Design Palette

THE DESIGN PALETTEA STUDY OF COLOURS AND THEIR RELATIONS IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

A Seminarsubmitted to

the Landscape department, faculty of the Architecture,

CEPT Universityin partial fulfillment of

the requirements for theMaster of Landscape Architecture

byShivansh Singh

PA200914Master of Landscape Architecture, CEPT University,

Ahmedabad, india.|email - [email protected]|

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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PREFACE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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THE INTENT

01

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INTRODUCTION TO COLOUR

We are gifted with the sense of vision, which allows us to visualize everything around us. This sense helps us to understand the form, size, shape, and texture of the objects. But it would have been very difficult to differentiate between these objects, if there was an absence of the property of “colour”. Colour, in simple terms, is just the way a body is percieved in the presence of light.

When we walk out in the busy streets, and look into this dynamic environment around us, we tend to go for every single detail which seems interesting, or maybe different, be it the colour of flowers in the blossoming trees or some tangy coloured vehicle which goes by our side. It can be some advertisement billboard, or an artwork done on the walls running parallel to the street. Everywhere, it is colour and it is this property of an object, or any sign board, which becomes the part of our memory. Take an example of the Vodafone; whenever you will hear about the company’s name, it is the red colour which will always come to your mind, or maybe, take Honest or Havmor, where your memory seems to remember the yellow and blue colours respectively.

The examples can also be taken of the natural world around us. Whenever we think about a Gulmohar (Delonix regia) tree, we already find ourselves trapped in the beautiful shades of red, without remembering any other detail of the plant. Similar things happen when you might see a tree laden with flowers; even the white frangipani (Plumeria obtusa) which has those showy white flowers dangling in bunches from

the branches, all we are able to focus are those white flowers, leaving the green broad leaves and the sculpturous form of the tree. This is how most of the plants attract the agents of pollination too.

Colour can set you in the positive moods, soothe you, give you the required tranquility. It plays an important role in inculcating excitement, enthusiasm, peace of mind, etc. There is an array of psychological effects with colours, which we use or fall prey to, every single day. Sipping tea from a mug which is yellow or orange in colour always feel hotter than the one from a mug with shades of blue. We are trained with time to repsond to the red signals and that makes us stop everytime our eyes see a red traffic light or the same coloured tail lights of the vehicles ahead.

Colour is also priceless. It can be percieved without paying anything by all sections of the society. Though there have been baseless trials to relate a religion with colours, but there is not such such element as secular as colour. It does not belong to any profession or income level. Quoting David Hicks, a very famous designer and colour expert, “Colour can achieve more in people’s lives than any other element and at the least expense.”

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THE HISTORY OF COLOUR

It has been centuries since the time when humans started understanding the colours and used them in their day to day lives. The ancient Egyptians have been recorded to have been using colour for cures and ailments.They worshipped the sun, knowing that without light there can be no life. They looked at nature and copied it in many aspects of their lives. The floors of their temples were often green - as the grass which then grew alongside their river, the Nile. Blue was a very important colour to the Egyptians too; the colour of the sky. They built temples for healing and used gems (crystals) through which the sunlight shone. They would have different rooms for different colours. We could perhaps relate our present methods of colour/light therapy to this ancient practice. There are lists on papyrus dating back to 1550 BC of colour “cures”.[1]

Their deep knowledge and understanding of the healing powers of the colour rays was so nearly lost when, later on in history, the Greeks considered colour only as a science. Hippocrates, amongst others, abandoned the metaphysical side of colour, concentrating only on the scientific aspect. Fortunately, despite this, the knowledge and philosophy of colour was handed down through the ages by a few. The Chinese also apparently practiced Colour Healing. The Nei/ching, 2000 years old, records colour diagnoses.

But the research work on colour actually started with Pythagoras, somewhere around 6th century BC. Among his many accomplishments, Pythagorus was the first person to discover that musical notes could be translated into a mathematical seven-note scale. Bizarrely, he also believed that the orbits of the planets and colour spectrum both corresponded to the same mathematical proportions as music, resulting in a grand cosmic symmetry (an idea known as ‘the music of the spheres’).

But Aristotle in the fourth century B.C. took a more straightforward approach. Living at a time when

people held a very cyclical worldview, Aristotle placed a selection of 7 primary colours into a linear sequence. He ordered them according to when he observed each colour appearing naturally throughout the day, beginning with the light of day and ending with the black of night.[2]

Furthermore, Sir Isaac Newton made a study of color starting at the age of 23 in 1666 and developed the useful Newton color circle based on the wavelengths, which gives insight about complementary colors and additive color mixing. One of his contributions was the idea that white light is light containing all wavelengths of the visible spectrum and demonstrated this fact with experiments on the dispersion of light in glass prisms. While Newton’s wheel accurately explained the relationship between pure colours, that’s only part of the picture. In the 1700s, Moses Harris expanded upon Newton’s ideas by creating a shaded colour wheel. If Newton’s wheel was a one-dimensional representation of colour, Harris’s shaded wheel introduced a second dimension. Johann Goethe, a German writer and artist published Farbenlehre (Theory of Colors) in 1810. He was the first to thoroughly study the physical effects of color, and this led him to arrange colors symmetrically on a color wheel, with “opposing” colors placed diametrically opposite each other. This anticipated furtherdevelopments in color harmony.

Several color order systems had placed colors into a three-dimensional color solid of one form or another, but Munsell was the first to separate hue, value, and chroma into perceptually uniform and independent dimensions, and was the first to systematically illustrate the colors in three-dimensional space. It was created by Professor Albert H. Munsell in the first decade of the 20th century and adopted by the USDA as the official color system for soil research in the 1930s.

Even today, we are further experimenting and understanding the impact of colours in our daily lives.

1. Tate,Tyler, Presentation, History of Colour (March 2010), Global Ignite Week.2. https://www.colourtherapyhealing.com/colour/colour_history

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THE HISTORY OF COLOUR

FIG. 1: Moses Harris’ 1766 Models for Colour Theories.

FIG. 2: The Munsell color system, showing: a circle of hues at value 5 chroma 6; the neutral values from 0 to 10; and the chromas of purple-blue (5PB) at value 5.

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FIG. 3: The Visible Spectrum

THE PHYSICS OF COLOUR

Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by its wavelength (or frequency) and its intensity. When the wavelength is within the visible spectrum (the range of wavelengths humans can perceive, approximately from 390 nm to 700 nm), it is known as “visible light”.

Most light sources emit light at many different wavelengths; a source’s spectrum is a distribution giving its intensity at each wavelength. Although the spectrum of light arriving at the eye from a given direction determines the color sensation in that direction, there are many more possible spectral combinations than color sensations. In fact, one may formally define a color as a class of spectra that give rise to the same color sensation, although such classes would vary widely among different species, and to a lesser extent among individuals within the same species. In each such class the members are called metamers of the color in question.

Different colors have different wavelengths, which is the distance between corresponding parts of two of the waves. The longest wavelength of light that humans can see is red. The shortest is violet. Ultraviolet has an even shorter wavelength, but humans cannot see it. Some birds and bees can see ultraviolet light.

