes us to certain potential drawbacks. Quickly list the

drawbacks.

Stifling creativity

Disempowerment of teachers and learners

One size fits all: the problem with level descriptions

The commodification of knowledge

http://www.wordle.net/

http://www.tagxedo.com/

http://reforma.fen.uchile.cl/Papers/Learning%20Outcomes%20in%20HD%20implications-Maher.pdf


b) Selecting and organising curriculum content

We need to spell out what we mean by curriculum content before we can make

informed decisions on which content to include in the curriculum.

i) What is meant by curriculum content?

Traditionally, content is defined as the subject matter of teaching-learning, in other

words the “what” that has to be conveyed to learners. We would, however, like to

emphasise that curriculum content involves much more than simply factual

information or subject matter. UNESCO provides a condense overview.

Activity 3.6: Why do you think UNESCO refers to curriculum design and content

selection as “both a political and technical process”?

Curriculum development is both a political and technical process. Given the

importance of curriculum for society curriculum is a matter of public interest.

Curriculum entails nevertheless technical aspects that are the responsibility of

curriculum specialists (technicians). Curriculum specialists and specialized

committees ought to work in synergy with the support of curriculum-

specialized institutions1. Curriculum processes should benefit from extensive

capacity development and sharing, as well as from the participation of relevant

education agents and stakeholders.

Curriculum content is another main lever of education quality. The knowledge,

skills and attitudes imparted by learning areas/subjects, cross-cutting

approaches and extra-curricular activities is a main source of systematic and

comprehensive learning. While learners may learn from many other different

sources (especially in an informal way from the Media and Internet),

curriculum’s advantages in structuring and sequencing learning represents a

major asset for sustainable acquisitions that ought to be well exploited and

capitalized on.

We use the term curriculum content to refer to how much learners have to learn

through education. It can be used to refer to subject matter, such as facts,

explanations, principles and definitions that learners ought to acquire. The term

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/strengthening-education-systems/quality-framework/technical-notes/defining-curriculum-content/

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/strengthening-education-systems/quality-framework/technical-notes/defining-curriculum-content/


could also refer to skills such as writing skills, communication skills, technical skills or

the skills required to perform clinical procedures. Curriculum content also refers to

intellectual processes that learners have to master, such as logical reasoning, critical

thinking, problem solving, and decision making. Furthermore, it refers to values that

learners need to internalise, for instance knowing what is regarded as good or bad,

and right or wrong, within a particular cultural context. Inherent in a value system are

the attitudes of individuals to life in general and one's personal responsibilities in life

and professional responsibilities at work.

In short, curriculum content encompasses:

subject matter,

skills,

intellectual processes,

values and

attitudes.

Think about what we discussed so far. This has implications for the selection of

curriculum content. It is evident that it is not sufficient to merely choose a collection

of subjects. The curriculum committee should also indicate which practical and

technical skills the learners need, and the intellectual processes which they

should apply. The values which the learners should adopt to develop the attitudes

required of a health care professional should also be identified.

Another important point is that the curriculum content should not be viewed in

isolation. The educational strategies, learning opportunities and assessment

strategies should contribute towards learning experiences through which the learners

acquire the required knowledge, skills, intellectual abilities, values and attitudes.

ii The difference between subject matter, knowledge, and information or facts

Subject matter represents written records of knowledge that society has developed,

while knowledge comprises the meanings that a learner has attached to subject

matter. In other words, when a learner is exposed to subject matter through the

process of teaching and learning, the subject matter is converted into knowledge

through a process of meaning making.


Subject matter is presented to learners in the form of factual information, namely

definitions, principles and theoretical explanations that learners have to master.

These are incorporated into subjects such as anatomy, physiology, pharmacology,

psychology and sociology. It is up to the learner to process subject matter in order to

generate knowledge. It is possible to memorise subject matter for the purposes of

regurgitation during tests and examinations. This however results in superficial

learning and what has been learnt this way is often easily forgotten. To be able to

generate knowledge, insight into the subject matter is required. When this is

achieved, deep learning is possible and knowledge gained can be used in situations

other than those in which learning has taken place (application).

So, clearly, the purpose of selecting and teaching curriculum content and assessing

learning must be to enable learners to generate knowledge, as opposed to merely

memorise facts.

iii The difference between subject matter and intellectual processes

We will distinguish between subject matter and processes by relating it to Bloom's

taxonomy of behavioural objectives.

