DESIGNING RESISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAMS

CHAPTER 07

BENEFITS OF RESISTANCE TRAININGResistance training is a systematic program of exercise for development of the muscular system for clients of various ages and interests:

• Strength• Endurance• Bone integrity• Reduction in number of falls / injuries

TYPES OF RESISTANCE TRAININGAlthough there are general guidelines for designing isometric, dynamic, and isokinetic resistance training programs, each exercise prescription should be individualized to meet the specific needs and goals of your client.

TYPES• Isometric (static) Training• Dynamic Training

• Concentric• Eccentric

• Isokinetic Training

ISOMETRIC TRAINING• Older style of training requiring no special equipment

• Requires holding submaximal contraction at specific joint angle (no change in joint angle)

• Used in rehabilitative settings to counteract strength loss and muscle atrophy, especially in cases in which the limb is temporarily immobilized.

• Benefit is limited to the specific joint angles

Contraindications• Coronary patients and patients with hypertension

• The static contraction may produce large increases in intrathoracic pressure. This reduces the venous return to the heart, increases the work of the heart, and causes a substantial rise in blood pressure.

DYNAMIC TRAINING• Appropriate for all ages, both sexes

• Involves concentric and eccentric contractions using variable or constant resistance

• Full range of motion

• Basic concepts:• Intensity (percentage of 1RM)• Repetitions (Intensity is inversely related to repetitions)• Sets (a given number of consecutive repetitions of the exercise)• Training Volume - total weight lifted in exercise session

• Weight lifted x number of reps x sets• Sequence of exercises (order of lifts)

GOALS FOR DYNAMIC TRAINING• To develop muscle strength and muscle mass, the American

College of Sports Medicine (ACSM 2010) recommends selecting a resistance that allows the individual to complete 8 to 12 repetitions per set.

• To improve muscular endurance, a lower resistance (≤50% 1-RM) and higher number of repetitions (15-25 reps) are recommended (ACSM 2010). Table 7.2 (pg.157) summarizes the ACSM (2010) guidelines for the resistance training of healthy populations.

• You can design programs to optimize the development of muscle strength, size (hypertrophy), endurance, or power by varying the intensity, repetitions, sets, and frequency of training. Tables 7.3 through 7.5 ( pg. 157-8) present guidelines for designing programs for novice, intermediate, and advanced weightlifters.

INTENSITY• Mean optimal intensity for strength: 60% to 100% 1RM• Can generally perform 1 to 12 repetitions at these

intensities• Modify based on experience level:

• Novice lifter: 60% to 70% 1RM • Intermediate lifter: 70% to 85% 1RM • Advanced lifter: 80% to 100% 1RM

• To develop muscular endurance, prescribe an intensity of ≤ 50% 1-RM (ACSM 2010).

SETS• Target client’s goals• The optimal number of sets for improving muscular strength

is controversial and depends on your client’s goal; one or two sets for children and older adults and two to four sets for novice and intermediate lifters are recommended

• Single sets: shorter programs, increased adherence, but not recommended by many (results from a meta-analysis of 140 strength training studies do not support prescribing single-set programs to develop the strength of untrained and trained recreational lifters)

• Multiple sets: longer programs, increased training stimulus, and if using single sets, use multiple type of lifts for the same muscle group.

FREQUENCY• Muscular fitness may improve from exercising just 1 day/wk,

especially in clients with below-average muscular fitness. Recent research, however, suggests that the optimal frequency of strength training for untrained individuals is 3 days/wk.

Consider client’s experience level• Novice: 3 days a week• Healthy population: 2 or 3 nonconsecutive days a week• Advanced lifters: 4 to 6 sessions a week; split routines (With a split

routine, you are targeting different muscle groups on consecutive days, thereby allowing at least 1 day of recovery for each muscle group. )

• For maximum strength: at least 2 times a week per muscle group

• Rest muscle group 48 hours between workouts

VOLUME• You can alter training volume by changing the number

of exercises performed for each session, the number of repetitions performed for each set, or the number of sets performed for each exercise

• Throughout the resistance training program, volume and intensity must be systematically increased (progression principle) to avoid plateaus and to ensure continued strength improvements.

SEQUENCE OF EXERCISES• Perform multi-joint exercises before single-

joint exercise.• Allow muscle recovery; successive exercises

should not involve the same muscle group.• Include at least one exercise per major muscle

group.• Balance agonist, antagonist, and contralateral

exercises.

