Department of Medical Physics - Bharathiar Universitysyllabus.b-u.ac.in/unidepts/1415/medical_physics.pdf · · 2016-04-01Practical Medical Physics Lab II 50 100 150 Project Project

M.Sc. Medical Physics (UD) 2014-15 onwards Annexure No. 74 A

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BHARATHIAR UNIVERSITY, COIMBATORE – 46

M. Sc. Medical Physics (Univ. Dept.)

For the students admitted during the academic year 2014 – 2015 onwards

Scheme of Examination

Study

Components

Course Title Exam

CIA

@

Unit.

exam

Total

Sem

este

r I

Paper 1 Introduction to Atomic and Nuclear Physics 25 75 100

Paper 2 Radiation Physics 25 75 100

Paper 3 Electronics 25 75 100

Paper 4 Solid State physics 25 75 100

Paper 5 Applied Anatomy and Physiology 25 75 100

Practical Electronics Lab 25 75 100

Sem

este

r II

Paper 6 Statistical and Numerical Methods 25 75 100

Paper 7 Radiation Detectors and Instrumentation 25 75 100

Paper 8 Medical Imaging Technology 25 75 100

Paper 9 External beam Radiation Therapy 25 75 100

Paper 10 Radiation Dosimetry and Standardization 25 75 100

Practical Medical Physics Lab I 50 100 150

Summer training

Sem

este

r II

I

Paper 11 Brachytherapy and Computers in Treatment

Planning

25 75 100

Paper 12 Radiation Biology 25 75 100

Paper 13 Nuclear Medicine and Internal dosimetry 25 75 100

Paper 14 Radiation Hazards Evaluation and Control 75 75 150

Paper 15 Recent advances in Radiotherapy 25 75 100

Sem

IV

Practical Medical Physics Lab II 50 100 150

Project Project Work (45- 60 days) and Viva Voce 300 - 300

Total 2250

CIA split-up:

For all theory papers except RHEC : 10 (class test) + 5 (viva) + 5 (Sem.) + 5 (Assign.)

For RHEC : 20 (class test)+ 15 (int. 1 viva)+ 15 (int. 2 viva)+ 10 (Sem.)+ 5 (Assign.)

For practicals : 25 (int. 1) + 25 (int. 2)

For project:

100 (project report) + 75 (ext. examiner viva) + 75 (int. viva) + 50 (ext. guide)


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SEMESTER- I

PAPER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Unit 1: Atomic structure of Matter

Thomson, Rutherford Model – Bohr’ Theory - Bohr’s theory of Hydrogen atom – Drawbacks of

these models – Bohr’s correspondence principle – Sommerfeld’s extension to Bohr model –

Frank and Hertz experiment – Types of spectra - Emission and absorption line spectra –

Fluorescence and Phosphorescence – Characteristics of vector atom model – Related Problems

Unit 2: Alkali spectra, space Quantization and Periodicity

Angular and magnetic momenta – Orbital angular momentum – Electron spin and quantum

number – Total angular momentum and magnetic moment of electron – Magnetic quantum

numbers – Spin Orbit interaction - LS Coupling Scheme – Selection rules – Pauli exclusion

principle – Electron configuration of atom – Periodic Table - Zeeman effect – Lande’s –g –

factor- Paschen Back effect – Stark effect – Stern Gerlach Experiment – Hyperfine structure of

spectral lines

Unit 3: Nuclear force ad Binding

Properties of Nuclear Force – Ground state properties of Deuteron – Square well solution of

Deuteron – Low energy neutron proton scattering - Limits of energy for the scattering of

different partial waves - Binding energy - Weizacker’s semi empirical mass formula –

Application of semi empirical formula for alpha decay – mass parabola for stability of nuclei

against beta decay - Evidence of shell effects – Single particle energy levels for infinite square

well, harmonic oscillator with spin orbit potential – Application of shell model for spin and

parity

Unit 4: Radioactive disintegration

Properties of radioactive rays – Law of radioactivity – Radioactive equilibrium -

Radioactive series - Range of alpha particles – Alpha spectrum and Fine structure - Alpha-

Particle Disintegration Energy- Gamow’s theory of Alpha decay – Energetics of Beta decay -

Beta-Ray Spectra- Pauli’s neutrino hypothesis – Properties of neutrino - Gamma emission –

Selection rules – internal conversion - Fssion process on the basis of liquid drop model - Nuclear

fission energetics - Stability limits against spontaneous fission – Potential for fission - Bohr-

Wheeler model -

Unit 5: Nuclear reactions

Types of nuclear reaction – Conservation laws in nuclear reactions – Balance of Mass and

Energy in nuclear reactions – The Q equation and its solution – Proton, deuteron, neutron and

alpha induced reactions – Cross section of nuclear reactions - Separation of center of mass

motion in two body problem – Partial wave method for scattering and reaction cross section –

Compound nucleus hypothesis – Breit Wigner one level formula

Text Book:

1. S. B. Patel , Nuclear Physics An Introduction – New Age International

2. S. N. Ghosal, Nuclear Physics, S. Chand

3. K.S. Krane, Introductory Nuclear Physics, Wiley India

4. D.C. Tayal, Nuclear Physics, Himalaya Publishing

5. S.L. Kakani and S. Kakani , Modern Physics, Viva Publications


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PAPER 2 RADIATION PHYSICS

Unit 1: Ionizing radiation and Radiation Sources

Electromagnetic spectrum- Classification- Different sources of Non Ionizing radiation-

Radiofrequency, Microwaves, Infrared, Visible and Ultra violet radiation production, physical

properties and their interaction with tissues- Sources of ionizing radiation, properties, shielding

materials and medical applications.

Radiation sources: Natural and artificial radioactive sources – Large scale production of

isotopes – Reactor produced isotopes – Cyclotron produced isotopes – Fission products –

industrial uses– Description of radium and radium substitutes- Construction, production,

properties and decay scheme of Tele therapy sources- 37

Cs, 60

Co, 192

Ir, 125

I and other commonly

used brachytherapy sources– Gold seeds – Tantalum wire – Beta ray applicators –Thermal and

fast neutron sources– Preparation of tracers and labeled compounds – Preparation of ratio

colloids.

Unit 2: X-ray generator

X-ray generator: Discovery, production, properties of X-rays and X-ray spectra- History

of X-ray tubes – Basic requirements of medical diagnostic, therapeutic and industrial

radiographic tube – Rotating anode tubes – Hooded anode tubes – Industrial X-ray tubes – X-ray

tubes for crystallography – Rating of tubes – Safety devices in X-ray tubes – Ray proof and

shockproof tubes – Insulation and cooling of X-ray tubes – Mobile and dental units – Faults in

X-ray tubes – Limitations on loading.

Unit 3: Radiation Quantities and Units

Radiometry quantities: Particle flux and fluence, Energy flux and fluence, fluence rate,

Intensity. Interaction coefficients: Cross section, Linear and mass attenuation coefficients, Mass

energy transfer and mass energy absorption coefficients, Stopping power, Mass stopping power,

LET, Radiation chemical yield and W value. Radioactivity related quantities- activity, specific

activity etc. Dosimetry quantities– Energy imparted, absorbed dose, absorbed dose rate,

Exposure, Air kerma rate constant – Charged particle equilibrium (CPE), Relationship between

kerma, absorbed dose and exposure under CPE. Radiation protection quantities: Radiation and

tissue weighting factors, equivalent dose, effective dose, committed equivalent dose, committed

effected dose, Concepts of collective dose, KERMA, CEMA, Terma, Ambient and directional

dose equivalents [(H*(d) and H’(d)], individual dose equivalent penetrating Hp(d), Individual

dose equivalent superficial Hs(d).

Unit 4: Interaction of indirectly ionizing radiation with matter

Interaction of photons with matter- Exponential attenuation – Thomson scattering –

Photoelectric and Compton process and energy absorption – Pair production – Attenuation and

mass energy absorption coefficients – Relative importance of various processes.

Neutron classification, neutron sources, Interaction of neutrons with matter- Scattering,

absorption –Capture- Neutron induced nuclear reaction- radioactive capture reaction (n, p),(n, r)

etc- moderation- shielding materials.


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Unit 5: Interaction of directly ionizing radiation with matter

Interaction of charged particles with matter – Classical theory of inelastic collisions with

atomic electrons – Energy loss per ion pair by primary and secondary ionization – Dependence

of collision energy losses on the physical and chemical state of the absorber – Cerenkov

radiation – Electron absorption process – Scattering Excitation and Ionization – Radioactive

collision – Bremmstrahlung – Energy transfer mechanism, Bragg curve, Bethe Bloch Formula,

Passage of heavy charged particles through matter, specific ionization. Buildup correction,

shielding materials- Energy loss by collision- Range energy relation- Range energy relation –

Continuous slowing down approximation (CSDA) – straight ahead approximation and detour

factors – transmission and depth dependence methods for determination of particle penetration -

empirical relations between range and energy – Back scattering.

