Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
1
ANINWEZE, CHIDINMA ANITA
PG/M.ED/08/48952
EFFECTS OF TWO INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY APPROACHES ON SENIOR
SECONDARY SCHOOLS STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT AND RETENTION IN
BIOLOGY
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
Ameh Joseph Jnr
Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name
DN : CN = Webmaster’s name
O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka
OU = Innovation Centre
2
EFFECTS OF TWO INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY APPROACHES
ON SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT
AND RETENTION IN BIOLOGY
BY
ANINWEZE, CHIDINMA ANITA
PG/M.ED/08/48952
M.Ed THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,
NSUKKA
JUNE, 2014
3
4
CERTIFICATION
Aninweze, Chidinma B, a postgraduate student in the Department of Science Education
with Registration Number PG/M.ED/08/48952 has satisfactorily completed the requirements for the
degree of Master of Education in Biology Education.
The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or full for
any other Degree in this or any other university.
________________________ __________________
Aninweze, Chidinma Blessing Prof. U.M.Nzewi
(Student) (Supervisor)
5
DEDICATION
This research is dedicated to the Almighty God, Ever faithful: Source and custodian of all
knowledge.
6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I sincerely appreciate the contributions made by various people at different stages of this
research work and the entire programme. In a special way, I am ever grateful to my supervisor Prof.
U.M. Nzewi, who took time to guide her, right from when the research topic was approved to the
final documentation of the report of this study. It was not an easy task, but she in her motherly care,
listening ears and corrections helped us arrive at what we have in this documentation piece. I pray
that God will lift her to higher grounds.
My heartfelt gratitude goes to Prof. A.A. Nwosu, Dr. L.N. Nworgu, Dr. B.C. Madu and Dr.
T. Ofoegbu for their constructive criticisms at the various stages of the research work. Special
thanks to Emma Nwangwu who assisted me greatly in the production of the instructional materials
(VTI and PPP CD ROM) and was always patient at all times. My thanks also goes to Dr. Okoye
Amaka, Miss Okoyefi Queendaline and all my colleagues for their contributions towards the
completion of this work. The teachers and students that participated in the study are also
appreciated.
I am most grateful to my father, Surv. Silas U. Eze and my late mother, Mrs. Alice C. Eze
for giving me the opportunity to start this academic journey and for their moral and financial
support. God bless you in Jesus name, Amen.
I remain eternally grateful to my beloved husband, Barr. Peter O. Ugwu for all his
encouragement and financial support. Dear, you are one in a million. God will lift you up to
enviable heights.
Finally, and above all, the researcher acknowledges God, who inspired her and gave her the
wisdom, grace and strength to move on. To Him be praise forever.
7
ABSTRACT
The study examined the effects of two instructional delivery approaches on senior secondary
schools students’ achievement and retention in biology. The two instructional delivery approaches
used were Videotaped instructions (VTI) and Power point presentations (PPP). VTI is a form of
multimedia that conveys information through two simultaneous sensory channels: aural and visual
while PPP is a presentation package that allows you to produce on screen computer presentations,
overhead projection transparencies, posters and web-pages. Biology students taught with VTI were
compared with their counterpart taught with PPP, to ascertain whether significant differences exist
in their mean achievement and retention scores. The study also investigated the influence of gender
on students’ mean achievement and retention scores in Biology when taught with VTI and PPP.
The design of the study is the pretest-posttest non-equivalent group design. Seventy – Nine (79)
Biology students in Senior Secondary Two (SSII) were drawn from two intact classes. The two
treatment groups (VTI and PPP) were randomly assigned to the intact classes. Biology
Achievement Test (BAT) and Biology Retention Test (BRT) were administered as Pre-test, Post-
test and delayed Post-test respectively. Six research questions and six hypotheses were also
formulated to guide the study. The research questions were answered using mean and standard
deviation while the hypotheses were tested using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). The result of
the analysis showed that VTI had a significant effect on students’ achievement and retention in
Biology. Gender was a significant factor in students achievement as the male students achieved
higher than the female students. Gender also has a significant effect on student retention as the male
students retained higher in total mean retention scores but females retained better when taught using
VTI. Following the findings and implications of this study, it was recommended that Biology
teachers should employ the use of VTI in teaching Biology to enhance students’ achievement and
retention. It was concluded that VTI was more effective in enhancing students’ achievement and
retention in Biology in Senior Secondary Schools. Suggestions for further studies were also made,
one of which is; a study to investigate the effect of VTI on students’ acquisition of science process
skills and interest in biology.
8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page - - - - - - - - i
Approval page - - - - - - - - ii
Certification - - - - - - - - - iii
Dedication - - - - - - - iv
Acknowledgment - - - - - - - - v
Abstract - - - - - - - - - vi
Table of contents - - - - - - - - vii
List of tables - - - - - - - - - x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION - - - - - 1
Background to the study - - - - - - - 1
Statement of the problem - - - - - - - 9
Purpose of the study - - - - - - - - 10
Significance of the study - - - - - - - 10
Scope of the study - - - - - - - - 11
Research questions - - - - - - - - 12
Hypotheses - - - - - - - - - 13
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW - - - - 14
Conceptual framework - - - - - -- - 15
• Concept of instructional materials - - - - - 15
• Instructional delivery approach - - - - - 17
• Power Point Presentation in teaching and learning - - 19
• Video-taped Instructions - - - - - - 21
• Students’ Achievement in Biology - - - - - 23
• Gender and students’ Achievement in science - - - 24
• Concept of Retention - - - - - - 26
Theoretical framework - - - - - - - 33
• Stimulus – Response (S-R) theory - - - - - 30
• Social – cognitive theory - - - - - - 31
9
Empirical studies - - - - - - - - 33
• Studies on the use of Power Point Presentation - - - 33
• Studies on the use of video-taped Instructions - - - 35
• Studies on gender and students’ achievement in science - - 38
• Studies on retention - - - - - - - 41
Summary of literature review - - - - - - 43
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS - - - - 46
Research design - - - - - - - - 46
Area of the study - - - - - - - - 47
Population of the study - - - - - - - 47
Sample and sampling technique - - - - - - 47
Instrument for data collection - - - - - - 48
Development of instructional materials - - - - - 48
Validation of instrument for data collection and instructional materials - 49
Reliability of instruments - - - - - - - 49
Experimental procedure - - - - - - - 50
Control of extraneous variables - - - - - - 50
Methods of Data collection - - - - - - - 52
Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - - 52
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS - - - - - - 53
Summary of results - - - - - - - - 61
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULT, CONCLUSION,
IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATION AND SUMMARY - - 62
Discussion of results - - - - - - - - 62
Conclusion - - - - - - - - - 66
Educational implications - - - - - - - 67
Recommendations - - - - - - - - 68
Limitation of the study - - - - - - - 69
Suggestions for further research - - - - - - 69
Summary of the study - - - - - - - 69
References - - - - - - - - - 71
10
Appendices - - - - - - - - - 79
A. Script for First Lesson - - - - - - 79
B. A section of Senior Secondary School Core Curriculum for Biology - 114
C. Biology Achievement Test - - - - - - 115
D. Biology Retention Test - - - - - - 119
E. Table of specification - - - - - - - 123
F. Week/Lesson schedule - - - - - - 124
G. Answers to Biology Achievement Test - - - - 125
H. Computation of KR20 Reliability Co-efficient - - - 126
I. Summary of validators’ comment - - - - - 128
J. List of Schools - - - - - - - 132
11
X
X
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) of students’ achievement in biology 53
Table 2: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) of students’ retention in biology 54
Table 3: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) of gender and students’ achievement
in biology 55
Table 4: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) of gender and students’
retention in biology 55
Table 5: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) on interaction effect of mode of
instruction (VTI and PPP) and gender on the mean achievement
scores of students in biology 56
Table 6: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) on interaction effect of mode of
instruction (VTI and PPP) and gender on the mean
retention scores of students in biology 57
Table 7: Analysis of covariance of students’ mean achievement scores in biology 58
Table 8: Analysis of covariance of students’ mean retention scores in biology 60
X
X
X
X
12
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Science has contributed immensely to the development of the modern world and has been
recognized as the bedrock on which modern day technological breakthrough is hanged. Nowadays,
countries all over the world, especially the developing ones like Nigeria, are striving hard to
develop technologically and scientifically. Since the world is turning scientific, proper functioning
of lives depend greatly on Science. Ogunleye (2002) stated that Science is a dynamic human
activity concerned with understanding the workings of our world. This understanding helps man to
know more about the universe. Without the application of science, it would have been difficult for
man to explore his environment. Science comprises the basic subjects such as Physics, Chemistry,
Mathematics, Agriculture and Biology.
Biology is one of the science subjects offered at the senior secondary school levels in Nigerian
Secondary Schools, (FRN, 2004). Biology is a very important science subject and a requirement for
higher learning in a number of science-related professional courses like medicine, agriculture,
pharmacy. According to Ofoegbu (2003), biology is a science subject done in secondary schools by
majority of the students and in most schools, it is optionally compulsory for all students in that, it is
one of the core subjects. It is therefore, a science subject that enables students to acquire the
knowledge to live effectively in the modern age of science and technology. In contemporary
Nigeria, greater emphasis is placed on science and technological development. As a result students
are being encouraged to take up science-related subjects and one subject that most students opt for
is Biology. Today, Biology pervades literally every field of human endeavour and it plays a
fundamental role in educational advancement.
13
Nigeria’s need for an effective scientific and technological development appears to be
overwhelming as she is going through hard times in her history especially with regard to her
economy. This hard condition has partly resulted to a poor living standard of the people.
Agommuoh and Nzewi (2003) acknowledged that science and technology have always been
recognized as critical factors in the process of development. Science and Technology can provide
the basis for Nigeria’s social, economic and political well-being. Therefore, many people in Nigeria
have come to realize that science and Technology can be applied to solve many problems facing the
nation, especially as a result of the technological breakthrough in the advanced countries. Eno
(2005) predicted that in a short time to come, only persons with appropriate and appreciable
knowledge and skills in science and technology disciplines would be required in the job market.
The implication of this is that economic survival, relevance and social mobility will depend
considerably on the level and appropriateness of the knowledge and skills an individual has
acquired through science education. Science education is needed to dispel ignorance, poor cultural
practices and beliefs in the society. Nigerians are still enslaved by diseases, poverty and ignorance
and these calls for effective science education that is relevant to the improvement of the society.
The major goal of science education is to develop scientifically literate individuals that are
concerned with high competence for rational thoughts and actions. The objectives of science
education in this country according to Maduekwe (2006) include the need to prepare students to:
• Observe and explore the environment,
• Explain simple natural phenomena,
• Develop scientific attitudes including curiosity,
• Critical reflection and objectivity,
14
• Apply the skills and knowledge gained through science to solve everyday problems in the
environment,
• Develop self-confidence and self-reliance through problem solving activities in science.
The importance of science education especially at the secondary school level cannot be over-
emphasized. Consequently, the Federal Government of Nigeria and all those concerned with
education have focused attention on how to improve science teaching and learning (FRN, 2004). To
this effect, some state governments have established special science schools at secondary school
level, the Science Teachers’ Association of Nigeria and other relevant agencies have mounted
several long vacation programmes, conferences, workshops, seminars, science fairs and quizzes in
order to improve science teaching and learning. Inspite of these actions, students’ achievement in
biology has remained low (Mandor 2002, Okoye 2003, Ibe 2006). For instance, the achievement of
students in Biology at the end of the secondary school has not improved lately in the last decade
(Umoinyang, 1999).
Poor achievement in Biology can be attributed to many factors such as: unavailability of
laboratory facilities, lack of instructional materials, inadequate time allocation, large class size and
poor instructional delivery approaches. According to Etukudo (2009), the fall in standard of
achievement in biology is incontrovertibly attributed to poor instructional delivery approach
adopted by teachers in schools. To support this assertion, Salau (2009) submitted that many
researchers have adduced that poor achievement in public examinations is traceable to instructional
delivery approaches adopted by teachers. The resultant effect is the low achievement and low
retention level in students outcome both in internal and external examinations. This implies that the
mastery of biology concept might not be fully achieved without the use of a good instructional
delivery approach that utilizes instructional materials. West African Examination Council (WAEC)
15
Chief Examiner’s report (2005-2010) states that the persistent poor achievement of students in
biology at senior schools certificate examination leaves one in doubt about the effectiveness of
instructional materials and instructional delivery approaches popularly used by the biology teachers
for the teaching and learning of biology. Statistics from the West African Examination Council
(WAEC, 2010) revealed that achievements in biology in the May/June examinations has been on
the decline. Of the total number of students who sat for the examination in the year 2010, the total
percentage of candidates who attained credit level and above is 26% while 53.13% failed out
rightly. Also, statistics from the National Examination Council (NECO) indicate that the percentage
failure in Biology for years 2008, 2009 and 2010 were 55.80%, 57.60% and 55.20% respectively.
This trend if not arrested will spell doom for the scientific and technological development of the
nation. To this effect, the WAEC chief examiner proffered remedies to solve this problem, one of
which is adopting instructional delivery approaches that utilizes instructional materials to help
students understand biological concepts.
According to Ibeneme (2000), instructional materials are those materials used in the
classroom for instruction and demonstration purposes by teachers and students. The term
instructional materials are used to denote resource materials, devices or anything which can help
the achievement of learning objectives and which can transmit or help to transmit learning
experiences through any of the sense of sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. In the field of
education, TLM is a commonly used acronym that stands for “teaching/ learning materials”.
Broadly, the term refers to a spectrum of instructional materials that teachers use in the classroom
to support specific learning objectives as set out in lesson plans (Davis and Wilcock, 2009). These
instructional materials are used to aid in transferring information from one person to another and
can be grouped in three; audio, visual and audio-visual. According to John (2009), audio-aids
16
appeal only to the sense of hearing, therefore, learners focus more on the spoken word rather than
the written one. Examples of audio-aids include tape recorders, radio, audio compact disc. Visual-
aids are instructional materials that appeal only to the sense of seeing. Visual learners understand
meaning through graphic portrayals such as charts, pictures, power point presentations, models.
Audio-visual aids appeal to the sense of both hearing and seeing. Audio-visual aids make students
benefit as much content, skills and expertise of broadcast provided. Audio-visual aids have the
tendency to make the lessons more memorable and may also enhance retention. Examples of audio-
visual aids are videos, televisions, laptops, video-taped instruction.
According to Jocelyn (2010), instructional materials are important because they can
significantly increase students’ achievement and retention by supporting learning. Instructional
materials regardless of what kind all have some function in student learning. Jocelyn (2010) also
pointed out that instructional materials in addition to supporting learning can assist teachers in an
important professional duty which is the differentiation of instruction. Differentiation of instruction
is the tailoring of lessons and instruction to the different learning styles and capacities within a
classroom. Furthermore, the use of relevant instructional materials in science teaching enables
students to acquire the necessary science process, attitudinal, creative and practical skills which will
enable them function as effective and productive members of the society. The use of instructional
materials in teaching process provide the basis for improved teaching and learning of an subject.
Instructional materials are designed, produced and used to achieve specific instructional goals.
Ayinde (1999) opined that an intelligent use of instructional materials may stimulate student’s
understanding and increase retention.
Considering the need to improve on the achievement and retention of students in biology, it
becomes necessary to explore two instructional delivery approaches supplemented by instructional
17
materials which may facilitate or enhance achievement and retention. To support this assertion,
(Nwagbo, 2006) stated that high achievement is usually enhanced by proper instructional approach
while (Okoye, 2003) states that instructional delivery approaches have also been known to
influence students’ retention. Students’ retention of biology contents is highly facilitated by the
availability of these instructional materials as this will enable them link the present learning with
the previous learning.
Retention is the act of retaining or an ability to recall or recognize what has been learnt or
experienced over a long period of time. Probably, if what has been learnt is retained over a long
period of time, it may lead to higher achievement because retention is measured in collaboration
with achievement (Iji,2010). This study is designed to look into the effect of two instructional
delivery approaches on students’ achievement and retention in biology.
These instructional delivery approaches are:
• The use of Video Taped Instructions (VTI)
• The use of Power Point Presentation (PPP)
Video as a medium in instruction comes as an invention of educational technology. When
used in the classroom, it is termed instructional video (Obinna and Nnenna, 2010). Oguntuase
(2008) defined video as a record or any medium through which a moving image may be produced
.According to Alaku (1998), video play a vital role in teaching and learning. When used effectively,
it stimulates and induces longer retention of factual ideas. Video is a form of multimedia that
conveys information through two simultaneous sensory channels: aural and visual. It often uses
multiple presentation modes, such as verbal and pictorial representation (Mayer, 2001). Cruse
(2007) states that, educators have recognized the power of audio-visual materials to capture the
18
attention of learners, increase their motivation and enhance their learning experience. Videotaped
instruction (VTI) combines still and motion pictures in its pictorial presentation and it is a medium
which may be used to achieve various teaching and learning objectives (Mudasiru,2006). The use
of VTI can present factual and conceptual information with visual illustration and graphics. This
type of instructional delivery approach is portable and can be available to students anywhere and
anytime. Curzon (1990) affirmed that VTI like some other audio-visual aids can multiply and
widen the channels of communication between the teacher and students. Furthermore, Agommuoh
and Nzewi (2003) reported that VTI has the qualities of providing a semi-permanent, complete and
audio-visual record of events. They claimed that, it is a method that has the potentials of increasing
the probability that students will learn more, retain better and thus improve performance. VTI have
certain advantages such as providing complete uninterrupted instruction, it can be viewed as many
times as necessary, it is great for learning concepts, home stud and test review.
The other instructional delivery approach in view is the use of power point presentation
(PPP). PowerPoint which is also called Micro-soft power point is a software product used to
perform computer-based presentations. It is a presentation package that allows you to produce on
screen computer presentations, overhead projection transparencies, posters and web-pages
(Information Technology Service, 2006). Power point (PP) allows you the manipulation of text and
graphical elements with great creative flexibility, whilst also providing a set of pre-designed
templates which make it possible for even the most non-artistic user to produce professional
layouts. In an educational setting, PP is ideal for producing full-screen computer presentations to
enhance lectures, demonstrations or displays. Martha (1997) is of the opinion that PPP can enhance
the effectiveness of classroom lectures by highlighting key points, providing pictures and other
graphics supporting the material. PP is a useful tool for displaying learning objectives, presenting
19
information to students, giving directions and incorporating multimedia into a lesson
(Elizabeth,2011). It can also be an effective tool to present material in the classroom and encourage
student learning. PP can be used to project visuals which would otherwise be difficult to bring to
class. It can be used to prepare lectures and presentations by helping instructors refine their material
to salient points thereby making it easier for the teachers to keep the students interested in class
(Priya,2012). PPP also have advantages such as; it is easy to learn, it can effectively hold students
attention through graphics and video, students can receive the slides in advance and use them in
their presentation for attending their lecture and it is also possible to retain eye contact with your
audience during the presentation.
Gender issues and academic achievement has become a very important issue among
researchers. According to Nworgu (2004), there is an acknowledged problem of female under
achievement when compared with their male counterparts apparently under equivalent conditions
and this problem of female under achievement appear to be more pronounced in science and
mathematics. The term “gender” refers to socially ascribed roles, responsibilities and opportunities
associated with women and men, as well as the hidden power structures that govern relationships
between them. Gender is in essence, a term used to emphasize that sex inequality is not caused by
the anatomic and physiological differences that characterize men and women, but rather by the
unequal and inequitable treatment socially accorded to them (Igwe, 2003). In this sense, gender
alludes to the cultural, social, economic and political conditions that are the basis of certain
standards, values and behavioural patterns related to genders and their relationship. Gender is the
different socio cultural stereotyped roles and responsibilities expected of men and women.
According to Eze (2008) gender is a parallel and socially unequal division into masculinity and
femininity. Biases and misconceptions about women and science is that, science is a male
20
enterprise and this has remained the main focus of concern among science educators. In Nigeria
gender bias is still prevalent; it has persisted even within the science classroom. According to Igwe
(2003) gender issue is an important factor in educational setting and could be a hindrance to high
achievement of learners in sciences.
Some factors have been identified to account for differences in male and female
achievement in science subjects. Prominent among the factors identified by Okeke (1990) is sex-
role stereotyping which seems to be the origin of differences between male and female achievement
in science education. Some research works have shown contradictory evidences in students’
academic achievement in sciences due to gender. For instance, Olikeze (1999) and Ifeakor (2005)
found out that there is no significant difference in the achievement of males and females in biology
and chemistry respectively. It is therefore, worthwhile to see how VTI and PPP would bridge the
gap in science achievement between male and female students in biology. This study intends to find
out the effects of these two instructional delivery approaches, VTI and PPP on senior secondary
school students’ achievement and retention in biology.
Statement of the Problem
In most secondary schools, the conventional instructional delivery approach of teaching is
in vogue. This has constantly led to poor performance of students in the Senior Secondary School
Certificate Examination. High achievement is usually enhanced by proper instructional delivery
approach and educational technologist as well as curriculum experts have proved that the use of
innovative media have high potential in the teaching and learning situation, for it can multiply and
widen the channel of communication between the teacher and students.