DYNAMIC TRAINING METHODSYou can use a variety of methods to design dynamic resistance training programs. The majority of these methods are best suited for advanced programs. Each uses a different approach for prescribing sets, order of exercises, or frequency of workouts.Set variations:

• Multiple sets: • designated sets (usually 3) per exercise or,• one set of 3 exercises targeting muscle group• Pyramiding sets:

• Start with a set of lighter weight and higher reps• Subsequent sets progressively increase weight and decrease

reps• Target total of 6 sets• Usually a technique for experienced weightlifters and bodybuilders

DYNAMIC TRAINING METHODS (CONTINUED)

Variations in number and order of exercises:• Large muscle groups before smaller muscle groups• Smaller muscle groups before larger ones - advanced

weightlifters prefer to do compound sets or tri-sets in order to completely fatigue a targeted muscle group

• Compound sets: 2 consecutive sets for single muscle group

• Tri sets: 3 consecutive sets for single muscle group• Super sets: consecutive and immediate alternation of

sets between agonist and antagonist without rest.

DYNAMIC TRAINING METHODS (CONTINUED)

Variations in frequency:

• Typically 3 days a week with one day rest between each session

• Split routines: With a split routine, you are targeting different muscle groups on consecutive days, thereby allowing at least 1 day of recovery for each muscle group.

DYNAMIC TRAINING METHODS (CONTINUED)

Periodization• The training stimulus may be varied by manipulations in one or

more of the following program elements: • Training volume (number of sets, repetitions, or exercises) • Training intensity (amount of resistance) • Type of contraction (concentric, eccentric, or isometric) • Training frequency

• Goal 1: maximize gains in strength, power, endurance, and hypertrophy

• Goal 2: reduce likelihood of injury and overtraining• Rest periods between sets and exercises related to intensity• Three common models: linear, reverse linear, undulating

LINEAR PERIODIZATION (LP)• Macrocycles: cover 9- to 12-month intervals• Mesocycles: 3- to 4-month intervals that comprise macrocycles• Microcycles: 1- to 4-week intervals that comprise mesocycles• Within and between cycles, training intensity increases as

training volume decreases. • For example, a 3 mo. (12 wk) mesocycle can be divided into

three 4 wk. microcycles as follows: during weeks 1 through 4, three sets are performed at 12-RM or 70% 1-RM; during weeks 5 through 8, three sets are performed at 10-RM or 75% 1-RM; and during weeks 9 through 12, three sets are performed at 8-RM or 80% 1-RM

REVERSE LINEAR PERIODIZATION (RLP)• Reverse sequence of LP• Within and between cycles, training intensity decreases

as training volume increases.The RLP configuration of the mesocycles and microcycles is as follows: weeks 1 through 4, three sets at 80% 1-RM (8-RM); weeks 5 through 8, three sets at 75% 1-RM (10-RM); and weeks 9 through 12, three sets at 70% 1-RM (12-RM). As you can see, the training intensity decreases from 80% to 70% 1-RM (8-RM to 12-RM) as the training volume increases (from 8 to 12 reps)

UNDULATING PERIODIZATION (UP)• Considerably shorter intervals as compared to LP and RLP

programs• Compared to those in LP and RLP, the microcycles for

undulating periodization (UP) are considerably shorter (biweekly, weekly, or even daily) so that they frequently change the training stimulus (intensity and volume).

• Your client may progress from high volume–low intensity to low volume–high intensity in the same week.

• One advantage of the UP program is that the training volume and intensity change frequently, subjecting the exercising muscles to a different training stimulus on a daily or weekly basis.

CIRCUIT TRAININGCircuit Training Programs: (Figure 7.1, p 163)

• 10 to 15 stations• Designed to increase cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular

strength, and muscular endurance• Circuit complete 2 to 3 times per exercise session• Fatigue muscle group(s) in the 30-sec per station• Short rest between stations• Good for those with time limitations• Super circuits = circuit program with cardio stations intermingled

with weight stations

CORE STABILITY• Core stability is the ability to maintain the ideal

alignment of the neck, spine, scapulae, and pelvis while performing an exercise or a sport skill.Improves functional capacity

• Improves alignment of neck, spine, scapula, and pelvis during exercise or sports

• Uses resistance training performed on unstable surfaces

• Usually requires lighter load and slower velocity of movement due to uneven surface

FUNCTIONAL STABILITYFor years, functional training has been widely used in physical rehabilitation programs to improve joint stability, neuromuscular control, flexibility, and muscular fitness (strength and endurance) of injured clients.• Improves joint stability, neuromuscular control, flexibility, and

muscular fitness • Trains and develops muscles to increase ease, safety, and

efficiency of ADL• System of exercise progressions for specific muscle groups that

uses a six-step approach to increase difficulty and skill (See Chart p. 164)

• Direct relationship between level of difficulty and core stability requirement

FUNCTIONAL STABILITY (CONTINUED)Progressions develop strength and function of all, not just core, muscle groups.As exercise difficulty progresses, greater strength, balance, core stability, and coordination are required.Four types of exercises:

• Spinal stabilization• Proprioception and balance• Resistance exercises• Flexibility exercises