Books for references:

1. Oliver R. Radiation Physics in Radiology.

2. E.B.Podgarsak : "Radiation Physics for Medical Physicists" (Springer Verlag,1996)

3. H.E.Johns and Cunningham: " The Physics of radiology" ( Charles C Thomas Publishers)

4. E.B.Podgarsak : " Radiation Oncology Physics : Handbook for Teachers and Students" (

IAEA, Vienna)

5. F.H. Attix: "Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry" (Viley –

VCH, Verlog, 2004)

6. Curry,T.S. Dowdey and J.E. Murry,R.C : "Christensen’s introduction to the Physics of

diagnostic radiology " (Philadelphia,Lea& Febiger )

7. Chesney,D.N. & Chesney,M.O: “ X-ray equipment for student radiographers”


Page 5 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

PAPER 3 ELECTRONICS

Unit 1: Analog Electronics

Zener diode- characteristics - voltage regulator circuits - Bipolar junction transistors - CB

and CE configuration characteristics. FET, MOSFET-principle of operation- characteristics -

JFET Amplifier. Op-Amp-circuit symbol-ideal Op-Amp- characteristics- CMRR- Applications:

Adder, Subtractor, Analog integrator, Analog differentiator, Voltage-to-current converter,

Current-to-voltage converter and Logarithmic amplifier.

Unit 2: Digital Electronics

Logic gates - Boolean algebra - Boolean laws – De-Morgans theorem -Implementation of

logic circuits from truth table – Sum-of-Products method – Products-of-Sum method –

Multiplexer and de-multiplexer circuits - BCD to Decimal decoders - Seven segment decoders -

Decimal to BCD encoder - Half-adder and Full-adder

Unit 3: Digital electronics

Types of Flip Flops: RS, Clocked RS, D-Flip Flop, Edge-triggered D Flip flop – J K Flip

flop - Master slave JK Flip flot - Sequential logic circuits:Types of registers– Serial in - Serial

out – Serial in – Parallel out – Parallel in Serial out – Parallel in Parallel out registers –

Applications - Counters: Ripple counters - up, down and up-down ripple counters -

Asynchronous and synchronous counters. A/D and D/A converters.

Unit 4: Microprocessors and Computer programming in C

8085A- architecture and pin configuration - basic 8085 instructions – assembly language

programming.

Constants – Varibles – Data types – operators and Expression – Input – output statements

– control statements functions – arrays – one, two, multidimensional array declarations and

initializations – simple applications.

Unit 5: X-ray generator circuits

Filament and high voltage transformers – High voltage circuits – Half-wave and full-

wave rectifiers – Condenser discharge apparatus – Three phase apparatus – Voltage doubling

circuits – current and voltage stabilizers – Automatic exposure control – Automatic Brightness

Control – Measuring instruments – Measurement of kV and mA – timers – Control panels –

Complete X-ray circuit – Image intensifiers and closed circuit TV systems – Modern Trends.

Books for references: 1. Santanue Chattopadhyay : "A text book of Electronics" (New Central Book Agency, Kolkata,

2006)

2. A.P. Malvino and D.P. Leach : "Digital Principles and Applications" (Tata McGraw-Hill

Publishing Co, New Delhi, 1996)

3. A.B. Bhattacharya : "Electronic Principles and Applications" (New Central Book Agency,

Kolkata, 2007)

4. Curry,T.S. Dowdey and J.E. Murry,R.C : "Christensen’s introduction to the Physics of

diagnostic radiology " (Philadelphia,Lea& Febiger )

5. A.P. Mathur : "Introduction to Microprocessors" (Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co, New

Delhi, 2005)

6. S.G. Kochan, “Programming in C”, CBS Publishers & Distributors, Delhi, 1991.


Page 6 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

PAPER 4 SOLID STATE PHYSICS

Unit – I: Crystal structure

Crystalline state- Basic definitions- Lattice and basis-Lattice translational vector-

Primitive cells and unit cells – Wigner –Seitz cell – Indexing of planes, directions and positions

of atoms-crystal systems – Bravais lattices - Simple crystal structures (Hexagonal close packed

structure, NaCl, CsCl, Diamond structure, Cubic ZnS structure)

X-ray diffraction – Laue’s treatment-Braggs treatment – Laue’s method-Rotating crystal

method-Powder method.

Unit – II: Thermal and Dielectric properties of solids

Dulong-Petits law – Einstein theory of specific heat – thermal conductivity – factors

affecting thermal conductivity

Basic definitions - Local field – Clausius Mossotti relation – Electronic, Ionic,

orientational and total polarizability – measurement of Dielectric constants and its measurements

Ferro electricity – Electrets – Hysteresis-Piezoelectricity - Applications.

Unit – III: Magnetic Properties of Materials

Terms and definitions used in magnetism – Classification of magnetic materials –

Langevin theory of diamagnetism – Langevin theory of paramagnetism - Quantum theory of

paramagnetism – Ferromagnetism – Spontaneous magnetization in ferromagnetic materials –

Hysteresis curve of ferromagnetic materials – origin of Ferromagnetic domains – Bloch wall -

Antiferromagnetism – Molecular field theory of antiferromagnetism – Ferrimagnetism.

Unit – IV: Superconductivity and Semiconducting properties of solids

Definitions: Critical temperature – critical magnetic field – Critical current – Persistent

current - The Meissner effect – Type 1 and 2 superconductors – Intermediate state – Vortex state

- London equations –BCS theory –DC and AC Josephesen effect - Applications.

Semiconductors - Direct and indirect band gaps – Classification of semiconductors –

Concentration of electrons in the conduction band – hole concentration in the valence band –

Electrical conductivity in semiconductors

Unit – V: Optical Properties

Absorption processes- Photoconductivity – Photoelectric effect – Photovoltaic effect –

Photoluminescene – Thermoluminescence – Flouresecnce – Radioluminesce- Phosphorescence

Colour centres – Types of colour centres – F-Centre - Generation of colour centres.

MASER and LASER


1. Solid state Physics – R.J.Singh, Pearson, 2012 Edition

2. Solid State Physics: Structure and Properties of Materials, 2nd

Ed. A.M.Wahab, Narosa

Publishing house, New Delhi, India, 2007.

3. Elementary Solid State Physics: Principles and Applications, 4th

Ed., M.A.Omar, Pearson

Education Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, India, 2004.

4. Introduction to Solid State Physics, 7th

Ed, C. Kittel, John –Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pvt Ltd.,

New Delhi, 1996.


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5. Elements of Solid State Physics 2nd

Ed, J.P.Srivastava, Printice Hall of India, New Delhi,

2001.

6. Solid State Physics, 4th

Ed. S.O.Pillai, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi,

2001.

7. Solid State Physics, 1st Ed, Ashcroft and Mermin, Eastern Press Pvt Ltd, Bangalore,

2003.

8. Introductory to Solid State Physics 2nd

Ed, H.P.Myers, Taylors and Francis Ltd, London,

1998.

Tutorials: 1. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the effective mass of an electron is 0.07 mo and that of hole

is 0.4 mo, where mo is the rest mass of the electron. Calculate the intrinsic concentration

of charge carriers at 300 K. (Given the energy gap = 0.7 eV)

2. If a sample of silicon is doped with 3 x 1023

arsenic atoms and 5 x 1023

atoms of boron.

Determine the electron and hole concentrations if the intrinsic charge carriers of silicon

are 2 x 1016

/ m3

3. The polarizability of NH3 molecule in the gaseous state, from the measurement of

dielectric constant is found to be 2.42 x 10-39

Fm2 at 309 K and 2 x 10

-39 Fm

2 at 448 K,

respectively. Calculate for each temperature the polarizability due to permanent dipole

moment and due to deformation of molecules.

4. The magnetic field intensity in a piece of ferric oxide is 106 ampere/metre. If the

susceptibility of the material at room temperature is 1.5 x 10-3

, calculate the flux density

and magnetization of the materials.

5. The critical temperature for mercury with isotopic mass 199.5 is 4.185K. Calculate its

critical temperature when its isotopic mass changes top 203.4

6. The penetration depths for lead are 396 Ao and 1730 A

o at 3 K and 7.1K, respectively.

Calculate the critical temperature for lead.