21
Empirical studies involving VTI and PPP instructional delivery approach in teaching
biology are few in number and none of them have compared the effects of VTI and PPP on
students’ achievement and retention. Probably, the use of VTI or PPP would enhance students’
achievement and retention in biology. The problem of the study stated in question form is; would
the use of VTI or PPP enhance students’ achievement and retention in biology?
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of two instructional delivery approaches
on students’ achievement and retention in biology. Specifically, this study will determine;
1) effects of VTI and PPP on students’ achievement in biology
2) effects of VTI and PPP on students’ retention of biology concepts
3) influence of VTI and PPP on male and female students’ achievement in biology
4) influence of VTI and PPP on male and female students’ retention of biology contents
5) interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’ mean achievement
scores in biology.
6) interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’ mean retention scores
in biology
Significance of the Study
The theoretical significance of this study is that, it will provide opportunities for a better
understanding, elaboration or refinement of the Stimulus-Response Associationist’s behavioral
theory. S-R theory proposes that learning occurs due to the influence of the environment on an
22
organism which makes the organism respond. If the study shows that the use of these two
instructional delivery approaches (VTI and PPP) helps in enhancing students’ achievement and
retention of biology concepts, the result will validate the S-R theory. Otherwise, it questions the
S-R theory.
The findings of this study will be beneficial to stakeholders in the educational sector. These
stakeholders include curriculum planners, government, teachers and students.
If the use of these instructional delivery approaches (VTI and PPP) are found valuable,
curriculum planners will be provided with information that may be used in recommending effective
innovations in teaching strategies.
Findings could provide information which could inform the government on the need for
workshops, seminars and conferences on the use of VTI and PPP as instructional delivery
approaches for teaching biology. The study might provide an insight into other school subjects on
whether to use VTI or PPP to enhance students’ achievement and retention.
The study could be useful to classroom teachers who decide what instructional delivery
approach to present content will be. Results of this study if found valuable, could provide a guide
for choosing VTI and PPP as innovative instructional delivery approach.
The study could be beneficial to students if found effective. VTI and PPP could be used to
enhance students’ achievement as well as help them retain what they have learnt. Finally, the results
of this study could provide empirical information to researchers interested in the use of VTI and
PPP in education.
Scope of the Study
This study focuses on three independent variables, videotaped instruction, power point
presentation and gender and two dependent variables achievement and retention. The content scope
23
of this study is skeletal system and year two students (S.S.2) will be used for this study because, it
is at this stage in the core curriculum that the topic of the study is taught. The geographical scope of
this study is delimited to two co-educational secondary schools because gender is a factor in the
study in Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State.
Research Questions
The following research questions will guide the study;
1) What is the effect of VTI and PPP on the mean achievement scores of students taught
biology as measured by a Biology Achievement Test (BAT)?
2) What is the effect of VTI and PPP on the mean retention scores of students taught
biology as measured by a Biology Retention Test (BRT)?
3) What is the influence of VTI and PPP on male and female students’ mean achievement
scores as measured by a Biology Achievement Test (BAT)
4) What is the influence of VTI and PPP on male and female students’ mean retention
scores as measured by a Biology Retention Test (BRT)
5) What is the interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’ mean
achievement scores.
6) What is the interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’ mean
retention scores.
24
Hypotheses
Six null hypotheses were formulated for this and will be tested at 0.05 level of significance.
1) There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students exposed to
VTI and those exposed to PPP as measured by BAT.
2) There is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of students exposed to
VTI and those exposed to PPP as measured by BRT.
3) There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female
students taught biology using VTI and PPP as measured by BAT.
4) There is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of male and female
students taught biology using VTI and PPP as measured by BRT .
5) There is no significant interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’
mean achievement scores.
6) There is no significant interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’
mean retention scores.
25
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
The researcher undertook a preliminary survey of books, journals, theses and other resource
materials with a view to finding out what works other researchers had done on the study and other
related studies. The literature review was organized under Conceptual Framework, Theoretical
Background, Review of Empirical Studies and Summary of Literature Review.
Conceptual framework
- Concept of instructional materials
- Instructional delivery approach
- Power point presentation in teaching and learning
- Video – taped instructions
- Students achievement in Biology
- Gender and students’ achievement in science
- Concept of retention
Theoretical background
- Stimulus – Response (S-R) theory
- Social – cognitive theory
Empirical studies
- Studies on the use of power point presentation
- Studies on the use of video – taped instructions.
- Studies on gender and students’ achievement in science
- Studies on retention
Summary of literature review
26
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Concept of Instructional Materials
Instructional materials are resource materials, devices or anything which help in the
achievement of learning objectives and which can transmit learning experiences through any of the
sense of sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. According to Jocelyn (2010), instructional materials
significantly increase students’ achievement by supporting learning. Madhavan (2010) states that,
instructional materials are used to aid the transfer of information from one person to another. Dahar
and Faize (2011), are of the opinion that instructional materials are used within the classroom to
facilitate the teaching and learning process. Instructional materials (IM) are objects or devices,
which help the teacher to make a lesson much clearer to the learners (Isola, 2010). According to
(Agina-Obu, 2005), IMs are also described as concrete or physical objects which provide sound,
visual or both to the sense organs during teaching. Miranda(2007) states that IMs are part of the
instructional procedure because they supplement the instructional delivery approach adopted by the
teacher.
Ofoegbu (1994) identified the importance of IM in teaching of concepts and principles,
stating that, IM is necessary if pictures and images are to be vividly retained in the memory.
Furthermore, Ofoegbu agreed that human beings learn easily and faster through the use of IM than
by verbal expression alone. Ofoegbu explained that the various organs of sight, hearing, smell and
touch could cause excitation along the neural channels, which reach mental centers where the
impressions fuse with previous acquisitions. She further said that IM facilitate the retention and
recall of materials. This is because they seek to evoke the maximum response of the whole
organization. Ofoegbu (1994) argued that IM supply the basis for making learning more permanent.
They also motivate students to carryout investigations on their own.
27
According to Nicholls (2000), Education has become wide spread and exclusive oral
teaching cannot be the key to successful pedagogy. For this reason, to make teaching and learning
interesting, the teacher has to use instructional materials. Jotia and Matlale (2011) states that, a
resourceful instruction needs to give all students the opportunity to grasp the content taught at a
time. In so doing, active participation during instruction increases learning and retention. Lecturing
is still a common way for instructors to communicate information. However, it does not allow for
much interaction between learner and teacher and as a result, the instructor may falsely assume that
students fully understood the concepts that he presented (Cope, 2011). Therefore, students learn
more efficiently by participating in instruction. Also, using a variety of teaching approaches can
significantly improve learning and retention in students of all ages.
Instructional materials are of various classes such as audio or aural, visual and audio-visual
(Oladejo, 2011). Thus, audio instructional materials refer to those that make use of the sense of
hearing only, like radio and audiotape recordings. Visual instructional materials on the other hand,
are those devices that appeal to the sense of sight only, such as, the chart, slide, power point and
film-strip. An audio-visual instructional material however, is a combination of devices which
appeal to the sense of both hearing and seeing such as television, motion picture, videotaped
instruction and the computer. The use of audio-visual aids can revolutionize teaching and can help
decrease forgetting and increase the permanence of what is taught (Quddus, 1990). Among the
instructional materials the classroom teacher uses, the visuals out-numbered the combination of the
audio and audio-visual. According to Miranda (2007), teaching aids are useful to reinforce what
you are saying, ensure that your point is understood. Also, enable student to visualize or experience
something that is impracticable to see or do in real life and engage students’ other senses in the
learning process.
28
The usefulness of instructional materials in the teaching- learning process is highlighted
below:
• Facilitate the learning of abstract concepts and ideas.
• Keep the learners busy and active thus, increasing their participation in the lesson
• Save teachers’ energy of talking too much
• Illustrate the concepts clearer and better than the teachers’ words only.
• Help overcome the limitations of the classroom, by making the inaccessible accessible.
• Help to broaden students’ knowledge, increase their level of understanding as well as
discourage rote- learning (if used judiciously)
• Help to stimulate and motivate learners (Esu, Enukoha and Umoren, 2004:107).
Inyang-Abia and Esu (1990) cited in Esu, Enukoha and Umoren (2004:103) assert that
“instructional materials are the pivot on which the wheel of teaching and learning rotates”.
Teaching and learning are complex processes composed of interaction among teachers, students,
instructional content and the environment (Miller, 1997). For this study, the instructional materials
used are projector, laptop, VTI and PPP CD ROM containing biology instruction.
Instructional Delivery Approach
Instructional delivery approach is a process in which a teacher uses variety of teaching
strategies to communicate and interact with students around academic content. The teacher
effectively engages students in learning by using a variety of instructional delivery approaches in
order to meet individual learning needs. According to Bannon (2012), instructional delivery
approach is a way in which information is presented to students. It is also an educational approach
for turning knowledge into learning. Berlongieri (2013) states that, the teacher should use a variety
29
of instructional approach to encourage students’ development of critical thinking, problem solving
and performance skills. This is because, students learn on different levels. Therefore, the way in
which the instruction is given can help the students use various types of skills to think and solve
problems on their own.
Cepni, Tas and Kose (2006), states that, the use of traditional instructional approach to teach
biology makes students understand subject at knowledge level and they usually memorize the
science concepts without understanding the real meanings. As a result, they do not conceptualize
the science well as intended. It is therefore obvious that alternative instructional delivery approach
is needed to teach this sort of difficult concepts in biology. To support this assertion, the
Educational Encyclopaedia (2013) submitted that improvement of instruction has been a goal of
educators as far back as the teachings of the Greek Philosophers Socrates. Although there are a
wide variety of approaches, in most cases instruction can be characterized by the following tasks;
• setting objectives,
• teaching content based on these objectives, and
• evaluating performance
This formula is indeed the most common, however, there have been many advocates of alternative
approaches. Nafees, Farouq and Tahirkheli (2012) are of the opinion that, the selection of proper
instructional delivery approach ensures the achievement of the stated instructional objectives
effectively. Appropriate instructional delivery approach portrays good teaching technique and
successful learning.
An instructional delivery approach is characterized by certain regularities in the ways in
which teachers and students interact with each other and with instructional materials (Corcorain and
30
Silandar, 2009). Among instructional delivery approaches used by teachers in delivering
instructions are lecture, demonstration, discussion, brainstorming, peer instruction, problem
solving, role playing, field trips, projects, simulations and so on. For this study, the instructional
delivery approaches in view are; the use of VTI and PPP in teaching of biology. Lim and Moris
(2009), states that, as a result of the advancement in communication and network technologies,
more innovative instructional delivery approaches have emerged in order to provide meaningful
learning experiences for learners in academic settings. According to Nafees et al (2012),
instructional delivery approach are used in the presentation of lesson to help the students learn by
ensuring the smooth delivery of the instruction. Therefore, the classroom teacher must determine
the most effective instructional delivery approach for his/her students.
Power point Presentation in Teaching and Learning
Power point forms part of the Microsoft office suite and is also called Microsoft power
point. It is a presentation package that allows you to produce on-screen computer presentations,
overhead projection, transparencies, posters and web pages. (Information Technology Service,
2006). Asogwa and Echemazu (2011), defined PowerPoint as a commercial presentation program
developed by Microsoft. Power point Presentation(PPP) consists of individual pages or slides.
Slides may contain text, graphics, sound, movies, animation and other objects which may be
arranged freely. The presentation can be printed, displayed on a computer or navigated through at
the command of the presenter. For larger audiences, the computer display is often projected using a
video projector and only the essential details are meant to be projected point by point to those
viewing.
31
PPP is a powerful representation which enables viewers to understand better the meaning of
words or concepts used. It conveys meanings and influence attitude when colour is added to it. The
colours chosen and the way it is used have a strong impact on viewers, thus ensuring the success
and quality of one’s presentation. Essentially, PP enables users to create a series of slides on a
computer which may then be projected in the lecture theatre using a data projector or overhead
projector. Mason and Hlynka (1998), states that PP helps structure the content and processing of a
lesson or lecture. Aiding note-taking is another purported advantage of using PPP (Cook, 1998).
Just like other forms of visuals, PP has some advantages. According to Frank (2008), PP comes
with preformed templates to help you prepare professional looking and visually stimulating slides.
Judicial use of colour can help to stimulate interest and emphasis key points. It saves the presenter
from talking too much, except perhaps, in some cases that may require the teacher or presenter to
give certain clarifications or explanations to the students or audience on points that are not clear. PP
slide can be made in advance, thereby increasing the time available to teach. Also, PP makes it
possible to provide a much richer quality of visual including multicoloured complicated diagrams.
In addition, PP is a useful tool for displaying learning objectives and presenting information to
students in a lesson (Elizabeth, 2011).
There are certain benefits derived from using PPP in classrooms which include:
• PP provides an effective approach to both student’s work and classroom instruction. When
you teach students to use this programs and allow them to turn in work completed with it,
you effectively prepare students for the world in which they will work as adults.
• PPP hold students attention through the use of video and graphics. Therefore, increase
students’ involvement and interaction.
32
• For students who missed class due to sickness or one problem or the other, can go through
passed lessons by watching PPP. Instead of copying notes of classmates, they can easily
save content into a disk and study them at home and avoid falling behind class.
For effective teaching and learning process, it is necessary that the teacher should not limit
him/herself to the use of verbal medium. This then calls for the use of interrelated instructional
media which reinforce and strengthen one another in enhancing the progress of the learner.
Videotaped Instruction
Videotaped instruction (VTI) is an instructional delivery approach that combines still and
motion pictures in its pictorial presentation and it is a medium which can be used to achieve various
teaching and learning objectives (Mudasiru, 2005). VTI is created for use in classrooms or in other
educational settings.
Video as a medium in education comes as the invention of educational technology. They are
termed instructional video (Obinna and Nnenna, 2010). Educational technologists as well as
curriculum experts have proved that VTI has a high potential in the teaching and learning situation
for it can multiply and widen the channels of communication between the teacher and the students
(Osokoya, 2007). Agommuoh and Nzewi (2003), reported that video-taped instruction has the
qualities of providing a semi-permanent, complete and audio-visual record of event. They claimed
that it is a method that has the potentials of increasing the probability that students will learn more,
retain better and thus improve performance.
According to Adedapo, Salawu and Afolabi (2001), the use of videotape (VT) in teaching-
learning process is necessary to supplement conventional efforts of the teacher. For example, it is
assumed that learning that emanates solely from the teacher tends to be restricted and closed, while
33
the one that has its basis on resource material tends to be more comprehensive, open and
meaningful. Friel and Carboni(2002), states that instructional VTs provide brief windows into
models and dilemmas of classroom practice which can support reasoning about instruction. By
viewing teaching and learning situations on VT, prospective teachers may be introduced to some
experiences of teaching by seeing examples of actual classroom practice.
Research studies have established that VTI produced positive learning events (Benedict,
1994 in Mudasiru, 2005). Adam (1990) is of the opinion that VTI is one of the most influential of
all the media for teaching as a result of its power of both sight and sound. In the same vein, Barford
and Weston (1997) reiterated that benefit of colour, sound and motion attached to VT packages will
be of interest to students who are the target of this study. This view is in agreement with Chambers
(1997) when he asserts that fun and entertainment are natural ways through which students learn
and this could be provided by VTI.
Literature has also established that VTI has greatly improved the performance of children
with special needs and slow learning abilities (Okwo 1994; Mitchell 1994; Aremu 1992). If this is
true, then it should be able to produce better results in students with normal learning abilities which
are the target of this study.
VTI have certain advantages such as;
• It can easily be duplicated and used by students at convenience.
• Students can play back sections he/she is unsure of.
• It provides complete uninterrupted instruction.
• It is reviewable
34
• If a student is absent from school, the video will be a reassuring aid for not only getting
caught up but staying ahead.
• It can be viewed as many times as necessary unlike classroom instruction.
• It is great for learning concepts, home study aid and test review.
Students’ Achievement in Biology
The study of biology is essential for the nation’s scientific and technological development.
Without sound knowledge and wholesome attitude towards biology, the much needed and vouched
technological breakthrough may not be achieved. The knowledge of biology contributes to
scientific literacy so that people can understand the world around them and enable them to make
informal choices about their health care, their environment and the society in which they live
(Karen,2008). For instance the knowledge of biology is brought to play in the areas of
manufacturing and processing industries, medicine, food production and pharmaceuticals among
others.
Unfortunately, research reports show that students achieve poorly in biology. Poor
achievement in biology however has been attributed to a number of factors by several researchers.
Nwagbo (2006) blamed the poor achievement on the state of science education enterprises in
Nigerian Schools. Nwosu (1998) reported that most teachers lacked the knowledge of curriculum
objectives as indicated by their failure to implement them. Inamulla (2005) reported that interaction
between the teacher and student is an essential part of all the teaching and learning processes. This
point was further stressed by Oloruntegbe (2010) that interaction in the science classroom has
always been a triple dynamics between the teacher, the learner and the instructional materials.
These three variables are expected to interact harmoniously in a way to produce the intended
learning outcomes.
35
According to Opara(2011), there is a high rate of failure in biology as revealed by the
analysis of May/June SSCE result of 2006-2008. In order to address this issue of low achievement
in biology, teachers need to be exposed to appropriate teaching and learning approaches which
requires the use of instructional materials. This will promote imaginative, critical and creative skills
in the learners resulting to better achievement of instructional objectives (Federal Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology, 2001). Therefore, this study sought to establish the effect of
these two instructional delivery approaches (VTI and PPP) on students as to whether or not
achievement and retention in biology will improve.
Gender and Students’ Achievement in Science
Gender issues are currently the main focus of discussion and research all over the world,
Nigeria inclusive (Abdu-Raheem, 2012). The influence of gender on students’ achievement in
science, has for a long time been a concern to many researchers and science educators. Many of
them sought to determine whether it is true that, there is male superiority in science achievement or
not. Male supremacy and gender stereotyping are factors among others that were identified to
influence occupational choice (Ogunleye and Babagide, 2011). Longe and Adedeji (2003) are of the
opinion that science and technology is a male-dominated subject and that the females tend to shy
away from scientific and technological fields. Boys, therefore, appear to have a natural positive
attitude to technical and science subjects while girls show negative attitude.
Studies conducted across African countries, including Nigeria, have reported disparity in the
education of girls and women in science and technology (Iyang and Ekpeyong, 2000). Females are
grossly under-represented and many of them are noted to under-achieve in the science and
technology (S & T) discipline (Nzewi, 2010). According to Okeke (2001), the under-representation
36
and under-achievement of females in S & T disciplines are historical and have been brought about
by several inter-related socio-cultural and inter-acting school factors which act singly and jointly to
depress female interest, enrolment, participation and achievement in S & T subjects at various
levels of Nigerian Education System. Adigwe (1999) investigated the pattern of classroom
interaction in two classroom each of Biology, physics and chemistry. He found that teachers asked
the male students more academic and procedural questions than they asked the female students;
while the females had more social interactions with the teacher than the males. The study by Nzewi
and Onimisi (2008) threw up the same pattern of interaction in science classes. Adigwe then
concluded that male and female students have unequal opportunities for learning science in Nigeria
classrooms. He added that the low number of females offering Biology, physics and chemistry
might be a direct result of their experiences with their science teachers.
Njoku (2001) confirmed that researches indicated that girls believe that science is too
difficult and not important for their future. He explained that the teaching methods used do not
assist girls to understand science. He also reported further that primary science and technology
teachers agreed that, they pay more attention to boys than girls. He also observed that there are
more male science teachers and professionals than female role models in science and technology.
The under-representation of women in science and technological manpower pool may likely be a
reflection of low participation and under-achievement of girls in S&T in schools.
Gender inequality is also reflected in enrolment into science and admission to higher
institutions of learning .Obanya (2005) confirmed that the enrolment of boys out-numbered that of
the girls in science, Technology and Education in Nigerian Universities, Polytechnics and
Technical Colleges. The UNESCO World science Conference held in Budapest in 1999 gave
attention to the issue of women in scientific research. Among the points they emerged at the
37
conference was that inadequate preparation at the secondary level remains a handicap for young
women seeking a scientific career. The gender inequalities are also the product of a failure to
recognize women’s knowledge and know how, in order words, a failure to recognize that women
are responsible for half of the human knowledge and technical expertise as agriculturalists,
gardeners, animal-breeders, forest users, managers of their community water, needs and resources
and also as technological innovators and agents of change. According to UNESCO (2011), research
has shown that globally, 39 million girls of lower secondary age are currently not enrolled in either
primary or secondary education while two-thirds of the world’s 796 million illiterate adults are
women. Only about one-third of the countries have achieved gender parity at secondary level. This
evidence shows that something needs to change.
In conclusion, differences in sex were found to affect the students’ achievement in science.
With this, in mind, this study sought to find out how VTI or PPP would influence students’
achievement and retention in biology.
