Denise McDonaldBusiness Manager

Skin and Vein Clinic

Whangarei

15:30 - 16:00 Leadership - Creating Accountability and Delegation

Understand the nature of personality and its relevance

to leadership traits

Great Man Theory

• The Great Man Theory attempted to prove that leaders and followers are fundamentally different.

• Conclusions of the research:• Leaders were not qualitatively different than followers.• Intelligence, initiative, stress tolerance, responsibility,

friendliness, and dominance, were moderately related to leadership success.

Personality Traits and Leadership

• Personality: Is the impression a person makes on others.• Underlying, unseen structures and processes inside a person that

explain why we behave the way we do.

• Trait approach: Traits refer to recurring regularities or trends in a person’s behaviour. • Theory maintains that people behave the way they do because of the

strengths of the traits they possess.

• Personality traits are useful for explaining why people act fairly consistently in different situations.

• Knowing differences in personality traits can help predict more accurately how people will tend to act in different situations.

• Leader behavior reflects an interaction between personality traits and various situational factors:• Weak situations

• Strong situations

Understand the five factor theory and the dark sides of

personality

The Five Factor or OCEAN Model of Personality

OCEAN PROFILE

Dark-Side Personality Traits

The eleven dark-side personality traits are:

• Excitable• Skeptical• Cautious• Reserved• Leisurely• Dutiful

• Bold• Mischievous• Colourful• Imaginative• Diligent

Identify the different forms of intelligence and understand

their implications forleaders

Intelligence and Leadership

• Intelligence: A person’s all-around effectiveness in activities directed by thought.

• Intelligent leaders:• Are faster learners.

• Make better assumptions, deductions, and inferences.

• Are better at creating a compelling vision and strategising to make their vision a reality.

• Can develop better solutions to problems.

• Can see more of the primary and secondary implications of their decisions.

• Are quicker on their feet than leaders who are less intelligent.

The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

• The theory focuses on what a leader does when solving complex mental problems.

• The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence consists of:• Analytic intelligence• Practical intelligence• Creative intelligence

• Divergent thinking

• Convergent thinking

Implications of the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

• Leadership effectiveness or emergence is positively correlated with analytic intelligence.

• Sometimes, personality is much more predictive of leadership emergence and effectiveness than analytic intelligence.

• In certain cases, analytic intelligence may have a curvilinear relationship with leadership effectiveness.

• Leaders’ primary role is to build an environment where others can be creative.

Intelligence and Stress: Cognitive Resources Theory

• Recent research suggests that stress plays a key role in determining just how a leader’s intelligence affects his or her effectiveness.

• The Cognitive Resources Theory consists of several key concepts:• Intelligence• Experience• Stress• Group Performance

Cognitive Resources Theory

• Leaders with greater experience but lower intelligence are hypothesised to have higher-performing groups under conditions of high stress.

• Leaders with high levels of experience will have a tendency to misapply old solutions to problems when creative solutions are called for.

• It is not the most intelligent but the most experienced members of organisations who are selected to be leaders.

Emotional Intelligence and Leadership

• Emotional Intelligence is:• A group of mental abilities that help people to recognise their own feelings

and those of others.

• Another way of measuring human effectiveness and a set of abilities necessary to cope with daily situations and get along in the world.

• The degree to which thoughts, feelings, and actions are aligned.

• Two models of Emotional Intelligence:• Ability model

• Mixed model

Implications of Emotional Intelligence

• People can be extremely ineffective when their thoughts, feelings, and actions are misaligned.

• Leaders who are thinking or feeling one thing and actually doing something else are less effective in their ability to influence groups toward the accomplishment of their goals.

• When recognised and leveraged properly emotions can be the motivational fuel that help individuals and groups to accomplish their goals.

• Some researchers believe that emotional intelligence is more important than intelligence when it comes to leadership success.

• It appears that EQ attributes would be difficult to change as a result of training intervention.

Summary

• The situation will dictate which personality traits, components of intelligence, or emotional attributes will positively affect a leader’s ability to influence a group.

• The Five Factor Model comprises the bright side of personality, but there are a number of traits that also contribute the dark side of personality.