Infrared has a longer wavelength than red light, and humans can not see this light but can feel the heat infrared generates.[1]

The color of an object depends on both the physics of the object in its environment and the characteristics of the perceiving eye and brain. Physically, objects can be said to have the color of the light leaving their surfaces, which normally depends on the spectrum of the incident illumination and the reflectance properties of the surface, as well as potentially on the angles of illumination and viewing. Some objects not only reflect light, but also transmit light or emit light themselves, which also contribute to the color.

A viewer’s perception of the object’s color depends not only on the spectrum of the light leaving its surface, but also on a host of contextual cues, so that color differences between objects can be discerned mostly independent of the lighting spectrum, viewing angle, etc.[2]

1. http://www.crayola.com/for-educators/resources-landing/articles/color-what-is-color.aspx2. This effect is called colour constancy.

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THE COLOUR WHEEL

A color wheel or color circle is an abstract illustrative organization of color hues around a circle that shows relationships between primary colors, secondary colors, tertiary colors etc.

Some sources use the terms color wheel and color circle interchangeably;[1] however, one term or the other may be more prevalent in certain fields or certain versions as mentioned above. For instance, some reserve the term color wheel for mechanical rotating devices, such as color tops or filter wheels. Others classify various color wheels as color disc, color chart, and color scale varieties.

As an illustrative model, artists typically use red, yellow, and blue primaries (RYB color model) arranged at three equally spaced points around their color wheel.[2] Printers and others who use modern subtractive color methods and terminology use magenta, yellow, and cyan as subtractive primaries. Intermediate and interior points of color wheels and circles represent color mixtures. In a paint or subtractive color wheel, the “center of gravity” is usually (but not always) black, representing all colors of light being

absorbed; in a color circle, on the other hand, the center is white or gray, indicating a mixture of different wavelengths of light (all wavelengths, or two complementary colors, for example).

Surfaces absorb certain light waves and reflectback others onto the color receptors (cones) in our eyes. The light reflected back is the light we see. The true primaries of visible light are red, green, and blue. The light system is called “additive” because the three primaries together create all the hues in the spectrum. In theory, combining red and green paint should produce yellow. In practice, however, these pigments combine into a blackish brown. This is because pigments absorb more light than they reflect, making any mix of pigments darker than its source colors. As more colors are mixed, less light is reflected. Thus pigment based color systemsare called “substractive.” Offset and desktop printing methods use CMYK, a subtractive system. Screen displays use RGB, which is addictive. CMYK color uses non-standard colors becausethe light reflected off cyan and magenta pigments mixes more purely into new hues than the light reflected off of blue and red pigments.

1. Jennings, Simon. Artist’s Color Manual: The Complete Guide to Working With Color. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2003.

2. Lochen Staiger, Kathleen. The Oil Painting Course You’ve Always Wanted: Guided Lessons for Beginners. New York: Watson–Guptill, 2006.

FIG. 4: The Color Wheel

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1. https://cs.nyu.edu/courses/fall02/V22.0380-001/color_theory.htm

THE COLOUR SYNTHESIS

Additive color synthesis is the creation of color by mixing colors of light. Human vision relies on light sensitive cells in the retina of the eye. There are two basic kinds of sensors. These are rods and cones. Rods are cells which can work at very low intensity, but cannot resolve sharp images or color. Cones are cells that can resolve sharp images and color, but require much higher light levels to work. The combined information from these sensors is sent to the brain and enables us to see.[1]

There are three types of cone. Red cones are sensitive to red light, green cones are sensitive to green light, and blue cones are sensitive to blue light. The perception of color depends on an imbalance between the stimulation level of the different cell types. The three primaries in light are red, blue, and green, because they correspond to the red, green, and blue cones in the eye.

Red + Green = YellowRed + Blue = MagentaGreen + Blue = CyanPrinters’ primaries—yellow, cyan, and magenta—are typically used by professional designers and printing presses . When all of the colors of the spectrum are combined, they add up to white light.2 parts Red + 1 part Green = Orange2 parts Green + 1 part Red = Lime4 parts Red + 1 part Blue + 1 part Green = Brown

Subtractive color synthesis is the creation of color by mixing colors of pigment, such as paint or ink in your computer’s printer. This type of color is what is used in the art and design world. When learning basic color theory, art students typically use familiar colors like red, yellow, and blue. Subtractive color processes work by blocking out parts of the spectrum. The idea of subtractive color is to reduce the amount of undesired color reaching the eye. If, for example, you had a yellow image, you would want to have a dye that would let red and green reach the eye, and block out blue. The additive secondaries become the printers’ subtractive primaries, because each of the additive secondaries will reflect two of the additive primaries, and absorb one of the additive primaries. The three primaries on the artists’ color wheel are red, blue, and yellow. [1]

Yellow + Blue = GreenYellow + Red = OrangeBlue + Red = VioletWhen all of the colors are combined, they create black pigment.

With this information, if we wanted red, we would mix magenta and yellow. Magenta would absorb green, and yellow would absorb blue, leaving only red to be reflected back to the eye. For black, a combination of all three would be used, which should block out all light in theory.

FIG. 5: The Colour Synthesis Types

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FIG. 6: The Basics of Colour

COLOUR INFOGRAPHIC

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COLOUR TERMINOLOGIES

FIG. 7: Figure showing Hue, Chroma and Neutral Axis.

HUE is the traditional color “name”, such as red, which represents a specific wavelength of visible light. In most instances color and hue are used interchangably even though they do not exactly mean the same thing or refer to the same phenomenon. The hues in the spectrum are traditionally listed as red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. ROYGBIV is a common mnemonic for remembering the order of colored light in the spectrum. Black, white and the grays produced from them are not usually considered to be hues. The average eye can differentiate approximately 150 different hues.[1]

VALUE, i.e. a relative degree of lightness or darkness. Most colors are recognizable in a full range of values; e.g. we identify as a form of “red” everything from the palest pink to the darkest maroon. Even though we assign different names to the different values of red we still know that they are derived from red. All hues have a normal value; the lightness or darkness of that hue as it appears in the spectrum. Yellow, for example, is a light-valued color while violet is a dark-valued color. As a result, there will be an uneven range of light or dark values for each hue.[1]

INTENSITY is the brightness or dullness of a colour. A colour is made duller by adding black or white, as well as by neutralising it to-wards grey i.e, lowering its saturation.[2]

CHROMA tells us how pure a hue is. That means there is no white, black, or grey present in a colour that has high chroma. These colours will appear very vivid and pure. This concept is related to and often confused with saturation.[3]

SATURATION tells us how a colour looks under certain lighting conditions. For instance, a room painted a solid colour will appear different in night than in daylight. As the day goes on, the colour remains the same but the saturation changes.[3]

TINT is the term used to describe a hue that has been lighted in value from its normal value. Pink is tint of red. Tints are achieved by mixing white with a pigment or by using a pigment in a dilute form to allow for the white of the ground to show through.[1]

SHADE is the term used to describe a hue that has be darkened in value from its normal value. Maroon is a shade of red. Shades are achieved by mixing black with a pigment. [1]

TONE is a a color mixture that is not pure color hue (such as the highest chroma for a given color), and not black and not white. This mixture is an intermediate (can also be blend of hues). In other words, if you were to take a pure color and add grey, you would have Tone.