Revise Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives which you studied in HSE1502

and HSE2602. Please read the VERY interesting article by Peter Pappas (1 & 2) or

take his Prezi tour of the Taxonomy.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom%27s_taxonomy#mediaviewer/File:Blooms_rose.svg

http://www.peterpappas.com/2010/01/taxonomy-reflection-critical-thinking-students-teachers-principals.html

http://www.peterpappas.com/2010/01/reflective-student-taxonomy-reflection-.html

http://www.peterpappas.com/2010/05/prezi-guide-effective-school-reflective-student-teacher-principal.html


Figure 3-11: Peter Pappa’s taxonomy of Reflection

We have explained what subject matter is in the previous section. When we teach

subject matter to the learners, this corresponds to Bloom's levels of knowledge

and understanding. We expect that learners learn specific facts and use the facts

to classify phenomena, make generalisations or identify trends, for example. The

learners are also required to interpret what they have learnt and show their

understanding of an issue in their own words.

The different subjects that we teach learners make unique demands on their logical

reasoning skills. It is necessary that we teach not only factual matter pertaining to

each subject, but also the relevant inquiry, learning and thought processes which the

learners have to apply to construct knowledge, namely to attribute meaning to what

they have learnt.

We also explained that the term processes is used to refer to intellectual skills such

as critical thinking, problem solving, decision making and communication. When our

teaching is aimed at developing intellectual processes in the learners, this

corresponds to Bloom's levels of application, analysis, evaluation and

synthesis. These abilities are not restricted to a specific subject or subject

discipline.




Application requires that the learners relate theoretical rules, principles and

concepts to real-life situations. They are also required to use the subject

matter to enable them to make informed decisions and to seek plausible

solutions to given problems.

Analysis requires that the learners are able to break information down into its

component parts and to recognise the relationships between the components.

Evaluation requires that the learners should be able to criticise and judge the

value of the subject matter that is presented to them or the perspectives which

they are required to adopt.

To synthesise means that one should be able to combine the component

parts of information in order to create a new whole.

These higher intellectual skills require that the learners can bring together subject

matter from more than one subject discipline and use it in an integrated manner to

complete the task at hand. It is therefore clear that processes and subject matter

should be regarded as being interdependent. The subject matter that we teach to

Figure 03-12 Bloom’s Taxonomy

http://www.coetail.com/janelleodate/2014/03/30/happy-appin/

http://www.coetail.com/janelleodate/2014/03/30/happy-appin/


learners provides the sources of factual information and principles that learners

require to enable them to practise these intellectual processes.

iv The relationship between knowledge and processes

Remember that we said that the learners construct knowledge when they attach

meaning to the subject matter while they learn. Hence a close relationship exists

between knowledge and intellectual processes. We use our intellectual processes to

construct knowledge. Similarly we need the information which is contained in the

subject matter to enable us to practise our higher order intellectual skills.

Cholowski and Chan (1995:150) cite various research results that indicate that

successful problem solving requires not only the ability to practise problem-solving

processes, but also a rich knowledge base. However, proficiency in problem solving

does not depend on gaining more and more knowledge, but rather on an increased

ability to apply the acquired knowledge. This also applies to other thought processes.

For example, the ability to think critically is closely related to learners' ability to apply

their knowledge to make sound decisions and think creatively.

Educators should therefore link the problems that learners confront at any given

point in time to the knowledge that they have already acquired. Learners must be

enabled to recall their existing knowledge and apply this knowledge to the given

problem in order to find an appropriate solution.

From our discussions on curriculum content so far, it should be clear that the content

dimension comprises more than meets the eye, and that we should not regard it

narrowly as just the subject matter dealt with by an educator within a particular

lesson.


v Criteria for selecting curriculum content

The following are commonly cited criteria which we can use to select curriculum

content:

Significance. Significant content is essential and fundamental to the

discipline or theme under study. In other words, it is an important sample of

the particular field of study or discipline. Curriculum committees are advised to

strike a balance between principles, concepts and facts to enhance the

significance of curriculum content. Learners will benefit more if we teach facts

in order to illustrate principles and concepts rather than confronting them with

vast amounts of facts that are easily forgotten.

Fundamental knowledge, principles and processes have a greater field of

applicability than a collection of isolated facts, as they rest on basic ideas.