7. Diamond (atomic weight of carbon = 12) has Youngs modulus of 1012

Nm-2

and a density

of 3500 kg/m3. Compute the Debye temperature for diamond.

8. A photon of wavelength 1400 Ao is absorbed by cold mercury vapour and two other

phonons are emitted. If the wavelength of one of them is 1850 Ao, what is the wavelength

of the other photon?


Page 8 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

PAPER 5

APPLIED ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Unit 1: Structure & function of organs, systems & their common diseases

Skin, Lymphatic system, Bone and muscle, Nervous, Endocrine, Cardiovascular,

Respiratory, Digestive (Gastro-Intestinal), Urinary, Reproductive, Eye and ear.

Unit 2: Basic, Radiographic anatomy and tumor pathology

Anatomy of human body, nomenclature & Surface anatomy, Radiographic Anatomy

(including cross sectional anatomy – Identify the different organs/structures on plain x-rays, CT

scans and other available imaging modalities. Normal anatomy & deviation for abnormalities.

Tumor pathology and carcinogenesis, common pathological features of cancers and

interpretation of clinico-pathological data.

Unit 3: Clinical aspects of Radiation Oncology

Radiation therapy, Surgery, Chemotherapy, Hormone Therapy, Immunotherapy &

Radionuclide therapy, Benign and malignant disease, Methods of spread of malignant disease,

Staging and grading systems, Treatment intent – Curative & Palliative, Cancer prevention and

public education and Early detection & Screening. Patient management on treatment – side

effects related to radiation and dose – Acute & Late – Monitoring and common management of

side effects – Information and communication.

Unit 4: Site specific signs, symptoms, diagnosis and management

Head and Neck, Breast, Gynecological, Gastro-Intestinal tract, Genito-Urinary, Lung &

Thorax, Lymphomas & Leukemias & Other cancers including AIDS related cancers.

Unit 5: Professional aspects and role of medical physicists

General patient care - Principles of professional practice – Medical terminology –

Research & professional writing – patient privacy – Ethical & cultural issues. Legal aspects –

Confidentiality, informed consent, Health and safety.


1. Meschan. Normal Radiation Anatomy

2. Hollinshead W.H. Text Book of Anatomy

3. ROD R. Seely. Idho State University “Anatomy and Physiology” Eight Edition


Page 9 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

PRACTICALS

ELECTRONICS LAB

(Any 15 experiments only)

1. Zener regulated power supply and percentage of regulation.

2. Transistor characteristics- CB configuration.

3. Transistor characteristics- CE configuration.

4. Single stage R-C coupled transistor amplifier.

5. FET characteristics.

6. Single stage FET amplifier- CS configuration.

7. OP-Amp applications- Adder, Subtractor, Differentiator and Integrator.

8. Logic gates OR, AND, NOT, NOR and NAND Gates.

9. NAND gate as a universal gate.

10. Half adder and Full adder.

11. A/D and D/A converters.

12. Programs using C

13. Programs using MATLAB.

14. Programs using MATHEMATICA.

15. Programs using STATISTICA.

16. Characterization of Photosensitive diodes and heel effect.

17. Statistics of Radioactive Counting

18. Determination of plateau and revolving time of a G.M. counter and its application in

estimating the shelf-ratio and activity of a beta sources.

19. Calibration of gamma ray spectrometer and identification of unknown sources.

20. Find the detection efficiency of GM counters for both Gamma and beta emitting Sources.

21. Determination of Linear and Mass attenuation coefficients for Al, Cu and Pb.

22. Spectral analysis of Cs source using Gamma ray spectrometer

23. Attenuation of X/Gamma rays through different materials and HVL analysis.


Page 10 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

SEMESTER- II

PAPER 6

STATISTICAL AND NUMERICAL METHODS

Unit 1: Probability, Statistics and Errors

Addition and multiplication laws of probability, conditional probability, population,

variants, collection, tabulation and graphical representation of data -Frequency distributions,

Measures of central tendency, arithmetic mean, properties of arithmetic mean, median, mode,

geometric mean, harmonic mean, dispersion, standard deviation, root mean square deviation,

standard error and variance, moments, skewness and kurtosis - Binomial, Poisson, Gaussian

distributions – Correlation and Regression, Chi-Square distribution

Unit 2: Counting and medical statistics Statistics of nuclear counting-Application of Poisson’s statistics – Goodness-of-fit tests –

lexie`s divergence coefficients - Statistical aspects of gamma ray and beta ray counting – Special

consideration in gas counting and counting with proportional counters – Statistical accuracy in

double isotope technique. Sampling and sampling distributions – confidence intervals - Clinical

study designs and clinical trials - Hypothesis testing and errors Application to radiation detection

– uncertainty calculations, error propagation, time distribution between background and sample,

minimum detectable limit.

Unit 3: Roots of equation and Interpolation

Bisection – False position method – Newton Raphson method – Gauss elimination mehod -

Gauss Jacobi method – Gauss Seidal method – Inversion of a matrix using Gauss elimination

method - LU decomposition - Gregory Newton’s forward and backward difference formula for

equal intervals – Divided difference – Properties of divided difference – Newton’s divided

difference formula – Lagranges interpolation formula for unequal intervals

Unit 4: Curve fitting, integration, and monte carlo methods

Method of least squares – straight line, parabola, y=axn, y=ae

bx, y=a+bx

n types of curves - Sum

of squares of residuals for straight line and parabola – Newton-Cotes method - Trapezoidal rule,

Simpson’s 1/3rd

rule-Simpson’s Three-Eight rule, Boole rule, Weddle rule. Monte Carlo Method

vs Deterministics Method - Generation of random numbers- Test for randomness- Discrete and

continuous Random variables- Solving simple integrals using different Monte Carlo techniques -

law of large numbers - the central limit theorem - variance reduction techniques.

Unit 5: Eigen values and differential equation

Power method to find dominant eigen value – Jacobi method (Only 2x2 and 3x3 matrices) –

Initial value problem – Taylor series method – Basic, Improved and Modified Euler methods –

Runge Kutta Fourth Order method – RK4 method for simultaneous differential equations – RK4

method for second order differential equation – Partial differential equation – difference –

quotients – Graphical representation of partial quotients – Classification of differential equations

– Standard and five point diagonal formula – Liebmann’s iteration process.


Page 11 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

REFERENCES

1. Hoffman. Numerical Methods for Engineers and scientists – 2nd

Edition Revised and

Expanded, Marcel Dekker Inc.., 270 Madison Avenue, blew York, NY 10016, Marcel

Dekker AG, Hutgasse 4, Postfach 812, CH-4001 Basel, Switzerland.

2. A.C. Bajpai, I.M. calus and J.A. Fairley Numerical Methods for Engineers and scientists

– A students course book, John Wiley &sons

3. Band W. Introduction to mathematical physics.

4. Croxton. Elementary Statistics .

5. Dahlberg G. Statistical Method of Medical & Biology students.

6. S.S.Sastry, "Introductory Methods of Numerical Analysis", Prentice Hall of India,New

Delhi, 1992.

7. T. Veerarajan and T. Ramachandran , “Numerical Methods wit programs in C”, Tata

Mcgraw Hill

8. W. R. Leo, Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments, Narosa, New Delhi

(1995)


Page 12 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

PAPER 7

RADIATION DETECTORS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Unit 1: Principles of Radiation Detection- Gas filled detectors

Basic Principles of radiation detection– Statistical nature of radiation emission, errors,

accuracy and precision of measurements, types of errors- Gas Filled detectors – Ionisation

chambers – Theory and design – Construction of condenser type chambers and thimble chambers

– Gas multiplication – Proportional and GM Counters – Characteristics of organic and inorganic

counters – Dead time and recovery time – quenching.

Unit 2: Principles of Radiation Detection- scintillation and other solid state detectors

Scintillation detectors– Different types, the relationship between pulse height and energy

and type of incident particle, photomultiplier tube, assembly of a scintillation counter and role of

light pipes, dead time of scintillation counters, sources of background in a scintillation counter,

resolving time, resolving power- Semiconductor detectors – different types, damage due to

radiation- Chemical systems. Radiographic and Radio chromic films – Thermo luminescent

Dosimeters (TLD) – Common TLD materials, characteristics, fading, residual TL and annealing

for reuse, detection process, glow curve and dose response- Diode detectors- Optically

stimulated Luminescence dosimeters (OSLD) – Radiophoto luminescent dosimeters-

comparison between all solid state detectors- Neutron Detectors – Nuclear track emulsions for

fast neutrons – Solid State Nuclear track (SSNTD) detectors – calorimeters – New

Developments.

