delivering resilient and resolute engineering structures … 160412 Manual... · 2020. 8. 26. · 14.1 Building repair Works 14.2 general Brick Masonry Work 14.3 Wall Plasters 14.4

delivering resilient and resolute engineering structures

INFRASTRUCTURE ENGINEERING MANUAL

CDLD Policy Implementation Unit local government, elections and rural development departmentgovernment of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

the infrastructure engineering Manual has been prepared and published by the cdld Policy implementation unit of the local government, elections and rural development department (government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) with the technical assistance of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa community-driven local development (cdld) Programme.

Authored by:ayaz Khan (Key engineering expert, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa cdld Programme)ajaz Hussain (sector specialist rural infrastructure engineer - roads and Bridges, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa cdld Programme)amir rehman (sector specialist rural infrastructure engineer - irrigation, Water and environment, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa cdld Programme)

Reviewed by:Brian Fawcett (team leader, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa cdld Programme)Barkat ullah Khan (coordinator, cdld Policy implementation unit, government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa)

Edited by:tariq afridi (senior strategic communication specialist, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa cdld Programme)Harris shah (Programme officer, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa cdld Programme)

Designed by:Wasim abbas (ad.sense Printing & advertising, Peshawar)

Publishing date and location:april 2016, Peshawar, Pakistan

the european union supports the government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to implement the Provincial Policy “community-driven local development (cdld)” through financial resources, and technical assistance provided by Hulla & co. Human dynamics Kg. the overall objective is to build responsiveness and effectiveness of the state to restore citizen trust, stimulate employment and livelihood opportunities, and ensure the delivery of basic services.

1. INTRODUCATION TO ENGINERING MANUAL

2. INFRASTRUCTRUAL PERSPECTIVE OF MALAKAND DIVISION

3. COMMUNITY-DRIVEN LOCAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME3.1 Brief introduction3.2 implementation Modality3.3 role of technical assistance

4. USE AND PURPOSE OF THE MANUAL

5. STRATEGIC PLANING OF INFRASTRUCTURE

6. COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION UNDER CDLD POLICY6.1 role of community6.2 traditional Mode of Working6.3 cdld Mode of implementation

7. LOCAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL7.1 Building construction stones7.2 river Bed / natural Quarry gravel7.3 sand7.4 construction timber7.5 recommendations for cdld

8. CEMENT CONCRETE WORK8.1 Main ingredients8.2 Water Quality8.3 Water cement ratio8.4 Formwork8.5 concreting temperatures8.6 Wet curing8.7 recommendations for cdld

9. DRY STONE MASONRY9.1 general9.2 common inconsistencies9.3 design Parameters9.4 recommendations for cdld

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CONTENTS

10. AGRICULTURE IRIGATION CHANELS10.1 design considerations10.2 irrigation scheduling10.3 selecting irrigation Methods10.4 lining of irrigation channels10.5 Pipe Water channels10.6 different structures used in small scale irrigation scheme10.7 general thumb rules10.8 Water storage tanks10.9 design steps10.10 operation and Maintenance10.11 recommendations for cdld

11. CHECK DAMS11.1 objectives11.2 selection criteria11.3 salient Features of check dams11.4 technical instructions11.5 construction11.6 Maintenance11.7 Water Harvesting structures11.8 soil Bioengineering11.9 recommendations for cdld

12. FLOD PROTECTION WORKS12.1 earthen embankments12.2 Flood Walls12.3 types of river training Works12.4 Maintenance12.5 recommendations for cdld

13. ROADS13.1 Working Parameters13.2 Working standards and specifications13.3 drainage structures13.4 culverts13.5 causeways13.6 roadside drains13.7 road repairs13.8 recommendations for cdld

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14. BUILDING WORKS14.1 Building repair Works14.2 general Brick Masonry Work14.3 Wall Plasters14.4 Plaster surface repairs14.5 dampened and leaking roof repair14.6 damaged Floor treatment14.7 doors and Windows Frames14.8 Wash rooms14.9 Painting, distemper and Whitewashing14.10 electric Work14.11 new Building Work14.12 recommendations for cdld