Furthermore, it is less inclined to become obsolete than factual content. The

focus should therefore be on the teaching of principles and intellectual

processes. If we regard problem solving as a basic process in health

sciences, knowledge which is offered by means of problem-solving methods

should be more meaningful than knowledge offered as facts.

Utility. The criterion of utility dictates that the curriculum content should be

useful. The content should be professionally relevant and enable the learners

to apply what they have learnt in their professional education. Professionally

relevant content is essential to prepare the learners for their roles and

functions. Learners who pursue health sciences education are striving to

qualify themselves for a specific occupation. Unnecessary, time-consuming

and irrelevant information kills motivation and contributes to frustration.

While a theoretical stance is valuable to broaden learners' perspectives, the

curriculum committee should ensure that the content is not too abstract and

general. It should be relevant to the real world in which the learners will work

and live and they should be able to translate what they have learnt into

competent practice, and to solve problems and cope with the demands of the

world outside the educational institution.

However, curriculum content should not be restricted to what has immediate

practical application, particularly in health care settings. It must rather allow

the learners to make contributions to their professions and society in general


that extend beyond their immediate work responsibilities and their personal

interests. It should therefore also contribute towards the learners' personal

development.

Consistency with social realities. Relevant curriculum content represents

the most useful orientation to the real world. It is in line with present and

projected social trends, and meets the present and future needs of the

community, the health professions and health professionals. They must be

equipped with the ability to cope with whatever demands are made on them

by their professions, the community and specific clinical situations.

Content should be current, not obsolete. It should reflect present-day scientific

and technological knowledge. Needless to say, the curriculum content should

be updated frequently and the learners required to study the most recent

editions of available publications. For instance, considering the constant

advances in electronic health informatics, it would be inappropriate to select

content and sources of information that deal only with paper-based health

information systems. Balance is called for.

Long-term relevance. Whereas factual content rapidly becomes obsolete, a

focus on principles, intellectual processes and learning skills equips the

learners with the ability to function amid constant and revolutionary social

changes. Individuals who understand basic principles and who are able to

think and learn are able to remain up to date with new technological and

scientific developments and to function in different health care settings.

Rapid change represents one of the most important demands of the

contemporary social reality in which learners practise. They have to cope with

problems that require independent judgement. A curriculum should contain

relevant content and learning experiences to equip the learners intellectually

and emotionally to handle change and autonomous practice. This criterion

therefore dictates that the curriculum should consist of the principles,

concepts and skills which the learners can rely on in their quest to realise their

lifelong learning needs.


Interest. This criterion dictates that provision should be made for the unique

interests of the learners. However, health sciences education is also

concerned with professional interests, so the curriculum cannot cater solely

for the learners' individual interests. The curriculum committee should

consider including elective courses. These electives can be chosen to allow

the learners to study topics which they are interested in and which provide

enriching learning experiences.

Learnability. Learnable curriculum content is presented in a form that

provides some schemata according to which learners can master learning

material at increasingly complex levels. It is much easier to master information

that has been presented according to a logical structure than to master many

seemingly unconnected facts.

The learnability of the content can also be enhanced by establishing linkages

between new subject matter and what learners have already learnt, and by

linking content which is learnt at the same level. This is called horizontal and

vertical articulation, as indicated in the section on organising and sequencing

the curriculum content (refer to section C which follows on this section).

In addition to content presentation, it is also necessary to consider the abilities

of the learners who need to acquire the content. Provision should be made for

the learning needs of average, above-average and gifted learners. In

countries where the secondary school system inadequately prepares the

learners for the demands of tertiary education, it may be necessary to

introduce bridging courses. The purpose of the bridging courses is to equip

the learners with the knowledge and skills which they require to master the

curriculum content.

Validity. Valid curriculum content contributes to achievement of the stated

learning outcomes. In other words, the content is closely linked to the stated

outcomes. Content which bears little resemblance to the outcomes is invalid.

Accuracy. Another important consideration is the accuracy of the content. For

instance, content which relates to specific countries should be accurate in

terms of the recent social and political events. Many countries and cities have


experienced name changes and content should be up to date with these

changes. The same applies to epidemiological data. Valid epidemiological

content accurately communicates the most recent trends. For instance if you

choose content pertaining to the incidence and prevalence of HIV infection as

it stood seven years ago in your country, the accuracy of the curriculum will

be questionable because many changes will have occurred in seven years.

c) Organising and sequencing the curriculum content

According to Print (1993:XVII), curriculum organisation is the process of

conceptualising and arranging the elements of curriculum into a coherent pattern.