Unit 3: Dosimetry Instruments

Dosimeters based on condenser chambers – Pocket chambers – Dosimeters based on

current measurement – Different types of electrometers – MOSFET, Vibrating condenser and

Varactor bridge types – Secondary standard therapy level dosimeters – Farmers Dosimeters –

Radiation field analyzer (RFA) – Radioisotope calibrator – Multipurpose dosimeters – Water

phantom dosimetry systems – Brachytheraphy dosimeters – Thermo luminescent dosimeter

readers for medical applications – Calibration and maintenance of dosimeters.

Unit 4: Radiation Protection instruments

Instruments for personnel monitoring – TLD badge readers – PM film densitometers –

Glass dosimeters readers - Digital pocket dosimeters using solid state devices and GM counters –

Teledetector – industrial gamma radiography survey meter – Gamma area (Zone) alarm monitors

- Contamination monitors for alpha, beta and gamma radiation – Hand and Foot monitors

_Laundry and Portal Monitors - Scintillation monitors for X and gamma radiations - Neutron

Monitors, Tissue equivalent survey meters – Flux meter and dose equivalent monitors – Pocket

neutron monitors -Teledose systems.

Unit 5: Nuclear Medicine instruments

Instruments for counting and spectrometry – Portable counting systems for alpha and beta

radiation – Gamma ray spectrometers – Multichannel Analyzer – Liquid scintillation counting

system – RIA counters – Whole body counters – Air Monitors for radioactive particulates and

gases. Details of commercially available instruments and systems.


Page 13 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014


1. Price W.J. Nuclear Radiation Detection

2. Stepanor B.I. Theory Of Luminescence

3. Glenn F Knoll. Radiation Detection & Measurement

4. Albert Paul Malvino. Electronics Principles

5. Robert L. Boylestad. Electronics Devices And Circuit Theory

6. Paul-Horowitz. Art of Electronics

7. Greiner R.A. Semiconductor Devices & Application

PAPER 8 MEDICAL IMAGING TECHNOLOGY

Unit 1: Physical principle and components of Radiography

Physical Principle: Interactions of X-rays with human body, differential transmission of

x-ray beam, spatial image formation, visualization of spatial image, factors influencing

resolution evaluation of resolution - limitations, of projection imaging technique Viz.

superimposition of overlying structures and scatter, application of contrast media and projections

at different angles to overcome superimposition of overlying structures.

Filters: inherent and added filters, purpose of added filters, beryllium filter, filters used

for shaping X-ray spectrum (K-edge filters: holmium, gadolinium, molybdenum). Scatter

reduction: Factors influencing scatter radiation, objectives of scatter reduction, contrast reduction

factor, scatter reduction methods: beam restrictors (diaphragms, cones/cylinders & collimators),

grids (grids function, different types of stationary grids, grid performance evaluation parameters,

moving grids, artifacts caused by grids, grid selection criteria), air gap technique. Intensifying

screens: Function of intensifying screens, function evaluation parameters, emission spectra and

screen film matching, conventional screens a Vs rare-earth screens. Radiographic Film:

Components of radiographic film, physical principles of image formation on film, double and

single emulsion film, sensitometeric parameters of film (density, speed, latitude etc.,).

Unit 2: Conventional and digital radiography techniques Conventional Radiography techniques: Prime factors (kVp, mAs and SID/SFD),

influence of prime factors on image quality, selection criterica of prime factors for different

types of imaging, different type of projection and slices selected for imaging, objectives of

radio-diagnosis, patient dose Vs image quality.

Mammography and fluoroscopy: AEC. Compression Paddle, HVL- Modern tends in

interventional Radiology- Bi- Plane imaging, rotational angiography, cardiac imaging real time

imaging characteristics – continuous and pulsed fluoroscopy, high dose rate fluoroscopy, Dose

area product (DAP) meters, peak skin dose, dose management for pediatric and pregnant patient

in interventional imaging, Diagnostic Reference Level and guidelines.


Page 14 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

Xero-radiography, C- arm, Interventional radiology, digital radiography (CR and DR

systems), digital subtraction techniques, Conventional tomography and orthopan tomography

(OPG) (principle only).

Unit 3: Computed Tomography

Conventional X-ray tomography (Basic principle), Data Accumulation, Original EMI

Scanner, Scanning motions or Generations- First, Second, Third and fourth Generations,

Principle of Helical CT Scan and Scan Parameters (kV, mA.S and pitch)-Other scan

configurations-X-ray tubes, Collimators, Detectors-Scintillation crystal and Xenon Gas

Ionization chamber, Image reconstruction, Modes of CT acquisition, Axial acquisition, Helical

acquisition, Cone beam acquisition, Cardiac CT, CT angiography, CT perfusion – Cone beam

reconstruction, Iterative reconstruction, postprocesing tools, volume rendering, SSD, MPR, MIP-

factor affecting patient dose CTDI, CTDI vol, CTDI w dose length product (DLP), multiple scan

average dose (MSAD). Algorithms for Image reconstruction- Back projection, Iterative method

and Analytical methods, Comparison of Mathematical models, CT Numbers, Image display,

Image quality, Resolution-Spatial and contrast resolution, Patient exposure, Artifacts-Motion

artefacts, Streak artefacts, Beam hardening artefacts and Ring artefacts, 3D Imaging –Surface

reconstruction and Volumetric reconstruction.

Unit 4: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Ultrasound Imaging

Magnetic Resonance image – Hydrogen characteristics, magnetization vector, Precession,

flip angle. proton density, relaxation time T1 & T2 images – Comparison of T1 and T2- image

characteristics – MRI system components – Magnets, Magnetic fields, Gradients, Magnetic field

shielding, Radio Frequency systems, MR signal localization, composite signal, K-space – Basic

MR imaging sequences, MR instrument and bio safety, image quality- MRI safety.

Interaction of sound waves with body tissues, production of ultrasound – Transducer

array – Beam Properties – Near field-far side lobes-spatial resolution. Image data acquisition –

data acquisition system, ADC- receiver, Echo display modes, scan converter. Image data

acquisition, pulse echo acquisition – ultrasound image display, amplitude mode, Motion mode,

brightness mode- ultrasound image quality – image artifacts – Bio effects of ultrasound- colour

Doppler.

Unit 5: Safety in Diagnostic Radiology

General considerations in design of diagnostic installations- QA of conventional

diagnostic X- ray equipment: purpose of QA, QA Protocols, QA Test methods for performance

evaluation of diagnostic equipments – Collimator congruence test; accuracy of kVp; HVL,

accuracy of mAs; consistency of output; accuracy of mA; small and large Focal Sport size

evaluation, radiation safety survey conventional and interventional radiographic systems,

phantom test in digital radiography. QA in CT. Other related quality assurance as per the

guidelines of the AERB as part of regulation. QA in mammography using phantoms.

Performance testing and quality assurance in ultrasound and MRI using accredited phantoms.


Page 15 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014


1. Curry, T.S., Dowdey, J.E., Murry, R.C., (1990), Christensen’s introduction to the

physics of diagnostic radiology (4th

ed.), Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.

2. Bushberg, S.T., Seibert, J.A, Leidholt, E.M. & Boone, J.M. (1994), The essential

physics of medical imaging, Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.

3. Dendy, P.P. & Heaton, B. (2nd

ed), physics for diagnostic radiology, Bristol &

Philadelphia: Institute of physics Publishing.

4. Johns, H.E. & Cunningham, J.R. (1983), The physics of radiology (4th

ed.), Springfield,

IL: Charles C. Thomas

5. E. Seeram. X-ray imaging equipment, An introduction (1985), Springfield, IL : Charles

C. Thomas.

6. Hendee, W.R. & Ritenour, R. (1983), Medical Imaging physics (3rd

ed.), St. Louis:

C.V. Mosbey.

7. Chesney, D.N. & Chesney, M.O., X-ray equipment for student radiographers (3rd

ed.),

New Delhi: CBS Publishers & Distributors.

8. Chesney, D.N. & Chesney, M.O., Radiographic imaging (4th

ed.), New Delhi: CBS

Publishers & Distributors.

9. Hashemi, R.H., Bradley, W.G. & Lisanti, C.J. MRI the basics, Philadelphia: Lippincot

Williams & Willkins.

10. Sprawls, P., Magnetic resonance imaging principles, methods and techniques, Madison

Wisconsin: Medical Physics Publishing.

PAPER 9

EXTERNAL BEAM RADIATION THERAPY

Unit 1: Beam generators

Kilo voltage therapy X-ray Units: principle and application of Grenz ray therapy -

contact therapy, superficial therapy, orthovoltage, deep therapy.