1. http://www.uwgb.edu/heuerc/2d/colorterms.html2. http://www.gdbasics.com/html/color/color.html#3. http://www.colorcube.com/articles/theory/glossary.htm

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THE COLOUR WHEEL AND VISION

A color circle based on spectral wavelengths appears with red at one end of the spectrum and violet at the other. A wedge-shaped gap represents colors that have no unique spectral frequency. These extra-spectral colors, the purples, form from additive mixture of colors from the ends of the spectrum.

In normal human vision, wavelengths of between about 400 nm and 700 nm are represented by this incomplete circle, with the longer wavelengths equating to the red end of the spectrum. Complement colors are located directly opposite each other on this wheel. These complement colors are not identical to colors in pigment mixing (such as are used in paint), but when lights are additively mixed in the correct proportions appear as a neutral grey or white.[1]

For example: the reason that the Wimbledon tennis tournament uses purple on the Wimbledon official logo is that purple is located almost opposite of green on the color wheel. Purple against green provides good contrast.

The color circle is used for, among other purposes, illustrating additive color mixture. Combining two colored lights from different parts of the spectrum may produce a third color that appears like a light from another part of the spectrum, even though dissimilar wavelengths are involved. This type of color matching is known as metameric matching.[2]Thus a combination of green and red light might produce a color close to yellow in apparent hue. The newly formed

color lies between the two original colors on the color circle, but they are usually represented as being joined by a straight line on the circle, the location of the new color closer to the (white) centre of the circle indicating that the resulting hue is less saturated (i.e., paler) than either of the two source colors. The combination of any two colors in this way are always less saturated than the two pure spectral colors individually.

Objects may be viewed under a variety of different lighting conditions. The human visual system is able to adapt to these differences by chromatic adaptation. This aspect of the visual system is relatively easy to mislead, and optical illusions relating to color are therefore a common phenomenon. The color circle is a useful tool for examining these illusions.

1. Krech, D., Crutchfield, R.S., Livson, N., Wilson, W.A. jr., Parducci, A. Elements of psy-chology (4th ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982. pp. 108-109.

2. Schiffman, H.R. Sensation and perception: An integrated approach (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1990. pp. 252-253.

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THE COLOUR COMPOSITION

To compose in colour means to juxtapose two or more colours in such a way that they jointly produce a distinct and distinctive expression. The selection of hues, their relative situation, their locations and orientations within the composition, their configurations or simultaneous patterns, their extensions and their contrast relationships, are decisive factors of expression.

The subject of colour composition is so many-faceted that only few basic ideas have been discussed as a part of this report. Some of the resources for harmonious composition were already discussed in Colour schemes or Harmonies. In interpreting the expressive properties of colours, we have tried to state concrete conditions and requirements for the genesis of one characteristic expression or another. The purpose to be served by means of colours must govern their selection.

It is an essential point that the effect of a colour is determined by its situation relative to accompanying colours. A colour is always to be seen in relation to its surroundings. The farther a hue is removed from a given hue in the colour circle, the greater its power of contrast. However, the value and importance of a colour in the picture are not determined by the accompanying colours alone. Quality and quantity of extension are contributing factors. Thus the placement and direction of colours is important in pictorial composition. Blue behaves differently at the top, bottom, left, or right of the field Low blue is heavy, high blue is light. Dark red at the top acts as a heavy, impending weight; at the bottom, as a stable matter of fact Yellow gives an effect of weightlessness at the top, and of captive

buoyancy at the bottom. To bring about a balance of colour distribution is one of the most important aims of composition.[1] The danger inherent in color is that unless you are careful in composing, bright patches of colour may divert the eye to minor parts of a scene.

The key concept for composing with colour is what is called the “most, some and a bit” rule, which states that in a dynamically balanced color scheme most of the colors should be of the same temperature, value and intensity. In other words, most of the colors should be warm or cool, light or dark, and either bright or dull. Some of the colors, in contrast, should be the opposite of the first group. Finally, there should be a small bit of color that contrasts with all the others in as many characteristics as possible. Most of the color in the composition (the oranges and yellows) is warm in temperature, light in value, and pure in saturation or intensity. Some of the colors (the greens and blues) are cool, dark and less intense, which make a nice contrast to the dominant warm colors. There’s a bit of dark, warm purples to set off the others. If the colors were all warm or all cool, all dark or light, or all bright or dull, or in equal amounts of each, the scene would be boring.[2]

There are few basic colour harmonies or schemes which have been used as standards in the fields which relate to colours and their effects. The next topic gives a brief about them.

1. Itten, Johannes. The Elements of Color: A Treatise on the Color System of Johannes Itten. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1970.

2. http://www.artistsnetwork.com/medium/watercolor/great-color-composition

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COLOUR SCHEMES OR HARMONIES[1]

No Colour stands alone. In fact, the effect of a colour is determined by many factors: the light reflected from it, the colours that surround it, or the perspective of the person looking at the colour.There are 10 basic colour schemes. They are called achromatic, analogous, clash, complement, monochromatic, neutral, split

complement, as well as, primary, secondary, and tertiary schemes. But there are endless colour schemes possible when mixing different shades, tones, tints of the same hue. Creative colour schemes are useful for practical and emotional variations, providing a wide range of colour uses in areas like art, paintings, architecture, landscape architecture, etc.

1. Sutton, Tina and Whelan, Bride M. The Complete Color Harmony: Expert Color Information for Professional Color Results. Gloucester, Massachu-setts: Rockport Publishers, 2004.

ACHROMATIC – An achromatic color scheme is one that is colorless – using blacks, whites and grays

ANALOGOUS – An analogous color scheme is any three adjacent primary, secondary, or tertiary colors on the color wheel. These schemes can be warm or cool. Each can be neutralized by use of its complement, and black and white can be used. Analogous colors “harmonize” well and produce a definite mood to a compo-sition. This can create a very harmonious color scheme.

CLASH – A clash colour scheme is the one in which combines a colour with the hueto the right or left of its complement on the colour wheel.

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MONOCHROMATIC – A monochromatic color scheme is a one-color color scheme. However, the color can be neutralized by adding its complement to lower the inten-sity of the color. Black and white can also be used to darken and lighten the value of the color. It is achieved by using one color or hue, utilizing that colors’ various tints, tones and shades. Using a monochromat-ic scheme with multiple textures creates character and maintains unity.

COMPLEMENTARY– A complementary color scheme is one that uses colors di-rectly across from each other on the color wheel. This can be accomplished by using two colors or hues that are opposites such as red and green or violet and yellow. In this color scheme any two complements, all the semi-neutrals and the neutral they produce can be used. Black and white can also be used.