Curriculum developers must decide how curriculum content should be organised and

ordered. They must also allocate relative weights to various themes, topics and

skills.

Content should be organised in some logical way to facilitate teaching and learning.

A curriculum is organised horizontally and vertically.

Horizontal curriculum organisation involves decision making about scope

and depth.

Vertical curriculum organisation involves decision making about sequence

and continuity.

Other dimensions of curriculum organisation that we will discuss are articulation

and balance.

i Scope

When curriculum developers make decisions about the scope of the curriculum, they

must consider the breadth versus the depth of curriculum content. Scope is also

concerned with the variety and form of learning experiences and appropriate

teaching strategies. Let's have a closer look at the scope of a curriculum.

The curriculum committee must set the boundaries for (or scope of) curriculum

content. A number of questions need to be answered:

Should we include the behavioural sciences and humanities in addition to the

life sciences and professional disciplines?


What about the arts in addition to the sciences?

It is important to include a variety of subjects to enable the learners to understand

various aspects of the world, human beings, the human body and health and

disease. However, it is not possible to teach the learners about everything which

exists or occurs in the world. It is more appropriate to make a selection of relevant

subjects which the learners should study to enable them to become competent

practitioners. We should also ensure that curriculum content contributes not only to

the professional development of learners, but also to their personal development. A

permissive curriculum is called for, however, a balance should be maintained. Taba,

in Greaves (1987:42-43), suggests that the major areas of knowledge to be included

could be mapped out by identifying and linking the unitary or modular themes. An

example is depicted in figure 3.4.


Figure 3-13: Concept map

Scope is also concerned with selecting a variety of learning opportunities and

teaching strategies. This will ensure that the learners have a variety of learning

experiences, which will greatly contribute towards their personal and professional

development, as well as to learning in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor

domains. We can structure actual teaching learning interactions into the main

curriculum plan so that they may function as powerful factors integrating content and

methods.

ii Depth

The curriculum committee must decide on the depth in which curriculum content is to

be studied in addition to the scope of coverage. A curriculum that is broad in scope

covers a vast number of themes and topics in a relatively superficial way. A

curriculum that is not broad in scope covers fewer themes and topics, but deals with


them in greater depth by uncovering layer after layer of related concepts, principles

and meanings. In short, if the breadth of content is limited, it generally allows

learners to study the content in depth. A curriculum that is broad in scope does not

make provision for studying curriculum content in depth.

One way of ensuring that depth is added to the curriculum is to select teaching

strategies and learning opportunities which enable learners to

learn the subject matter and master the necessary practical or technical skills

construct meanings, namely to develop insight into the principles which

underpin what they read or hear, or the situations which they encounter

critically reflect on what they have learnt and challenge the social, cultural and

historical trends related to the subject matter (which dictates that they should

understand the curriculum content according to a specific ideological stance,

while acknowledging that alternative perspectives are in order)

iii Sequencing

Sequencing of curriculum content refers to establishing a logical progression

through content, to ensure accumulative learning. Sequencing involves breaking

up the content and learning experiences into manageable steps to facilitate learning.

This content should then be introduced in such a manner that a logical progression is

maintained. When determining sequence, the curriculum committee need to ask

what order is to be followed in the curriculum. In other words, they need to determine

when to offer the “what” of the curriculum.

The progression can be arranged in various ways, including

prerequisite knowledge to subsequent knowledge

known to unknown

normal to abnormal

concrete to abstract

general to specific or specific to general

wholes to the component parts of the whole

immediate issues of concern to issues that are wider and more remote.


Figure 3-14: Progression from simple to complex

Note that the subject matter that the learners should master, as well as the skills,

intellectual processes, values and attitudes that they have to acquire, are all

sequenced to promote progressive learning. Sequencing also calls for increasingly

complex learning experiences as the learner matures. Planning should ensure that

learners are capable of mental operations that are suitably complex and abstract by

the time they are called upon to use them.

