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Determinants of Father-Child Time Allocation
Dmitri M. MedvedovskiBethel University
Kirk C. Allison
University of Minnesota
• This research explores associations between father-child time allocation, paternal background, and non-market & market activities.
• The more fathers positively and intentionally engage their children’s lives the healthier their socialization process will be.
• Not only ‘quality’ but time quantity is relevant for modeling and communicating values and skills to maximize a child's development and capabilites. (Quantity is a dosed dimension of quality.)
• Father-child allocation deficits contribute to negative behavioral outcomes in children, notwithstanding that many mothers do exceptional work parenting their children (Goncy and van Dulman, 2010).
• US estimates of father absence as a primary factor in
– 63% of youth suicides,
– 90% of homeless or runaway children,
– 85% of children exhibiting behavioral disorders
– 71% of national high school dropouts
(Bureau of the Census, Center for Disease Control, & National Principals Association Report on the State of High Schools, 2007).
Background
• Parental allocations for children can be considered an investment of human capital: monetary and temporal.
• Parents maximizing utility subject to a budget constraint must trade-off between their own consumption and investment in their children including the cost of time allocated
• Amount of investment will be positively related to the rate of return, time allocation and other factors. When children grow up the rewards of children will depend on that investment (Goldberger, 1989).
Modeling Context
• Household production models conceive the family in part as a productive organization producing nonmarket commodities with purchased goods and the time of household members (Willis, 1987).
• Becker and Tomes hypothesis (1986): Exogenous increases in potential benefits for children (independent of parents’ expenditures) cause parents to substitute towards their own consumption away from investment in children.
Modeling Context
• Families seen as maximizing utility (with functional arguments of quantity and quality of children along with other goods) are subject to a production function for child quality, a budget constraint and a time constraint. (Hanushek, 1992)
• Dual income arrangements require many families to make intrafamilial parental-time trade offs between work and interaction with children.
• Many studies have investigated time allocation decisions of mothers; little investigation has taken place regarding time allocation of fathers.
Modeling Context
• Explores how a mother’s working hours relate to a father’s time allocation for children and measures the relationship between parents’ working hours outside of home as substitutable components to sustain family welfare
• Explores whether total family income as a child is at home impacts father-child time allocation
• Explores the relationship between wage rate, income and a father’s time allocation
This research . . .
• Investigates the impact of the father’s education on father-child time allocation
• Tests the relationship between a father’s time allocation and age of the father and of the child
This research . . .
• National Center for Fathering survey (1995)
– Random U.S.-wide: phone, in-person, & mail survey
– New York oversampling of minority population (book & meal post-survey incentives)
– 2000 questionnaires, 1650 returned (82.5%)
– Inclusion criteria was children at home: => 1135 of 1650 (69% of completed)
– Education level was somewhat higher than population mean; 43.4% reported own father absent
Data and Methods
Characteristic N Mean SD Median Range
Age 1135 37.81 7.03 37.00 20 to 77
Annual Family Income
Income Increase as Father Ages
1095
1095
$61,258
$1,005
$53,575 $50,000 $0 to$800,000
Father’s Weekly Interaction Hours 1135 7.56 7.81 5 0.25 to 75
Weekly Work Hours, Father 1129 46.85 9.89 45 0 to 90
Weekly Work Hours, Mother 1113 14.60 16.95 7 0 to 90
Years Married (Current Spouse) 1099 12.55 6.91 11 0 to 42
Sample Characteristics of the Respondents(1,135 fathers meeting criteria of 1,651 completed questionnaires)
Category %Education High School Degree Post High School Degree (e.g. Assoc., Trade) College Degree (includes graduate degrees)
16.6513.9268.46
Marital status Married / Single 92.42 / 4.58
Father absence Death Divorce or Separation Abandonment Work Other
7.1111.792.24
70.937.93
Children One child Two children Three children Four children Five or more children
18.7740.0927.229.604.32
Child w/ father One child Two children Three children Four children Five or more children
28.9039.6522.567.051.85
Paternal siblings Only child One sibling Two siblings Three siblings Four siblings Five or more siblings
4.6721.6727.3121.5910.5714.18
• Model 1 Father/Child time allocation model
• Model 2 Maternal working hours outside home (check for a substitution or complement effect with paternal working hours)
• Model 3 Sociodemographic characteristics and working hours of mother & father relative to total family income
( each run on full data and by income strata: <40K, 40+-80K, 80+-200K, 200+-800K )
OLS Regression Models
Y1t = father-child time allocation Y2t = father’s work hours Y3t = mother’s work hours Z1t = family income Z2t = college education Z3t = high school education Z4t = age of father Z5t = number of father’s siblings X1t = number of children in family X2t = one child living at home X3t = two children living at home X4t = three or more children living at home
OLS Regression Models
Results
Note:
†p .10, *p .05, **p .01, and ***p .001
(with the raw beta preceding the standardized beta)
Model F1 - Father-Child Time Allocation (Income Bands)
Father’s Age -0.132** -.111
Mothers Working Hours 0.117*** .202
Children < 12 vs. 18+ 3.820** .169
Income Efficiency = $/(M+F hrs) 1.224*** .154
Income < 40K Base
Income 40K-<80K -1.584** -.079
Income 80K-<200K -2.497** -.087
Income 200K-800K -7.633**, -.093
Note progressive neg. relationship of income and father’s time with children; but positive for income efficiency
Model F2 - Father-Child Time Allocation (Total Income)
Father’s Age -0.136** -.115
Mothers Working Hours 0.116*** .200
Children < 12 vs. 18+ 3.892** .169
Father College vs. High School -1.263* .-060
Household Inc. Efficiency ($/hrs) 1.195*** .150
Total Income (continuous) -0.017 † -.088
Note Father’s College Degree emerges as strong negative predictor vs. High School while income remains negative
Model F3 - Father-Child Time Allocation (<$40K)
Father’s Age NS
Mothers Working Hours 0.132*** .194
Total Number of Children -0.970† -.101
Children < 12 vs. 18+ 5.833* .215
Number of Father’s Siblings 0.433* .094
Father College vs. High School NS
Household Inc. Efficiency ($/hrs) NS
Total Income (continuous in band) NS
Note: Children < 12 strengthens with total number negatively associated, and father’s siblings positive (socialization or inclusive network?)