Concept of Retention
Retention is defined by Kundu and Tutoo (2002) as a preservative factor of the mind. The
mind acquires the materials of knowledge through sensation and perception. These acquired
materials in the mind need to be preserved in form of images for knowledge to develop. When a
stimulating situation occurs, retained images are revived or reproduced to make memorization
possible. Hence, biology concepts need to be presented to the learners in a way or method that
touches their sub consciousness which can trigger quick recalling of the concept being taught or
learnt. According to Hornby (2001), retention is the ability to remember a thing. Retention can
38
also be defined as the ability to keep or retain the knowledge of biology contents learnt and to be
able to recall it when required.
Using VTI or PPP, both high and low ability learners would be able to collaborate in terms
of understanding, explaining and retaining the concepts they have learnt in biology class. Martin
(1993) speculated that educators could improve retention of concepts and information by explicitly
creating memorable events involving visual or auditory images through the use of projects, plays,
simulations and other forms of active learning. Retention drops rapidly in the first weeks after
instruction and then levels off. Whatever students have retained about 12 to 24 weeks after
instruction, they may retain forever (Slavin, 1997). Also, the more time that passes after learning,
the less will be remembered. This form of forgetting is often referred to as “time decay” (Woolfolk,
1998). For instance, neural connections, like muscles grow weak without use.
Okoye (2003), refers to retention as the process of maintaining the availability of new
meanings or some part of them. It may be suggested that the amount of the original meaning that
will be retained at any given point in time is a variable quantity. Therefore, forgetting represents a
decrement in the availability of an acquired meaning. That is, it describes the loss in availability
that occurs between the original establishment of the meaning and its later reproduction.
Considering the two terms, retention is seen as referring to the positive aspects of memory while
forgetting refers to the negative aspects.
Frequent reviews and tests, elaborated feedback and active involvement of students in
learning projects have all been associated with longer retention. Cope (2011), stated that active
participation during instruction increases learning and retention. Lecturing is still a common way
for instructors to communicate information. However, it does not allow for much interaction
39
between learners and teacher and as a result, the instructor may falsely assume that the students
fully understood the concepts that he presented. In order words, students learn more efficiently by
participating in instruction. To further support this idea, ( Iji,2002, chianson,2008) stated that
retention in biology is not acquired by mere rote learning but through appropriate instructional
delivery approach . Therefore, using a variety of instructional approaches can significantly improve
learning and retention in students of all ages.
Measurement of retention
Okoye (2003), identified three methods of measuring retention which include; the recall
method, the recognition method and the relearning or saving method.
� The Recall Method: this seems to be the method that is most familiar to every teacher. It
requires the learner to recall as much as he can of the skills he has acquired. The
measurement of vocabulary in a foreign language such as French may be measured by a
recall test. In this test, the foreign (French) words may be presented and people are asked to
give their English translation. Alternatively, the English words are given to be translated
into French. Essay test typically calls for recall skills. Such a recall procedure is the least
sensitive one available for measurement of retention.
� The Recognition Method: this method applies to the measurement of cognitive skills as are
learnt in the academic classrooms. When this method is applied, the subjects demonstrate
retention by recognizing a correct response. The objective type of examination is the most
widely used example of this method of measuring retention. Every pupil and teacher knows
that it is much easier to recognize the right answer than it is to produce an answer. In the
recognition method of measuring retention, many cues are provided, but in the recall
40
method, there are very few present to elicit the response. The difference in the number of
cues present accounts for the difference in sensitivity of the recognition method in
comparison with the recall method.
� The Relearning or Saving Method: some sensitive techniques have been developed that can
demonstrate that there has been retention even though all the ordinary test of retention used
in schools indicate that there has been none. A very sensitive technique widely used in
laboratories is known as the saving method. In this method, the subject learns the material to
a certain level of proficiency. If he is learning a list of words, then he may learn them to the
point where he can repeat the list back perfectly on three successful occasions. If twenty-
five repetitions might be required in the initial learning series to reach the point of perfect
recall, only five repetitions might be required at later time to reach the same point of
learning. Now, since on relearning, five instead of twenty-five repetitions were required, it
might be said that on relearning, there was a “saving” of eighty percent. This is how the
method got its name. In some studies, it has been the only method so far developed that is
sensitive enough to provide evidence that there has been some retention of the original
material learnt.
Having briefly examined the three major methods of measuring retention, it becomes
necessary to relate these ideas to the present study. The recognition method is used in this study
because the achievement and retention test will call for recognition of the subject matter learnt in
the lessons.
41
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The theoretical framework of the study is based on the Stimulus-Response theory and the
Social cognitive theory. Learning theories have been developed to explain how learners respond to
a particular stimuli under certain influences (Alao and Adeniyi, 2008). Learning theories form a
distinct part of theoretical psychology. In recent years, many psychologists have been dedicated to
the study of learning theories because they are intrigued by how the mind acquires knowledge. It is
only when we know how knowledge is acquired that we will be able to use appropriate teaching
and learning methods in the classroom.
Stimulus-Response (S-R) Learning Theory
S-R learning theory is also known as the behavioural theory. The proponents of S-R theory
are called Associationists or Behaviourist. Oladele (1998) noted that a stimulus could be a visual
event, a sound, a taste, a touch, a smell or any combination of these. While a response is an event or
process, which is elicited by a stimulus .Nkwocha (1990) defined a stimulus as anything external or
internal to an organism, which can stir it to action while a response is the reaction to a stimulus.
According to Wikibooks contributors (2006), the provision of a reward or reinforcement is believed
to strengthen the response and therefore result in a change in behaviour, the test, according to this
school of thought, is as to whether learning has occurred.
Okoye (2011) stated that the major proponents of the behaviorist theory include; I.P.Pavlov,
E.L. Thorndike and B.F. Skinner. The behaviourist believes that learning occurs through the
process of conditioning with reinforcement as an important factor in the process. The S-R
associationist assumes that man is born a tabula rasa and mainly depends on his environment for all
42
that he learns. They see learning as a durable change in behavior which is purely determined by
environmental factors. In their view about the learning process they noted that:
• mental process which takes place during learning is simple association of things which are
presented together in quick succession. They refer to this as stimulus Response (S-R)
connection
• associations are formed automatically, as the learner is at the mercy of his environment for all
his reactions
• learning is automatic in nature. Perception of just a unit of a situation can lead to understanding
of the whole situation
• learning is affected through two types of conditioning; operant and classical conditioning;
• learning is acquired through trial and error
For the behaviourist, the quality of what is learnt depends on the strength and nature of the
links between the stimulus and the response. Behaviourism has useful application in learning such
as programmed learning, teaching machines and computerized systems (Nkwocha, 1990). In this
study, students will be instructed using VTI and PPP CD-ROM containing Biology instructions.
The instruction here is the stimulus because it contains visuals and sound sensations. The responses
of students to these will be assessed.
Social Cognitive Theory
This study is anchored on the social learning theory. Social learning is a type of learning
usually undertaken by way of observation or imitation through which an organism watches or
observes another organism. According to Nnachi (2007), owning to his social nature, a human
being forms his behavior by observing the way others behave; he endeavours to imitate others.
43
Learning can then be carried out by observation and imitation, such learning is referred to as
modeling.
Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel are the major proponents of social learning theory.
Albert Bandura specifically propounded the cognitive mediation theory of social learning. The
basic premise of Bandura’s mediation learning theory is that behavior results from a continuous
interaction between significant factors. These factors include imitation, vicarious learning and
symbolic learning (Wiltig and William III 1984; in Okoye 2012). It is Bandura’s view that the
learner plays a prominent role in cognitively selecting, organizing and transforming stimuli from
the environment in which he is found. Accordingly, learning occurs by watching the events of the
environment. By social learning then, humans are seen as social animals that through observations
of their social world or the interpretations of such world or the interpretations of such observations
collect large amounts of data or information through which complex and skilled performances are
learnt.
Bandura, in Alao and Adeniyi, 2008 stated that social learning theory focuses on the
behaviour of individual and groups and how behavior is affected by the presence or influence of
other people. For social learning to take place, there are four factors which must be present. These
are observers (learners), teacher (model), learners’ attention and proximity or nearness. The process
of learning is influenced by the extent of identifications and imitation by the learners to the other
three factors. According to Bandura’s theory of social learning, it is possible to explain that
learning has occurred by acts performed by the observer, during and after observing the model.
According to Nnachi(2007), these acts are sometimes carried out by the observer covertly; this
might involve thinking deeply about the events carried out by the model. The cognitive mediation
theory of social learning has useful application in learning such as computerized systems.
44
In this study, the students watched (observed) Biology instructions as presented using VTI
and PPP (stimuli). The study assessed if the students were able to cognitively organize and
transform the stimuli. The assessment was done using their answers (responses) to the questions
posed on the instructional content. Acquisition of skills (learning) indicates ability to transform
stimuli from the environment.
EMPIRICAL STUDIES
Studies on the Use of PPP (Power Point Presentation)
Asogwa, and Echemazu (2011) studied the effect of PPP on secondary school students’
achievement in Christian Religious Knowledge. Two intact classes of 60 students were randomly
selected from two public senior secondary schools in Nsukka Local Government Area of Enugu
State participated in the study. The instrument for data collection was Christian Religious
Knowledge Achievement Test (CRKAT). The data were analysed using the mean and the Analysis
of Covariance (ANCOVA). The results of the study revealed that students taught with PPP
performed better than those taught conventionally.
Polk (2013) studied the effect of teaching biology concepts with animations versus static
cartoons via PPP on content retention. The research study adopted two activity groups:
experimental and control groups. Students were pre-tested prior to the introduction of content in
three units of study. Cellular transport, proteinsynthesis and mitosis. A sample of eighteen students
were randomly arranged to the experimental and control groups. The experimental group viewed an
animation on the topic using PPP and accompanied by teacher narration while the control group
viewed a series of static cartoons with captions through PPP. The two groups were post-tested
together immediately following the treatment and again approximately 21 days later. The data
45
collected was analysed using a Krustal-Wallis (non-parametric ANOVA analog), along with a
Dunn’s Multiple Comparisons test, was run to determine if any statistically significant differences
existed between the means of control and experimental group. At 0.05 level of significance, the
result showed that no statistically significant differences due to animations were found in these
comparisons, though student engagement and class discussion were increased by the use of
animations based on teacher observations. A class survey revealed an overwhelming interest in
continued use of the animations as an instructional technique to increase students’ retention of
biology content.
Nouri and Shahid (2005) investigated the effect of PPP on student learning and attitudes. In
the study, they tested whether using PP in an accounting course enhances student long-term
memory, short-term memory and attitudes toward class presentation and the instructor. They
conducted an experiment which includes a treatment-control design in a classroom setting
throughout a semester. In one section of an accounting principles II (managerial Accounting)
course, PP was used as the delivery system while the second section was taught using a traditional
delivery system. The samples used were 36 and 38 students for treatment and control groups
respectively. Data was collected using a questionnaire with internal consistency reliability
coefficient of 0.83. The data was analysed using the mean and the Analysis of Covariance
(ANCOVA). The result shows that PPP may improve students’ attitudes toward the instructor and
class presentation. The results do not provide conclusive evidence that PPP improve short-term or
long-term memory.
Rotimi, Ajogbeje and Akeju (2011) studied the application of a New Kind of Visual-Model
Instructional Strategy in physics education as a means of improving the learning achievement of
physics students. The new kind of visual model instructional strategy introduced in their research
46
was a computer intelligent-based power point visual simulation used to investigate learning
achievement in physics. The research study adopted the Quasi-Experimental Research Design and
two activity groups: Experimental group and control group. A sample of 168 purposively selected
for the research. The instrument used in the study was NKVM and the method of statistical
analysis used for the research study is the T-test. The research study revealed that the New Kind of
Visual Model Instructional Strategy called computer intelligent-based power point visual
simulation contributed positively to learning achievement in physics. Result also showed that there
is significant effect of treatment on students’ retention of learned materials.
From the reviews of related literature, it is evident that studies on the use of PPP on
students’ achievement and retention in Biology is scanty. This dissertation aims at filling this gap
by investigating the effect of PPP as an instructional delivery approach on students’ achievement
and retention in biology.
Studies on the Use of Video Taped Instruction
This section reviews some empirical works on the use of VTI on students’ achievement and
retention.
Osokoya (2007) studied the effects of VTI on secondary school students’ achievement in
History. In his study, he adopted the quasi-experimental research design using a videotaped
instruction and conventional strategies. A multi-stage sampling technique was employed to select
92 history students made up of 40 males and 52 females. A validated history achievement test
instrument with reliability co-efficient of 0.75 was administered. The result showed that students
taught with VTI performed better (X=25.30) than those taught with the conventional method
47
(X=20.12). The result of the ANCOVA statistical analysis revealed that gender F(2,91): p>0.05)
was not a significant factor on students’ achievement in history when VTI are used.
Chinna and Dada (2013) investigated the effects of developed Electronic Instructional
Medium (video-instructional package) on students’ achievements in biology. The quasi-
experimental, pre-test – post-test control group design was used for the study . The sample
comprised of 180 senior secondary year two students from six (6) schools located in the 3
educational zones of Niger State. The students were divided into an experimental group (electronic
instructional medium) and a control group (traditional lecture instruction). Structured Biology
Achievement Test (SBAT) with internal consistency reliability co-efficient of 0.83 was used to
measure the students’ achievement before and after the treatment. The data obtained from the study
were analysed using the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) and Scheffe test indicated that the
achievement of students’ in biology greatly improved with the use of electronic instructional
medium. The result have implications for innovative use of instructional media and creating sound
strategies for disseminating science in the classroom.
Mudasiru (2005) in his study of the effects of videotape and slide tape instructions on
students’ performance in Junior Secondary School Social Studies, examined the significant
difference in the post test and retention test achievement scores of students taught using VT, slide
tape and the normal classroom instruction. The sample consisted of 191 Junior Secondary School
students drawn from three equivalent secondary schools within Ilorin metropolis. The social studies
achievement test (SSAT) was administered to students as pre-test, post-test and retention test. The
results of students were analysed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Turkey’s test was used
for post-hoc confirmation of significant deference. The results indicated that the students using VT
and those taught using slide-tape performed significantly better than their counterparts taught using
48
the normal classroom instruction. However, there was no significant difference reported in the post-
test and retention test scores of students taught using VT and those exposed to slide-tape
instructions. These findings indicated that social studies content could be taught and learnt better
through the resourceful integration of VT and slide-tape into social studies instruction.
Agommuoh and Nzewi (2003) in their study of effects of VTI on secondary school students
achievement in physics made use of a sample of 398 SSI students selected from 2 co-educational
schools. Three research questions and three hypotheses guided the study. Data generated were
analysed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance. The results
indicated that the achievement of students in physics greatly improved with the use of VTI.
Adedapo, Salawu and Afolabi (2001) assessed the effects of VT and audio-taped
instructions on cognitive outcomes in Economics. The sample used for this quasi-experiment study
consisted of 364 senior secondary Two (SSII) students drawn from secondary schools in Oyo
metropolis. Two hypotheses were postulated and tested using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA),
Turkey/Kramer post hoc test and mean. The results of the study showed that there was significant
difference in the students’ cognitive achievement and interest in Economics which were mostly
enhanced by the VT strategy, followed by audio taped strategy and minimally by the conventional
strategy.
Literature review presented in this section shows that only a few studies have being carried
out on the effect of VTI on students’ achievement and retention in biology. Therefore, this study
intends to investigate the effect of VTI as an instructional delivery approach on students’
achievement and retention in biology.
49
Studies on Gender and Student Achievement in Science
Gender as a factor in science achievement has for some time generated a lot of concern for
science educators. This concern arose from conflicting results in studies of gender achievement in
science. A comprehensive review of literature on gender differences reveals that there has yet, not
been any clear picture concerning this issue. Several factors have been found responsible for the
gender imbalance in science.
According to Lagoke, Jegede and Oyebanji (1995), these factors are grouped into six broad
categories: individual factors, cognitive factors, attitudinal factors, home and family factors,
educational factors and social-cultural factors. They reported that interventional programmes have
been mounted in several parts of the world to engage girls and women more in science and science
related careers aimed at;
i. demasculizing and demystifying science;
ii. improving girls confidence and self-perceptions of their ability to do science.
iii. Implementing teaching strategies that actively involve girls in science lessons; and
developing girls’ skills in science.
Lagoke et al (1995), conducted a study to find out whether the teaching of selected
biological concepts using analogical linkages chosen from the learners’ socio-cultural
environment significantly reduced the achievement differences between female and male in
these concepts. A total of 248 (205 boys and 43 girls) SSIII (equivalent to grade two)
students with a mean age of 16.8 years in two classes selected from two schools in Zaria
township of Kaduna State of Nigeria participated in this experimental study. Using an
adaptation of Glynn’s Teaching with –Analogy (T.W.A) model, a pretest and a delayed
50
post test comparison, showed that both girls and boys attained equivalent cognitive
outcome after a six-week treatment period.
Abdu-Raheem (2012) worked on the influence of Gender on Secondary School Students’
Academic Achievement in South-West, Nigeria. The results of 2003/2004 to 2007/2008 West
African School Certificate Examinations (WASCE) were collected on English language,
Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Economics, Geography, Government, Yoruba,
Christian Religion Studies and French from 10 secondary schools selected from 5 states in Nigeria.
The samples consisted of 2,305 students. Stratified random sampling was used to select 2 schools
from each state. Purposive sampling was used to collect the WASCE results of students sampled.
Chi-square was used to test the 5 hypothesis raised. The study revealed that male and female
student’s achieved equally in English language. Males achieved better than females in mathematics,
science and social science while females also did better than males in Arts except in Yoruba. It was,
therefore, recommended that necessary materials/equipment should be provided to make
Mathematics, Sciences and Social Science interesting to girls, French and Christian religious
studies encouraging to boys.
Oludipe (2012) investigated Gender Difference in Nigerian Junior Secondary Students’
Academic Achievement in Basic Science. In the study, Oludipe used a total number of 120
students obtained from the intact classes of the three selected Junior Secondary Schools in the three
selected Local Government Areas of Ogun State, South-West Nigeria, participated in the study.
This study employed a quasi-experimental design. Lesson note on the Jigsaw II cooperative
learning strategy and Achievement Test for Basic science students (ATBCS) were the instruments
used to collect the relevant data. The data collected was analysed using descriptive and independent
samples t-test statistical methods. Findings of this study revealed that there was no significant
51
difference in academic achievement of male and female students at the pretest, post-test and
delayed post test levels respectively. The researcher suggested that in order to encourage more
women into pure sciences and science-oriented courses, interventions need to be designed that
focus not only on the academic achievement of girls but also in how to make science-related
occupations more interesting for young, high achieving girls.
Ayodele (2009) examined gender differences in Mathematics and Integrated science
achievement among the Junior Secondary School students with particular interest on the interaction
effect of gender and school type on students’ achievement. The study adopted an ex-post facto
research design and generated data from an inventory from the statistics unit, Ministry of
Education, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria Public Junior Secondary School (J.S.S.). The inventory requested
among other things, data on the Junior Secondary School Certificate Examinations (JSSCE) in
Mathematics and Integrated science over a two year period. The study revealed that significant
difference was detected in students’ science achievement and no significant differences between
male and female students in private and public schools. The female students achieved and retained
better than male students in science.
Atovigba, (2012) identified gender trends in Nigerian secondary students’ achievement in
Algebra. A post-test only experimental study was carried out in 2010 which randomly selected 100
senior school students chosen from two secondary schools in Makurdi, Benue state comprising of
50 males and 50 females. The students were examined using the Quadratic Equation Roots Test,
QERT, instrument to obtain mean scores and variance of both female and male students. The t-test
at 0.05 alpha was used to test significance of difference in mean performance. The male students
performed significantly higher than the female students.
52
The literature on how gender affects academic achievement in science is filled with
conflicting reports. While some researchers are of the view that sex is not a relevant factor that
should be considered while predicting school achievement, others are of the view that sex is a
relevant factor in predicting school achievement. These apparent conflicts on the question of gender
on students’ achievement underscore the need to examine the effects of VTI and PPP on male and
female students’ achievement and retention of selected biology content.
Studies on Retention
This section of review traces some related studies on the subject of retention.
Adebola (2012) worked on a problem solving model as strategy for improving Secondary
School students’ achievement and retention in further mathematics. In the study, they adopted pre-
test, post-test, control group quasi-experimental design involving a 2x2 factorial matrix. 80 Senior
Secondary School (SSII) students from two purposely selected schools participated in the study.
Three Instruments namely: Teachers’ Instructional Guide, Further Mathematics Achievement Test
(FMAT)(r=0.76) and student Retention Test (SRT) (r=0.75) were developed, validated and used for
data collection to test six null hypothesis raised for the study. Data collected was analysed using
analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) at the 0.05 level of significance. Findings showed that problem-
solving strategy had significant main effect on students’ achievement and retention in Further
Mathematics.