Telecobalt units: Construction and working, source design, beam shutter mechanisms,

mercury shutter pneumatic pressure system, rotating wheel shutter system, beam collimation,

penumbra and it's types, trimmers and breast cones, isocentric gantry.

Particle accelerators: Particle accelerators for industrial, medical and research

applications - The Resonant transformer – Cascade generator – Van De Graff Generator –

pelletron – Cyclotron – Betatron - Synchro – Cyclotron – Microtron - Electron Synchrotron –

Proton synchrotron. Linear accelerator- Details of accelerators facilities in India, Construction

and working, klystron and magnetron, traveling and standing waveguide, pulse modulators and

auxiliary systems, bending magnet systems, treatment beam production - X-rays - electron

beam, beam collimation, asymmetric collimator, multileaf collimator, dose monitoring and beam

stabilization - electron contamination- relative merits and demerits of kV x-rays, gamma rays,

MV x-rays and electron beams.

Unit 2: Dosimetry parameters

Central axis dosimetry parameters: percentage depth doses (PDD), tissue air ratio

(TAR), back scatter factor/Peak scatter factor (BSF/PSF) - tissue phantom ratio (TPR) - tissue

maximum ratio (TMR)- collimator scatter factor, phantom scatter factor and total scatter factors -


Page 16 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

relationship between TAR and PDD and its applications - relationship between TMR and PDD

and its applications – scatter air ratio(SAR) – scatter maximum ratio(SMR)- off axis ratio field

factors- surface dose and buildup region- Tissue equivalent phantoms- Radiation Field Analyzer

(RFA)- Description and measurement of isodose curves/ charts- Dosimetry data resources.

Unit 3: Beam modifiers and treatment planning

Beam modifying and shaping devices – Block Cutting machines- wedge filters –

universal, motorized and dynamic wedges - treatment planning with wedges– shielding blocks -

field shaping, custom blocking - tissue compensation – design of compensators, 2D

compensators, 3D compensators-special considerations in treatment planning - skin dose, field

matching, integral dose, DVHs – differential, integral.

Treatment planning in teletherepy – target volume definition and dose prescription

criteria – Gross tumor volume (GTV), Clinical target volume (CTV), Internal target volume

(ITV), Internal margin, Planning target volume (PTV), Organ At Risk (OAR), Treated volume,

Irradiated volume, Maximum target dose, Median target dose, Modal target dose and hot spot.

ICRU 50, ICRU 62 and ICRU 83- SSD and SAD set ups – two and three dimensational

localization techniques, dose specification and normalization- Positioning/immobilization - 2D

and 3D simulation techniques- conventional simulator- CT simulator- use of contrast, markers -

patient data acquisition- contours, contouring images from CR, CT, MRI, US, PET, fusion

techniques - virtual simulation – digitally reconstructed radiographs(DRR).

Field arrangements – single, parallel opposed and multiple fields – corrections for tissue

in homogeneity, contour shapes and beam obliquity – integral dose. Arc/rotation therapy and

Clarkson technique for irregular fields – mantle and inverted Y Fields. Conventional and

conformal radiotherapy. Treatment time and Monitor unit calculations- SSD and SAD/isocentric

technique, Co-60 and accelerator calculations.

Unit 4: Physics of electron and particulate beam therapy

Clinical electron beams – energy specification – electron energy selection for patient

treatment – depth dose characteristic (Ds, Dx, R100, R50, Rp etc.) – beam flatness and symmetry –

penumbra – isodose plots – monitor unit calculations – output factor formalisms – effect of air

gap on beam dosimetry – effective SSD.

Relative merits of electrons, neutron, x-ray and gamma ray beams and heavily charged

particles – Neutron capture therapy and Heavy ion (proton and carbon ion) therapy- physical

principle and equipment only.

Unit 5: Quality assurance in radiation therapy

Quality assurance in radiation therapy – precision and accuracy in clinical dosimetry -

quality assurance protocols for telecobalt, medical linear accelerator and radiotherapy

simulators– IEC requirements – acceptance, commissioning and quality control of telecobalt,

medical linear accelerator and radiotherapy simulators. Portal and in-vivo dosimetry. Electronic

portal imaging devices.


1. W.R.Hendee, Medical Radiation Physics, Year Book Medical Publishers Inc., London,

1981.


Page 17 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

2. R.F.Mould, Radiotherapy Treatment Planning, Medical Physics Hand Book Series No.7,

Adam Hilger Ltd.,Bristor, 1981.

3. S.C.Klevenhagen, Physics of Electron Beam Therapy, Medical Physics Hand Book

Series No.6, Adam Hilger Ltd.,Bristor, 1981.

4. G.C.Bentel, Radiation Therapy Planning, Macmillan Publishing Co.,New York, 1992.

5. Govinda Rajan, Advanced Medical Radiation Dosimetry, Prentice hall of India Pvt.Ltd.,

New Delhi, 1992.

6. H.E. Johns and Cunningham. The physics of radiology.

7. Faiz M. Khan, The Physics of radiation therapy, Lippincott Williams & Willkins,

Philadelphia, 3rd

edition, 2003.

8. Faiz M. Khan, Roger A. Potish, Treatment planning in Radiation Oncology, Williams &

Willkins, Baltimore, 1998.

9. S.H. Levitt, J.A. Purdy, C.A. Perez and S.Vijayakumar (Editors). Technical Basis of

Radiation Therapy practical Clinical Applications – 4th

Revised Edition, Springer Berlin

Heidelberg New York.

PAPER 10

RADIATION DOSIMETRY AND STANDARDIZATION

Unit 1: Dosimetry & Standardization of X and Gamma Ray Beam

Standards – Primary and Secondary Standards, Traceability, Uncertainly in measurement.

Charged Particle Equilibrium (CPE), Free Air Ion Chamber (FAIC), Design of parallel plate

FAIC, Measurement of Air Kerma/ Exposure with effective SSD. Limitations of FAIC. Bragg-

Gray theory, Mathematical expression describing Bragg-Gray principle and its derivation.

Burlin and Spencer Attix Cavity theories. Transient Charged particle Equilibrium (TCPE),

Concept of Dgas, Cavity ion chambers, Derivation of an expression for sensitivity of a cavity ion

chamber. General definition of calibration factor – Nx, Nk, ND, air, ND, w. IAEA TRS277:

Various steps to arrive at the expression for Dw starting from Nx. TRS398: ND, w, Q : ND, W :

KQ,Q0 : KQ, Derivation of an expression for KQ,Q0. Calorimetric standards –AAPM TG 51 and

other dosimetric protocols- Intercomparison of standard.

Unit 2: Measurement of Dw for beams from telecobalt machines and for electrons from

linac

Measurement of Dw for External beams from 60

Co teletherapy machines: Reference

conditions for measurement, Type of ion chambers, phantom, Waterproof sleeve, Derivation of

an expression for Machine Timing error, Procedure for evolution of Temperature and pressure

correction : Thermometers and pressure gauges. Measurement of temperature and pressure.

Saturation correction: derivation of expression for charge collection efficiency of an ion chamber

based on Mie theory. Parallel plate, cylindrical and spherical ion chambers, Ksat, Two voltage

method for continuous and pulsed beams Polarity correction.

Measurement of Dw for high-energy Electrons beams (TRS 381) from Linear

accelerators: Beam quality, beam quality index, beam quality correction coefficient, Cross

calibration using intermediate beam quality and depth dose characteristics. Quality Audit

Programmes in Reference and Non-Reference conditions.


Page 18 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

Unit 3: Neutron Standards & Dosimetry

Neutron standards – primary standards, secondary standards, Neutron yield and fluence

rate measurements, Manganese sulpate bath system, precision long counter, Activation method.

Neutron spectrometry, threshold detectors, scintillation detectors & multispheres, Neutron

dosimetry, Neutron survey meters, calibration, neutron field around medical accelerators.

Unit 4: Standardization of Radionuclides

Methods of Measurement of radioactivity – Defined solid angle and 4Л counting – Beta

gamma coincidence counting – Standardization of beat emitters and electron capture nuclides

with proportional, GM and scintillation counters – Standardization of gamma emitters with

scintillation spectrometers – Ionization chamber methods – Extrapolation chamber – Routine

sample measurements – Liquid counter – Windowless counting of liquid samples – scintillation

counting methods for alpha, beta and gamma emitter – Reentrant ionization chamber methods –

Methods using (n, ŕ) and (n, p) reactions – Determination of yields of neutron sources – Space

integration methods – Solids state detectors.