NEUTRAL – A neutral color scheme is the one which uses the hues which has been diminished or neutralised by the addition of its complement or black.

SPLIT COMPLEMENTARY – The split-complementary color scheme is a vari-ation of the complementary color scheme. In addition to the base color, it uses the two colors adjacent to its complement.This color scheme has the same strong visual contrast as the complementary color scheme, but has less tension.The split-complimentary color scheme is often a good choice for beginners, because it is difficult to mess up.

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PRIMARY SCHEME – An primary color scheme is one which has the combination of pure hues of the primary colours, name-ly, red, yellow and blue.

SECONDARY SCHEME – An secondary color scheme is one which has the com-bination of pure hues of the secondary colours, namely, green, orange and voilet.

COLOUR TRIAD – A triadic color scheme are colors that are an equal distant from each other on the color wheel. Any three colors equidistant around the color wheel form a triad and can be used in this col-or scheme (eg., red, yellow and blue). Semi-neutrals are mixed using two of the colors in the triad and the third can be add-ed to further neutralize the pair. Black and white can also be used. This can create a very balanced scheme.


03

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SPATIAL EFFECT OF COLOURS[1]

The spatial effect of a colour may be a resultant of several components. Forces acting in the direction of depth are present in the colour itself. They may manifest themselves in light-dark, cold-warm, saturation or extension. In addition, a spatial effect may be produced by diagonals and overlappings.

When six hues, yellow, orange, red, voilet, blue, and green, are juxtaposed, without intervals, on a black ground, the light yellow plainly appears to advance, while violet lurks in the depth of the black background. All the other hues are intermediate between yellow and violet. A white background will alter the depth effect. Violet seems to advance from the white ground which holds back the yellow with its kindred brilliance. This also exemplifies the importance of background colour with respect to the colours applied.

When orange is interposed in the depth interval from yellow to red, the depth intervals from yellow to orange and from orange to red are as minor to major. Similarly, the intervals from yellow to red-orange and from red-orange to blue are as minor to major. Yellow-to-red and red-to-violet are in the same proportion. Yellow to-green and green-to-blue are as major to minor. When yellow, red-orange and blue are placed on a black background, the following movements in depth occur: yellow advances sharply, red less so, and blue retreats almost as far as the black. When the same colours are on white, the depth effect is reversed, blue is driven forward by the white ground, red-orange also, and yellow stands out

only slightly from the white. The depth relations of yellow/red-orange and red-orange/blue are as major to minor. Any light tones on a black ground will advance according to their degree of brilliance.

On a white ground, the effect is reversed; light tones are held to the plane of the background, and shades approaching black are thrust forward in corresponding degree. Among cold and warm tones of equal brilliance, the warm will advance and the cold retreat. If light-dark contrast is also present, the forces in the direction of depth will be added or subtracted or will cancel out. When equally brilliant blue-green and red-orange are seen against black, the blue-green retreats and the red-orange advances. If the red-orange is lightened somewhat, it advances still further. If the blue-green is lightened, it advances to the same level as the red-orange; if lightened sufficiently, it advances further and the red-orange recedes. The depth effects of saturation contrast are as follows: a pure colour advances relative to a duller one of equal brilliance, but if light-dark or cold-warm contrast is also present, the depth relationship shifts accordingly.

Extension is another factor of depth effect. When a large red area bears a small yellow patch, the red acts as a background and the yellow advances. As the yellow is extended and encroaches on the red, a point is reached where the yellow becomes dominant; it expands into a background and thrusts the red forward.

1. Itten, Johannes. The Elements of Color: A Treatise on the Color System of Johannes Itten. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1970.

FIG. 8: The Visual Experiment with 6 hues as suggested by Itten shows how their behaviour changes with change in background fill.

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COLOUR PSYCHOLOGY AND ERGONOMICS

Using colours for any purpose, be it painting, designing, giving directions, etc, isn’t an easy task without understanding the ergiinomics of colour. As dicussed in the report, Colour schemes help us to form good and standard colour compositions, but, sometimes, when the projects are very specific or there is need of working out things in a different way, you have to think about the way we respond to colours. In the topic of colour composition, the concept of “most, some or a bit” gave a meaningful explanation of how can we prevent from getting confused when there are so many options for colouring “something”. But there has to be a genral understanding of colour balance before thinking about using coloursnin your design or maybe gardens.

Even if we consider, all the factors like, saturation, chroma, intensity, etc, being equal, there is an important character called “expansive” nature of a colour or the proportion of this colour to be used with other colours to maintain the balance. This happens due to 2 factors; a) there is a direct cognitive and psychological influence of colour to our visual sensors, and b) therefore, the amount of colour used is never equal. Now let’s take an understand with an example.

Yellow is the most expansive color. That means a little bit of yellow goes a long way. Compared to violet, yellow is three times more potent. So 1 square of yellow is visually equal to 3 squares of violet. In a practical application this means that painting a small room in yellow might make it feel bigger while painting a large room in violet can make it feel smaller and more intimate. However, at the same time painting a large room yellow, or worse a long hallway, may imbue a since of anxiety in people and cause you to go a bit stir crazy and get aggressive. That’s one of the reason’s most office building have taupe walls and gray/blue carpets. These colors are grounded and illicit very minimal reactions from people.[1]

This brings in the colour psychology, which is the way we have been trained to understand different colours. This also has a cultural and religious link as well. Talking about colour “Red”, the symbol of warning, agression, sometimes anger, and so many other expressions. It is to be noted that most of the times, red is used to denote the things which are dangerous, like the traffic signs and objects requiring attention. This can be related to the fact that red is naturally to heat or fire, which are also dangerous. Also, most of the poisonous berries are red in colour, and even many flowers. Red is also the colour of our blood which we see only when there is a cut, or we are wounded.

The science behind why the color red is used for danger signals is that red light is scattered the least by air molecules. The effect of scattering is inversely related to the fourth power of the wavelength of a color. Therefore blue which has the least wavelength of all the visible radiations is scattered the most and red which has the highest wavelength of all the colors we can see is scattered the least. So red light is able to travel the longest distance through fog, rain, and the alike.[2]

Green and blue often are safe colors. A green light means go and blue is used for information and calming affects in warning signs. This most likely has some connection to water and vegetable food stuff. Both of which early humans found good so it became part of our collective understanding.

But at the same time these colors have a relative expansiveness. Practically, that means one color will catch your eye more than another. And the amount of immediate attention needed by the thing of that color has a psychological element to it as well.

1. http://ergonomics.about.com/od/ergonomicbasics/a/The_Use_Of_Color_In_Ergonomics.htm

2. http://www.enotes.com/homework-help/why-red-colour-used-danger-signals-there-any-191865

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COLOUR PHENOMENA

TEMPERATUREIn a research presented by Kuller and Mikellides in 2009, it was stated, through a series of experimental investigations, that the general relationship between the colours and climatic well being cannot be confirmed.[1] After Mikellides matched the temperature estimates, both in a red painted and blue painted room, there was no significant difference to relate it with change in room temperature. Generally shades between red and yellow on a colour wheel are associated with heat and those between green and blue, with cold. It is often concluded that the colour of a space influences our perception of warmth.