Onyegegbu (1999) investigated the effects of using audio-rolliograph instructional material
on students’ achievement after learning the Biology concept of bilharziasis. In this study, a quasi-
experimental, non-equivalent control group design involving two groups was used. A sample of
345 SSII students from eight intact classes from four secondary schools was divided into
53
experimental (Audio rolliograph) and control (Conventional method). The result of the study
showed that audio-rolliograph instructional material was significantly more effective in increasing
student’s achievement and retention than the conventional lecture method. She concluded that the
significant difference might be a result of the ability of the audio-rolliograph screen to provide more
concrete representations of the disease as it synchronizes with the sound from the player arouses
students interest, who in turn become curious and all attentions and concentration are focused on
the large screen rolliograph. According to her, all these can lead to retention and permanent
learning in students.
Chianson (2011) investigated the effect of cooperative learning method compared with the
conventional learning method in order to find out the retention level of students in circle geometry.
The study was carried out on SSII students in the three educational zone (zone A, B and C) in
Benue state, Nigeria. The ability of students to grasp and memorize a mathematical concept or topic
that was taught has become a problem in secondary schools. These problems may arise due to
inappropriate teaching methods being used to explain these topics. The study adopted the
cooperative learning strategy to teach 358 SSII students circle geometry. An independent T-test
analysis was used to determine whether a statistical significant difference existed between the
cooperative learning approach in terms of students retention of the taught concept (t(356) = 8.474,
p=0.001). The findings of the study confirmed that students who were subjected to the cooperative
learning strategy were able to retain the concepts of circle geometry more using the conventional
learning approach.
This study intends to investigate the effect of PPPs and VTI on students’ achievement and retention
of some Biology contents.
54
Summary of Literature Review
The literature review was organised under conceptual framework, theoretical background and
empirical studies.
In the conceptual framework, the concept of instructional materials revealed that
instructional materials are the pivot on which the wheel of teaching and learning rotates. This is
because, teaching and learning are complex processes composed of interaction among teachers,
students, instructional content and the environment. Therefore, in order to achieve the set out
instructional objectives, the teacher must adopt a proper instructional delivery approach. The
traditional instructional delivery approaches in vogue have not really being able to achieve these
objectives fully because they make students understand biology concepts at knowledge level
without understanding the real meanings. As a result, it is therefore important that alternative
instructional delivery approaches are needed to teach this sort of difficult concepts in biology. This
study then looked into the use of two instructional delivery approaches which are the use of
videotaped instructions and powerpoint presentations in teaching of biology. This is because, for
effective teaching and learning process, it is necessary that the teacher should not limit him/herself
to the use of verbal medium. This then calls for the use of these two instructional delivery
approaches in order to find out if it would improve achievement and enhance retention of biology
concepts. From this study, we discovered that there is a high rate of failure in biology and in order
to address this issue, teachers need to be exposed to appropriate teaching and learning approaches
which requires the use of instructional materials. This is because, it has been observed that retention
of concepts can be improved by explicitly creating memorable events involving visual or auditory
images. This study also sought to find out, if instructional delivery approaches used by teachers will
have any impact on gender by trying to bridge the gap between male and female students.
55
In the theoretical background, two theories were discussed namely; Stimulus-Response
(S-R) Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory. The S-R learning theory is also known as the
behavioural theory. For the behaviourist, the quality of what is learnt depends on the strength and
nature of the links between the stimulus and the response. For this study, students will be instructed
using VTI and PPP CDROM containing biology instructions. The instruction here is the stimulus
because it contains visual and sound sensations. The responses of students to these will then be
assessed. The social cognitive theory believes that learner plays a prominent role in cognitively
selecting, organising and transforming stimuli from the environment in which he is found.
Accordingly, learning occurs by watching the events of the environment. For this study, the
students watched (observed) Biology instructions as presented using VTI and PPP (stimuli). The
study assessed if the students were able to cognitively organize and transform the stimuli. The
assessment was done using their answers (responses) to the questions posed on the instructional
content. Acquisition of skills (learning) indicates ability to transform stimuli from the environment.
The empirical studies were categorised under studies on the use of PPP and VTI, studies on
gender and student achievement in science and studies on retention. From the review of related
literature on PPP and VTI, it is evident that studies are very scanty in the area of biology and no
studies comparing the effect of both PPP and VTI on students’ achievement and retention in
biology was found. Therefore, this study intends to find out the effects of these two instructional
delivery approaches on students’ achievement and retention in biology. The literature on how
gender affects academic achievement in science is filled with conflicting reports. While some
researchers are of the view that sex is not a relevant factor that should be considered while
predicting school achievement, others are of the view that sex is a relevant factor in predicting
school achievement. These apparent conflicts on the question of gender on students’ achievement
56
underscore the need to examine the effects of VTI and PPP on male and female students’
achievement and retention of selected biology content. From the studies related to retention, it is
noted that meaningfulness, direction and motivation are the key ingredients which help to retard
forgetting. Also, the use of proper instructional delivery approaches like PPP and VTI would
probably enable students retain the concepts in biology more than using the traditional instructional
delivery approaches.
It would appear that PPP and VTI have been effective for students utilizing them to direct
their independent study. However, additional knowledge and experience might be gained from an
investigation into their effect on achievement in Biology instruction as well as their effect on
students’ retentive ability. This study will hopefully assist in providing evidence about the
effectiveness of PPP or VTI to instructions and learning and on achievement and retention ability.
57
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD
This chapter describes the method used in carrying out the study under the following
headings. Research design, area of study, population of the study, sample and sampling technique.
Also, instrument for data collection, development of instructional materials, validation of
instrument for data collection and instructional materials, reliability of instrument, experimental
procedure, control of extraneous variables, method of data collection and method of data analysis.
Research Design
The design of this study is a quasi-experimental design; specifically, the pretest-posttest
non-equivalent group design. It investigated the effects of video-taped instructions (VTI) and power
point presentation (PPP) on achievement and retention. No control group was used because
treatment was administered to the two groups. It is a quasi-experimental design because the two
treatment groups were randomly assigned to two intact classes. The use of intact classes was to
avoid disrupting normal class activities in the schools involved in the study. Symbolically, this
design is represented thus:
Group 1 O X1 O1 O2
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Group 2 O X2 O1 O2
The symbols are explained thus:
O = Pretest observations
X1 = Treatment 1 using VTI
X2 = Treatment 2 using PPP
O1 = Posttest observations
O2 = Retention test
--- = Non-equivalent of the two groups
58
Area of the Study
The study was conducted in Nsukka Local Government Area of Enugu State which
comprises Nsukka, Igbo-Etiti and Uzo-Uwani Local Government Areas. The rational for this choice
is based on the fact that, it is an area with good facilities like electricity and infrastructures like
laboratories which are prerequisite for the experiment. Also, students in this area achieve poorly in
biology.
Population of the Study
The population for this study comprises all the biology students in Senior Secondary Class
two (SS II) in Nsukka Educational Zone. This is because the topic chosen for the study is taught in
first term of SSII according to biology core curriculum. Nsukka Educational Zone consist of 31
public schools of which 22 are co-educational with an estimated number of 7, 130 students offering
biology.
Sample and Sampling Technique
The sample for this study was drawn from two schools in Nsukka Local Government Area.
The sample size for this study was 79 students drawn from two public co-educational schools. The
sampling technique used is multi stage sampling technique. Purposive sampling technique was first
used to select two schools with similar characteristics ( in terms of facilities, staffing, poor
performance in biology and location). Secondly, random sampling was used to select one intact
class from each school. Finally, treatment was randomly assigned to each intact class, that is, one
class was assigned VTI and the other PPP.
59
Instrument for Data Collection
Two instruments were used for data collection in this study. They are the Biology
Achievement Test (BAT) and Biology Retention Test (BRT). Specifically, the questions were
drawn from skeletal system of biology content. The BAT was used for both pre-test and post-test. It
consist of 30 items of multiple choice objective test. Each objective question has 4 options
A,B,C,D, scored 1 mark each with a total of 30 marks, This test is designed to measure students’
cognitive achievement in the skeletal system lesson. The BRT was used to determine the extent to
which the experimental groups differed in remembering the contents taught and it was administered
2 weeks after the achievement test. The retention test is the same as the achievement test, except for
the fact that, the items in the achievement test were re-organized and printed on a coloured paper.
Development of Instructional Materials
The instructional delivery approaches that were used are VTI and PPP packaged in a
Compact Disc Read Only Memory (CDROM). The VTI and PPP CDROM containing these
instructions on the skeletal system were used as instructional materials in delivering the lesson. The
VTI and PPP CDROM were developed by the combined efforts of the researcher and a Computer
Programmer using the lesson script. The lesson scripts were prepared by the researcher and it
comprised of three lessons of 40 minutes duration each on the topic “skeletal system” (see appendix
A). The topic skeletal system was chosen because it is an area of biology containing a lot of
diagrams, most of which are complex and most students find it difficult to understand how these
bones are related to one another (Okoye, 2003). The VTI and PPP were designed to help students
know the individual bones and how they are connected to one another. The topic was selected from
SS II Biology curriculum (see appendix B).
60
Validation of Instrument for Data Collection and Instructional Materials
The BAT, BRT, a table of specification which guided the development of the test items,
VTI and PPP CDROM containing biology instructions and lesson scripts were made available to
the validators. The researcher asked the validators to; examine the structure of the items, determine
the extent to which the items will help to achieve the objectives of the topic, determine the extent
the table of specification is correct with respect to the topic covered. Two experts from Science
Education and one expert from Educational Technology validated the instruments and instructional
materials. Comments and corrections were made which were effected by the researcher. Summary
of validators’ comments is found in appendix I.
Reliability of the Instrument
The BAT was trial-tested by administering the test to a sample of 40 students in one intact
biology class of SS 2 students at Community Secondary School Ede-Oballa, Nsukka. These
subjects were not involved in the main study but were equivalent samples of the group for which
the instrument was developed and had covered the lessons on the topic chosen. Trial testing was
done in order to determine the reliability of the instrument. The scripts were marked and the scores
recorded. Answers to BAT are shown in (appendix G).
To estimate the reliability of the instrument, the data collected from the BAT was subjected
to a reliability test and analyzed using Kudder–Richardson Formula 20 (KR20) reliability
coefficient. The Kudder–Richardson Formula 20 was used because the test items were
dichotomously scored and administered only once. A reliability index of 0.88 was determined. The
calculation is shown in appendix H.
61
Experimental procedure
This study involved two groups of subjects which were the VTI group and the PPP group.
The VTI group were the experimental group 1 while the PPP were the experimental group 2.
On the first day of the experiment, the test instrument BAT was administered as pre-test to
all the students in the sample schools. After this, both the VTI and PPP groups were taught the
skeletal system for a period of two weeks using the VTI and PPP CD-ROM played in a laptop and
projected on a screen using a projector for better and clearer view. A total of 5 lesson periods were
used as shown in appendix F. Each lesson period lasted for 40 minutes.
At the end of the lesson, the post test was administered to the students. The researcher
marked and recorded the scores. The retention test was administered to the students 2 weeks after
the experiment. The retention test is necessary to determine how the two treatment groups differ in
remembering the content learnt. The teachers helped in distributing the instrument and answer
sheets to the students. They also supervised the students and collected the answer sheets at the end
of the test.
Control of extraneous variables
The following measures were adopted to control some of the extraneous variables in the
study.
1. Experimental bias: when researchers involve external teachers in experiments, the students
become sensitized that they are being used for a study. Consequently, they tend to behave
mechanically, faking most of their actions. This introduces bias. In order to avoid bias in
this study, the regular Biology teachers in each of the schools used for the study were
62
trained on how to use the media. The researcher monitored these teachers to ensure that they
effectively adhered to instructions.
2. School variables: co-educational schools were used because gender is a variable in the
study. Also, public schools were used in order to make sure that the students have the same
learning standard and share similar classroom conditions.
3. Initial group differences : randomization is one of the procedures of controlling initial
group differences in an experimental study. However, this was not done in the present
research, since the process would disrupt normal school administration. Instead, intact
classes were used. Thus, to control initial differences of subjects in these intact classes,
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used in data analysis as post-hoc control.
4. Variability of instructional situation : homogeneity of instruction across groups was
ensured as follows;
• The researcher trained all the teachers on instructional procedures involved
• Teachers were directed to strictly follow the detailed lesson note provided
• The VTI and PPP groups, were taught the same topics within the regular periods
allocated to biology in the school time table.
5. Teacher variable : in other to control for teacher variable, the researcher prepared the
lesson notes on the topic in biology which were used to instruct the students. The researcher
trained the teachers on how to effectively handle the lesson. The training package involved,
showing them where to turn on the projector and adjust the screen, she showed them the
turn on key on the laptop for it to turn on and boot. The researcher showed the teacher
where to insert the CDROM, that is, in the CDROM drive. When this is done, the CDROM
will open up automatically and display two options which are PPP and VTI lessons. The
63
teacher selects the one he/she intends to use. The teacher double clicks on the VTI lessons
and opens it up; he/she selects the particular lesson to be taught; double clicks on it and it
opens up automatically. He/she pauses the lessons using the pause key where students
require more time to grasp the content especially where there are diagrams. The teacher
double clicks on PPP lessons and it opens up. He/she selects the particular lesson to be
taught, double click and then hold the shift key and click on f5. When this happens, the
lesson begins. She then clicks on the “next ” (›) arrow for the next slide to display. The
researcher shows the teacher areas where she will supplement the lesson with explanation
and pause the lessons where students require more time to grasp the content especially
where there are diagrams. The researcher then tells the teacher to close the lessons by
clicking the close key ( X ) and then remove the CDROM. The researcher shows the teacher
where to shut down the system and disconnect the projector.
Method of data collection
Students’ scores in the first administration of test items served as the pre-test scores of the
study. The topic “skeletal system” was taught for two weeks after which the test items were re-
arranged and re-administered to the students as post-test. The scores that were obtained from
second administration served as post test scores in the study. After 2 weeks, the items were re-
arranged and printed on a coloured paper and re-administered. The scores that was obtained from
the third administration served as retention test scores in the study.
Method of data analysis
The research questions were answered using Mean and Standard Deviation. The hypothesis
was tested at 0.05 level of significance using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA).
64
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
This chapter present the results of data analysis based on the six research questions and six
null hypotheses that guided the study.
Research Question 1
What is the effect of VTI and PPP on students’ mean achievement scores in biology?
To answer the research question, the pre test and post test scores of the students were computed and
presented on table 1.
Table 1: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) of students’ achievement in biology
GROUP N PRETEST POSTTEST GAIN SCORE
1 SD1 2 SD2
PPP 39 7.87 3.08 12.31 3.91 4.44
VTI 40 8.18 3.08 15.05 5.05 6.87
The data on students’ achievement in table I revealed that students taught biology using PPP
had mean achievement score of 12.31 while the mean achievement score of students taught with
VTI was 15.05. Students taught biology using VTI therefore, performed better than their
counterparts taught biology using PPP.
X
X X X
65
Research Question 2
What is the effect of VTI and PPP on students’ mean retention scores in biology?
To answer the research question, the post test and retention test scores of the students were
computed and presented in table 2.
Table 2: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) of students’ retention in biology
GROUP N POSTTEST RETENTION GAIN SCORE
1 SD1 2 SD2
PPP 39 12.31 3.91 12.28 4.47 -0.03
VTI 40 15.05 5.05 18.98 4.59 3.93
The data on students’ retention in table 2 revealed that students taught biology using PPP
had mean retention score of -0.03 while the mean retention score of students taught with VTI was
3.93. Students taught biology using VTI therefore, had higher retention score than their
counterparts taught biology using PPP.
Research Question 3
What is the influence of gender on students’ mean achievement scores in biology when taught
using VTI and PPP?
To answer the research question, the pre test and post test scores of the male and female students
were computed and presented on table 3.
X
X X X
66
Table 3: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) of gender and students’ achievement in
biology
GENDER N PRETEST POSTTEST GAIN SCORE
1 SD1 2 SD2
MALE 25 7.36 2.74 15.68 4.94 8.32
FEMALE 54 8.33 3.19 12.78 4.33 4.45
Data in Table 3 revealed mean achievement score of 15.68 for male students, while the
female students had mean achievement score of 12.78. Male students therefore, had higher mean
achievement score than their female counterparts in biology.
Research Question 4
What is the influence of gender on students’ mean retention scores in biology when taught using
VTI and PPP?
To answer the research question, the post test and retention test scores of the male and female
students were computed and presented on table 4.
Table 4: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) of gender and students’ retention in biology
GROUP N POSTTEST RETENTION GAIN SCORE
1 SD1 2 SD2
MALE 25 15.68 4.94 17.96 5.83 2.28
FEMALE 54 12.78 4.33 14.61 5.25 1.83
X
X X X
X
X X X
67
Data in Table 4 revealed mean retention score of 17.96 for male students, while the female
students had mean retention score of 14.61. Male students therefore, had higher mean retention
score than their female counterparts in biology.
Research Question 5
What is the interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’ mean achievement
scores in biology?
To answer the research question, the pre test and post test scores of the male and female students in
relation to mode of instruction were computed and presented on table 5.
Table 5: Means ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) on interaction effect of mode of instruction
(VTI and PPP) and gender on the mean achievement scores of students in biology
MODE PPP VTI
N SD N SD
PRETEST
MALE 8 8.00 3.07 17 7.06 2.61
FEMALE 31 7.83 3.14 23 9.00 3.19
POSTTEST
MALE 8 11.38 (3.38) 2.19 17 17.71 (10.65) 4.57
FEMALE 31 12.55 (4.72) 4.24 23 13.09 (4.09) 4.53
TOTAL
OBSERVED MEAN 12.30 3.91 15.05 5.05
GAIN SCORE 4.44 6.87
Note: Gain scores are in parentheses
Data in Table 5 indicate that students taught biology using PPP had gain score of 4.44 and
those taught using VTI had gain score of 6.87. The result revealed a higher gain score of 4.72 for
female students taught biology using PPP and 3.38 for their male counterparts. Male students who
were taught biology with VTI had gain score of 10.65 while their female counterpart had gain score
X
X X
68
of 4.09. The results suggest ordinal interaction effect between mode of instruction and gender on
students’ mean achievement scores in biology. This was because at all levels of gender, the gain
scores were higher for male students taught biology using VTI and the difference in the gain scores
of male and female students in each group was tangible.
Research Question 6
What is the interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’ mean retention scores
in biology?
To answer the research question, the post test and retention test scores of the male and female
students in relation to mode of instruction were computed and presented on table 6.
Table 6: Means ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) on interaction effect of mode of instruction
(VTI and PPP) and gender on the mean retention scores of students in biology
MODE PPP VTI
N SD N SD
POSTTEST
MALE 8 11.38 2.19 17 17.71 4.47
FEMALE 31 12.55 4.24 23 13.08 4.53
RETENTION
MALE 8 12.13 (0.75) 3.23 17 13.71 (-4) 3.64
FEMALE 31 11.35 (-1.2) 3.44 23 13.91 (0.83) 4.12
TOTAL
OBSERVED MEAN 11.51 3.37 13.83 3.88
GAIN SCORE -0.03 3.93
Note: Gain scores are in parentheses
The results in Table 6 indicated that students taught biology using VTI had gain score of
3.93 and those taught using PPP had gain score of -0.03. The result revealed a higher gain score of
X
X X
69
0.75 for male students taught biology using PPP and -1.2 for their female counterparts. Male
students who were taught biology with VTI had gain score of -4 while their female counterpart had
gain score of 0.83. The results do not suggest ordinal interaction effect between mode of instruction
and gender on students’ mean retention scores in biology. This was because at all levels of gender,
the gain scores varied for male students taught biology using VTI and the difference in the gain
scores of male and female students in each group was tangible.
HO1: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught biology
using PPP and those taught using VTI.
Data for testing this HO is represented in table 7
Table 7: Analysis of covariance of students’ mean achievement scores in biology
SOURCES OF SUM OF DF MEAN F SIG
VARIATION SQUARES SQUARE
Corrected model 375.943(a) 4 93.986 5.157 .001
Intercept 1990.635 1 1990.635 109.216 .000
Pretest 10.142 1 10.142 .0556 .458
Mode of Instruction 183.166 1 183.166 10.049 .002
Gender 39.514 1 39.514 2.168 .145
Mode of instruction x
Gender 115.349 1 115.349 6.329 .014
Error 1348.766 74 18.227
Total 16544.000 79
Corrected total 1724.709 78
Data in table 7 showed that there is a significant mean effect of mode of instruction on students
achievement in biology f(1, 79) =5.157, p<.001. The null hypothesis therefore was rejected,
indicating that there was significance difference in the mean achievement score of students taught
biology using PPP and those taught using VTI. The mean achievement score for students taught
using PPP was 12.31, while the mean score for VTI was 15.05. The difference was in favour of
students taught using VTI. VTI therefore, was superior to PPP in biology instruction.
70
HO3: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female
students taught biology using PPP and those taught using VTI.
Data for testing this HO is represented in table 7.
