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Department of Aerospace Engineering

IIT Kanpur, India

Flight Dynamics: Mathematical Modeling

Dr. Mangal Kothari

Department of Aerospace Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur

Kanpur - 208016

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Particle/Rigid Body Kinematics

• Start with a choice of a coordinate reference frame wherein

the motion of the body is described (Inertial Reference)

• Kinematics relates the rate of change to “position” to

“velocities”.

• Note: The position and velocity coordinates are

dependent on the choice of the reference frame

• For particle kinematics, we are only interested in the

translational motion

• Rigid bodies – In addition to translational position, we are

also interested in the orientation/attitude or “angular

position” of the body. In many applications such as a

spacecraft pointing, we desire the spacecraft observe

something of interest that in turn requires the spacecraft to

maintain a specific orientation.

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Coordinated Frames

• Describe relative position and orientation of

objects

– Aircraft relative to direction of wind

– Camera relative to aircraft

– Aircraft relative to inertial frame

• Some things most easily calculated or described

in certain reference frames

– Newton’s law

– Aircraft attitude

– Aerodynamic forces/torques

– Accelerometers, rate gyros

– GPS

– Mission requirements

3

4

Rotation Frame

ReferenceBody ˆ

Reference Inertialˆ

b

n

[R] – Direction Cosine Matrix

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Attitude Representation

• 3 Degrees of Freedom

• The most general representation is Rotation

matrices (SO(3))

– 9 elements

– cumbersome to use

– No singularity

• Most commonly used representation: Euler angles

– Intuitive Physical interpretation

– Minimalistic representation : 3 parameters for 3 DOF

– But exhibit a phenomenon known as Gimbal Lock

• Other parameterization

– Quaternion

– Classical and modified Rodrigues parameters

– Axis angle representation

Rotation of Reference Frame

Rotation of Reference Frame

Euler Angles

• Need way to describe attitude of aircraft

• Common approach: Euler angles

• Pro: Intuitive

• Con: Mathematical singularity

– Quaternions are alternative for overcoming singularity

Vehicle-1 Frame

Vehicle-2 Frame

Body Frame

Inertial Frame to Body Frame Transformation

Translational Kinematics

Rotational Kinematics

Inverting gives

State Equations

Six of the 12 state equations for the UAV come from the kinematic

equations relating positions and velocities:

The remaining six equations will come from applying Newton’s 2nd law

to the translational and rotational motion of the aircraft.

Attitude Representation

What does it imply mathematically?

But Euler angles do

not form an

orthogonal vector.

The Euler rates are

also not orthogonal.

At pitch 900 the

matrix becomes

singular.

Consider a 3-2-1 rotation

Note: The singularity occurs in all Euler angle rotation sequences for the middle rotation

Quaternions

• 4 component extended complex number

• Consists of scalar and vector part

• These are mathematical objects. Can also be used to represent rotations.

- Recall: what does multiplying any complex number by 𝑒𝑖θ does? It rotates the vector by θ!

• Remove singularity at the cost of one more parameter. The main reason they started being used for satellites. Now used extensively for small Aerial vehicles, aerospace robotics, VTOLs, etc.

• Simpler to compose

• Some denote it as (w,x,y,z) with w being the scalar part.

Representation No. of Parameters

Rotation Matrix 9

Euler Angles 3

Quaternions 4

Quaternion Algebra

Have their own definition of operations

Illustration with a right hand rule:

Can be used to define

quaternion product

Properties similar to complex numbers

• Norm:

• Conjugate:

• Inverse:

• Product is non-commutative:

• Product is associative:

Recall

Rotation using Quaternions

• Exercise:

Unit modulus quaternions:

Axis-angle representation

Euler's Rotation Theorem

Any rotation or sequence of rotations of a rigid body or coordinate

system about a fixed point is equivalent to a single rotation by a given

angle θ about a fixed axis (called Euler axis) that runs through the

fixed point.

• Rotation operator:

4 parameters to represent 3 degrees of freedom Must satisfy a constraint

Conventions• In loose terms, Rotation is a directional and relative quantity with a magnitude

(but remember rotation is not a vector!)• Need to first set the rules: Left or right handed?