Unit 5: Radiation Chemistry and Chemical Dosimetry

Definition of free radicals and G-Values-Kinetics of radiation chemical transformations –

LET and dose-rate effects – Radiation chemistry of water and aqueous solutions, peroxy radicals,

pH effects – Radiation Chemistry of gases and reactions of dosimetry interest – Radiation

polymerization, effects of radiation on polymers and their applications in dosimetry – Formation

of free radicals in solids and their application in dosimetry- Description of irradiators from

dosimetric view point – Dosimetry principles – Definitions of optical density, molar absorption

coefficient, Beer – Lamberts law, spectrophotometry – Dose calculations - – Laboratory

techniques – Reagents and procedures _ Requirements for an ideal chemical dosimeter – Fricke

dosimeter – FBX dosimeter – Free radical dosimeter – Ceric sulphate dosimeter – Other high and

low level dosimeters – Applications of chemical dosimeters in Radiotherapy and industrial

irradiators.


1. Joseph Margill and Jean Galy. Radioactivity Radionuclide Radiation, European,

Commission Joint Research Centre, Institute of Transuranium Elements, P. O. Box 2340,

76125 Karlsruhe, Germany.

2. IAEA TRS 374, Calibration of Dosimeters used in Radiation Therapy.

3. F.H. Attix. Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry, Viley - VCH,

Verlog, 2004.

4. Field. Clinical Use of Radioisotopes.

5. W.R.Hendee, Medical Radiation Physics, Year Book Medical Publishers Inc., London,

1981.

6. S.C.Klevenhagen, Physics of Electron Beam Therapy, Medical Physics Hand Book

Series No.6, Adam Hilger Ltd., Bristol, 1981.

7. G.C.Bentel, Radiation Therapy Planning, Macmillan Publishing Co.,New York, 1992.

8. Govinda Rajan, Advanced Medical Radiation Dosimetry, Prentice hall of India Pvt.Ltd.,

New Delhi, 1992.

9. IAEA TRS 277, “Absorbed dose determination in Photon and Electron beams”.


Page 19 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

PRACTICALS

MEDICAL PHYSICS LAB - I

Suggested New Practicals:

(1) Attenuation of Gamma rays through various materials and evaluation of HVL

(2) Study of Voltage-Current Characteristics of a Ion Chamber

(3) Measurement and Verification of PDD, TAR and TMR values

(4) Determination of output of a telecobalt unit - Using TRS 398

(5) Wedge and Tray factor determination

(6) Manual monitor unit calculations of simple and complex treatment plans

(7) Quality Assurance of a Telecobalt unit

(8) Quality Assurance of a Treatment Planning System

(9) Quality Assurance of a Linear Accelerator

(10) Autoradiography test for Brachytherapy source in Remote Afterloader unit

(11) Quality Assurance of a Radiography or CT

Demonstrations:

(1) Treatment Planning for External Beam with TPS

(2) Treatment Planning for Brachytherapy with TPS

(3) Demonstration of In-air Scanner

SEMESTER- III

PAPER 11

BRACHYTHERAPY AND COMPUTERS IN TREATMENT PLANNING

Unit 1: Brachytheraphy physics and dosimetry

Definition and classification of brachytherphy techniques – surface mould, intracavitary,

interstitial, intraluminal and intraoperative techniques. Requirement for brachytherapy sources-

Dose rate considerations and classification of brachytheraphy techniques – Low dose rate (LDR),

medium dose rate (MDR), high dose rate (HDR) and pulsed dose rate (PDR).

Paterson parker and Manchester Dosage systems. ICRU 38 and 58 protocols.

Specification and calibration of brachytheraphy sources - RAKR and AKS – IAEA TECDOC

1274 and ICRU 72 recommendations. Point and line source dosimetry formalisms – Sievert

Integral – AAPM TG-43/43U1 and other dosimetry formalisms.

Unit 2: Afterloading techniques

Afterloading techniques – Advantages and disadvantages of manual and remote

afterloading techniques. AAPM and IEC requirements for remote afterloading brachytheraphy


Page 20 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

equipment. Acceptance, commissioning and quality assurance of remote after loading

brachytheraphy equipment. ISO requirements and QA and Standardization of Brachtherapy

sources – Apparent activity – Reference Air Kerma Rate – Air Kerma Strength – Standards for

HDR 192

Ir and 60

CO sources – Standardization of 125

I and beta sources – IAEA TECDOC 1274 –

room scatter correction. Calibration of protection level instruments and monitors- Integrated

brachytherpahy unit.

Manual pre loading systems: Manual after loading systems - remote after loading systems

-source trains (fixed and programmable) - stepping source - different types of applicators

(gynecological, esophageal, nasopharngeal, bronchial) and templates.

Unit 3: Treatment planning and quality assurance in brachytherapy

Brachytherapy treatment planning – Radiography, CT, MRI based brachytheraphy

planning – forward and inverse planning. Networking: DICOM and PACS (in detail)- DICOM

image import/export from OT – Record & Verification.

Acceptance and commissioning Test, Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC)

of radiotherapy (teletherapy and brachytherapy) treatment planning systems using IAEA TRS

430 and other protocols.

Unit 4: Advances in Brachytherapy

Brachytheraphy treatment for prostate cancer. Ocular brachytherphy using photon and

beta sources. Intravascular brachytheraphy – classification – sources – dosimetry procedures -

AAPM TG 60 protocol. Electronic brachytheraphy (Axxent, Mammosite, Etc.)

Unit 5: Computers in Treatment Planning

Scope of computers in radiation treatment planning – Review of algorithms used for

treatment planning computations – pencil beam, double pencil beam, Clarkson method,

convolution superposition, lung interface algorithm, fast Fourier transform, Inverse planning

algorithm, Monte Carlo based algorithms. Treatment planning calculations for photon beam,

electron beam, and brachytherapy – Factors to be incorporated in computational algorithms. Plan

optimization – direct aperture optimization – beamlet optimization – simulated annealing – dose

volume histograms – Indices used for plan comparisons – Hardware and software requirements –

beam & source library generation- Networking, DICOM and PACS (overview).


1. D. Baltas, L. Sakelliou and N. Zamboglou The Physics of Modern Brachytherapy for

Oncology CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, 6000 Brooken Sound Parkway NW

Suite 300, Boca Raton – FL 33487-2742.

2. Faiz M. Khan, The Physics of radiation therapy, Lippincott Williams & Willkins,

Philadelphia, 3rd

edition, 2003.

3. T.J.Godden, “Physical aspects of brachytherapy”.

4. Subir Nag “Principles and Practice of Brachytheraphy”.

5. S.H. Levitt, J.A. Purdy, C.A. Perez and S.Vijayakumar (Editors). Technical Basis of

Radiation Therapy practical Clinical Applications – 4th

Revised Edition, Springer Berlin

Heidelberg New York.


Page 21 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

PAPER 12

RADIATION BIOLOGY

Unit 1: Cell Biology

Cell Physiology and biochemistry – Structures of the normal- nature of cancer cells-

transport of ions through cell membrance- Types of cells and tissue, their structures and

functions - Organic constituents of cells – Carbohydrates, fats, proteins and nucleic acids –

Enzymes and their functions – Functions of mitochondria, ribosomes, golgi bodies and

lysosomes – Cell metabolism – DNA as concepts of gene and gene action – Mitotic and meiotic

cell division – Semi conservative DNA synthesis, Genetic variation Crossing over, mutation,

chromosome segregation – Heredity and its mechanisms.

Unit 2: Interaction of Radiation with Cells

Concepts of micro dosimetry- Direct and indirect action of radiation on living cells –

Radiolytic products of water and their interaction with biomolecule – Nucleic acids, proteins,

enzymes, fats – Influence of oxygen, temperature – Cellular effects of radiation – inactivations,

Mitotic delay, DNA damage, chromosome aberrations, mutations and recombinations – Giant

cell formation, cell death Recovery from radiation damage – Potentially lethal damage and

sublethal damage recovery - Pathways for repair of radiation damage. Law of Bergonie and

Tribondeau- radio sensitivity protocol of different tissues in human.

Unit 3: Radiobiological models

Cell survival curve parameters – in vitro and in vivo experiments on mammalian cell

systems- Model for radiation action – Target theory – Single hit Single target – Single hit Multi

target - Single hit and Multi hit target theory– Multi hit Single target – Multi hit Multi target -

other theories of cell inactivation- Repair misrepair hypothesis – Dual action hypothesis –

Modification of radiation damage – RBE, LET, OER, dose rate, dose fractionation – Oxygen and

other chemical sensitizers – Anoxic, hypoxic, base analogs, folic acid, and energy metabolism

inhibitors – Hyperthermic sensitization – Radio-protective agents- effects of UV, microwave and

other non-ionizing radiation.