Data in table 7 above revealed no significant mean effect of gender on students achievement in
biology when taught using VTI and PPP f(1, 79) = 1.883, p> .458. The null hypothesis was not
rejected, indicating that there was no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male
and female students taught biology using PPP and VTI.
HO5: There is no significant interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’ mean
achievement scores in biology.
Data for testing this HO is also represented in table 7.
Data in table 7 indicated that there is a significant interaction effect of mode of instruction and
gender on students achievement in biology f (1, 79) = 6.329, p>.145. The null hypothesis was
rejected. The interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students mean achievement
scores in biology was, therefore, statistically significant.
HO2: There is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of students taught biology
using PPP and VTI.
Data for testing this HO is represented in table 8.
71
Table 8: Analysis of covariance of students’ mean retention scores in biology
SOURCES OF SUM OF DF MEAN F SIG
VARIATION SQUARES SQUARE
Corrected model 973.395(a) 3 324.465 16.288 .000
Intercept 15218.113 1 15218.113 763.937 .000
Mode of Instruction 750.165 1 750.165 37.658 .000
Gender 30.479 1 30.479 1.530 .220
Mode of instruction x
Gender 39.644 1 39.644 1.990 .162
Error 1494.048 75 19.921
Total 21868.000 79
Corrected total 2467.443 78
R Squared=.486 (Adjusted R Squared = .465)
Data in table 8 showed a significant mean effect for mode of instruction on students retention in
biology f (1, 79s) =16.288, p<.000. The null hypothesis therefore was rejected, indicating that there
was significance difference in the mean retention score of students taught biology using PPP and
those taught using VTI. The mean retention score for students taught biology using PPP was 12.28,
while the mean retention score for those taught using VTI was 18.98. The difference was in favour
of students taught VTI. VTI therefore, was superior to PPP in biology instruction.
HO4: There is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of male and female students
taught biology using PPP and VTI.
Data for testing this HO is represented in table 8.
Table 8 above revealed a significant mean influence of gender on students retention in biology f(1,
79) = 1.530 p> .220. The null hypothesis was not rejected, indicating that there was no significant
difference in the mean retention scores of male and female students taught biology using PPP and
VTI.
72
HO6: There is no significant interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on student’s mean
retention scores in biology.
Data for testing this HO is also represented in table 8.
Data in table 8 indicated a significant interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on
students’ mean retention scores in biology f (1, 79) = 1.990, p> .162. The null hypothesis was not
rejected. The interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’ mean retention
scores in biology was, therefore, statistically significant.
Summary of Results
Data from this study revealed that:
a. Students taught biology using VTI performed better than their counterparts taught using the
PPP
b. Students taught biology using VTI had higher retention score than their counterparts taught
using the PPP.
c. Male students taught using VTI had higher mean achievement score than their female
counterparts in biology.
d. Male students taught using VTI had higher mean retention score than their female
counterparts in biology.
e. There is a significant interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on student’s mean
achievement scores in biology
f. There is a significant interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on student’s mean
retention scores in biology.
73
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
AND SUMMARY
This chapter contains discussion of findings, conclusion arising from findings and the
implications of the findings. Included also in this chapter are recommendations, suggestions of
possible areas for further studies, limitations and summary of the study.
DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS
• Effect of VTI and PPP on students’ achievement and retention in biology.
• Influence of gender on students’ achievement and retention in biology using VTI and PPP
• Interaction effect of mode of instructions and gender on students’ achievement and retention
in biology.
Effect of VTI and PPP on Students’ Achievement and Retention in Biology.
The result from this study showed that students taught using VTI achieved significantly
better than the students taught using PPP. The significant difference could be as a result of the
ability of the VTI to provide both aural and visual representations of experimental procedures
unlike the PPP which had the ability to provide only visual representations. This could also be due
to the fact that VTI has the potential of making students learn more because fun and entertainment
are natural ways through which students learn, therefore, improving achievement of students.
The result of this study supports the views of previous researchers like Agommuoh and
Nzewi (2003), Adedapo, Salawu and Afolabi (2001), Chinna and Dada (2013) and Osokoya (2007)
who indicated that students achieved significantly better when taught with VTI than when taught
74
with the conventional method. Chinna and Dada (2013) reported in their study that, the
achievement of students in biology greatly improved with the innovative use of instructional media
and creation of sound strategies for disseminating science in the classroom.
For retention, the findings of this study revealed that the VTI instructional delivery
approach enabled students to better retain what was learnt over a period of time than the PPP
instructional delivery approach. This means that the type of instructional delivery approach used in
teaching students the skeletal system resulted in significant increase in the retention of knowledge.
The use of VTI have certain advantages such as; it can be viewed as many times as needed unlike
classroom instruction. This makes it possible to revisit it as many times as possible, thereby having
an opportunity to improve their retention.
The result of this study is in agreement with the views of previous researchers such as
Rotimi, Ajogbeje and Adebola (2012), Onyegegbu (1999) and Chianson (2011) whose study
showed that students who were subjected to the use of innovative instructional delivery approaches
were able to retain the concepts been taught. Onyegegbu (1999) reported that audio-rolliograph
instructional material was significantly more effective in increasing student’s achievement and
retention than the conventional lecture method after a study on the effects of using audio-
rolliograph instructional material on students’ achievement after learning the Biology concept of
bilharziasis. She reported that, that the significant difference might be a result of the ability of the
audio-rolliograph screen to provide more concrete representations of the disease as it synchronizes
with the sound from the player arouses students interest, who in turn become curious and all
attentions and concentration are focused on the large screen rolliograph. According to her, all these
can lead to retention and permanent learning in students. The findings of this study however,
contradicts that of Mudasiru (2005), who reported that there was no significant difference in the
75
post test and retention test scores of students taught using VT and those exposed to slide-tape
instructions. Probably, this could be as a result of improper implementation of the two instructional
delivery approaches used.
Influence of Gender on Students’ Achievement and Retention Scores in Biology using VTI
and PPP
The findings of this study indicates that male students taught using VTI, achieved
significantly higher scores than female students at all levels. This could be due to the fact that some
female students believe that science is too difficult and not important for their future. Also, the
males are already inclined to science subjects and see it as a necessity, therefore paid serious
attention to lessons.
On retention, the results from this study showed that gender had significant influence on
students’ retention in biology. It is obvious from the result of this study that, male students retained
significantly better than female students when taught using VTI. For knowledge to develop, the
acquired materials in the mind need to be preserved in form of images. Therefore, VTI combined
both still and motion pictures which captured the students mind and helped them retain better. The
male probably retained better than the females because they are more inclined to science related
subjects and have a natural positive attitude to science subjects while the females show negative
attitude.
The result of this study supports the views of previous researchers like Abdu-Raheem
(2012) and Atovigba (2012). These researchers observed that gender had significant effect on
achievement in favour of males. For instance, Abdu-Raheem (2012) in the study of the influence of
Gender on Secondary School Students’ Academic Achievement in South-West, Nigeria, reported
76
that male and female students achieved equally in English language while males achieved better
than females in science. He therefore, recommended that necessary materials/equipment should be
provided to make Sciences interesting to girls. Nevertheless, the findings of this study are in
disagreement with Oludipe (2012), Mudasiru(2005) and Ayodele (2009) who found no significant
difference in academic achievement and retention of male and female students.
Interaction Effect of Mode of Instruction and Gender on Students’ Achievement and
Retention in Biology
The interaction between mode of instruction and gender on students’ mean achievement
scores in biology was significant. This is because, the male students achieved higher than the
female students. This may probably be because, the male students are already naturally inclined to
scientific and technological fields. Also, male students tend to be more imaginative, creative and
critical.
In the case of retention, the study revealed higher mean retention scores for female students
who were taught using VTI and lower mean retention scores for male students who were taught
using VTI. This shows that there is a significant interaction effect of mode of instruction and
gender on students’ mean retention scores in biology. The female students retained better than the
male when taught with VTI. The researcher observed that the female students were excited about
the innovative teaching approach and this excitement was enduring. Also, the female students
showed greater zeal in trying to understand the topic taught by asking questions related to the topic.
This could be the reason why they retained better.
77
This is in agreement with the findings of Abdu-Raheem (2012) who reported that male
students achieved better than females in science. While, Ayodele (2009), reported that females
retained better than males.
However, this disagrees with Oludipe (2012) who is of the opinion that there is no
significant difference in the mean achievement and retention scores of male and female students.
CONCLUSION
From the result obtained in the study on effect of two instructional delivery approaches on
senior secondary school students’ achievement and retention in biology, it was found that;
(1) Students taught biology with VTI had higher mean achievement scores than those students
taught with PPP.
(2) The students taught biology with VTI retained better than those taught with PPP.
(3) The male students achieved significantly higher scores than the female students when taught
with VTI.
(4) The male students had higher mean retention scores than the female students when taught
with VTI.
(5) There was significant interaction between the mode of instruction and gender on students’
mean achievement scores in biology.
(6) There was also significant interaction between the mode of instruction and gender on
students’ mean retention scores in biology.
78
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
The findings of this study have educational implications for students, teachers and the
ministry of Education. The results of this study provide useful feedback on the relative efficacy of
VTI and PPP as effective instructional delivery approaches. The feedback will now provide the
basis upon which Biology teachers could build to enhance the efficacy of their instructional
delivery approach in teaching.
In general, the study revealed that VTI was efficacious relative to students’ achievement and
retention in Biology. This could be as a result of VTI possessing the qualities of providing a semi-
permanent, complete and audio-visual record of event. This will suggest then that, not only will the
use of the instructional delivery approaches in Biology teaching enhance students’ achievement, it
will also highly improve the retention ability of the students.
Biology teachers have a major role in introducing the use of these instructional delivery
approaches as part of their teaching approach. Results from this study have shown that students
taught using these instructional delivery approaches achieved higher and retained more knowledge
of the skeletal system in biology. This may not necessarily be limited to enhancement of
achievement and retention, but may also include the development of favourable attitudes towards
the subject biology.
Classroom learning is enhanced by a variety of instructional delivery approaches. The
utilization of these instructional delivery approaches can arouse students’ interest, curiosity,
motivation, imagination and stimulation which could lead to retention and permanent learning in
students. It is therefore, paramount that the state Government especially, Ministry of Education to
introduce these instructional delivery approaches into the school curriculum.
79
The findings of this study in respect to the combined effect of mode of instruction and
gender on students’ achievement and retention in biology were significant. Since both males and
females benefitted from the two instructional delivery approaches, it might be possible to reduce or
eliminate gender related differences in the study of biology.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings of this study and their implications, the following recommendations were
made;
1. Since the use of VTI in teaching has been found to enhance achievement and retention in
Biology, Biology teachers should employ it more in the teaching of the subject especially
for topics that are abstract.
2. State and Federal Government should procure enough computers for all secondary schools,
especially government owned schools that cannot afford to buy computers themselves.
Government should also endeavour to provide all secondary schools with electricity and
stand-by generators should be installed in these schools, in the case of power failure.
3. The production of VTI is complex and expensive and teachers lack the skills, funds and
competencies of producing them. Professional organizations like the Nigerian Association
for Educational Media and Technology (NAEMT), Science Teachers Association of Nigeria
(STAN) and all other stakeholders in Education who are concerned with improving
instruction should undertake the production of VTI for use in schools. Also, Government
should encourage and sponsor in-service educational opportunities for interested
Biology teachers to learn the basic skills of producing VTI
and other instructional materials.
80
LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
1. Due to inconsistency in the supply of electricity in most schools and lack of computers, the
researcher brought along computer, projectors and generators.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
The following suggestions are made for further research.
1. A study may be carried out to investigate the effect of VTI on students’ acquisition of
science process skills and interest in biology.
2. Further research efforts in this area to investigate the effect of VTI on students of different
ability levels.
3. It is also suggested that a study of this type be conducted with a larger and broader sample
size.
SUMMARY OF THE STUDY
The study investigated the effects of two instructional delivery approach (VTI and PPP) on
senior secondary school students’ achievement and retention in biology. The study also examined
the influence of gender on achievement and retention in biology. Six research questions guided the
study and six null hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance.
Related literature was reviewed. The review showed among other things that some studies
had been carried out using VTI, while others were carried out using PPP but none compared the
two together.
A quasi-experimental pretest – posttest non-equivalent group design was used. Seventy nine
senior secondary class two (SSII) Biology students in two intact classes from two co-educational
81
schools were used. One group of intact class was taught using VTI and the other group taught using
PPP. Biology Achievement Test (BAT) and Biology Retention Test (BRT) with a reliability, co-
efficient of 0.88 was used to measure students’ achievement and retention before and after
treatment.
Data obtained were analysed using Mean and Standard Deviation to answer the research
questions and Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) to test the hypothesis. Findings indicated that,
students taught biology using VTI achieved and retained better that those taught using PPP; male
students achieved significantly higher scores than the female students when taught using VTI.
Gender was significant because, male students had higher mean retention scores than their female
counterparts when taught with VTI. Also, there was significant interaction between the mode of
instruction and gender on students achievement and retention in biology.
The educational implications of the findings were highlighted. It was recommended amongst other
things, that Biology teachers should use VTI in teaching biology. The limitation of the study was
highlighted and suggestions for further research made. Based on the findings of this study, it was
concluded that VTI was more effective in enhancing students’ achievement and retention in
Biology in senior secondary schools.
82
REFERENCES
Abdu – Raheem, B.O. (2012). The Influence of Gender on Secondary School Students’ Academic
Performance in South-West, Nigeria. Journal of Social Science, 31 (1) 93 – 98.
Adams, D. (1990) Connecting Video Segments to Collaborative Learning Activities. Educational
Media International 1 (27) 158-63
Adedapo,Y.A, Salawu, I.O. and Afolabi, A.O. (2001). Effects of Video and AudioTaped Instruction
on Cognitive Learning Outcomes in Economics. Ilorin Journal of Education 1(1)1-8
Adigwe, J.C. (1999). Gender in Classroom Interaction in Science Learning. International Journal
of Women studies1 (2)7-14.
Agina – Obu, T.N. (2005). The Relevance of Instructional Materials in Teaching and Learning in
Robert-Okah, I. and Uzoeshi, K.C (Ed) Theories and practice of Teaching. Port Harcourt:
Harey Publication
Agommuoh, P.C and Nzewi, U.M. (2003). Effects of Video taped Instruction on Secondary School
Students Achievement in Physics. Journal of the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria
38 (1) (2) 88-93
Alaku, P.O. (1998). Instructional Strategies and Audio-Visual Aids for Teachers’ Effectiveness.
Bichi Journal of Education 2(1)114-117.
Alao, K.O and Adeniyi, W.O. (2008). Psychology of Learning. Published by National Open
University of Nigeria.
Aremu, S.A. (1992).The Need, Usefulness and Effectiveness of Instructional Materials for
Meaningful Teaching and Learning. Journal of studies in curriculum 3(1) (2) Lagos:
Academic Publications Association of Nigeria.
Asogwa, U.D and Echemazu, R. (2011). Effects of Power point Presentations on Secondary School
Students’ Achievement in C.R.K International Journal of Educational Research 11 (1)
22-30
Atovigba, M.V (2012). Gender Trends in Nigerian Secondary School Students’ Performance in
Algebra. Research Journal of Mathematics and Statistics 4(2)42 – 44.
Ayinde, A.T. (1999). Resources for Effective Teaching and Learning of Agriculture Science. Bichi
Journal of Education and Planning 1(1)6-8.
Ayodele, M.O (2009). Gender Differences in Mathematics and Integrated Science Achievement
among Junior Secondary School Students. MJLI VOL. 6 (41-53)
Bannon, B.O. (2012). Planning for Instruction: Instructional methods.
http://edtech2.tennessee.edu/projects/bobannon retrieved 5 Aug, 2013.
Barford, J. and Weston, C. (1997). The Use of Video as a Teaching Resource in New University.
British Journal of Educational Technology 28 (1)
83
Berlongieri, R.L. (2013). Teaching standards: Instructional Delivery Approach. Vandercook
college of music.
Benedict, N. (1994). Effects of Two Types of Media Presentation on the Cognitive and
Psychomotor Performance of Fine Art Students. Journal of professional Education. Vol.
(95-108).
Cepni, S., Tas, E. and Kose, S. (2006). The effects computer-assisted material on students’
cognitive levels, misconceptions and attitudes towards science. Computers and Education,
46: 192-205.
Chambers, P. (1997). Using Interactive Video with Special Educational Needs. British Journal of
Educational Technology 28 (1) 31-39
Chianson, M. M (2008). Effects of Cooperative Learning on Students’ Achievement and Retention
in Circle Geometry in Secondary Schools in Benue State. Unpublished M.Ed thesis,
Benue State University, Markurdi.
Chinason, M.M. (2011). Effect of Cooperative Learning Strategy on Students’ Retention in Circle
Geometry in Secondary Schools in Benue State, Nigeria. American Journal of Scientific
and Industrial Research 2(1) 33-36
Chinna,N.C. and Dada,M.G (2013). Effects of Developed Electronic Instructional Medium on
Students’s Achievement in Biology. Journal of Education and Learning;2(2)1-7.
Cook, D.M. (1998). The power of power point. Nurse Educator 23(4)5-9
Cope, S.G. (2011). The Types of Teaching Strategies. Retrieved on September 8,2011 from
http://www.ehow.com/info_12044336_types_teaching_strategies.
Corcoran, T. and Silander, M.(2009). Instruction in High School: The Evidence and the Challenge.
Journal of America's High Schools 19(1)38-39
Cruse, E. (2007). Using Educational Video in the Classroom: Theory, Research and Practice.
Unpublished M.Ed Thesis Curriculum Director, Library Video Company, Kaiser Family
Foundation.
Curzon, L.B. (1990). Teaching in Further Education London: Casell Educational Ltd.
Dahar, M.A and Faize, F.A (2011). Effect of the Availability and the Use of Instructional Material
on Academic Performance of Students in Punjab. Pakistan: Euro Journals Publishing, Inc.
Davis, C. and Wilcock, E. (2009). Teaching materials. Retrieved on August, 2012 from
http://www.ehow.com/info.teaching_materials.
Educational Encyclopaedia (2013). Individualized instruction pace, methods and content. < a href=
" http://education.state university.com/pages/2085/individualized instruction.html".>
Esu, A.E.O, Enukoha, O.I.T. and Umorem, G.U. (2004). Curriculum Development in Nigeria for
Colleges and Universities. Owerri: Whyte and Whyte publishers
84
Etukudo, U.E. (2006). The Effect of Computer Assisted Instruction on Gender and Performance of
Junior Secondary School in Mathematics. ABACUS Journal of Mathematical Association
of Nigeria 27(1)1-8.
Eze, S.A (2008). The Relationship between Science Teachers’ Perceived Self Efficacy and Job
Performance. Journal of Educational Research, Faculty of education, UNN 8 (162-170)
Fajola O. O. (2008). Improvising Materials for Science Education in Nigerian Schools. A Paper
Presented at the Workshop on Improvisation of Science Equipment.
Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2001). A Handbook on Continuous
Assessment. Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education Yaba: Lagos, NERDC Press 4th
Ed.
Frank, H. (2008). Using Learning Resources to Enhance Teaching and learning. London: Center
for Educational Development Imperial college.
Friel, S. N. and Carboni, L.W. (2002). Using Instructional Videotapes in an Elementary
Mathematics Methods Course. International Journal for Mathematics Teaching and
Learning.1(1-23)
Hornby, A.S. (2001). Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary of Current English. Italy Oxford
University Press.
Ibe, E. (2006). Effects of Gender and Teaching methods on Science Process Skills Acquisition
among Senior Secondary School Students. International Journal of Educational Research
(INJER) 1(1) 141-147.
Ibeneme, O.T.(2000). Provision and Utilization of Instructional Equipment for Teaching and
Learning Science and Technology. Issue in Educational Journal,1:139-144.
Ifeakor, A.C. (2005). Effect of commercially produced Computer Assisted Instruction Package on
Students’ Achievement and Interest in Secondary School Chemistry. Unpublished Ph.D
Dissertation. Nsukka: University of Nigeria.
Igwe, I.T. (2003). Enriching Science Education: The Place of Improvisation in Classroom. Science
Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN) 41st Annual Conference Proceedings. 51-53
Iji, C.O. (2002). Effects of Logo and Basic Programmes on Achievement and Retention in
Geometry of Junior Secondary School Students. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of
Nigeria,Nsukka.
Iji, C.O. (2010). Approach on Senior Secondary School Geometry. Journal of Science Teachers’
Association of Nigeria. 3(2):45-50.
Inamullah, M. (2005). Patterns of Classroom Interaction at Different Educational levels in the light
of Flander’s Interaction. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. Nsukka, University of Nigeria, Arid
Agriculture Rawal pindi.
85
Information Technology Service (2006). Using Microsoft Power Point. Guide 42 Version 1.0.
Inyang – Abia and Esu, A.E.O. 1990 in Esu, A.E.O. etal (2004). Curriculum Development in
Nigeria for Colleges and Universities. Owerri: Whyte and Whyte Publishers.