Because core stability is dynamic, changing with body position during exercise, isolated core strengthening does not automatically increase core stability unless it is accompanied by motor skill training

ISOKINETIC TRAINING• Isokinetic exercise combines the advantages of

dynamic (full range of motion) and static (maximum force exerted) exercise

• Uses an accommodating resistance that matches force exerted

• Reduces likelihood of muscle soreness—no eccentric component

• Limited in ability to produce muscle hypertrophy—no eccentric component

DEVELOPING RESISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAMS• Know the client’s goals, availability, and access to

equipment.• Assess client; identify any additional specific target

areas.• Review training principles; determine how each can be

incorporated into the individualized program.• Follow standard guidelines and recommendations (see

tables 7.2-7.5 in text).• Be mindful of precautions and specific guidelines when

programming for older clients and children.

DEVELOPING FUNCTIONAL TRAINING PROGRAMSFollow the six-step approach:

1. Isolate and educate2. Add resistance3. Add functional training positions4. Combine increased function and resistance5. Exercise multiple muscle groups with increased

resistance and core challenge6. Add balance, increased function, speed, or rotation

APPLICATION OF TRAINING PROGRAMSSpecificity requires an exercise be specific to

• the muscle group that is exercised, • the type of contraction, and• training intensity.

Overload: Muscle group must be exercised at workloads that are greater than normal.

• For strength: ≥60% 1RM; faster gains at higher loads• For endurance: 30% 1RM ≤ load < 60% 1RM, but with reps to fatigue

Progression: systematic, periodic, and gradual increase of the training volume, or total amount of work by manipulating

• resistance or load,• reps (number or velocity),• sets,• number of exercises, and• rest periods.

APPLICATION OF TRAINING PROGRAMS (CONTINUED)Initial values: The client with the lowest starting value (strength, endurance, power) will show greatest improvement.

Diminishing returns: As the client gets closer to the goal, the fewer and smaller the improvements will be.

Individuality: No two clients will respond to the same exercises the same way.

Reversibility: Injury or discontinuation will result in loss of previous gains.

RESISTANCE TRAINING FOR CHILDRENResistance training is safe and beneficial for youth.Closely follow special precautions and recommended guidelines; initially focus on technique. (see pg. 168, “Youth Resistance Training Programs”)Keep intensity less than 80% 1RM.A high rep, moderate intensity program is more effective than low rep, high intensity program for improving strength and endurance.At this age gains in strength are due to neuromuscular factors, not hypertrophy.Increases in bone density during childhood confer many benefits in adult years.

RESISTANCE TRAINING FOR OLDER ADULTS• Closely follow special precautions and recommended

guidelines.• Resistance training is safe and beneficial for seniors.• Primary goal is to develop sufficient muscular fitness to

allow safe, independent performance of ADLs.• Prescribe ≥1 set of 10 to 15 reps for 8 to 10 different

exercises each workout.• Set intensity in RPE range (on 10-point scale) of 5-6 for

moderate or 7-8 for vigorous workout.• Initially, keep loads light and focus on technique!

EFFECTS AND BENEFITS OF RESISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAMSMorphological adaptations:

• Muscle hypertrophy through increased cross-sectional area• Improvements in ligamentous and tendinous integrity• Increased bone density and bone strength• Increased capillarization of muscle

Neural adaptations:

• Enhanced motor unit activation and recruitment (depends on training specificity)

• Increased frequency of neurotransmitter release by motor neurons

• Enhanced neural inhibition of antagonists

(continued)

EFFECTS AND BENEFITS OF RESISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAMS (CONTINUED)Biochemical adaptations:

• Enhanced anabolic and fat-burning profile• Reduction in mitochondrial density with muscle hypertrophy• Minimal alteration of phosphagenic energy stores (ATP/CP)• Minimal alteration in ATP-synthesizing enzyme activity

Body composition adaptations:

• Increased fat-free mass (inclusive of bone mineral)• Decreased fat mass• Decreased %BF

(continued)

MUSCLE SORENESSAcute muscle soreness: immediate response to reduction of blood flow and local metabolic by-products in exercised muscle

Delayed-Onset of Muscle Soreness (DOMS): appears 24 to 48 hours after exercise

Muscle soreness decreases tension development and force production.

Cause unknown but believed to be related to eccentric contractions

Major theories suggest that unaccustomed or eccentric exercise damages skeletal muscle cells and connective tissues, producing an acute inflammation.

PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF MUSCLE SORENESSMany approaches and combinations thereof may prevent or lessen muscle soreness:

• Nutrition • Pharmacology • Manual massage or icing• Mechanical manipulation of area (electrical vibration,

ultrasound)• Exercise (single bout of low-volume, high-intensity

eccentric exercise) • Slower or more conservative progression through program• Warm-up prior to exercise