Summary (continued)

• The most recent theory for understanding intelligence divides it into three related components:• Analytic intelligence

• Practical intelligence

• Creative intelligence

• Leaders who can better align their thoughts and feelings with their actions may be more effective than leaders who think and feel one way about something but then do something different about it.

Introduction

• One way to differentiate leaders is to look at results.

• A key distinguisher between an effective and ineffective leader is their everyday behaviour.• Leadership behaviour can be observed.• Certain traits, values, or attitudes may contribute to effective

performance of some leadership behaviours.

• Two other factors that influence leadership behaviour are the followers and the situation.

Identify successful leadership skills and behaviour

Why Study Leadership Behaviour?

• Many leaders either cannot build teams or get results, or do not realise the negative impact of their behaviour.

• Leadership behaviours are a function of intelligence, personality traits, emotional intelligence values, attitudes, interests, knowledge, and experience.

• Over time, leaders learn and discern the most appropriate and effective behaviours.• Individual difference and situational variables play a pivotal role in a

leader’s actions.

The Early Studies

• Ohio State University: Developed the Leader Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) and identified two independent dimensions of behaviours:• Consideration

• Initiating structure• These dimensions were independent continuums.

• University of Michigan: Identified two dimensions contributing to effective group performance:• Job-centered dimensions

• Employee-centered dimension• These dimensions were at opposite ends of a single continuum.

Alternative Conceptualisations of Leadership Behavior

• Alternative conceptualisations are concerned with:• Identifying key leadership behaviour.

• Determining if these behaviours have positive relationships with leadership success.

• Developing those behaviours related to leadership success.

• Leadership Grid: Profiles leader behaviour on two dimensions:• Concern for people

• Concern for production

• The most effective leaders are said to have high concern for both people and for production.

The Leadership Grid

FIGURE 7.2

The Leadership Grid

Source: Robert R. Blake and Anne Adams McCanse, Leadership Dilemmas—Grid Solutions (Houston: Gulf Publishing, 1991), p. 29. Copyright 1991. Reprinted with permission of Grid International

Assess leaders’ behaviour and identify derailing behaviour

Assessing Leadership Behaviour: Multirater Feedback Instruments

• 360-degree (multi-rater feedback) tools allow managers to get accurate information about how others perceived their on-the-job behaviours.

• Questionnaire construction very important.

• Leaders who received 360-degree feedback had higher performing work units.

• 360-degree feedback systems can add tremendous value when used for development purposes.

Multirater Feedback Instruments (continued)

• The key to high observer ratings is to develop a broad set of leadership skills that help groups accomplish goals.

• Research shows that it is possible to change others’ perceptions of a leader’s skills over time.• Leaders must set development goals and commit to a

development plan to improve skills.

• Societal or organisational culture, race, and gender play key roles in the accuracy and utility of the 360-degree feedback process.

Sources for 360-Degree Feedback

FIGURE 7.5

Sources for 360-Degree Feedback

Understanding strategies for changing the behaviour of a

leader

Coaching

• Coaching helps leaders to improve the bench strength of the group, which in turn should help the group to accomplish its goals.

• Coaching is the process of equipping people with the tools, knowledge, and opportunities they need to develop themselves and become more successful.

Mentoring

• Informal mentoring• Occurs when a protégé and mentor build a long-term relationship based on

friendship, similar interests, and mutual respect.

• Formal mentoring• Occurs when the organisation assigns a relatively inexperienced but high-

potential leader to one of the top executives in the company.

• Leadership practitioners should look for opportunities to build mentoring relationships with senior leaders whenever possible.

Summary

• Leaders can benefit from the leadership behaviour research in several ways.

• Research has helped to identify factors that can cause high-potential managers to fail.

• The Leadership Grid provides taxonomy of leader types based on behavioural orientation

• The Leadership Pipeline model allows organizations to chart leader progression by using customised competency models

• Community leadership allows accomplishment of community oriented goals

• 360 degree feedback gives leaders feedback useful in improving their performance.

Introduction

• The ability to motivate others is a fundamental leadership skill and has strong connections to managerial incompetence.

• Variation in work output varies significantly across leaders and followers.

• Creating highly motivated and satisfied followers depends, most of all, on understanding others.

Defining motivation, satisfaction and performance

Defining Motivation, Satisfaction, and Performance

• Motivation: Anything that provides direction, intensity, and persistence to behavior.• Not directly observable; must be inferred from behaviour.