Isola, O.M. (2010). Effects of Standardized and Improvised Instructional Materials on Students’
Academic Achievement in Secondary School Physics. Unpublished M.Ed Thesis,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Iyang, N.E.U. and Ekpeyong, H.E.(2000). Influence of Ability and Gender Grouping on Senior
Secondary School Chemistry Students Achievement on the Concept of Redox Reactions.
Journal of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria 35 (1) 36-42
Jocelyn, R. (2010) .The Importance of Learning Materials in Teaching.Retrieved on June 15,2010
from www.eHow.comehow.blog
Jotia, A.L. and Mathale, O.J (2011). Use of Instructional Materials in Social Studies. Impact on
Students’ Performance in Primary School Leaving Examinations in Botswana. European
Journal of Educational Studies 3(1) 111 – 122 Ocean Publication.
Karen, B. S. (2008). Biology and Society: A New Way to Teach Tertiary Science to Non-Science
Students.BiologyEducaton.http://www.bioscience.heacademy.ac.uk/Journal/vol.12/beej.12
Kundu, C. L. and Tutoo, N.N. (2002). Educational Psychology. Sterling publishers: New Delhi.
Lagoke, B.A, Jegede, O.J. and Oyebanyi, P.K. (1995). Towards Eliminating Gender Gulf in
Science Concept Attainment Through the Use of Environmental Analogs. Paper presented
at the 8th
GASAT Conference. Ahmed abad Gujarat, India 5th
– 10th
Jan. 1996.
Lim, D.H. and Morris, M.L. (2009). Learner and Instructional Factors Influencing Learning
Outcome within a Blended Learning Environment. Educational Technology and Society,
12 (4) 282-293.
Longe, R.S. and Adejeji, S.O. (2003). Increasing Girls Access to Technical and Vocational
Education in Nigeria. Ibadan: Macmillan Publisher Nigeria.
Madhavan, T. (2010). Teaching Learning Materials. Retrieved on July 8,2010 from Blog at
wordpress.com
Maduekwe, A. N. (2006). Perspective on Teacher Education and ICTs in the Language Classroom,
V. B. (ed). An Introduction to Educational Technologies in Education. Lagos: Sibon books
Ltd.
Mandor, A.K (2002). Effect of Constructivist-based Instructional Model on Acquisition of Science
Process Skills among Junior Secondary Students. Unpublished M.Ed Thesis Nsukka:
University of Nigeria
Martha, C.S. (1997).Using Power Point presentation in writing classes. Published in the
Technology Source: North Carolina.
86
Martin, J. (1993). Episodic Memory: A neglected phenomena in the psychology of Education.
Educational Psychologist. 28(2)169-183
Mason, R. and Hlynka, D. (1998). Power Point in the Classroom. Educational technology
(September – October) 45-48.
Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Miller, G. (1997). Studying Agriculture through Video tape: Learner Strategies and Cognitive
Styles. Journal of Agricultural Education 38 (1) 21-28.
Miranda, Z. (2007). Using power point in the classroom. Retrieved on August,2007 from
http;//www.mirandazinnel.suite101.com/using_powerpoint_classroom.
Mitchell, N.L. (1994). Effective Use of Video in Interactive Modules. Proceedings on world
conference on Educational Multimedia an hypermedia, Vancower, Canada 25-30.
Mudasiru, O.Y. (2006). Effects of Video tape and Slide – tape Instructions on Students’
Performance in Junior Secondary School Social Studies. Malaysian Online Journal of
Instructional Technology 3(1) 29-35.
Nafees, M., Farouq, G., and Tahirkheli, S.A. (2012). Effects of Instructional strategies on academic
achievements in a high school general science class. International Journal of Business
and Social Science 3(5) 161-166.
Nicholls, G. (2000). “Learning to teach” pg 356-360, Bell and Bain Ltd. Glasgow.
Njoku, Z.C. (2001). Enrolment of Females in Science and Technology in Nigerian Higher
Education: Trends and Implications for Female Empowerment. Journal of the Science
Teachers Association of Nigeria 36(1&2) 87-93.
Nkwocha, P.C. (1990). Meaning and Theories of Learning. In Ogwudire, H.U and Iroegbu T.C.
(Eds) Human Learning: Principles and Applications (pp. 29-50). Owerri: Bennoka Nigeria.
Nouri, H. and Shahid, A. (2005). The Effect of Power Point Presentations on Student Learning and
attitudes. Global perspectives on Accounting Education 2, 53-73
Nwagbo, C. (2006). Effects of Two Teaching Methods on the Achievement in and Attitudes to
Biology of Students of Different Levels of Scientific Literacy. International Journal of
Educational Research 216-219.
Nworgu, L.N. (2004). Effects of Gender Sensitization of Science Teachers on Gender Gap in
Science Achievement and Interest among Students. Unpublished Ph. Dissertation. Nsukka:
University of Nigeria.
Nwosu, A.A. (1998). Teachers’ Understanding of Biology Curriculum Content and Required
Practices. Journal of the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN), 33 (1 & 2) 78-
83
Nzewi, U.M. (2010). It’s All in the Brain: of Gender and Achievement in Science and Technology
Education. Nsukka, University of Nigeria Inaugural Lecture
87
Obanya, P.A.I. (2005). Nigeria Education Sector Diagnosis. Education Sector Analysis Unit.
Federal Ministry of Education
Obinna, O. and Nnenna C.I. (2010). Effects of Videotape Instructions on Primary School Pupils
Achievement in Social Studies. Owerri. Unpublished Thesis.
Ofoegbu, T. (1994). Effects of Different Modes of Picture Presentation on Students’ Achievement
in Biology. Unpublished M.Ed Thesis. Nsukka: University of Nigeria.
Ofoegbu, T. (2003).Challenges of Implementing Senior Secondary One (SSI) Biology Curriculum
in Nigeria. Journal of the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria 38 (1)(2) 46- 50.
Ogunleye, A. O. (2002). An Investigation into the Availability and Extent of Resources in the
Teaching of Physics in some Lagos Public and Private Schools. 47th
Annual Conference of
STAN 283 – 290.
Ogunleye, B.O and Babajide, V.F. (2011) .Commitment to Science and Gender as Determinants of
Students Achievement and Practical Skills in Physics. Unpublished Article.
Oguntuase, F.Z. (2008). Implication of Copyright Provision for Literacy Work in Films and Video
for Libraries. Nigeria School Library Journal, 7: 87-99.
Okebukola, P.A.O. & Jegede, O. J. (1986). the Under-achieving Student in Science Opinions on the
Actology of the Ailment. Journal of the 27th Annual Conference of Science
Teachers’Association of Nigeria, August, Owerri, 57 – 63.
Okeke, E.A.C. (1990). Gender, Science and Technology in Africa: A challenge for Education. The
Rama Mehta Lecture 1990. Cambridge, Radcliff College.
Okeke, E.A.C (2001). Women in Science, Technology and Mathematics Education in Nigeria. In
Nzewi, U.M. (2010) It’s all in the Brain: of Gender and Achievement in Science and
Technology Education Nsukka, University of Nigeria Senate Ceremonials Committee.
Okoye, A.C. (2003). Effect of Audio Taped Instructions Supported with Pictures on Students’
Achievement and Retention in Selected Biology Content. Unpublished M.Ed Thesis.
Nsukka: University of Nigeria.
Okoye, A.C. (2012). Effects of Computer Assisted Instruction on Students’ Acquisition of Science
Process Skills and Interest in Biology. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation. Nsukka: University
of Nigeria.
Okwo, F.A. (1994). Appropriate Media Technique for Rural Development Communication and
Education in Nigeria. Journal of Quality Education 1(1) 36-45.
Oladejo, M.A. (2011). Instructional Materials and Students Academic Achievement in Physics:
Some Policy Implications. European Journal of Humanities and social science 2(1).
Journals Bank Publishing Inc.
Oladele, J.O. (1998). Fundamentals of Psychological Foundations of Education (4th
edition) Lagos:
Johus – lad Publisher Ltd.
88
Olikeze, F.C. (1999). Effect of Computer-Assisted Instruction on Secondary School Students
Cognitive Achievement and Interest in Biology. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation. Nsukka:
University of Nigeria.
Oluruntegbe, K.O. (2010). Conflicts in Science in the classroom: Documentation and Management
through Phenomenological Methodology. Educational Research and Reviews 6 (15) 828-
834.
Oludipe, D.I. (2012). Gender Difference in Nigerian Junior Secondary Students’ Academic
Achievement in Basic Science. Journal of Educational and Social Research 2(1)
Onyegegbu, N. (1999). Effects of Video and Audio Rolliograph on Student’s Achievement and
Retention in the Understanding of Schistosomiais. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. Department
of Science Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Opara, J.A. (2011). Inquiry Method and Student Academic Achievement in Biology: Lessons and
Policy Implications. American-Eurasian Journal of Scientific Research 6(1) 28-31
Osokoya, I.O. (2007). Effects of Video –taped Instruction on Secondary School Students’
Achievement in History. International Journal of African and African American Studies
6(1)
Polk, R.A.(2013). The Effects of Teaching Biology Concepts with Animations Compared with
Static Cartoons on Content Retention. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, Louisiana: University of
Agricultural and Mechanical College.
Priya, M.M. (2012). PowerPoint Use in Teaching retrieved on 10/7/2013.
Quddus, N.J. (1990). Problems of Education in Pakistan. Karachi: Royal Book Company
Raw, V.W. (2003). “Quality teaching”. APH Publishing Corporation. PP 36-39, Ansari road, New
Delhi.
Rotimi, C.O., Ajogbeje, O.J and Akeju S.O.O. (2011). A New Kind of Visual-Model Instructional
Strategy in Physics. Eurasian Journal of Physics and Chemistry Education (special Issue)
28-32
Salau, M.O. (2012). The Effect of Class Size on Achievement of Different Ability Groups in
Mathematics. Journal Science Teachers ‘Association of Nigeria, 31(1)27-33.
Salvin, R.E. (1997) .Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Umoinyang, I. E. (1999). Student Socio – Psychological Factors as Determinants of Achievement
in Senior Secondary Mathematics. Retrieved November 20, 2009 from
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/10.1108/00242539410134589
UNESCO (2011). Gender Equality in Education. UNESCO – IIEP (International Institute for
Educational Planning) Paris, France.
89
WAEC (2010). West African Examination Council. May/June Chief Examiner’s response
retrieved 31/05/2013
Wikibooks Contributors (2006). Learning Theories. Published by Wikibooks contributors.
Wookfolk, A. E. (1998). Educational Psychology (7th
Ed). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
1
SCRIPT FOR FIRST LESSON
Subject: Biology
Class: SS II
Topic: The skeletal system
Duration: 40 Minutes
Instructional materials: Power point presentation CD ROM, Laptop and projector
Entry behaviour: Students have learnt supporting tissues in plants
Content Teachers’ Activity Student activity Strategy Evaluation
Welcome to today’s biology lesson. My name is Aninweze
Chidinma, your teacher for this biology lesson.
Students watch Explanation
Specific
objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to;
1) Identify the different supporting tissues in animals
2) State the types of skeleton
3) State the functions of the skeleton
4) Mention the section that make-up the skeleton system
APPENDIX A 79
91
Set Induction
Presentation
Step 1
Supporting
tissues
1) Define a tissue (Pause ……….. 10 sec)
2) Name two supporting tissues (Pause …. 5 sec)
Answers:
1) A tissue consist of groups of cells similar in structure and
performing a particular function
2) The collenchyma
ii. The Parenchyma
Supporting tissues in animals are useful in providing rigidity,
support and shape for organisms. This include chitin, cartilage and
bone
Chitin: This is a light and flexible material found in the skeleton of
arthropods
Cartilage: This is soft and flexible and is found in body parts like
Pinna, nose, parts of the ribs, scapula and spine
Bone: This is the hardest of the three supporting tissues and is found
only in vertebrates. It is the major component of the vertebrate
skeleton. . It is the major component of the vertebrate skeleton and is
made up of widely-spaced living cells called Osteocytes and
surrounded by non-living substances (minerals) mainly calcium
phosphate (CaPO4) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
Students watch
and read carefully
Explanation
92
Step II
Types of
skeleton
Step III
Functions of
the skeleton.
Step III
Sections of the
skeleton of
mammals.
Now, how do you think you will look like without a skeleton in your
body? What shape would your hands and head have? Would you be
able to run or write a letter? What do you think is the importance of
the skeleton. The skeleton supports the body, making it to be erect.
Do arthropods have skeleton? Observe the two skeletons
carefully(skeleton of man and skeleton of an arthropod).The
skeleton types are endoskeleton and exoskeleton.
Endoskeleton: is a type of skeleton that is internal and is found in
man and in some animals.
Exoskeleton: is a type of skeleton that is external and that is
obtainable in arthropods. It is also found in some reptiles because of
the presence of scales. For example, crocodiles, lizard.So, the
similarity is that both are supporting tissues while the difference is in
the positioning of this skeleton type. Very good.
The skeleton is rigid and performs three major functions namely
support, protection and locomotion. The skeleton also gives the body
its shape and helps in respiratory movements.
The mammalian skeleton consists of two major sections axial and
appendicular skeleton. The Axial comprises of the vertebral column
or backbone and the skull or cranium while the appendicular
comprises of the limbs and limb girdles. The limbs consist of
forelimbs and hind limbs while the limb girdles consist of pectoral
Students watch
and read carefully
Students pay
attention
Explanation
Explanation
93
Evaluation
and pelvic girdles
Students read the
questions
Questioning
1.Mention the
supporting
tissues in
animals
2.State the
types of
skeleton
3.What are the
functions of the
skeleton
4.Name the
sections that
make up the
skeletal system
Summary We have studied the supporting tissues in animals, types and
functions of the skeleton and the sections of the skeleton
Student watch and
read carefully
Explanation
Carry out the following activity when you get home. Kill a rat, put
the rat into a container, add a little detergent and boil until it is soft
and the flesh peels off from the bone. Wash the bone very well and
bring them to the next lesson. You should be able to identify the
bones we have studied.
Students take
down their
assignment
Conclusion Write the answers into your biology note books and summit. With
this we have come to the end of this lesson
94
SCRIPT FOR FIRST LESSON
Subject: Biology
Class: SSII
Topic: The skeletal system
Duration: 40 minutes
Instructional materials: Video–taped Instruction, Laptop, and projector
Entry behaviour: Students have learnt supporting tissues in plants
Content Teacher’s Activity Student Activity Strategy Evaluation
Music ->
(Hold music down for a period of set induction). Hello students
welcome to today’s biology lesson. My name is Aninweze, Chidinma,
your teacher for this lesson I implore you to listen attentively and carry
out promptly every activity you will be instructed to do. Be free to take
down notes according to your wish. Get ready your writing materials as
we begin. In this first lesson, we will study supporting tissues, types
and functions of the skeleton and sections of the skeletal system.
Students listen Explanation
Specific
objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able;
1) Identify the different supporting tissues in animals
2) State the types of skeleton
3) State the functions of the skeleton
4) Mention the sections that make–up the skeletal system
Set induction Now let us remind ourselves of the last lesson
95
3) Define a tissue (Pause ……….. 10 sec)
4) Name two supporting tissues (Pause …. 5 sec)
Now, cross check your answers with mine and if you are correct clap for
yourselves
Answers:
3) A tissue consist of groups of cells similar in structure and
performing a particular function
4) The collenchyma
ii. The Parenchyma
Music --->
Music �
Now the topic for this lesson is the skeletal system. I will introduce the
topic starting with supporting tissues in animals, types and functions of
the skeleton and sections of the skeletal system.
Presentation
Steps
Step 1
Supporting
tissues in
animals
Supporting tissues in animals are useful in providing rigidity, support
and shape for organisms. These include chitin, cartilage and bone.
Chitin is a light and flexible material found in the skeleton of
arthropods. It is a dead material therefore, an insect can only grow by
ecdysis or moulting. This limits the size it can attain. Often, chitin is
strengthened by deposits of hardened protein and materials. Cartilage
is soft and flexible and is found in body part like pinna, nose, parts of
the ribs, joint, scapular and spine. Cartilage is often known as “biscuit
bone”. It is found in the embryos of all vertebrate and throughout life in
cartilaginous fish. It consist of living cells (chondroblast), carbohydrate
and protein fibres. It acts as shock absorber, cushioning the effects of
bones moving against bone. Bone is the hardest of the three supporting
Student listen to
the teacher
attentively
Explanation
96
tissues and is found only in vertebrates. It is the major component of
the vertebrate skeleton and is made up of widely-spaced living cells
called Osteocytes and surrounded by non-living substances (minerals)
mainly calcium phosphate (CaPo4) and calcium carbonate (CaC03). In
young vertebrate embryo, the skeleton is made up of cartilage. As the
embryo grows, the bone cells replaces the cartilage cells with the
addition of minerals which hardens the cartilage tissue, a process called
ossification
Step II
Types of
Skeleton
Now, how do you think you will look like without a skeleton in your
body? What shape would your hands and head have? Would you be
able to run or write a letter? Who amongst you has at one time or the
other had a broken hand or leg? Were you able to stand erect, walk or
even use the hand to do work? What do you even think is the
importance of the skeleton. The skeleton supports the body, making it
to be erect. Do arthropods have skeleton? If yes; how do their skeletons
differ from that of man? Observe the two skeletons carefully (skeleton
of man and skeleton of an arthropod). Examples of arthropods are
cockroach, housefly spider etc. The skeleton of arthropods performs the
same functions as that of man, but there is a difference between these
skeleton types. What is the difference? Does the cockroach for
example, have a skeleton covered by flesh? Does man have that? Right,
the exoskeleton is a type of skeleton that is external and this is
obtainable in arthropods. It is also found in some reptiles because of the
presence of scales. For example, crocodiles, lizard. The endoskeleton
is a type of skeleton that is internal and is found in man and some
animals. So the similarity is that both are supporting tissues while the
difference is in the positioning of this skeleton type. Very good.
Student listen and
answer teacher’s
questions
Questions
Step III
Functions of the
skeleton
Having had your skeleton all through your life, what do you think are
the functions of the skeleton? The skeleton is rigid and performs three
major functions. What are these functions?
(1) Support
(2) Protection
(3) Locomotion
Students listen Explanation
97
(Repeat the functions of the skeleton). The skeleton also gives the body
its shape and helps in respiratory movements.
We will take these functions one after the other, starting with support.
Support: How does the skeleton give the body support? If the weight
of the body are not supported on two legs, can the arms and hands be
free to do other things? Most animals cannot stand on two legs. They
have to use their fore legs and their hind legs to support themselves.
Without the skeleton, the body will be shapeless.
Protection: How does skeleton perform the function of protection? It
provides a framework, which suspends internal organs of the body.
What are some of these organs? Yes, the eyes, heart, lungs and brain.
Okay. What parts of the skeleton protect these organs? The skull
protects the eyes and brain while the ribs protect the heart and lungs.
Very good.
Locomotion Locomotion is the ability to move from place to place. How does the
skeleton make movement possible? The skeleton makes movement
possible by providing series of levers (eg. Limb bones) to which
muscles can be attached.
Respiratory Movement: The ribs and sternum bones located in the chest
area form a bony cage that takes part in breathing movement
Step IV
Sections of the
skeleton of
mammals
The mammalian skeleton consists of two major sections axial and
appendicular skeleton. The axial comprises of the vertebral column or
backbone and the skull or cranium while the appendicular comprises of
t he limbs and limb girdles. The limbs consist of forelimbs and hind
limbs while the limb girdles consist of pectoral and pelvic girdles.
Study the diagrams carefully taking note of their shapes and structure
Students listen
attentively
Explanation
98
Evaluation Now, answer the following questions;
1. Mention the supporting tissues in animals
2. State the types of skeleton
3. What are the functions of the skeleton
4. Name the sections that make up the skeletal system
Students listen to
teachers’ questions
Questioning 5.
Summary In summary, we have studied the supporting tissues in animals, the
types and functions of the skeleton and the sections of skeleton. Now,
carry out the following activity when you get home kill a rat put the rat
into a container, add a little detergent and boil until it is soft and the
flesh peels off from the bone. Wash the bone very well and bring them
to the next lesson. You should be able to identify the bones we have
studied already. In subsequent lessons we shall examine and study each
of these sections in detail. Music. -�
Conclusion Write the answers into your biology note books and summit. With this,
we have come to the end of this lesson. Music →
99
SCRIPT PLAN FOR SECOND LESSON
Subject: Biology
Class: SS II
Topic: The skeletal system (axial skeleton)
Duration: 40 Minutes
Instructional materials: Video-taped Instruction, laptop and projector .
Entry behavior: Students have learnt supporting tissues in animals, functions of skeleton and the sections of the skeleton
Content Teachers’ Activity Student Activity Strategy Evaluation
Music -� (Hold music under)
Hello students, welcome to today’s biology lesson. Today, we
shall be continuing the skeletal system. Specifically, the axial
skeleton (Repeat topic)
Students listen Explanation
Specific
objectives
Set induction
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to
1. Name the bones that make up the axial skeleton
2. Draw, label and fully describe the structure of a typical
vertebra
3. Identify the features of all the vertebrae.
4.Name the organs protected by the ribs.