Figure 3-015: An example of vertical sequencing

Complexity resides in both the curriculum content as such and the learners'

perception of the complexity of the content that they have to master. For instance,


the learners' abilities to master the more advanced concepts and principles will be

greatly enhanced by first ensuring that they acquire any prerequisite knowledge

before they are exposed to the more advanced content. By so doing, learners may

be more inclined to perceive the complexity of the curriculum as appropriate. Should

they not have the previous knowledge needed to cope with the increasing complexity

of the content, however, they would simply find it too difficult. For example, learners

with an understanding of basic chemistry and mathematical procedures may find it a

lot easier to grasp pharmacological subject content than would learners without this

prerequisite knowledge. Curriculum developers must therefore specify successful

completion of modules in chemistry and mathematics as prerequisites for entry into a

pharmacology module.

Activity 3.7: Write down two other examples where certain subjects or pre-

knowledge is required to master another subject.

Knowledge of anatomy and physiology of the system before dealing

with the abnormalities.

Knowledge of medication, its actions, contra indications and side

effects

The degree of difficulty of a programme is determined by the following factors:

number of variables to be coped with simultaneously by the learner (breadth)

quantity of content (breadth)

assistance offered by educators (e.g. how much structure)

level of theory (depth)

learners' previous knowledge (sequencing)

intensity of a situation

difficulty levels of skills to be mastered.

iv Continuity

Continuity (figure 3.5) refers to an approach whereby main themes and skills are

repeatedly studied by learners. The same concepts are repeatedly introduced into

various levels of the curriculum, but each time more depth or breadth is added to

facilitate increased levels of insight in learners. The breadth and depth of the study of


the respective themes and skills will increase progressively as learners move to

more advanced levels of the curriculum.

Figure 3-16: Example of continuity

The concepts that are offered in a simple form during the first year are extended in

complexity, scope, depth and sophistication in subsequent years.

v Articulation

Articulation is a further dimension of curriculum design which is achieved by linking

various aspects of curriculum content. Such linkages can be either vertical or

horizontal.

Vertical articulation occurs when learning material of a given level is linked

to learning material of another level. Mastering the learning material of the

lower level would, for instance, constitute prerequisite knowledge for the

learner's entry into the higher level curriculum content. For instance, some

knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the cerebrovascular system

would be a prerequisite for studying health problems related to

cerebrovascular incidents. When teaching cerebrovascular incidents,

educators should develop learning activities that would enable learners to

bring their existing knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the

cerebrovascular system to the surface. This existing knowledge could then


serve as a conceptual structure that could make it easier for learners to grasp

the new subject matter.

Horizontal articulation is achieved if learning matter that is presented to

learners on a given level is linked to other related learning matter on that

same level. For instance, if the principles of nutrition and subject content on

the basic human needs applied to infants are taught in the first year, but

during different time frames, then linkages between the two topics must be

established to enable learners to understand how the principles of nutrition

can be applied to meeting the nutritional needs of infants. Such an approach

would not only eliminate unnecessary repetition in the curriculum, but would

also obviate a fragmented curriculum.

Table 3.5: Articulation

vi Balance

Curriculum design should be balanced. Balance is maintained by allocating a relative

weight to each topic and subject. Curriculum developers should consider the

social realities when deciding on the relative weight of various curriculum topics.


Balance should therefore reflect social realities. The social realities of a specific

community can be determined by studying the findings of the situational analysis

that were done before the process of curriculum design was started. In a developing

country, for example, where communicable diseases are prevalent and basic health

care is rendered, more weight will be allocated to health issues related to

communicable diseases and less weight to the latest developments in genetic

research. More time will be allocated to teaching about communicable diseases and

more emphasis will be placed on assessing learners' knowledge about

communicable diseases (refer to table 3.2).

Table 3.6: Allocating weight to curriculum content

d) How is curriculum content learnt?

Curriculum content cannot be viewed in isolation. When considering content for

inclusion in a curriculum, curriculum developers should also take account of the

sources of content and how content is learnt by learners.

An important point to remember about content is that, in the teaching-learning

process, the two curriculum dimensions of content and of teaching and learning are

continuously interacting. The content only acquires significance once it is transmitted

to the learner in some way, and that “way'' means the learning opportunities and

learning experiences that learners are exposed to. It is important to remember that,

although the choice of content may satisfy all the criteria for selecting curriculum

content, learning will not necessarily follow. Similarly, effective teaching methods

cannot raise insignificant content to the level of worthwhile learning. Content and

method must be significant before effective learning can be achieved.


e) Selecting teaching strategies and learning opportunities

You are already familiar with the planning and implementation of theoretical and

clinical teaching strategies and you have already developed and implemented lesson

plans when you completed the Health Sciences Education Practica module. Please

refer to the first and second level Health Sciences Education modules.