Although warm and cold colours may influence our reception to interiors but do not affect our physical well being. The mental well being, however, is very much associated with colour of a space. Thus warm colours feel pleasant in the cold spaces or climates and vice versa for cool colours.

ORIENTATIONColour can be enhanced by support or by superimposing the form orientation and order. This phenomenon can be used in the event of a specific tracking (orientation) by different spatial qualities and dimensions. Orientation and Safety are an important concern. If necessary, the aesthetic function of the colour for the benefit of the indicative be neglected. In the

form of variety can a new spatial planning by the colour combination of the forms. Form overlay, a separation (camouflage) designed will lead to irritation.

WEIGHTColor influences the weight impression of an object. According to investigations by Warren and Flynn (1929), appreciate subjects the weight of a cube of different colors, of 1.6 kg with yellow up to 2.6 kg in black. The color choice for furniture can therefore to reach a specific room effect is crucial. In this context it is also the importance of the color for the “equilibrium” to call. Light, pastel tones look for example for supporting constructions, beams or load-bearing walls less stable than dark saturated to severe shades.

FEELSynaesthetics[2] colour phenomena consist of added anecdotes of our colour memory. It can also overlays or parallelism inductions of sense of touch and experience with colour.A bright light grey area suggests a hard, cool, almost metallic handle, whereby a beige mat surface to a sandy, softer and warm surface reminds us. This phenomenon is both for table surfaces as well as for wall and floor coverings.

1. Kuller, R., Mikellides, B., Janssens, Jan. Color, arousal, and performance: A comparison of three experiments. Color Research and Applications: Vol 34. p 141-152, April 2009.

2. Synaesthetics means, relating to or experiencing synesthesia; involving more than one sense.

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LANDSCAPE AND COLOUR

Refering to the meaning of the word “Landscape”, which means “all the visible features of an area of land, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal.” This actually suggests such a wide scope to analyse that almost every object in the environment we see is included. But, if we just look into the natural elements, there is still a lot to comprehend. Currently, its the end of monsoon, and the autumn awaits its turn. The rich dark greens and warm coloured canopies and groundcovers will be replaced by the dull green and brownish landscapes of tomorrow. The sky which is mostly light blue with shades of warm and cool greys in monsoon days and reddish brown in the nights, which turns to clear sky tones in the autumn days.

The seasonal cycle through which our landscapes pass regularly, or sometimes accidently, portrays the tranformation of different elements of nature and thus our moods. The “colour” is such an important part of this cycle, the fact, which is far from our realisation. And it is actually our personal interaction and experiences with the landscape, that fosters the understanding of these pastels around us. The palette of landscape in seamless. The combinations we see and images we memorize every single day, are very distinct and they alter with the changes in time and our location. There are maximum chances of discovering new patterns and compositions as we explore more into this canvas.

In natural landscape, colour simply exists, without artifice - blue sky, brown earth, green leaves, white clouds. In our interaction with the

natural elements, we can manipulate and control these colours, sometimes to their detriment as we hybridise and engineer, distort and pollute the purity of what is. but we can also come up with happy accidents, beneficial interactions with nature that enhance and amaze almost as effectively as nature itself.[1]

If we talk about agriculture, as one of the interaction with landscape. The yellow mustard fields in the spring season form a vibrant foreground for the dark blue sky. There is no other colour which can replace this powerful character of yellow. The way yellow colour comes out of the picture when seen against the darker backgrounds, dilutes the other colours from the scene. Similarly, the red amaranthus fields, generally known as “rajagira” in Gujarat and Maharashtra, has such brilliant scarlet hue, which distracts every person travelling through the fields at that time. Other examples, include the lush green paddy fields, changing colours to wheatish yellow during the harvesting time or sugarcane which, along with its bold texture, dominates the landscape with the tones of green in its young stage and maturing to yellowish white when ripe.

The phenological changes in the plants, together with the natural elements like water, sky, earth, stones, etc, have limitless combinations in which we can make our design palette. All what is required is the understanding the way it influences the psychology of our emotions.

1. Wilson, Andrew. Contemporary Color in the Landscape: Top designers, inspiring ideas, new combinations. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, 2011.

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COLOURS AND MOOD IN THE LANDSCAPE[1]

By: Renee’ Brown

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Excitement, RomanticCoordinating colors:

grey timber wolf

red

RED

The color of this wall makes a bold statement creating excitement and intrigue. At the same time, the privacy and seclusion it affords are perfect for a secluded, romantic space.

Energetic, EnthusiasticCoordinating colors:

ORANGE

The entry way to this residence is bright and inviting. It’s welcoming feel gives visitors a sudden sense of energy and excitement for what lies ahead.

racing orange

azores

Happy, OptimisticCoordinating colors:

YELLOW

A bright and positive entry such as this can’t help but brighten your day. The long, narrow corridor to the courtyard gets visitors excited and optimistic that they won’t be let down once they get to the end.

amarillo

ravishing red

Innocent, SoothingCoordinating colors:

PINK

These pink cushions bring a playful, feel-good vibe under a somewhat overwhelming patio

cover. The bright fabric and black furniture draw the eye into the soothing seating area.

pink ladies

black iron

Practical, ReliableCoordinating colors:

GRAY

The practicality of simple gray tones need not stay muted. When accented by a warm color

such as the carmel walls of this house, gray offers the reliable basis for nearly any design

scheme.

smoke

burnt carmel

Authority, SophisticatedCoordinating colors:

BLACK

The black iron speaks volumes about what this patio is all about. It conjures up a powerful

impression in a sophisticated yet fun entertaining area.

black iron

satchel

Elegant, StabilityCoordinating colors:

BROWN

The solid, earthy appeal of brown in a landscape helps bring connection to the garden. The size

and warmth in the varying tones of brown, gold, and blue in this fountain add a simple elegance

to the soothing sound of water.

saddle brown

myan gold

Calming, SereneCoordinating colors:

BLUE

The calm, at-peace feeling of a stroll through this garden is achieved by planting design. The blue agave and grasses create a serene environment suitable for reflection and relaxation.

franklin lakes

antique rose

Refreshing, RelaxingCoordinating colors:

GREEN

Natural and rejuvenating, the color green freshens a space. It adds just the right amount of color for this relaxing, mid-century retreat.

woodland green

adagio

veranda view

Dramatic, MotivatingCoordinating colors:

PURPLE

The dramatic impact of an entry filled with purple salvia adds a lot of curb appeal.