Model F4 - Father-Child Time Allocation ($40-<$80K)
Father’s Age -.126* .110
Mothers Working Hours 0.120*** .227
Total Number of Children NS
Children < 12 vs. 18+ 2.837* .161
Number of Father’s Siblings NS
Father College vs. High School NS
Household Inc. Efficiency ($/hrs) NS
Total Income (continuous in band) -0.017 † -.088
Note: Children < 12 & mothers working hours continue consistent positive relationship, but total income in band a negative relationship. (Father’s age reemerges neg.)
Model F5 - Father-Child Time Allocation ($80K-<$200)
Father’s Age -.272* .213
Mothers Working Hours 0.088* .166
1 Child at Home 4.511* .228
2 Children at Home -3.672* -.202
3 Children at Home -3.609* -.193
Total Number of Children 2.155* .277
Children < 12 vs. 18+ NS
Total Income (continuous in band) NS
Note: Income, age and children’s age rise together: here children < 12 are now nonsignificant. 1 child home is strongly + but 2 or 3 negative. Yet total # of children is positive: emptying nest compensation?
Model F6 - Father-Child Time Allocation ($200K-<$800K)
Father’s Age NS
Mothers Working Hours 0.489* .861
1 Child at Home NS
2 Children at Home 16.925* .607
3 Children at Home NS
Total Number of Children NS
Children < 12 vs. 18+ NS
Total Income (continuous in band) NS
Note: Mothers outside work contiues to be positively associated. 2 children now extraordinarily positive (caution: few data points in this range).
Father-Child Time Allocation AssociationsTendencies Summary
Negatively Associated• Father’s age • Income (banded)• Total income• Higher education • # of Children (<40K)
Positively Associated
• Mother’s mkt work hrs• Fam. Income efficiency• Children • 1 Child at home• # of Children (200-800K)• # of Father’s siblings
Model M1 - Mothers Outside Work Hrs (Income Bands)
Fathers Working Hours / Week -0.283*** -.161
1 Child at home -3.891** -.103
Total # of Children -1.758*** -.115
Children < 12 vs. 18+ 5.156** -.130
Father College Degree -2.981* -.081
Income < 40K Base
Income 40K-<80K 6.727*** .194
Income 80K-<200K 9.174*** .185
Income 200K-800K 44.068*** .306
House Inc. Efficiency = $/(M+F Hrs) -6.446*** -.464
Note signs reverse of Father-Child model: 1 Child home, Children < 12, Income Efficiency (now -); Income (now +)
Model M2 - Mothers Outside Work Hrs (Total Income)
Fathers Working Hours / Week -0.436*** -.928
1 Child at home -3.530** -.094
Total # of Children -1.682*** -.110
Children < 12 vs. 18+ 5.211** -.131
Father College Degree -3.462*** -.095
Father’s Father absent (death, aband) 3.139* .050
House Inc. Efficiency -12.888*** -.928
Total Family Income 0.266*** .804
Note: With continuous income variable neg. coefficient on household efficiency doubles (M/F wage gradient). Father’s father absence as strong predictor.