Activity 3.8: Select any module that you are familiar with. State the name of the

module. Describe at least three (3) teaching strategies and three (3) learning

opportunities that you will include (for this module) when you develop your

curriculum.

Name of module: Maternity

Teaching Strategies: Formal lecture

Demonstration

Role play

Learning Opportunities: Observation

Skills station

Group discussion

f) Developing assessment methods and tools

You are already familiar with the principles and methods of learning assessment.

Please revise the sections on learning assessment in the first and second level

Health Sciences Education modules.

Study the section ``Evaluation'' in Billings and Halstead (2009:84 or 2005:99-100)

for the purpose of our discussion on the design stage of curriculum development.

Activity 3.9: Select any module that you are familiar with. State the name of the

module. Describe at least three (3) assessment strategies that you will include (for

this module) when you develop your curriculum.

Name of module: Maternity

Assessments strategies: Examinations

Competencies

Check list


3.4.2.3 Preparing for curriculum validation

Regardless of whether a new curriculum is being developed or an existing curriculum

is being revised, it must be submitted to the relevant statutory body for validation

after completion of the curriculum design process. Therefore a validation document

must be compiled, which should comprise an outline of the following:

foundations of the curriculum (e.g. the philosophy, educational paradigm and

learning theories underpinning the curriculum, and the institutional vision,

mission and philosophy)

curriculum rationale (e.g. the broad purpose of the curriculum and the exit

outcomes)

substance of the curriculum (the learning outcomes, curriculum content,

assessment methods and criteria)

the proposed teaching strategies and learning opportunities.

3.4.2.4 Personnel development

The next curriculum development phase is the implementation phase. Before the

new or revised curriculum is implemented, personnel development is undertaken to

prepare the educators for their new or changed role. The following ought to be

covered in the personnel development programme:

the philosophy and theories that underlie the curriculum,

the rationale for the new curriculum,

how to apply the proposed teaching strategies and assist the learners to

utilise the learning opportunities, and

how learning assessment should occur.

This is to ensure that the proposed curriculum and its underlying value system, as

formally documented, are put into practice as intended.

3.4.3 Curriculum implementation

The next curriculum development stage is the implementation stage. During the

implementation stage, the following is done:

The curriculum is operationalised (put into practice).

Any teething problems are overcome.


The curriculum is evaluated informally on a continuous basis, and corrections

are made.

In this study unit we only mention what curriculum implementation entails because

you already have experience in curriculum implementation. Refer to the Health

Sciences Education Practica module.HSE2603.

Activity 3.10: Return to your original mind-map of the curriculum development

process. Use all the knowledge you have acquired during this process and create an

extensive mind-map to illustrate the entire process. You may create it in

MindMeister™ or you may make a Voice-over-PowerPoint Presentation. Upload it to

your e-portfolio and paste the final image in the space.


3.4.4 Monitoring and review stage

The monitoring and review stage is the stage during which curriculum evaluation is

done. This is done by means of a formal curriculum evaluation strategy. The

curriculum evaluation findings are documented, together with recommendations for

change. These recommendations form the basis for a repeat of the entire

curriculum development process, beginning with the exploratory stage.

Curriculum evaluation is discussed in study unit 7 of this study guide. It is sufficient

to know that the curriculum is subjected to formal evaluation at some point during its

existence. The findings of the curriculum evaluation project are used as a point of

departure for renewed curriculum development.

You should now be able to link the four stages of curriculum development with one

another.

3.5 SUMMARY

In this study unit we dealt with the principles of curriculum development, the stages

and the steps of curriculum development. These discussions provide a broad

overview of how a curriculum is developed. In the following study units we discuss in

detail those aspects of curriculum development which are not covered in the other

Health Sciences Education modules.

PS: You might want to read this: “A

student’s experience of the curriculum for

excellence: friend or foe? Discuss…”

That is where I found the tagxedo (the

picture of the hand )

http://www.pedagoo.org/tag/curriculum/



http://www.tagxedo.com/



Figure 3-17: Curriculum development


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DEVELOPING HEALTH SCIENCES CURRICULA: PRINCIPLES AND …assignment+02+su1-3.… · 1.1 THE CONCEPT: CURRICULUM AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Traditionally curriculum is defined as a