Now, let us remind ourselves of the last lesson. Answer the
Students listen Explanation
100
following questions.
1. Name three supporting tissues in animals (pause…for a sec)
2. What are the functions of the skeleton? (Pause …….for a
second)
3. Name the sections that make up the mammalian skeleton
(Pause…. for a sec). Now, cross check your answers with
mine, clap for yourselves if your answers are correct.
Answers.
The three supporting tissues in animals are
(1) Chitin (2) Cartilage (3) Bone
The functions of the skeleton are
(1) Support (2) Protection (3) Locomotion (4) For respiratory
movements. The sections that make up the skeleton are the
axial (the skull and backbone) and the appendicular skeleton
(the limbs and limb girdles). Music→
Introduction
In the last lesson, you were instructed to prepare and bring the
rat skeleton to the class today. How many of you did and were
you able to identify the different sections of the skeleton? If you
have them, place on your desks as we proceed. Now, the axial
skeleton (Repeat Topic). Which bones make up the axial
skeleton? The axial skeleton consist of the skull, spinal cord, rib
and sternum bones. We will take them one after the other,
Students listen Explanation
101
starting with the skull.
Presentation
steps
Step 1
The skull: Look at the picture of the skull. Observe the bones
of the head. Can you touch your skull? The bones of your head
are called skull. The skull is made up of several flat bones
joined together to form a hollow cranium. What does the
cranium contain? Yes, the brain. The skull also have the
following features (i) two pairs of cavities which protect the
eyes and ears (ii) the upper jaw known as the maxilla (iii) A
single U-shaped bone that hinges with the rest the skull for free
upward and downward movements. This is the lower jaw or
mandible. Is the lower jaw U-shaped? (iv) teeth bone by the
upper and lower jaws. Now, what can you learn about the bones
of your skull by feeling them. Firstly, feel the top of your head.
Do you feel any spaces between the bones? Secondly, feel the
bones around your eyes, nose and mouth. Can you count the
bones in the skull? You cannot. There are twenty bones in the
skull but they cannot all be felt. What are the functions of the
skull? The skull protects the brain while the bones of the socket
protects the eyes. Study these features very well. Music →
Students listen and carry
out specific instructions
Explanation
and guided
discovery
Step II The backbone or the vertebral column
The vertebral column is the next section of the axial skeleton to
be studied. Take a look at the picture of the backbone, study it
Student listen Explanation
and guided
discovery
102
closely for one minute. What do you think is the function of the
backbone. What can you learn about your backbone by feeling
it? Firstly, run your fingers up and down your backbone. How
does it feel? What is attached to the top of your backbone.
Pause for one minute and count the number of bones that make
up the backbone. How many are they? They are thirty three (33)
bones that make up the vertebral column and each of them is
called a vertebra. Pick up any vertebra from the rat skeleton can
you see a hole in its center? How are the bones arranged? On
top of the other. By the time one becomes an adult, some of the
bones of the lower end of the spinal column will have fused.
Then the vertebral column will have only twenty bones. The
hole inside the vertebral contains what ? Yes, the spinal cord.
The spinal cord is part of the nervous system, its top is
connected to the brain and it is protected by the vertebrae. If
you observe more closely, you will see pads of cartilage
between every two vertebrae. Can you see them? What
function do you think they perform? The pads prevent the
vertebrae from rubbing against each other. They are called the
invertebral discs. observe the vertebral column once again. How
many main groups of vertebrae can you identify. Okay, five of
them. In a descending order, they are cervical vertebra, thoracic
103
vertebra, lumbar vertebra, sacral vertebra and caudal vertebra.
Very good. Music →
We will now observe the structure of a typical vertebra
Step III Take a look at the diagram of a typical vertebra. Observe the
picture very well and identify the features of a typical vertebra.
These include the centrum. It carries the neural arch with a
neural spine and transverse processes. Can you identify the
neural canal, surrounded by the arch and centrum? What passes
through the neural canal? The spinal cord. Can you see the
facets? Facets are used for articulation with other parts of the
skeleton, such as the vertebra immediately in front and behind it
and the ribs. Can you see holes and canals on the vertebra
through which nerves and blood vessels enter and leave the
spinal cord? They are the vertebrarterial canals. Now, how
many groups of vertebrae did I tell you are present in the
vertebral column? Okay, five of them. You are correct, and
what are they? Alright. The cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral
and caudal vertebrae. Thank you very much. We will now
discuss the distinguishing features of each vertebrae. Music→
Students listen Explanation
and guided
discovery
Step IV
Distinguishin
g features of
Take a look at the picture of the cervical vertebrae. The
question is this; in the midst of many different vertebrae types,
how would you identify and sort out the cervical? What features
can you identify from the picture?
Students listen and
observe attentively
Explanation
and guided
discovery
104
the vertebrae i. It has a short neural spine
ii. Each transverse process is pierced by a hole which forms part
of the vertebrarterial canal
iii. The outer parts of each transverse process is divided into two
The cervical vertebra is of two types; the atlas and axis cervical
and each of them have their own characteristic feature. Observe
the features of the atlas vertebra. What can you see?
i. It has a very large neural canal
ii. It has a broad and flat transverse process
iii. It has two large facets at the front which articulate with
knobs on the base of the skull.
Observe the features of the axis vertebra. What can you see?
I. i. It has a prominent neural spine which projects forward
ii. Centrum which projects in front as the odontoid process.
Take a look at the diagram of the thoracic vertebra very
closely. It possess the following features;
i. A long neural spine which is prominent
II. ii. A well developed transverse processes which articulate
with the ribs
Can you see the lumbar vertebra? Now, what distinguishing
features can you observe and identify. Can you see;
i. The centrum which is large and thick
ii. Well developed transverse process
iii. A number of projections from the centrum which provide
attachment for muscles of the abdominal region.
Lets proceed to the sacral vertebra. Looking at the picture, what
features can you identify? Did you observe that;
I .they fuse to form a rigid structure known as sacrum
ii. they have narrow neural canal
105
iii. the transverse processes of the first two articulate with the
pelvic girdle.
iv. the neural spine is reduced..
The last is the caudal vertebra and it is distinguished by the
following features;
i. They are fused
ii. They resemble a solid mass of stone
iii. They lack neural canal, neural spine and transverse processes
The picture of the caudal vertebra is not present and that is why I
gave you the rat skeleton project. Now identify the caudal
vertebra from amongst the bones you prepared. Draw and fully
label it.
Step V
Ribs and
sternum
Finally, we will study the ribs and sternum which is the last part
of the axial skeleton. Look at the above picture. Can you show
me your ribs and sternum? The bones of the breast are called
sternum while the bones of the lungs are called the ribs. The rib
bones protect the lungs and heart. Move your hand up and
down the center of your chest. What do you feel? That is the
sternum. Now, feel the side of the breast bone, are there bones
there? What bones are they? They are your ribs. How many ribs
can you feel? How are they? You can’t count them. Beginning
at the breast bone move your fingers along a rib, find where the
other end of the rib is attached. Okay, the other end is attached
to the backbone. Look at the diagram of the rib and sternum
closely. How many pairs of ribs are attached to the breast bone?
They are ten of them, numbered 1 – 10. How many are fastened
only to the backbone? They are numbered 11 and 12 in the
picture. There are only two of them, referred to as the floating
ribs, fastened only to the backbone. Are they attached at all to
106
the breast bone? No. the ribs form a cage which is called the
ribcage. This ribcage secures the heart and lungs and takes part
in respiratory movements.
Evaluation Students listen to the
question
Questioning Now take
down and
answer the
following
questions.
(1) Mention the
bones that
make up
the axial
skeleton
(2) Draw,
Label and
fully
describe the
structure of
a typical
vertebra
(3)Identify the
features of
each type of
107
vertebra
(4)Mention
the organs
protected by
the ribs
Summary In summary, we have studied the bones that make up the axial
skeleton. These are, the skull. backbone and the ribs and
sternum all in detail. At your leisure, check the bones you got
from the rat skeleton and sort out these different vertebrae
based on their distinguishing features. We will study the bones
that make up the appendicular skeleton in the next lesson. I
hope it is understood.
Conclusion Write the answers in your biology note books and with this we
have come to the end of today’s lesson
108
SCRIPT FOR SECOND LESSON
Subject: Biology
Class: SSII
Topic: The Skeletal System
Duration: 40 Minutes
Instructional Materials: PowerPoint presentation CD ROM, Laptop and projector.
Entry behavior: Students have learnt supporting tissues in animals, functions of the skeleton and the sections of the
skeleton
Content Teacher’s Activity Student Activity Strategy Evaluation
Hello students, welcome to today’s biology lesson.
Today, we shall be continuing the skeletal system.
Specifically, the axial skeleton
Specific objective At the end of the lesson, you should be able to;
1. Name the bones that make up the axial skeleton
2. Draw, label and fully describe the structure of typical
vertebra
3. Identify the features of all the vertebrae
4. Name the organ protected by the ribs
Students read and carry
out the teachers
instructions
Explanation
Introduction In the last lesson, I instructed you to prepare the
skeleton of a rat. Place them on your table as we
109
proceed. The axial skeleton consist of the skull spinal
cord, ribs and sternum bones. We will take them one
after the other, starting with the skull
Step I The skull
• Diagram of the skull
Observe the bones of the head. Can you touch your
skull? The bones of the head are called the skull. The
skull is made up of several flat bones joined together for
form a hallow cranium. The cranium contains the brain.
i. Two pairs of cavities which protect the eyes and ears
ii. The upper Jaw (maxilla)
iii. The lower jaw (mandible)
iv. Teeth bone by the upper and lower jaws
Step II The backbone or vertebral column.
Diagram of the vertebral column. Study the vertebral
column closely for one minute. Firstly, run your fingers
up and down your backbone. How does it feel? Can you
count the number of bones that make up the backbone?
No. the backbone have 33 bones and each of them is
called a vertebra. Pick up any one vertebra from the
rat’s skeleton. Can you see a hole in its center? The hole
inside the vertebral contains the spinal cord. The
Students, watch read
and carry out specific
instructions
Explanation and
guided discovery
110
vertebral column are of five types namely: cervical
vertebra, thoracic vertebra, lumbar vertebra, sacral
vertebra and caudal vertebra
Step III Structure of a typical vertebra
Observe the picture very well and identify the features
of a typical vertebra. They include
(i) The centrum
(ii) The neural arch
(iii) The neural spine
(iv) Teraservers processes
(v) facets
Step IV
Distinguishing
features of the
vertebrae
The cervical vertebra (diagram)
1. It has a short neural spine
2. It has transverse process
3. It has vertebrarterial canal
There are two types of cervical vertebra namely atlas and
axis vertebra.
The thoracic vertebra (diagram)
1. A long neural spine which is prominent
2. A well developed transverse processes which
articulate with the ribs
Students pay attention
and carry out the
teachers instruction
Explanation and
guided discovery
111
The lumbar vertebra(diagram)
1.The centrum is large and thick 2.Well developed
transverse 3.A number of projections from the
centrum which provide attachment for muscles of the
abdominal region
Sacral vertebra (diagram)
1. They fuse to form a rigid structure known as sacrum
2. They have narrow neural canal
3. The transverse process of the first two articulate with
the pelvic girdle
4. A reduced neural spine
Caudal vertebra
1. They are fused
2. They resemble a solid mass of stone
3. They lack neural canal, neural spine and transverse
process.
The picture of the caudal vertebra is not present and that
is why I gave you the rat skeleton project. Now, identify
the caudal vertebra from amongst the bone you prepared.
Draw and fully label it.
Step V
Ribs and sternum
Observe the above diagram, can you show me your ribs
and sternum? The bones of the breast are called sternum
112
while the bones of the lungs are called the ribs. The ribs
protect the lungs and heart. Feel the side of your breast
bone. How many ribs can you feel? The ribs are
attached to the breast bone at one end and to the
backbone at the other end. There are 10 pairs of ribs
attached to the breastbone and backbone while 2 pairs
are fastened only to the backbone. These 2 pairs of ribs
are called floating ribs. The ribs form a cage that is
called ribcage. The ribcage secures the heart and lungs
and takes part in respiratory movements.
Evaluation Now, take down and answer the following questions
1. Mention the bones that make up the axial skeleton
2. Draw, Label and fully describe the structure of a
typical vertebra
3. Identify the features of each type of vertebrae
4. Mention the organs protected by the ribs.
Students read the
questions and take
them down
Questioning
Summary In summary, we have studied the bones that make up the
axial skeleton. At your leisure, check the bone you got
from the rat skeleton and sort out these different
vertebrae based on their distinguishing features. We
shall study the bones that make up the appendicular
skeleton in next lesson. I hope it is understood.
Conclusion Write the answers in your biology note books and with
this, we have come to the end of today’s lesson.
113
SCRIPT FOR THIRD LESSON
Subject: Biology
Class: SS II
Topic: The skeletal system
Duration: 40 Minutes
Instructional materials: Video-taped Instruction, laptop and projector.
Entry behaviour: Students have learnt about the axial skeleton and can answer questions on them.
Content Teachers Activity Student activity Strategy Evaluation
Music -�
(Hold music under)
Hello students, you are welcome to another biology lesson. We shall
continue from where we stopped. Where did we stop? Alright, the axial
skeleton. Today, we shall conclude our study of the skeletal system.
Specifically, the appendicular skeleton and Joints.
Students listen Explanation
Specific objective At the end of the lesson, you should be able to
1. Name the bones that make up the appendicular skeleton.
2. Draw and label the limb, showing attachment to the pectoral girdle.
3. Mention the various types of joints and where they can be found in the
body
4. Describe the kind(s) of movement allowed by the different joint.
music
Students listen Explanation
114
Step I
The appendicular
skeleton (Repeat)
This is the second part of the skeleton. We have treated the axial
skeleton. We now move further to study the appendicular skeleton
consisting of what and what? Okay, the limbs and limb girdles. What
other name can we call the limbs. Okay, arms and legs. The fore limbs
refer to the arms while the hind limbs refer to the legs. Point to your legs.
Okay. The girdles are the pectoral and pelvic girdles. They are the bones
of the shoulder and waist respectively. Can you point to your shoulder
and waist. Okay. In this lesson, the arms and shoulder will be taken
together, the legs and the hip bones will also be taken together.
Students listen and
carry out the
instruction of the
teacher
Explanation and
guided discovery
The shoulders and arms
Observe closely the above diagram of the forelimb and its attachment to
the pectoral girdle. Now, feel the two long bones near the base of your
neck. They are your collar bones or the clavicle. Where is each attached
to at both ends? At one end, each collar bone is attached to the breast
bone and at the other end is attached to the shoulder blade or scapula.
Feel the bones of your arm and hands. Your upper arm has one long
thick bone called humerus. The humerus is attached to the shoulder blade
or scapula using its flatten head for articulation to the glenoid cavity. At
the lower end, it is attached to two long bones in the lower arm called the
Ulna and radius. Next, move down, continue feeling the bones of the arm,
can you feel the metacarpels which are five long thin bones in the palm
of the hand? Each finger or phalanges is attached to a bone in the hand.
How many bones do you have in each of the fingers. Five? They are
Students listen and
carry out instructions
Explanation and
guided discovery.
115
called phalanges. The wrist bone is found between the metacarpals and
ulna and radius. The wrist bone is also called the carpels. Once again,
look at the picture, can you see all of them?
Step II
Hipbone or pelvic girdle
The next bone to be studied is the hipbone or pelvic. Point to your hip
bones, are there bones there? There are two hipbones, each shaped like a
bowl. Do you know a bowl? B-O-W-L. Each of them attached to the
lower end of the backbone. Do you remember the backbone? The two
halves of the girdle are fixed at the median line known as the pubis
symphysis. Each half of the pelvic girdle is known as an innominate
bone. Each innominate bone consist of three bones; which are fused.
What are the names of these three pieces of bones that make up the
innominate bone? They are ilium, Ishchium and pubis. Can you see them
in the picture. Can you see a hole? Blood vessels, nerves and muscles
pass through that hole formed between the pubis and ischium. This is the
obturator foremen. Can you also see the cavity on the outer surface of
each innominate bone, known as the acetabulum? What is the acetabulum
for? The head of the femur fits into this cavity.
The hind limbs or legs
Observe the above diagram. Feel the bones of your legs. How many long,
thick bones can you feel in each knee? One. This is called the femur.
There are two long bones in each lower leg; the tibia and fibula. What are
116
the functions of the bones of the legs? The bones of the legs help to
support the weight of the body. The tarsals are seven small bones in the
ankle while the metatarsals are five long bones in the foot which end up
in the toes or phalanges. Music→
Step III Joints
and types of joint
Pieces of wood or steel in the framework of a building must be fastened
together. The same is true of the framework of your body. The bones
must be connected if they are to give your body support, shape and
protection. Have you seen how the bones in the leg of a chicken are
connected? Now when you get home;
1. Obtain a whole, cooked chicken leg that has the meat removed. Clean
the bones by boiling them in soapy water
2. Examine the place where the bones of the leg connect. Does the leg
bend at this point?
3. Try to pull the bones apart, what holds them together?
The place where two bones meet is called a joint. At a joint, the bones are
held together by tough white bands of tissues called ligaments.
Joints may either be immovable, that is, tightly fixed together so that no
movement is possible ( for example, the bone in the skull) or movable.
Most of the joints in your body are movable joints, they are found in places
where the skeleton can move. There are different kinds of movable joints
and each kind allows bones to be moved in a certain way. They are
1. Ball and socket joint
Students listen Explanation and
guided discovery
117
2. Hinge joint
3. Gliding joint
4. Pivot joint (repeat all)
In what ways do the movable joints in your body allow your bones to
move? Bend your elbows, knees and fingers. In what way do these parts
move? Okay, they move in only one direction covering 1800. This is called
a hinge joint because it permits only up and down movement. Take a look
at the diagram to see what a hinge joint looks like.
Now, stand and swing your leg in a small circle. In how many different
directions can you move your leg? Look at the picture of a ball and socket
joint. The place where your leg bones join your hipbone is an example. At
the upper end of the leg bone is a round part called the ball. The ball fits
into a hole, or socket in the hipbone. Swing your arm. Is there a ball and
socket joint in your shoulder? How do you know? The ball and socket
joint allows the biggest amount of movement; in all direction. That is, a
3600 rotatory movement.
Now, lets look at another type of movable joint. This is the gliding
joints .Bend forward and backward . Can you move your backbone in the
same directions that you were able to move your legs? The vertebrae of
your backbone are connected by joint that allow the bones to slide over
Student listen
attentively
118
one another. Look at the above diagram. Movable joint of this kind is
called gliding joint. The pivot joint allows rotation of one part of the body
on another. Now, move your head in as many directions as you can; up,
down, left, right. In what direction does it move? Do your neck move
when your head does? In what ways could you move your head if this
joint were a hinge joint instead of a pivot? The nodding of the head is an
example of a pivot joint and it occurs in the atlas and axis skeleton, this
can be seen in the above diagram.
The Immovable joint can be found on the skull. The zig-zag lines on
the skull are joints. Look at the above picture. Can you see the zig-gag
line? At these joints, the bones cannot move. So, immovable joints do not
allow movement of bones while movable joint do. Music ---�
Step IV
Movement at the
joint
We will now look at how movement take place at a joint. A joint is
moved by muscles attached to the skeleton. A muscle consists of a long,
thread-like fibre arranged in cells and surrounded by a sheath of
connective tissues. Muscles cells have a unique property. When
stimulated by a nervous impulse, they contract or shorten to about two-
thirds to half their resting length. Can you show me your muscles? Each
of the muscles which help to move a joint are attached to different bones
and are attached in such a way that when the muscles contract, the bones
are moved relative to each other. For example, the biceps muscles which
bend the elbow is attached at one end to the scapula and at the other end
to the radius. Muscles are attached to the bones by tendons. Tendons are
tough elastic fibres and protect muscles from wear, because, they pass
over the ends of bones.
At least, two muscles are needed to bring about movement at a joint.
Student listen
attentively
Explanation
119
For example, the elbow is bent by the biceps and straightened by the
triceps as follows;
1. When biceps contrast, it becomes shorter and fatter and so bends the
elbow
2. The triceps muscles passes across the elbow joint on the opposite side
from the biceps so that when it contracts, the elbow is straightened.
The biceps and triceps muscles are antagonistic in action. The muscle
which causes bending in this case is called a flexor muscles while the
one which causes straightening is called the extensor. Therefore,
contraction or relaxation of the muscles cells bring about movement at
a joint. The above picture shows these muscles, where they are located
and how they operate or function. Music �
Evaluation Take down and answer the following questions
1. Mention the bones that makes up the appendicular skeleton
2. Draw and label the limb, showing attachment to the pectoral girdle
3. Mention the various types of joints and where they can be found in the
body.