Contrasting with the bright green tones of the landscape, the effect is inspiring.

mystical grape

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Using COLOR to Set the Mood in the Landscape

PINK: www.modelandscape.com; RED: www.ojb.com; ORANGE: www.zfreedmandesign.com; YELLOW: www.landscapingnetwork.com; GREEN: www.landscapingnetwork.com; BLUE: www.artlunagarden.com; PURPLE: www.tslg.org; BROWN: www.azulverde.com; BLACK: www.nadra.org/Georgia/PDP.html; GRAY: www.bernardtrainor.com BY: Renee’ Brown @ LandscapingNetwork.com

1. The document, Using Color to Set Mood in Landscape by Renee Brown, taken from www.landscapingnetwork.com website.

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COLOURS IN LANDSCAPE STYLES[1]

SPANISH LANDSCAPE DESIGN

FRENCH LANDSCAPE DESIGN

TUSCAN LANDSCAPE DESIGN

Before getting into the details of relationship between natural landscape and colour, lets see see the various styles used in the contemporary landscape and the colour palette for them. This will give us an idea of the shades generally used

in landscape design worldwide. This will also allow us to compare the colours of contemporary style with the colours of nature.

1. This topic was taken from the design guide of www.landscapingnetwork.com and the colour palettes and images are the part of the same document.

The only thing missing on the sunset-colored pavers of a Spanish-styled abode is the clip-clop of a famous black horse and its enduringly handsome masked rider. Hail to the cavaliers that harbor amongst the bougainvillea and tiered fountains of the hacienda

It is said—”If you are lucky enough to have lived in Paris as a young man, then wherever you go for the rest of your life, it stays with you, for Paris is a moveable feast.” Much like the gardens of Versailles, French-inspired gardens are a feast for the eyes with topiaries, lavender, and cypress as the table settings.

Nothing could be sweeter than a wall fountain that trickled wine, splashing droplets of fermented grapes into glass goblets. Imagine yourself under the Tuscan sun, among the vines and columns of another era, enjoying the sweet rewards of your villa.

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COLONIAL LANDSCAPE DESIGN

SOUTHWEST MEDITERRANEAN DESIGN

SALTBOX LANDSCAPE DESIGN

TOWNHOUSE LANDSCAPE DESIGN


From the balcony of the Colonial estate, don’t be surprised if you hear the call of Paul Revere in the night. It’s also not uncommon for white-haired, pony-tailed men to arrive at your door by horse and buggy. The stately columns and stone walls may revolutionize your way of thinking.

There are certain historical feuds we’ll never forget, such as the Hatfields and McCoys, or Al Capone and Bugs Moran. The Southwest style is no different. With beehive fireplaces, animal skin rugs, branding irons and spurs, it’s hard to tell if you like the cowboys or the Indians.

Steep Gables, double hung windows of the dwelling foreseeing the landscapes of pergolas, planters and patios. It is mesmerizing and brings the memories of a landscape with greys and whites.

The “house in town” was the home of aristocrats during the social season of the year when they relocated from their country houses. The often wealthy Londoners enjoyed the terraced vistas of the townhouse.

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CRAFTSMAN LANDSCAPE DESIGN

ENGLISH LANDSCAPE DESIGN

SOUTH PACIFIC LANDSCAPE DESIGN

CHINESE LANDSCAPE DESIGN

The Woodworkers Association concurs, it takes a craftsman to build a craftsman. While you’re hand-hammering your copper sink, remember to stop and smell the Magnolia tree and reflect on a time when the hand-made was preferred over the mass- produced.

Heavy chimneys, half-timbering and dark wood paneling make every English style home seem like its gardens are automatically labeled “secret”. There’s always something intriguing, albeit epic to discover, such as wardrobes that open to wintry fantasy worlds.

It’s 1958...love blooms between a young nurse and a secretive Frenchman. The island is iconic. The combination of bamboo, teak, thatch, tiki and wicker are an instant revival. While you’r e enjoying your umbrella drink, try not to break out into song.

Harmonious. Inner peace. Silence. Understanding. Relationship. Environment. Spirit. Breathe. Think. If the Chinese style is known to conjure up good health and good vibes...why doesn’t everyone do this?


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BALINESE LANDSCAPE DESIGN[2]

JAPANESE LANDSCAPE DESIGN

INDIAN LANDSCAPE DESIGN

COASTAL LANDSCAPE DESIGN[3]

A line of volcanoes dominate the landscape of Bali and have provided it with fertile soil which, combined with a wet tropical climate, make it an ideal place for crop cultivation. Water from the rivers allowing the cultivation of rice on both flat land and mountain terraces.

They are traditional gardens that create miniature idealized landscapes, often in a highly abstract and stylized way.[1] The gardens of the Emperors and nobles were designed for recreation and aesthetic pleasure, while the gardens of Buddhist temples were designed for contemplation and meditation.

Beatiful vistas, geometrical designs, waterbodies and cascades, char bagh, paradise gardens, etc defines the Indian landscape. There is an optimum blend of nature with brilliant examples of architecture.

If you live by the beach, you’re one of the few and the proud to display teak and rattan. If you just like the look of sea shells and coral in your Nebraska home, then well, that’s just awkward. Keep the marine artifacts and the hairdos that do well in the marine layer by the marina.

1. Gunter Nitschke, Le jardin japonais, pg. 9-10.2. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/11943. This topic was taken from the design guide of www.landscapingnetwork.com and the colour

palettes and images are the part of the same document.

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VICTORIAN LANDSCAPE DESIGN

FARMHOUSE LANDSCAPE DESIGN

RANCH LANDSCAPE DESIGN

RUSTIC LANDSCAPE DESIGN

Elaborate ornamentation with a touch of whimsy describes the detailed bay windows, turrets, dormers, lattice, gazebos, and fancy wicker of the Victorian house. All are sure signs of a bygone era when horses and petticoats were more common than cars and telephones.

Warm and lovely days, lemonade, and picket fences are reminiscent of the country farmhouse. In the evenings, while you sip spirits on the lightly lit porch, you might hear the soft neigh of a horse.

Nearly every sprawling, ranch-style home is one story. So who said those cowboys weren’t thinkin’ when they designed their homes on one level. It’s hard to walk up stairs after a long day fixin’ fences. Plus, why waste time when there’s a perfectly good wagon wheel bench to sit on and a rusting tractor to look at.

If you have a rustic-style house, forego the fake deer in the front yard. You probably live in the boonies anyways where deer and sasquatch sightings are a regular occurrence.

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MODERN LANDSCAPE DESIGN

ART DECO LANDSCAPE DESIGN

MID-CENTURY LANDSCAPE DESIGN

They’re the makeup for a modern design. Okay, maybe it would be better described as geometrical, smooth, and streamlined, characterized by expansive, unadorned windows that marry the interior with the exterior.

Bollywood isn’t the only place associated with elegance and glamour. Art deco homes are a lot like celebs...influenced by a lot of people and photographed often. Luckily when an art deco home needs to be remodeled, it might get a makeover but it doesn’t have to go to rehab.

A mid-century modern home is George Jetson with a dash of Frank Lloyd Wright—a little bit retro mixed with space-age funky. Nonetheless this mid-20th century marvel is recognized by scholars and museums as a significant design movement.

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ELEMENTS OF LANDSCAPE

There are two main meanings for the word landscape: it can refer to the visible features of an area of land, or to an example of the genre of painting that depicts such an area of land.[1] Landscape, in both senses, includes the physical elements of landforms such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions.

Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people’s lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park, or wilderness.

Landscape is never percieved a single entity or object but, as a composition of various elements, the natural elements, and sometimes, the man made ones. While going across any landscape, one cannot comprehend it without understanding these elements and their role play. The properties which affect our visual perception are texture form, size and colours. But in this seminar, we might narrow it down to just colour. As discussed

in earlier topics, colour is a very important property inherited by almost every element and most of the times, it is the first thing, our eyes percieve. And the dynamics of landscape are best understood when we relate it with colours. For example, a landscape in different climate zones will be very have more vivd colours to see than the ones in the hotter climates. The colour of sky, which is the most dynamic feature, changing from morning to day, every single day, with changng seasons.

Even the colour of soil changes, from site to site, in different climatic zones or the type of vegetation which is supported by that soil. Similar is the case with other elements like mulch, stones, vegetation, water, artifacts, metal, plastics, etc.

As per the scope of the seminar, only the natural elements of landscape, have been covered, which are;

• Sky,• Soils,• Stones,• Flora, • and Water.

1. New Oxford American Dictionary

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COLOUR AND SKY

Sky is a very important element when it comes to reading the landscapes in terms of colour. Though most of the time, we visualise our landscape under a clear sky with tints of blue and few whites covering up the patches. But when it comes to sunrise or sunset, the prominent shades of red and oranges actuate a phenomenon where sky plays a formidable role, defying the effects of any other colour present in the environment.

How is this colour there? and why do they change?Actually, sky has no colour, it is transparent. What we see from the ground up during a sunny day is caused by what is called light scattering. The atmosphere is the mixture of gas molecules and other materials surrounding the earth. It is made mostly of the gases nitrogen (78%), and oxygen (21%). Argon gas and water (in the form of vapor, droplets and ice crystals) are the next most common things. There are also small amounts of other gases, plus many small solid particles, like dust, soot and ashes, pollen, and salt from the oceans.

The composition of the atmosphere varies, depending on your location, the weather, and many other things. There may be more water in the air after a rainstorm, or near the ocean. Volcanoes can put large amounts of dust particles high into the atmosphere. Pollution can add different gases or dust and soot. The blue color of the sky is due to Rayleigh scattering. As light moves through the atmosphere, most of the longer wavelengths pass straight through. Little of the red, orange and yellow light is affected by the air. (like what we see at sun set and sun rise).However, much of the shorter wavelength light is absorbed by the gas molecules. The absorbed blue light is then radiated in different directions. It gets scattered all around the sky. Whichever direction you look, some of this scattered blue light reaches you. Since you see the blue light from everywhere overhead, the sky looks blue. But its not blue.

FIG. 9: The composition of sky colours from Dawn to Midnight

FIG. 10: The pattern formed by putting 251 days of New York Sky.

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COLOUR AND SOILS

Soil color does not affect the behavior and use of soil; however, it can indicate the composition of the soil and give clues to the conditions that the soil is subjected to. Soil can exhibit a wide range of colour; gray, black, white, reds, browns, yellows and under the right conditions green.[1] Varying horizontal bands of colour in the soil often identify a specific soil horizon. The development and distribution of color in soil results from chemical and biological weathering, especially redox reactions. As the primary minerals in soil parent material weather, the elements combine into new and colorful compounds. Aerobic conditions produce uniform or gradual color changes, while reducing environments result in disrupted color flow with complex, mottled patterns and points of color concentration.

Soil color is influenced by the amount of proteins present in the soil. Yellow or red soil indicates the presence of iron oxides.[1] Dark brown or black color in soil indicates that the soil has a high organic matter content. Wet soil will appear darker than dry soil. [1] However, the presence of water also affects soil color by affecting the oxidation rate. Soil that has a high water content will have less air in the soil, specifically less oxygen. In well drained (and therefore oxygen rich soils) red and brown colours caused by oxidation are more common, as opposed to in wet (low oxygen) soils where the soil usually appears grey.[1]

The presence of specific minerals can also affect soil color. Manganese oxide causes a black color, glauconite makes the soil green, and calcite can make soil in arid regions appear white.[1]Often described by using general terms, such as dark brown, yellowish brown, etc., soil colors are also described more technically by using Munsell soil color charts, which separate color

into components of hue (relation to red, yellow and blue), value (lightness or darkness) and chroma (paleness or strength).

In India, various types of soils are found and their formations are influenced by certain factors such as altitude, climate disproportionate rainfall and many others. The type of soil differs in different areas of the country. The major types of soils found in India are:

• Red soils • Laterites and lateritic soil • Black soil • Alluvial soils • Forest & hill soils • Desert Soils• Saline and Alkaline soils• Peaty and marshy soils

But, as per the soil orders followed across the world, defined by American Soil Taxonomy, the soils found in India can be defined as:

• Alfisols• Aridsols• Entisols• Histosols• Inceptisols• Mollisols• Utisols• Vertisols

These soils can also be differentiated by the different colours of top soil and horizons in the soil profiles respectively. Most of the natural landscape like the agricultural fields, especially the fallow, are good examples when considering soil in visualising landscapes.

1. Brady, Nyle C. & Ray R. Weil Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils, page 95. Prentice Hall, 2006.

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FIG. 11: The Munsell Soil Color Charts are very useful in reading the soils in terms of colours.

ALLUVIAL SOILS (FIG 12)

BLACK SOILS (FIG 13)

These soils occur along rivers and represent the soil materials that have been deposited by the rivers duing flood. Usually they are very productive soils but many are deficient in nitrogen, humus and phosphorus.[1]

They are popularly known as “Black cotton soils” because of their dark brown colour and suitability for growing cotton. These are also known as Indian regurs and are rich in calcium, potash and magnesium.[1]

1. The soil data and composition has been taken from http://oer.nios.ac.in/wiki/index.php/Types_of_Soils

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SALINE & ALKALINE SOILS (FIG 17)

RED SOILS (FIG 16)

LATERITE SOILS (FIG 15)

DESERT SOILS (FIG 14)

These soils occur in areas having a little more rainfall than the areas of desert soils. They show white incrustation of salts of calcium & Magnesium and sodium on the surface. These are poor in drainage and are infertile.[1]

Generally these soils are light textured with porous and friable structure and there is absence of lime Kankar and free carbonates. They have neutral to acidic reaction and are deficient in nitrogen humus, phosphoric acid and lime.[1]

These soils are red to reddish yellow in colour and low in N, P, K, lime and magnesia. These soils are formed in-situ under conditions of high rainfall with alternation dry and wet periods.[1]

These are mostly sandy soils that occur in the low rainfall track. They are well supplied with soluble salts but are low in nitrogen and organic matter and have a high pH value. These are quite productive. These are often subjected to wind erosion.[1]

1. The soil data and composition has been taken from http://oer.nios.ac.in/wiki/index.php/Types_of_Soils

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COLOUR AND STONES

Stonehenge: a pre- historic circle of megaliths; Egyptian pyramids and temples, rising stark and colossal from the desert; the Athenian acropolis towering above the Agora; Japanese and Chinese gardens; grottos; squares and plazas. All of these landscapes are man-made, some melded with nature, others quarried, carved, and constructed in their entirety. Their chief defining characteristic is durability, for rock outlives flesh to the point that landscapes and structures made of stone are sometimes all that is left as material evidence of past cultures.[1]

It is a realm of plants, stone, water, and sky, often enhanced by flowers, herbs, and birds. But, along with the grading of the earth, it is stone that establishes the structure, the armature for the rest. Stone provides the frame, the bones of the landscapes.[2] But the purpose to talk about stone here is not about its texture or size or style in which its used in the landscape designs. But the way, in which different colours of stones form a background or canvas for the play of dynamics which we see in the designs. This is because this element, unlike sky or soil, doesnt change its colour and is least effected by natural forces too. You might see a rich scarlet sky and wet and dark alluvial soil, but the red sandstone still remains reddish pink. And it is this stability and appeal that backs stone as the most promising element in this set.