• Performance: Behaviours directed toward the organisation’s mission or goals, or the products and services resulting from those behaviours.• Differs from effectiveness.

• Job Satisfaction: How much one likes a specific kind of job or work activity.• Related to organisational citizenship behaviours.

Relationships between Leadership, Job Satisfaction, and Performance

Figure 9-1

Understanding and influencing follower motivation

Understanding and Influencing Follower Motivation

• Motivational theories are useful in certain situations but not as applicable in others.

• Knowledge about different motivational theories helps choose the right theory for a particular follower and situation.

• Often results in higher-performance and more satisfied employees.

• Most performance problems can be attributed to unclear expectations, skill deficits, resource/ equipment shortages, or a lack of motivation.

Five Motivational Approaches

Table 9.1 Five Motivational Approaches

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Thoughts on Need Theories of Motivation

• Leaders should start by determining if follower’s lower-level needs are being satisfied.

• Maslow’s theory does not make specific predictions about what an individual will do to satisfy a particular need.

• Awareness of general nature of various sorts of basic human needs seems fundamentally useful to leaders.• Basic, fundamental areas need to be addressed first.

Achievement Orientation

• Atkinson proposed that an individual’s tendency to exert effort toward task accomplishment depends partly on the strength of their motivation to achieve success.

• McClelland said that individuals with a strong need for achievement strive to accomplish socially acceptable endeavors and activities.

• Achievement orientation is a component of the Five Factor Model or OCEAN model of personality dimension of conscientiousness

Goal Setting

• According to Locke and Latham, goals are the most powerful determinants of task behaviours.

• According to their research, successful goals have the following characteristics:• Goals that were both specific and difficult resulted in consistently higher

effort and performance (Pygmalion vs Golem Effect) when contrasted to “do your best” goals.

• Goal commitment is critical

• Followers exerted the greatest effort when goals were accompanied by feedback

The Operant Approach

The Operant Approach utilises:

• Rewards

• Punishment

• Contingent rewards or punishments

• Noncontingent rewards and punishments

• Extinction

Empowerment• Empowerment:

• Top-down approach to delegation• Bottom-up approach to delegation• Requires delegation, development and resourcing

• Macro psychological components:• Motivation• Learning• Stress

• Micro components of empowerment:• Self-determination• Meaning• Competence• Influence

Understanding and influencing follower satisfaction

Understanding and Influencing Follower Satisfaction

• Satisfied workers are more likely to engage in organisational citizenship behaviours, behaviours that go beyond job descriptions and role requirements and help reduce the workload or stress of others in the organisation.

• Dissatisfied workers are more likely to be adversarial in their relations with leadership and engage in diverse sorts of counterproductive behaviours.

• Employee turnover has the most immediate impact on leadership practitioners.

• Functional turnover

• Dysfunctional turnover

Affectivity

• Affectivity refers to one’s tendency to react to stimuli in a consistent emotional manner. This may either be positive or negative and is referred to as either:• Positive affectivity• Negative affectivity

• Research suggests that leadership initiatives may not be effective on a person’s job satisfaction if their affective disposition is either extremely positive or negative.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

• Herzberg’s research did not assume that the things that dissatisfied people were always the opposite of what satisfied them.

• He categorized factors at work into two categories (Text Table 9.5):

• The factors that led to satisfaction at work were labeled motivators,

• The factors that led to dissatisfaction at work were labeled hygiene factors.

Organisational Justice

Organisational justice is based on the premise that people who are treated unfairly are less productive, satisfied, and committed to their organisations and are likely to initiate collective action and engage in various counterproductive work behaviours.

• Three related components of Organisational Justice are:• Interactional justice• Distributive justice• Procedural justice

Summary

• Performance and motivation are not the same thing.

• People often have varying levels of satisfaction for different aspects of their jobs.

• Many of the approaches to understanding motivation have distinct implications for increasing performance and satisfaction.

• Followers, as well as leaders are more likely to have positive attitudes about work if they believe that what they do is important and that the reward and disciplinary systems are fair and just.

Introduction

• Groups and teams are more than just the sum of the skills and abilities of each member.

• Groups are essential if leaders are to impact anything beyond their own behaviour.