Unit 4: Biological Effects of Radiation

Somatic effects of radiation – Physical factors influencing somatic effects – Dependence

on dose, dose rate, type and energy of radiation, temperature, anoxia, - Acute radiation sickness –

LD 50/30 and LD 50/60 dose – Effects of radiation on skin and blood forming organs, blood

constituents, embryo, digestive track, endocrine glands, gonads– Sterility and cataract formation

– Effects of chronic exposure to radiation – Induction of leukemia – Radiation Carcinogenesis –

Risk of carcinogenesis – Animal and human data – Shortening of life span – In-utero exposure.

Genetic effects of radiation – Threshold and linear dose-effects relationship- Factors

affecting frequency of radiation induced mutations– first generation effects – Effects due to

mutation of recessive and dominant characteristics – Genetic burden – gene controlled hereditary


Page 22 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

diseases and defects – Spontaneous mutation rate – human data on animals and lower species-

Concept of doubling dose and genetic risk estimate.

Unit 5: Biological Basis of Radiotherapy

Physical and biological factors affecting cell survival, tumor regrowth and normal tissue

response – Non-conventional fractionation scheme and their effect of reoxygenation, repair,

redistribution in the cell cycle – High LET radiation therapy.

Time dose fractionation – Basis for dose fractionation in beam therapy – Concepts for

Nominal Standard Dose (NSD), Roentgen equivalent therapy (RET) – Time dose fractionation

(TDF) factors and cumulative radiation effects (CRE) – Gap correction, Linear and Linear

Quadratic models, TCP and NTCP evaluation- problem of hypoxic compartment and quiescent

cells- radiobiology of malignant neoplasm- solution of hypoxic cell sensitizers, hyperthermia,

combination of chemotherapy and radiotherapy- chronoradiobiology and its applications to get

better cure- problem of tumor regression.


1. E. J. Hall, Radiobiology for Radiologists, J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, 2000.

2. S. P. Yarmonenko, Radiobiology of Humans and animals, MIR, Publishers,

Moscow,1990.

3. Late biological effects of ionizing radiation: proceedings of the Symposium on the Late

Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation held by the International Atomic Energy Agency

in Vienna, 13-17 March 1978.

4. H. Smith, J. W. Stather, Biological effects of ionising radiation, Landolt-Börnstein-

Group VIII Advanced Materials and Technologies Volume 4, 2005, pp 5-40.

5. Dr. Claus Grupen Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation Graduate Texts in Physics

2010, pp 212-228.

6. B. Kanyár, G. J. Köteles, Dosimetry and Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation,

Handbook of Nuclear Chemistry 2011, pp 2211-2257.

7. IAEA TRS 42, Radiation Biology: A handbook for teachers and students, 2010.


Page 23 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

PAPER 13

NUCLEAR MEDICINE AND INTERNAL DOSIMETRY

Unit 1: Physics of Nuclear Medicine, In-vivo and In-vitro techniques

Introduction to nuclear Medicine, Unsealed Sources, production of Radionuclide used in

Nuclear Medicine; Reactor based Radionuclide, Accelerators based Radionuclide, photonuclear

activation, Equations for Radionuclide production, Radionuclide Generators and their operation

principles. Various usages of Radiopharmaceuticals.

In-vivo non-imaging procedures: Thyroid Uptake Measurements, Reno gram, Life Span

of RBC, Blood Volume studies, life Span of RBC etc. General concept of Radionuclide,

imaging and Historical developments. In-vitro Techniques: RIA/IRMA techniques and its

principles. Difference between in-vivo and in- vitro dosimetry.

Unit 2: Components of radionuclide imaging

Radionuclide Imaging: Other techniques and Instruments; The Rectilinear Scanner and its

operational principles, Basic Principles and Design of the Anger Camera / Scintillation Camera;

System components, Detector System and Electronics, Different types of Collimators, Design

and performance Characteristic of the Converging, Diverging and Pin hole collimator, Image

Display and Recording Systems, Digital Image processing Systems, Scanning Camera,

Limitation of the Detector System and Electronics.

Unit 3: Different imaging techniques and their image quality parameters

Different Imaging Techniques: Basic Principles, Two dimensional Imaging Techniques,

Three Dimensional Imaging techniques – Basic principles and Problems, Focal plane

Tomography, Emission Computed Tomography, Single Photon Emission Computed

Tomography, Positron Emission Tomography. Various Image Reconstruction Techniques during

Image formation such as Back projection and Fourier based Techniques, Iterative Reconstruction

method and their drawbacks. Attenuation Correction, Scatter Correction, Resolution Correction,

Other requirements or Sources of Error.

Image Quality Parameters: Spatial Resolution, Factor affecting spatial Resolution,

Methods of Evaluation of spatial Resolution, Contrast, Noise. NEMA protocols followed for

quality Assurance / Quality Control of Imaging Instruments.

Unit 4: Physics of PET and Cyclotron

Principles of PET, PET Instrumentations, Annihilation Coincidence Detection, PET

Detector Scanner Design, Data Acquisition for PET, Data corrections and Quantitative Aspect of

PET, Working of Medical Cyclotron, Radioisotopes produced and their characteristic. Treatment

of Thyrotoxicosis, Thyroid cancer with I-131, use of P-32 and Y-90 for palliative treatment,

Radiation Synovectomy and the isotopes used. se of open isotopes including 99Tc in functional

studies, measurement of radio activity, principle of isotope dilution analysis, circulation time,

patient dose, guidance level, production principles and decontamination procedures.


Page 24 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

Unit 5: Internal Dosimetry

Different Compartmental Model; Single Compartmental Model, Two Compartmental

Model with Back Transference, Two Compartmental Model without Back Transference.

Classical Methods of Dose Evaluation: Beta particle Dosimetry; Equilibrium Dose Rate

Equation, Beta Dose Calculation Specific Gamma Ray constant, Gamma Ray Dosimetry,

Geometrical Factor Calculation, Dosimetry of Low energy Electromagnetic Radiation.

MIRD Technique for Dose calculations; Basic producer and some practical problems,

Cumulative Activity, Equilibrium Dose Constant, Absorbed Fraction, Specific Absorbed

Fraction, Dose Reciprocity Theorem, Mean Dose per unit Cumulative Activity and problems

related to the Dose calculations. Limitation of MIRD Technique.


1. Simon R. Cherry, James A., Sorenson, Michael E. Phels, Physics in nuclear Medicine

(3rd

ed.), SAUNDERS an imprint of Elsevier.

2. Ramesh Chandra, Nuclear Medicine physics (5th

ed.), Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia.

3. Antonio Fernando Goncalves Rocha and john Charles Harbert, Text Book of Nuclear

Medicine: Basic Science, Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia.

4. Pail J. Early, M.A. Razzak and D, Bruces Sodee, Text Book of Nuclear Medicine

Technology. The C.V. Mosby Company.

5. A.L. Baert and K. Sartor, Diagnostic Nuclear Medicine (2nd

ed.), Springer.

6. Gopal B. saha, Fundamental of Nuclear Pharmacy (5th

ed.), Springer.

7. Dale L. Bailey, David W. Townsend, Peter E. Valk and Michael N. Maisey. Springer.

Janet F. Eary and Winfried Brenner, Nuclear Medicine Therapy. Informa Health

Care.

8. J.K Fowler, Nuclear Particles in Cancer Treatment, Adam Hilger Ltd., Philadelphia,

1981.

9. W.H.Blahd, Nuclear medicine, McGraw Hill Co., New Delhi 1980.

10. W.N.Wagner, Principles of Nuclear Medicine, W.B.Saunders Co., London 1970.

11. J.Herbert and D.A.Rocha, Text Book of Nuclear Medicine, Vol 2 and 6, Lea and

Febiger Co., Philadelphia, 1984.

12. S.Webb, The Physics of Medical Imaging, Medical Science Series, Adam Hilgers

Publications, Bristol, 1984.


Page 25 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

PAPER 14

RADIATION HAZARDS EVALUATION AND CONTROL

Unit 1: Radiation protection standards

Radiation dose to individuals from natural radioactivity in the environment and man-

made sources. Basic concepts of radiation protection standards – Historical background –

International Commission on Radiological protection and its recommendations – The system of

Radiological protection – Justification of practice, Optimization of protection and individual

dose limits– potential exposures, dose and constraints – System of protection for intervention –

Categories of exposures – Occupational, Public and Medical Exposures – risk factor- permissible

levels for neutron flux –Factors governing internal exposure – Radionuclide concentrations in air

and water – ALI, DAC and contamination levels-international/national radiation protection

standards-ICRP, BSS and AERB, overview of UNSCEAR recommendations.