Model M3 - Mothers Outside Work Hrs (<$40K)
Fathers Working Hours / Week -0.404*** -.226
1 Child at home NS
Total # of Children -1.625*** -.114
Children < 12 vs. 18+ 8.750** -.220
# Father’s Siblings 0.552* .081
Father College Degree NS
House Inc. Efficiency -22.101*** -.517
Total Family Income 0.474*** .225
Note: Lowest income strata ~ Father’s Sibling # now significant, Father College NS, Children<12 (+) and Income Efficiency (-) stronger
Model M4 - Mothers Outside Work Hrs ($40K-<$80K)
Fathers Working Hours / Week -1.04*** -.476
2 Children at home -1.285 † -.036
Total # of Children NS
Children < 12 vs. 18+ NS Children 12-18 2.146 † .042
# Father’s Siblings NS
Father’s College Degree -1.962* -.051
House Inc. Efficiency -54.78*** -1.039
Total Family Income 0.983*** .618
Note: Father’s College again significant with higher income strata (-); Income Efficiency higher (-)
Model M5- Mothers Outside Work Hrs ($80K-<$200)
Fathers Working Hours / Week -0.669*** -.405
Total # of Children NS
Children < 12 vs. 18+ NS Children 12-18 NS
Father’s Father absent (death, aband) 5.721* .098
Father’s College Degree -8.088** -.167
House Inc. Efficiency -14.71*** -.957
Total Family Income 0.234*** .441
Note: Father’s College highest magnitude in this strata; also strong coefficient on absence of Father’s Father with income efficiency continuing to show strong wage gradient.
Model M6 - Mothers Outside Work Hrs ($200K-<$800K)
No Significant Coefficients
(sparse data in this strata)
Mothers Outside Work Hours(save highest income strata null model)
Negatively Associated• Father’s working hours• Father’s college degree• Children < 12 (full,<40K)• # Children (full, <40K)• 1 Child at home (full)• Income Efficiency
Positively Associated• Income strata (progr.)• Total family income• Father’s father absent
due to death, abandonment or other
Model for Total Family Income
• Includes Father’s Age
• Includes both Father & Mother’s Working Hours
• Indicators for Children at home (1,2,3) and <12, 12-18
• Total # of Children
• # Father’s Siblings
• Indicators for post-High School and College vs. HS
• Indicators for absence of Father’s father
Model I1 – Total Family Income (All Data)
Father’s Age 0.630** .107
Fathers Working Hours NS
Mothers Working Hours NS
# Father’s Siblings -1.183 † -.050
Children < 12 15.560* .131
Children 12-18 19.905** .129
Father’s College Degree 15.664*** .142
Note: Small children, esp. teens, drive income seeking, +college degree effect & secular trend ~ age. Father’s siblings (-) previously ~ + child & maternal work time
Model I2 – Total Family Income (<40K)
Father’s Age NS
# Father’s Siblings NS
1 Child at home -1.737 † .104
2 Children at home 2.818** .179
Father Post High School (Associates) 2.008* .099 Father College 3.623*** .231
Fathers father absent (death, aband.) -4.607 .161
Note: Father post-HS education (associates/trade) & College + effect, but strong negative intergenerational absent father effect (death, abandonment) in strata. Signs flip between 1 & 2 children.
Model I3 – Total Family Income ($40K-<$80K)
Father’s Age 0.183* .138
Fathers Working Hours 0.098 † .075
Mothers Working Hours 0.089** .141
1 Child at home NS
2 Children at home NS
Father Post High School (Associates) NS Father College 3.175* .131
Fathers father absent (death, aband.) NS
Note: Age, working hours (both) and higher education
Model I4 – Total Family Income ($80K-<$200K)
Father’s Age NS
Fathers Working Hours NS
Mothers Working Hours -0.260* -.138
Total # of Children 5.846** .211
Children < 12 19.890 † .297 Children 12-18 16.579 † .210
Fathers father absent (death, aband.) NS
Note: Negative coefficient on mothers’ outside work hours on income implies net negative substitution effect on fathers’. Large positive coefficients on # and presence of children across ages in this college-conscious strata
Model I5 – Total Family Income ($200-$800)
Intercept NS
Fathers Working Hours -8.794 † -1.208
Fathers Father absent (Death, aband) -491.322 † -1.295
Note: Sparse data and weak significance (negative coefficient on father’s working hours: indicative of non-wage income?). Absent father datum at low end of (upper) income band.
Total Family Income Tendencies Summary
Negatively Associated• # of Fathers Siblings
(Full)• 1 Child at Home (<40K)• Father’s Father absent
by death, abandonment (<40K, 200K-800K)
Ambiguous• Mother Work Hrs(40K-<80K +, 80K-<200K -)•Father Work Hrs
(40K-<80K +, 200K-800K -)Positively Associated• Fathers Age
(Full, 40K-<80K)• 2 Children at Home (<40K)• Children < 12,12-18, total
(Full, 80K-200K)• Fathers Post-HS Ed (<40K)• Fathers College
(Full, <40K, 40K-<80K)
• Our results suggests that quantity of a father’s interactive time allocation for his children correlates with market activities, income utility, and working hours with a ‘paradoxical’ effect associated with paternal education and an incomplete substitution effect with a working spouse.
• An economic approach to father-child time allocation is a useful tool for analyzing father-child relationships and can provide a basis for developing both an analysis of the research and recommendations to enhance positive family relationships.