• The group perspective looks at how different group characteristics can affect relationships both with the leader and among the followers.

Understanding the nature of groups and group development

Individuals Versus Groups Versus Teams

• Team members usually have a stronger sense of identification among themselves than group members do.

• Teams have common goals or tasks; these may range from the development of a new product to an athletic league championship.

• Task interdependence typically is greater with teams than with groups.

• Team members often have more differentiated and specialized roles than group members.

• Teams should be considered as highly specialized groups.

Developmental Stages of Groups

• Stages of Groups (Tuckman):• Forming• Storming• Norming• Performing

• The four stages of group development are important because:• People are in many more leaderless groups than they may

realise.• The potential relationships between leadership behaviors and

group cohesiveness and productivity.

• Gersick proposed a better model for teams in organisation settings by studying project teams and identifying the process of “punctuated equilibrium” – a mid point to effectiveness.

Group Roles

• Group roles are the sets of expected behaviours associated with particular jobsor positions.• Task role• Relationship role

• Types of role problems:• Dysfunctional roles• Role conflict• Intrasender role conflict• Intersender role conflict• Interrole conflict• Person-role conflict• Role ambiguity

Group Norms

• Norms are the informal rules groups adopt to regulate and regularise group members’ behaviour.

• Norms are more likely to be seen as important and apt to be enforced if they:• Facilitate group survival.

• Simplify, or make more predictable, what behaviour is expected of group members.

• Help the group to avoid embarrassing interpersonal problems.

• Express the central values of the group and clarify what is distinctive about the group’s identity.

Group Cohesion (Positive)

• Group cohesion is the glue that keeps a group together.

• Highly cohesive groups interact with and influence each other more than do less cohesive groups.

• Highly cohesive groups may have lower absenteeism and lower turnover than a less cohesive group.

• Leaders will be better off thinking of ways to create and maintain highly cohesive teams, than not developingthese teams out of concern for potential groupthink or overbounding situations.

Group Cohesion (Negative)

• Some groups can become so cohesive they erect what amount to fences or boundaries between themselves and others.• Over-bounding

• People in highly cohesive groups often become more concerned with striving for unanimity than in objectively appraising different courses of action.• Groupthink

• Ollieism is when illegal actions are taken by overly zealous and loyal subordinates who believe that what they are doing will please their leaders.

Understanding team effectiveness characteristics and team building (Level A)

Effective Team Characteristics and Team Building

• Key characteristics for effective team performance:• Effective teams have a clear mission and high performance

standards.• Leaders of successful teams often take stock of their equipment,

training facilities and opportunities, and outside resources available to help the team.

• Good leaders work to secure those resources and equipment necessary for team effectiveness.

• Leaders of effective teams spend a considerable amount of time planning and organising in order to make optimal use of available resources.

Effective Team Characteristics and Team Building (continued)

• Four variables that need to be in place for a team to work effectively:• Task structure• Group boundaries• Norms• Authority

Organisational Shells

Figure 10-1

Ginnett’s Team Leadership Model

• Stages of the Team Effectiveness Leadership Model:• Input

• Process

• Output

• This model is a mechanism to first identify what a team needs to be effective, and then to point the leader either toward the roadblocks that are hindering the team or toward ways to make the team even more effective than it already is.

Basic TLM Components

FIGURE 10.3 Basic TLM outputs: outcomes of High Performance Teams.

Leadership Prescriptions of the Model

• A team should be built like a house or automobile:• Start with a concept• Create a design• Engineer it to do what you want it to do• Manufacture it to meet those specifications

• The three critical functions for team leadership:• Dream• Design• Development

The three critical functions for team leadership

FIGURE 10.5 Three functions of TLM leadership.

Thoughts about Ginnett’s Team Leadership Model

• Leaders can influence team effectiveness by:• Ensuring the team has a clear sense of purpose and

performance expectations.

• Designing or redesigning input stage variables at the individual, organisational, and team design levels.

• Improving team performance through ongoing coaching at various stages, but particularly while the team is actually performing its task.

Summary

• Group perspective: Showed that followers’ behaviours can be the result of factors somewhat independent of their individual characteristics.

• Leaders should use a team perspective for understanding follower behaviour and group performance.