Rotating frames (passive) or rotating vectors (active)?Direction of operation (in passive case)

Conventions

• Hamilton Notation Order: if go towards left: local to global

• Implications

Local perturbations are compounded to right (post-multiplied)

Global perturbations are compounded to left (pre-multiplied)

• Suppose 1st rotation is given by and 2nd by

if 2nd rotation is defined relatively:

if 2nd rotation is defined globally:

• Similar to Rotation Matrices! - Recall: for a 321 rotation sequence, rotation matrix for

conversion from local to Earth frame is:

What if rotations were defined always with respect to original axis?

(check for yourself!)

X

Z

Y

X

Z

Y

X

’

Y

’

Z

’

X

Z

Z

’’

Y

’’X

’’

X

Z

Y

X

’’

Z

’’

Y

’’

Y1st

rotation

2nd rotation

Case a

Case b

2nd rotation

Relative

Rotation

Global

Rotation

Derivative

By First Principles

Equivalent

formulas

If the change from

previous attitude to current

attitude is defined locally,

the change in attitude

is post-multiplied.

For small angles

Quaternions vs Euler Angles

• No singularity vs Gimbal lock

• Computationally less expensive: no trigonometric function evaluation

• No discontinuity in representation like Euler angles

Less intuitive

Dual Covering

Unit modulus constraint

Rotation matrix

Rigid Body Dynamics

Conversion between Quaternions and Euler angles

Quaternions to Euler angles:

Exercise: Try yourself!

Euler angles to Quaternions:

Quaternions corresponding

to the three rotations are

given by

Since the rotations are

relative, we post-multiply

the rotations.

For a 1-2-3 Euler

rotation:

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Rotational Kinematics

Let b have an angular velocity w and be expressed as:

Then

Thus

skew-symmetric cross

product operator

But LHS

Poisson Kinematic EquationNine parameter attitude representation

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Differentiation of a Vector

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Translational Dynamics

can be expressed in body frame as

where

Since we have that

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Rotational Dynamics

Because is unchanging in the body frame, and

Rearranging we get

where

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Rotational Dynamics

If the aircraft is symmetric about the plane, then and

This symmetry assumption helps simplify the analysis. The inverse of

becomes

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Rotational Dynamics

Define

’s are functions of moments and products of inertia

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Equations of Motion

gravitational, aerodynamic, propulsion

External Forces and Moments

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Gravity Force

expressed in vehicle frame

expressed in body frame

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Equation of Motion Summary

System of 12 first-order ODE’s

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Blade Element Theory

Divided rotor blade to several independent 2D airfoil elements

Side view

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Rotor Aerodynamics

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Thrust and Torque Coefficient

Integrating dCT to calculate thrust coefficient of entire rotor

Integrating dCQ to calculate torque coefficient of entire rotor

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Momentum Theory

43/3

Momentum conservation

Energy conservation

Mass conservation

After carrying out necessary algebra, the induced inflow is given as

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Rotor Dynamics

𝑇 = 𝐶𝑇 𝜌 𝐴 𝑅2 Ω2

𝑇 = 𝐶𝑇 𝜌 𝐴 𝑅2 Ω2

Q =1

2𝐶𝑇

3

2 𝜌 𝐴 𝑅3 Ω2

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Control Mapping

45/3

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Longitudinal Aerodynamics

Longitudinal Forces – Body Frame

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Lateral Aerodynamics

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Propeller Torque

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Equations of Motion

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Linear State-space Models

nonlinear state equations

trim condition

Linearize around trim condition

deviation from trim

Re-writing state equation

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Longitudinal State-Space

Equations

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Jacobian Matrices

Take partial derivatives and evaluate them

at trim state and trim input

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Longitudinal State-space

Equations

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Alternative Form – Longitudinal

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Lateral State-space

Equations

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Jacobian Matrices

Take partial derivatives and evaluate them

at trim state and trim input

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Lateral State-space

Equations

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Alternative Form - Lateral

Questions ???