There are hundreds of stone types available in the country like India, known for its diverse

physical features. The major types, in which, we can group them, are marbles, granite, sandstone, slate and limestones. And then there are different types of marbles like Makrana, Bidasar, Morwad, Rajnagar, etc. This is the fact for all the other types too.

But the area which is to be explored is the use of these stones, depending on their colour, in different typologies of spaces. There is the tone which is followed when using stones, because most of the times, the use of a very beautiful stone type, overpowers the other elements of design. The famous landscape architects actually explored in this direction and were awarded with immortal results. To exemplify, we can take any french garden by Andre Le Notre, where so much stone work is done but still our sense of perception is only directed towards blues and greens in the French gardens.

1. Rogers, Elizabeth B. SiteLines: A Journal of Place, Foundation of Landscape Studies: Vol IX, Number 1, Fall 2013, p2.

2. Olin, Laurie. SiteLines: A Journal of Place. From Suzhou to Malibu: The Power of Stone, Foundation of Landscape Studies: Vol IX, Number 1, Fall 2013, p3.

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1. From Top left - 1. Makrana Marble, 2. Andhi Marble 3. Katni Marble, 4. Bidasar 5. Abu Black 6. Morwad 7. Jaisalmer Stone 8. Kudappah Stone 9. Lalitpur Yellow 10. Red Sandstone 11. Cheema Pink Granite 12. Kanakpura Red Granite

FIG. 18: Composition of different stones with distinct colours

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COLOUR AND WATER

Water is not just a vital element in our lives, it can also be experienced in a whole variety of ways. It creates different kinds of atmosphere and moods that appeal to our feelings. Water is a universal landscape element. It is the vital element which can bring life to any landscape; immediate life, constant life. Water’s wonderful contribution to this world has been to shape the hard landscape through its immense forces of erosion and to create the soft landscape through its gentle nurture of vegetation. In itself it is the fundamental soft element. It is a sculptural medium unsurpassed in its potential to make the most of its form, transparency, reflectivity, refractivity, colour, movement and sound. It is a most desirable medium for a landscape designer.[1]

Water in nature is rarely a ‘colourless liquid’ as the dictionary says. Often water is tinged with vegetative stains or coloured with suspended clay. This clay being opaque particles, affects turbidity so much that a shadow cast on the surface can be as sharp as if it was cast on mud. Most colour we see in water is either from surroundings reflected on the surface or underwater objects seen through its transparent body. The degree to which we see reflected colours depends on the angle of viewing due to the refraction angles between air and water (hence a fisherman’s efforts to keep low and so remain unseen by his quarry) and light differential. A sunlit red and white building is

easily reflected on the surface of a pool which has a dark bottom.

‘The deep blue’ The deeper the water the deeper its colour. A view of a coral atoll from the air is remarkable for the wonderful variation of tones in blues and greens in the surrounding seas. Light is absorbed as it passes through the transparent medium. Any colour from the light source, which is often the clear blue sky, gets deeper and deeper as the light intensity reduces with depth. The joy of effectively working with water, by knowing and understanding the medium, is the reward for study and diligence[1]

Generally, pure water and ice have a pale blue color, which is most noticeable at tropical white-sand beaches or in ice caves in glaciers. (Green colors are usually derived from algae.) The blueness of the water is neither due to light scattering (which gives the sky its blue color) nor dissolved impurities (such as copper).

1. Dreiseitl, Herbert. New Waterscapes: Planning, Building and Designing with Water. Boston, Massachusetts: Birkhauser Verlag AG, 2005.

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THE AQUAMARINE LAKEFIG 19

FIG 20

FIG 21

FIG 22

THE GLACIER FED RIVER

A RECREATION ELEMENT

A HERITAGE WATERBODY

1. From Top - 1. A Lake in South Island, New Zealand, 2. Indus River through the Himalayan Foothills 3. Green Water Park, 4. Dal Lake, Kashmir

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THE DEEP BLUE OCEAN

THE NEGLECTED PONDS

THE INDUSTRIAL REDS

A BIODIVERSITY HUB

FIG 23

FIG 24

FIG 25

FIG 26

1. From Top - 1. South Pacific Sea 2. A Tannery, Bangladesh 3. Colours of Water, Bangladesh 4. Nal Sarovar Lake, Gujarat.

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IMAGE REFERENCES

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munsell_color_system#/media/File:Munsell-system.svg 2. http://www.gutenberg-e.org/cgi-bin/dkv/gutenberg/slideshow_low.cgi?pn=293. http://nextgenlite.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/VisibleLightSpectrumGradientForWeb.

jpg4. https://cs.nyu.edu/courses/fall02/V22.0380-001/color_theory.htm5. http://dab1nmslvvntp.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/color-rgb-cmyk.png6. http://www.gdbasics.com/html/color/color.html#7. http://www.uwgb.edu/heuerc/2d/colorterms.html8. The Colour band is created taking the idea from J. Itten’s Elements of Colour.9. The composition has been made by the author by taking first 6 pictures from http://todayilearned.

co.uk/2013/02/04/six-colours-of-the-sky and the last one from http://imgs.abduzeedo.com/files/articles/breathtaking-sky-color-palette-photography/Pacific-Heights-San-Francisco-CA-Sunrise-6-35am-Plate-1

10. Image courtesy, http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3116/2887525704_23d6982fc5_b.jpg11. Image picked up from http://soils.ifas.ufl.edu/wgharris/SEED/75yr_pg.jpg12. http://im.hunt.in/cg/barddhaman/City-Guide/soilinbardhaman.jpg13. http://static.panoramio.com/photos/large/41589516.jpg14. http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/178-6.jpg15. http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-kqcd6wfVnFE/TxxUsKVTPvI/AAAAAAAAByk/ZIoP1uLxj6E/

s1600/4762529824689f0fc35d73.jpg16. https://traveloops.files.wordpress.com/2013/02/red-soil.jpg17. https://www.turf2max.com/soil-restoration_files/alkaline_soil_deposit.jpg

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