• Team Leadership Model: Team effectiveness can be best understood in terms of inputs, processes, and outcomes.• By identifying certain process problems in teams, leaders can use the

model to diagnose appropriate leverage points for action.

Leadership and Management: Revisited

• Leadership is being more concerned with doing the right thingand management is being more concerned with doing things right.

• Organisational systems are fairly resistant to change.

• Followers may prefer to have a predictable path rather than risk their success on some uncharted course for the future.

• Leadership is the key to aligning organisational systems and follower behaviour around a new organisational vision.

• It takes a combination of both leadership and management skills to successfully implement any team or organisational change effort.

Understand the rational approach to organisational

change (Level A)

The Rational Approach to Organisational Change

C = D x M x P > R

D = DissatisfactionM = ModelP = ProcessR = ResistanceC = Amount of Change

• The model maintains that organisational change is a very systematic process and large-scale changes can take months if not years to implement.

Resistance (R) – Reactions to Change (SARA Model)

Figure 14.3: Reactions to Change

The Rational Approach to Organisation Change and the Interactional Framework

Figure 14.4: The Rational Approach to

Organization

Change and the Interactional

Framework

Understand the emotional approach to organisational

change (Level A)

Charismatic and Transformational Leadership

• Charismatic leaders are passionate, driven individuals who are able to paint a compelling vision of the future.

• The combination of a compelling vision, heightened emotional levels, and strong personal attachments often compels followers to put forth greater effort

• Charismatic movements can result in positive or negative organisational or societal changes.

• Transformational leaders meet the above and are motivated by the greater good

Common Characteristics of Charismatic and Transformational Leaders

• Vision:• Common perceptual framework.

• Rhetorical Skills: Heighten followers’ emotional levels and inspire them to embrace the vision.

• Image and trust building

• Personalised leadership: These leaders share strong, personal bonds with followers, even when the leader occupies a formal organisational role.

Follower Characteristics

• Charisma is probably more a function of the followers’ reactions to a leader than of the leader’s personal characteristics.

• Four unique characteristics of the reactions that followers have toward leaders:• Identification with the leader and the vision.

• Heightened emotional levels.

• Willing subordination to the leader.

• Feelings of empowerment.

Situational Characteristics

• Situational factors play an important role in determining whether a leader is perceived as charismatic.

• Situational factors believed to affect charismatic leadership:• Crises

• Task interdependence and social networks

• Other situational characteristics

• Organisations placing a premium on innovation• Outscoring and organisational downsizing• Time

Summary

• Management skills are important to ensure compliance with existing systems, processes, and procedures.

• Leadership skills are needed when changes need to be made to existing systems and processes.

• Rational approach: Emphasises analytic planning and management skills

• Emotional approach: Emphasises leadership skills, leader-follower relationships, and the presence of a crisis to drive organisational change.

Identifying basic leadership skills

Basic Leadership Skills

• Learning from experience

• Communication

• Listening

• Assertiveness

• Guidelines to effective stress management

Basic Leadership Skills (continued)

• Building technical competence

• Building effective relationships with superiors

• Building effective relationships with peers

• Building credibility

CommunicationFigure 8.2: A Systems View of Communication

Understanding leadership relationships with followers

Leaders Relationship with Followers

• Providing constructive feedback

• Punishment

• Delegation

• Team building for work teams

• Building high performance teams

• Coaching

• Empowerment

Understanding leadership skills for specific situation or needs

Leadership Skills for Specific Situations or Needs

• Goal setting

• Conducting meetings

• Managing conflict

• Negotiation

• Problem solving

• Improving creativity

• Diagnosing performance problems

• Team building at the top

Creating Accountability & Delegation

• Directing involves providing specific instructions and close supervision

• Coaching involves exploring options, interactive, soliciting ideas from the team member

• Supporting involves facilitating te team-member’s efforts toward task accomplishment, encouragement, ensuring clear understanding of and commitment to the set task

• Delegating involves turning over responsibility for decision-making and problem solving to the team member

18 Lessons in Leadership

• Lesson 1 "Being responsible sometimes means pissing people off." Good leadership involves responsibility for the welfare of the group, which means that some people will get angry at your actions and decisions. It's inevitable - if you're honorable. Trying to get everyone to like you is a sign of mediocrity. You'll avoid the tough decisions, you'll avoid confronting the people who need to be confronted, and you'll avoid offering differential rewards based on differential performance because some people might get upset. Ironically, by procrastinating on the difficult choices, by trying not to get anyone mad, and by treating everyone equally "nicely" regardless of their contributions, you'll simply ensure that the only people you'll wind up angering are the most creative and productive people in the organization.