Unit 2: Principles of Monitoring and Protection and safety in industry

RPR 2004- Evaluation of external radiation hazards – Effects of distance, time and

shielding – shielding calculations – Personnel and area monitoring – Internal radiation hazards –

Radio toxicity of different radionuclide and classification of laboratories – Control of

contamination – Bioassay and air monitoring – chemical protection – Radiation accidents –

disaster monitoring.

Safety in Industrial, Agricultural and Research uses of Radiation: Use of ionizing

radiation in irradiator, industrial; radiography, nucleonic gauging, well logging and research such

as medical research, industrial research and agricultural research.

Unit 3: Safety in the Medical Uses of Radiation

Planning and shielding calculations of medical radiation installation – General

considerations – Design of diagnostic installations- design of deep therapy, telegamma,

accelerators and Brachytherapy installations, SPECT, PET/CT, Medical Cyclotron in the Nuclear

Medicine Department and medical radioisotope laboratories- Evaluation of radiation hazards in

medical diagnostic therapeutic installations – Radiation monitoring procedures – Protective

measures to reduce radiation exposure to staff and patients – Radiation hazards in brachytherapy

department and teletherapy departments and radioisotope laboratories – Particle accelerators

protective equipment – Handling of patients – Radiation safety during sources transfer

operations special safety features in accelerators, reactors.

Unit 4: Radioactive Waste Disposable and Transport of Radioisotopes

Radioactive Waste – sources of radioactive waste – Classification of waste – Treatment

techniques for solid, liquid and gaseous effluents – Concept of Delay Tank and Various Waste

Disposal Methods used in Nuclear Medicine. Permissible limits for disposal of waste – sampling

techniques for air, water and solids – Geological, hydrological and meteorological parameters –

Ecological considerations. Disposal of radioactive wastes – General methods of disposal.

Transportation of radioactive substances – Historical background – General packing

requirements – Transports documents – Labeling and marking of packages – Regulations

applicable for different modes of transport – Transports by post –Transport emergencies –


Page 26 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

Special requirements for transport of large radioactive sources and fissile materials – Exemptions

from regulations – shipments approval – Shipment exclusive use – Transports under special

arrangement – Consignors and carriers responsibilities.

Unit 5: Legislation and Radiation Emergencies and their Medical Management

Physical protection of sources – Safety and security of sources during storage, use,

transport and disposal – Security provisions: administrative and technical – Security threat and

graded approach in security provisions.

National legislation – Regulatory framework – Atomic Energy Act – Atomic Energy

(Radiation Protection) Rules – Applicable safety codes, standards, Guides and Manuals –

Regulatory Control – Licensing, inspection and Enforcement – Responsibilities of Employers,

Licensees, Radiological Safety Officers and Radiation workers – National Inventories of

radiation sources – Import, Export procedures.

Radiation accidents and emergencies in the use of radiation sources and equipment

industry and medicine - Radiographic cameras and teletherapy units – Loading and unloading of

sources – Loss of Radiation sources and their tracing – Typical accidents cases, Radiation

injuries, their treatment and medical management – Case his histories.


1. Herman Cember. Introduction to Health Physics

2. Atomic Energy Act 1962

3. AERB Radiation Production Rules 2004

4. ICRP 1990 Recommendations

5. ICRP 2007 Recommendations

6. IAEA Basis Safety Standards 115, 1997

7. Shapiro J. Radiation Protection

8. Mckenzie. Radiation protection in Radiotherapy


Page 27 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

PAPER 15

RECENT ADVANCES IN RADIOTHERAPY

Unit 1: Conformal and Intensity modulated radiotherapy

Introduction to CRT with MLC-Modern developments in MLC – Different categories of

MLC – Leaf position detection – commercially available MLC systems– MLC acceptance,

commissioning and safety assessment – clinical application- Quality assurance.

Introduction to IMRT – physical optimization – Biological models for evaluation and

optimization of IMRT – Target and critical structure definitions for IMRT – Static MLC IMRT,

Dynamic MLC IMRT, compensator based IMRT –potential problems with IMRT –

Commissioning and QA for IMRT treatment planning –patient specific quality assurance– IMRT

delivery system quality assurance.

Unit 2: Stereotactic radiosurgry/radiotherophy (SRS/SRT)

Stereotactic radiosurgry/radiotherophy (SRS/SRT) – cone and mMLC based X-Knife –

Gamma Knife – immobilization devices for SRS/SRT – dosimetry and planning procedures –

Evaluation of SRS/SRT treatment plans – QA protocols and procedure for X- and Gamma Knife

units – Patient specific QA. Physical, planning clinical aspects and quality assurance of

stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) and Cyber Knife based therapy.

Unit 3: Image Guided Radiation Therapy (IGRT)

Concept, imaging modality, kVCBCT and MVCBCT. Mechanics of breathing – Methods

to manage respiratory motion in radiation treatment – x-ray imaging techniques for guidance in

the Radiation therapy setting – clinical procedures in employing x-ray imaging technologies. –

Effect of motion on the total dose distribution – 4D computed tomography imaging and

treatment planning. Delivery- QA protocol and procedures.

Unit 4: Volumetric modulated arc therapy

Introduction- Machine Commissioning and Quality Assurance- Dosimetric Aspects-

Treatment Planning- Comparison of VMAT treatment plans with conventional IMRT planning-

Patient Specific Quality Assurance- Electronic Portal Imaging device– its clinical applications

including QA tool in machine and patient specific quality assurance and gamma index analysis.

Unit 5: Special techniques in radiation therapy

Total Body Irradiation, hemi body irradiation, Total Skin Electron Therapy, electron arc

treatment, intraoperative radiotherapy- principle, equipment, treatment planning, dosimetry,

quality assurance and commissioning.

Neutron capture therapy- Heavy ion therapy (proton and carbon ion)- dosimetry (AAPM

Report No 16), treatment planning, quality assurance and commissioning.


Page 28 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014


1. Steve Webb, The Physics of Three–Dimensional Radiotherapy, Institute of Physics

Publishing, Bristol and Philadelphia, 2002.

2. Faiz M Khan and Roger A Potish, Treatment Planning in Radiation Oncology, Williams

and Wilkins, USA, 2003.

3. S. Webb. The physics of conformal radiotherapy, Institute of Physics publishing,

Philadelphia, 1997.

4. S. Webb. Intensity Modulated radiation therapy, Institute of Physics publishing,

Philadelphia, 2001.

5. J. Van Dyk, The Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology, Medical Physics

Publishing, Madison, WI, 1999.

6. Faiz M Khan , The Physics of Radiation Therapy, 3rd edition, Lippincott Williams &

Wilkins, USA, 2003.

7. Jatinder R Palta and T. Rockwell Mackie, Intensity Modulation Radiation Therapy,

Medical Physics publishing, Madison , Wisconsin, 2003.

8. Thomas Bortfeld. Rupert Schmidt-Ullrich, Willfried De Neve. David E.Wazer (Editors).

Image-Guided IMRT. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2006.

9. AAPM Report No. 72 , Basic Applications of Multileaf collimators, AAPM, USA, 2001.

10. AAPM Report No: 91, Management of Respiratory motion in radiation oncology, 2006.

11. David M. Hailey, Australian Institute of Health, High Energy Radiotherapy Equipment:

A Discussion Paper, Australian Institute of Health, 1989.

12. J.F.Fowler, Nuclear Particles in Cancer Treatment, Adam Hilger Ltd., Philadelphia, Pa,

1981.


Page 29 of 29 SCAA Dt. 06.02.2014

PRACTICALS

MEDICAL PHYSICS LAB - II

Suggested New Practicals:

1. Cross Calibration of Ion Chambers

2. Absolute Calibration of Photon and Electron beams - using TRS 398

3. Evaluation of Profile parameters using Radiation Field Analyzer

4. Manual Treatment Planning of Single and Parallel Opposed fields

5. Manual Treatment Planning of Three and Four fields

6. Quality Assurance of Multileaf Collimator

7. Quality Assurance of a Brachytherapy unit

8. Calibration of Film Scanner

9. Pretreatment IMRT Quality Assurance

10. Radiation Protection survey of Teletherapy and Brachytherapy installations

Demonstrations:

(1) Nuclear Medicine uptake studies

(2) Gamma Camera demonstration

(3) Demonstration of Linear Detector Array

Documents

Department of Medical Physics - Bharathiar Universitysyllabus.b-u.ac.in/unidepts/1415/medical_physics.pdf · · 2016-04-01Practical Medical Physics Lab II 50 100 150 Project Project