4. Explain the kinds of movement allowed by the different joints. (Repeat
evaluation)
Students listen to
teacher’s questions
Questioning
Summary To conclude the lesson on the skeletal system, we will now take a quick
look at all we studied. You have learnt the supporting tissues in animals,
functions and types of skeleton, sections as well as the joint formed by
these bones. We also studied how movements take place at a joint..
(repeat). I hope the lessons are well understood.
Conclusion With these, we have come to the end of the lessons on the skeletal
system. Bye. (Music is being played as the students get ready for the test
on the skeletal system
120
SCRIPT FOR THIRD LESSON
Subject: Biology
Class: SS II
Topic: The skeletal system
Duration: 40 Minutes
Instructional material: Power point presentation CD ROM, Laptop and projector
Entry behaviour: Students have learnt about the axial skeletal system and can answer questions on them.
Content Teachers Activity Student activity Strategy Evaluation
Hello students, you are welcome to another biology lesson. Today, we
shall conclude our study of the skeletal system with the appendicular
skeletal and joints.
Students watch and
read
Explanation
Specific objectives At the end of the lesson, you should be able to;
1. Name the bones that make up the appendicular skeleton
2. Draw and label the limb, showing attachment to the pectoral girdle
3. Mention the various types of joints and where they can be found in the
body.
4. Describe the kinds of movement allowed by the different joint
Students watch and
read
Explanation
Step I.
The appendicular
skeleton
This is the second part of the skeleton. We have treated the axial skeleton.
Now, lets look at the appendicular skeleton. It consists of the limbs and
limb girdles. The limbs can also be called arms and legs. The fore limbs
refer to the arms while the hind limbs refer to the legs. The limb girdles
Students watch and
read attentively
Explanation
121
are the pectoral and pelvic girdles. They are the bones of the shoulder and
waist respectively
The shoulders and arms
Observe the above diagram closely. The forelimb is attached to the
pectoral girdle. The pectoral girdle consist of the clavicle or collar bone
and the scapula or shoulder blade. The upper arm is called the humerus
which is a long thick bone and is attached to the scapula at one end and to
the other end, two long bones in the lower arm called the ulna and radius.
After the lower arm, is the wrist bone also called carpels which continues
into five long boes in the palm called the metacarpals. The metacarpels
end up in the fingers or phalanges. Once again, look at the picture, can you
see all of them?
Step II Hip bone or pelvic girdle
Point to your hipbones, are there bones there? There are two hipbones,
each shaped like a B-O-W-L. Each of them are attached to the lower end
of the backbone. The two halves of the girdle are fixed at the median line
known as the pubis symphysis. Each half of the pelvic girdle is known as
an innominate bone. The innominate bone is made up of three pieces of
bones called ilium, ischium and pubis. It has an acetabulum where the
head of the femur fits.
Students watch,
read and carry out
instructions
Explanation
guided discovery
122
The hind limbs or leg
Observe the above diagram closely. The femur is a long thick bone
attached to two long bones called tibia and fibula. The tibia and fibula is
attached to the tarsals which are seven small bones in the ankle. The
tarsals continue into five long bones in the foot called metatarsals which
eventually end up in the toes or phalanges
Step III
Joints and types of
joint
Pieces of wood or steel in the framework of a building must be fastened
together. The same applies to the framework of your body. Joint is place
where two bones meet. The bones are held together by tough white bands
of tissues called ligaments.
Types of joint
1. Immovable joints tightly fixed together so that no movement is possible
2. Movable joints: allows movement in a particular direction or in all
directions. There are different kinds of movable joints namely;
1. Ball and socket joint: This allows movement in all direction. It is a 3600
rotatory movement. Example is where your femur fits into in your
hipbone. Now, stand and swing your leg in a small circle, you will
discover that it moved in all directions.
2. Hinge joint: This allows movement in only one direction. That is, up
and down movement therefore covering 1800. Example is found at the
Students watch and
read
123
elbow and knee.
3. Gliding joint: This allows movement in a sliding manner. That is, bones
slide over one another. Example, is the vertebrae of your backbone.
4. Pivot joint: This allows rotation of one part of the body on another.
Example is the nodding of the head and left and right movement of the
head on the neck.
Immovable joint can be found on the skull. The zig-zag lines on the
skull are joints. So, immovable joints do not allow movement of bones
while movable joints do.
Step IV
Movement at the
joint
A joint is moved by muscles attached to the skeleton. A muscle consist of
a long, thread like fibre arranged in cells and surrounded by a sheath of
connective tissues. Muscle cells contract or shorten to about two-third to
half their resting length. Now, show me your muscles. Very good. Muscles
are attached to the bones by tendons. Tendons are tough elastic fibres and
protect muscles from wear, because they pass over the ends of bones. Two
muscles are needed to bring about movement at a joint. These are biceps
and triceps muscles. The two muscles are antagonistic in action. The
biceps contract and becomes shorter and fatter and so bends the elbow.
The triceps muscles passes across the elbow joint on the opposite side
from the biceps so that when it contracts, the elbow is straightened. The
contraction or relaxation of the muscle cells bring about movement at a
joint. (Diagrams are involved)
Student watch, read
and carry out
instructions
Explanation and
guided discovery
Evaluation Take down the
following questions
1. Mention the bones
that make up the
appendicular skeleton
124
2. Draw and label the
limb, showing
attachment to the
pectoral girdle
3. Mention the various
types of joints and
where they can be
found in the body
4. Explain the kinds of
movement allowed by
the different joints
Summary To conclude the lesson on the skeletal system, we will take a quick look at
all we studied. You have learnt the supporting tissues in animals, functions
and types of skeleton, sections of the skeleton, the bones that make up
each section as well as the joint formed by these bones. We also looked at
how movements take place at a joint. I hope the lessons are well
understood
Conclusion With these, we have come to the end of the lessons on the skeletal system.
Bye. Get ready for your test on the skeletal system.
1
APPENDIX B
A SECTION OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL CORE CURRICULUM FOR BIOLOGY
Topic Performance objectives Content Activity Notes
The skeletal
system
Pupil should be able to:
1. To demonstrate by Experiment the
Supporting systems
Using various
Materials provided;
2. recognize different skeletal and supporting tissues;
3. state the location and arrangement of skeletal and supporting tissues in animals
4. State the functions of skeleton and supporting tissues in animals and plant.
5. explain how this functions are performed;
1. Skeleton and supporting systems in animals.
i. biological significance
ii. forms e.g ossicles, bones or cartilages.
2.Types of
skeleton:
i. Exo-skeleton
ii. Endo-skeleton
3. Bones of the
vertebral column,
4. Functions of
skeletons in
animals”
i Protection;
ii. Support
iii. Locomotion
iviv. Respiratory
movements.
I. Pupils demonstrate the need for support in living organism
II. Pupils examine specimens of arthropods, and intact mammalian skeleton and individual bones of the vertebral column and
(a) (a) note the supporting structures in the arthropods;
(b) (b) Identify and name the main parts of mammalian skeletons.
III. Pupils observe the
protective functions of
shell in snails, skull in
man.
IV. Pupils observe the
bones and attached
muscles in the hind
limb o f a toad. Discuss
the relationship
between the skeleton
and muscles during
movement.
V. Given relevant
materials pupils make
working model of a
human arm.
Illustrate
skeletal
supports using
clay and
plasticine in
class.
Provide pupils
with insects,
snail and
skeleton
Ask pupils to
imagine what
animals would
look like without
exo and endo
skeleton.
114
126
APPENDIX C
BIOLOGY ACHIEVEMENT TEST
TIME: 40 MINUTES
Instruction: Answer all the questions, circle the correct option only
Fill and mark ( √ ) where applicable in the box provided
Name of student _______
Name of School ________
Class ________
Sex: Male Female
1. Living organisms have need for support, to enable them (a) respond to stimulus (b) stand upright (c)
respire (d) feed
2. One of the following is a type of supporting tissue in animals (a) Tendon (b) cartilage (c) neural
carnal (d) ligament
3. The type of skeleton found in man is called ___ (a) exoskeleton (b) chitin (c) endoskeleton (d)
cartilage
4. All the following organisms posses the exoskeleton, except one (a) cockroach (b) housefly (C)
earthworm (d) spider
5. Respiratory movement is made possible in the presence of the ____ (a) hind limbs (b) ribs (c)
forelimbs (d) skull
6. The two sections of the mammalian skeleton are _____ (a) brain and spinal cord (b) axial and
appendicular skeleton (c)endoskeleton and exoskeleton (d) limbs and limb girdles
7. The skull _____
(a) is used for movement (b) encloses the spinal cord(c) protects the brain(d)supports body weight
8. One of the following is the order in which the vertebral bones are arranged from the neck region (a)
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, caudal (b) caudal, sacral, lumbar, thoracic, cervical
(c) sacral, lumbar, thoracic, cervical, thoracic (d) thoracic, lumbar, sacral, caudal, cervical
9. Atlas and Axis are types of the _____ (a) lumbar vertebra (b) caudal vertebra (c) thoracic vertebra
(d) cervical vertebra
10. Which of the following bones make up the pectoral girdle?
(a) caudal and clavicle (b) sacrum and scapula (c) scapula and clavicle (d) ischium and sacrum
127
11. Blood vessels usually pass through the structure labeled
(a) I (b) II (c) III(d) IV
12. The structure above represents a (a) thoracic vertebra(b) cervical vertebra(c) caudal vertebra (d)
lumbar vertebra
13. The part labeled II is the _____ (a) spinal cord(b) neural spine(c) neural canal (d) neural arch
14. The chitin in the exoskeleton of many arthropods is strengthened by (a) calcium compounds
(b) organic salts(c) lipids (d) proteins
15. One of the following vertebra is fused (a) cervical(b) caudal (c)thoracic, (d) atlas
16. When one of the following set of bones is absent, the innominate bone will be lacking
(a) atlas, axis and cervical(b) ilium, ischium and pubis (c) thoracic, lumbar and caudal(d) ulna, fibula and
femur
17. Which of the following type of joints allow movement in all directions?
(a) ball and socket joint(b) hinge joint (c) gliding joint(d) pivot joint
18. A movable joint (a) allows movement in all direction (b) allows the movement of bones (c)
does not allow bones to move(d) located at the skull
19. An immovable joint is located in one of the following parts of the body (a) shoulder (b)
knee(c) skull (d) the vertebral column
20. During the bending of the arm, the biceps muscles (a) contracts and the triceps muscle relaxes (b)
relaxes and the triceps muscle contracts (c) and the triceps muscle relax(d) and the triceps muscle
relax
21. The following statements are correct functions of each group of mammalian vertebrae except
(a) sacral vertebrae support the skull and allow nodding and rotating movements(b) cervical vertebrae
supports the neck(c) thoracic vertebrae articulated within the ribs (d) caudal vertebrae support the tail and
provide attachment for tail muscles
IV III
Study the picture above and use it to answer questions 12-14
128
Study the picture below and use it to answer question 26-28
22. The picture shown above is the ______ (a) pectoral girdle(b) ilium(c) ischium(d) pelvic girdle
23. The obturator foramen is labelled _______ (a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV
24. The part labelled II is a hollow that allows (a) respiratory movement (b) nodding (c) movement in no
direction (d) movement in all directions
25. The floating ribs are also called false ribs because ____ (a) they are fastened to the backbone and
breastbone, (b) they are fastened only to the backbone (c) they are fastened only to the breastbone(d)
they are not fastened to any bones
26. The following bones make up the rib cage except (a) the backbone(b) the sternum (c) the ribs (d)
the humerus
27. The ears and nostril are flexible because (a) they are made up of bones (b) they are made up of
ossicles (c) they are made up of cartilage (d) they are located on the head
Use the diagram below to answer questions 33-34
129
28. The structure labelled II articulates with III to form a (a) sliding joint(b) hinge joint(c) pivot joint
(d) ball and socket joint
29. Which of the bones is the radius? (a) I(b) II(c) III(d) IV
30. One of the following is not a skeletal material (a) chitin (b) bone (c) muscle(d) cartilage
130
APPENDIX D
BIOLOGY RETENTION TEST
TIME: 40 MINUTES
Instruction: Answer all the questions, circle the correct option only
Fill and mark ( √ ) where applicable in the box provided
Name of student _______
Name of School _______
Class ________
Sex: Male Female
1. The two sections of the mammalian skeleton are _____ (a) brain and spinal cord (b) axial and
appendicular skeleton (c)endoskeleton and exoskeleton (d) limbs and limb girdles
2. The skull _____(a) is used for movement (b) encloses the spinal cord (c) protects the brain(d)supports
body weight
3. One of the following is the order in which the vertebral bones are arranged from the neck region (a)
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, caudal (b) caudal, sacral, lumbar, thoracic, cervical
(c) sacral, lumbar, thoracic, cervical, thoracic (d) thoracic, lumbar, sacral, caudal, cervical
4. Atlas and Axis are types of the _____ (a) lumbar vertebra (b) caudal vertebra (c) thoracic vertebra
(d) cervical vertebra
5. One of the following vertebra is fused (a) cervical(b) caudal (c)thoracic, (d) atlas
6. When one of the following set of bones is absent, the innominate bone will be lacking
(a) atlas, axis and cervical(b) ilium, ischium and pubis (c) thoracic, lumbar and caudal (d) ulna, fibula and
femur
7. Which of the following type of joints allow movement in all directions? (a) ball and socket
joint(b) hinge joint (c) gliding joint(d) pivot joint
8. A movable joint (a) allows movement in all direction (b) allows the movement of bones (c)
does not allow bones to move (d) located at the skull
9. An immovable joint is located in one of the following parts of the body (a) shoulder (b)
knee (c) skull (d) the vertebral column
131
10. Living organisms have need for support, to enable them (a) respond to stimulus (b) stand upright (c)
respire (d) feed
11. One of the following is a type of supporting tissue in animals (a) Tendon (b) cartilage (c) neural
carnal (d) ligament
12. The type of skeleton found in man is called ___ (a) exoskeleton (b) chitin (c) endoskeleton (d)
cartilage
13. All the following organisms posses the exoskeleton, except one (a) cockroach (b) housefly (C)
earthworm (d) spider
14. Respiratory movement is made possible in the presence of the ____ (a) hind limbs (b) ribs (c)
forelimbs (d) skull
Study the picture below and use it to answer question 15-17
15. The picture shown above is the ______ (a) pectoral girdle(b) ilium(c) ischium (d) pelvic girdle
16. The obturator foramen is labelled _______ (a) I (b) II (c) III (d) IV
17. The part labelled II is a hollow that allows (a) respiratory movement (b) nodding (c) movement in no
direction (d) movement in all directions
18. The floating ribs are also called false ribs because ____ (a) they are fastened to the backbone and
breastbone, (b) they are fastened only to the backbone (c) they are fastened only to the breastbone(d)
they are not fastened to any bones
19. The following bones make up the rib cage except (a) the backbone(b) the sternum (c) the ribs (d)
the humerus
20. The ears and nostril are flexible because (a) they are made up of bones (b) they are made up of
ossicles (c) they are made up of cartilage (d) they are located on the head
132
Use the diagram below to answer questions 21-22
21. The structure labelled II articulates with III to form a (a) sliding joint(b) hinge joint(c) pivot joint
(d) ball and socket joint
22. Which of the bones is the radius? (a) I(b) II(c) III(d) IV
23. One of the following is not a skeletal material (a) chitin (b) bone (c) muscle(d) cartilage
24. Which of the following bones make up the pectoral girdle?
(a) caudal and clavicle (b) sacrum and scapula (c) scapula and clavicle (d) ischium and sacrum
25. Blood vessels usually pass through the structure labeled
(a) I (b) II (c) III(d) IV
26. The structure above represents a (a) thoracic vertebra(b) cervical vertebra(c) caudal vertebra (d)
lumbar vertebra
27. The part labeled II is the _____ (a) spinal cord(b) neural spine(c) neural canal (d) neural arch
28. The chitin in the exoskeleton of many arthropods is strengthened by (a) calcium compounds
(b) organic salts(c) lipids (d) proteins
IV III
Study the picture above and use it to answer questions 25 - 27
133
29. During the bending of the arm, the biceps muscles (a) contracts and the triceps muscle relaxes
(b) relaxes and the triceps muscle contracts (c) and the triceps muscle relax(d) and the triceps
muscle relax
30. The following statements are correct functions of each group of mammalian vertebrae except (a)
sacral vertebrae support the skull and allow nodding and rotating movements (b)
cervical vertebrae supports the neck (c) thoracic vertebrae articulated within the ribs (d)
caudal vertebrae support the tail and provide attachment for tail muscles
134
APPENDIX E
TABLE OF SPECIFICATION FOR BIOLOGY ACHIEVEMENT TEST
Content Low order (knowledge,
comprehension and
application)
Higher Order
(Analysis, synthesis
and evaluation)
Total
Lesson I
30%
Supporting tissues in animals,
types, functions and sections of
the skeleton
6
(Nos 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 14)
3
(Nos 5, 27 and 30)
9
Lesson II
40%
Axial skeleton: (skull, bones of
the vertebral column, their
distinguishing features and ribs
and sternum)
8
(Nos 7, 9, 10, 12,13, 15 16,
and 26)
4
(Nos 8, 11, 21 and 25)
12
Lesson III
30%
Appendicular Skeleton, Joint,
types of joint and movement at a
joint
6
(Nos 17, 19, 22, 23, 28 and
29)
3
(Nos, 18, 20 and 24)
9
Total 100% 20 10 30
135
APPENDIX F
Week/lessons Experimental group 1 Experimental group 2
1 1st Lesson Pretest Pretest
2nd Lesson Supporting tissues in animals, types,
functions and sections of the skeleton.
Using VTI CD- ROM
Supporting tissues in animals, types,
functions and sections of the skeleton.
Using PPP CD-ROM
3rd lesson Axial skeleton (skull, bones of the
vertebral column, their distinguishing
features and ribs and sternum. Using
VTI CD-ROM
Axial skeleton (skull, bones of the
vertebral column, their distinguishing
features and ribs and sternum. Using
PPP CD-ROM
2 4th Lesson Appendicular skeleton, Joint, types of
joint and movement at a joint. Using
VTI CD-ROM
Appendicular skeleton, Joint, types of
joint and movement at a joint. Using
PPP CD-ROM
5th Lesson Post test Post test
5 Retention test (Delayed retest) Retention test (Delayed retest).
136
APPENDIX G
ANSWERS TO BIOLOGY ACHIEVEMENT TEST
1 mark each = 30 marks.
1 . B 16 B
2. B 17 A
3 C 18 B
4 C 19 C
5 B 20 A
6 B 21 A
7 C 22 D
8 A 23 A
9 D 24 D
10 C 25 B
11 D 26 D
12 B 27 C
13 C 28 B
14 A 29 D
15 B 30 C
137
APPENDIX H
COMPUTATION OF KR20 RELIABILITY CO-EFFICIENT
Items No. passing No. failing Proportion
passing(p)
Proportion
failing (q)
Pq
1 27 13 0.68 0.33 0.2244
2 19 21 0.48 0.53 0.2544
3 25 15 0.63 0.38 0.2394
4 19 21 0.48 0.53 0.2544
5 23 17 0.58 0.43 0.2494
6 24 16 0.6 0.4 0.2400
7 22 18 0.6 0.45 0.2700
8 19 21 0.48 0.53 0.2544
9 25 15 0.63 0.38 0.2394
10 19 21 0.48 0.53 0.2544
11 23 17 0.58 0.43 0.2494
12 27 13 0.68 0.33 0.2244
13 22 18 0.6 0.45 0.2700
14 19 21 0.48 0.53 0.2544
15 25 15 0.63 0.38 0.2394
16 19 21 0.48 0.53 0.2544
17 23 17 0.58 0.43 0.2494
18 27 13 0.68 0.33 0.2244
19 22 18 0.6 0.45 0.2700
20 19 21 0.48 0.53 0.2544
21 25 15 0.63 0.38 0.2394
22 19 21 0.48 0.53 0.2544
23 23 17 0.58 0.43 0.2494
24 27 13 0.68 0.33 0.2244
25 22 18 0.6 0.45 0.2700
26 19 21 0.48 0.53 0.2544
138
27 25 15 0.63 0.38 0.2394
28 19 21 0.48 0.53 0.2544
29 23 17 0.58 0.43 0.2494
30 27 13 0.68 0.33 0.2244
TOTAL 7.43
Mean =N
X∑
= 677 = 16.925
40
S²= n
nXX /)(22
∑∑ −
= 40
40/)677(13437 2−
= 40
225.1145813437 −
1978.775 = 49.4693
40
KR20 = 1−K
K(1-
2S
pq∑)
KR20 = 130
30
−
(1- 4693.49
43.7) =
29
30(1-
4693.49
43.7)
= 1.034482759 x (1 – 0.15019416)
KR20 = 1.034482759 x 0.84988584
KR20 = 0.87910949
KR20 = 0.88
139
APPENDIX I
140
141
142
143
APPENDIX J
LIST OF SCHOOLS
1. Model Secondary School, Nsukka, Enugu State.
2. Community Secondary School, Nru Nsukka, Enugu State.