• Lesson 2 "The day soldiers stop bringing you their problems is the day you have stopped leading them. They have either lost confidence that you can help them or concluded that you do not care. Either case is a failure of leadership.“

• Lesson 3 "Don't be buffaloed by experts. Experts often possess more data than judgment. The Elite can become so inbred that they produce hemophiliacs who bleed to death as soon as they are nicked by the real world.“

• Lesson 4 "Don't be afraid to challenge the pros, even in their own backyard.“

• Lesson 5 "Never neglect details. When everyone's mind is dulled or distracted the leader must be doubly vigilant.“

• Lesson 6 "You don't know what you can get away with until you try.“

• Lesson 7 "Keep looking below surface appearances. Don't shrink from doing so (just) because you might not like what you find.” "If it ain't broke, don't fix it" is the slogan of the complacent, the arrogant or the scared.

• Lesson 9 "Organization charts and fancy titles count for next to nothing." Organization charts are frozen, anachronistic photos in a workplace that ought to be as dynamic as the external environment around you. If people really followed organization charts, companies would collapse. In well-run organizations, titles are also pretty meaningless. At best, they advertise some authority-an official status conferring the ability to give orders and induce obedience. But titles mean little in terms of real power, which is the capacity to influence and inspire. Have you ever noticed that people will personally commit to certain individuals who on paper (or on the org chart) possess little authority-but instead possess pizzazz, drive, expertise and genuine caring for teammates and products? On the flip side, non-leaders in management may be formally anointed with all the perks and frills associated with high positions, but they have little influence on others, apart from their ability to extract minimal compliance to minimal standards.

• Lesson 10 "Never let your ego get so close to your position that when your position goes, your ego goes with it."

Effective leaders create a climate where peoples worth is determined by their willingness to learn new skills and grab new responsibilities, thus perpetually reinventing their jobs. The most important question in performance evaluation becomes not, "How well did you perform your job since the last time we met?" but, "How much did you change it?"

• Lesson 11 "Fit no stereotypes. Don't chase the latest fads.

The situation dictates which approach best accomplishes the team's mission." Flitting from fad to fad creates team confusion, reduces the leader's credibility and drains organizational coffers.

Lesson 12 "Perpetual optimism is a force multiplier." The ripple effect of a leader's enthusiasm and optimism is awesome. So is the impact of cynicism and pessimism.

• Lesson 13 "Powell's Rules for Picking People" Look for intelligence and judgment and, most critically, a capacity to anticipate, to see around corners. Also look for loyalty, integrity, a high energy drive, a balanced ego and the drive to get things done.“

• Lesson 14 (Borrowed by Powell from Michael Korda) "Great leaders are almost always great simplifiers, who can cut through argument, debate and doubt, to offer a solution everybody can understand." Effective leaders understand the KISS principle, or Keep It Simple, Stupid

• Lesson 15 Part I: "Use the formula P 40 to 70, in which P stands for the probability of success and the numbers indicate the percentage of information acquired." Part II: "Once the information is in the 40 to 70 range, go with your gut.“ Avoid “analysis paralysis”

• Lesson 16 "The commander in the field is always right and the rear echelon is wrong, unless proved otherwise."

• Lesson 17 "Have fun in your command. Don't always run at a breakneck pace. Take leave when you've earned it. Spend time with your families." Corollary: "Surround yourself with people who take their work seriously, but not themselves, those who work hard and play hard.“ Spare me the grim workaholic or the pompous pretentious "professional;" I'll help them find jobs with my competitor.

• Lesson 18 "Command is lonely." Whether you're a CEO or the temporary head of a project team, the buck stops here. You can encourage participative management and bottom-up employee involvement but ultimately, the essence of leadership is the willingness to make the tough, unambiguous choices that will have an impact on the fate of the organization. I've seen too many non-leaders flinch from this responsibility. Even as you create an informal, open, collaborative corporate culture, prepare to be lonely.