15. DRINKING WATER SUPPLY15.1 source development of springs15.2 Working Parameters and steps15.3 Working standards and specifications15.4 Hygiene, sanitation and Water Borne diseases15.5 operation and Maintenance15.6 Water standards World Health organisation15.7 recommendations for cdld

16. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS16.1 legislative Background16.2 Key Features of environmental Protection agency act16.3 environmental threats versus environmental assessment16.4 environmental Mitigation, Management and Monitoring Plans

annex-1 eligibility criteria and Priority sectors under cdld Policyannex-2 specifications for civil Work and Wash Worksannex-3 general specificationsannex-4 Material specificationsannex-5 national standards For drinking Water Qualityannex-6 Water Borne diseasesannex-7 values of the roughness coefficient (n)

64646465676970717274757576

7878798081858686

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ACRONYMSBHu Basic Health unitBoQ Bill of Quantities cBo community Based organisationccB citizen community Boardcdld community-driven local developmentci cast ironcWd communication and Works departmentdc deputy commissionerddc district development committeedds district development strategydgcd district governance and community developmentePa environmental Protection agencyeia environmental impact assessment eu european union euad environment and urban affairs divisionFo Farmers’ organisationgHs government High schoolgi galvanised irongMs government Middle schoolgoKP government of Khyber PakhtunkhwagPs government Primary schoolHdPe High density Poly ethyleneiee initial environmental examinationKP Khyber PakhtunkhwaMes Military engineering servicesMs Mild steeloPc ordinary Portland cemento&M operation and Maintenance Pcc Plain cement concretePePc Pakistan environmental Protection councilPHed Public Health engineering departmentPsQca Pakistan standards Quality control authorityPWd Public Works departmentPvc Poly vinyl chloridercc reinforced cement concrete soP standard operating Proceduresr sulphate resistantsrsP sarhad rural support Programmeta technical assistancetec technical evaluation committeeuc union councilWg Wire gaugeWHo World Health organisationWsso Water supply and sanitation organisationWua Water user association

infrastructure is one of the pillars of economic transformation. sustainable economic growth often occurs in an environment where there is a meaningful infrastructure, and there is evidence that it reduces inequality in the society. developing countries with developed rural infrastructures have recorded higher quality of rural development. Better rural infrastructure allows people to participate in and share economic benefits at all fronts. infrastructure contributes to inclusive rural development and better quality of life in the rural areas.

Better infrastructure works as a catalyst for rural economic growth, and employment opportunities, all contributing to social development. good feeder roads can allow supply of perishable goods to higher value urban markets, thereby generating income which can be invested in health, education, agriculture and non-agriculture activities to improve the overall well-being. despite knowing benefits of infrastructural development, the quantity and quality of Malakand’s infrastructure generally remains inadequate, especially in rural areas.

01INFRASTRUCTURE ENGINEERING MANUALcommunity-driven local development

ABOUT THIS MANUAL1 introducation to engineering Manual

rural areas of Pakistan in general and remote far-flung mountainous valleys in particular feel deprived of the basic infrastructure. Malakand division remains under-developed in terms of rural infrastructure and it also remained in the grip of militancy and natural disasters. in a historical perspective, almost 90% of Malakand division is comprised of three ex-princely states of chitral, dir and swat, where dir and swat are now subdivided in two and three districts, respectively. Whereas, Malakand district was a former tribal agency till recent times. the hereditary sovereigns of these states ruled their subjects with an iron fist, without much attention towards improving their quality of life at large. Yet, a lot needs to be done in order to bring the quality and quantity of infrastructure to a reasonable level.

the already existing dilapidated state of infrastructure in Malakand got further affected due to the decade long militancy. the militants crippled the state machinery by blowing up schools, roads, bridges and many other public installations. the rugged geographical terrain, close cultural and tribal links with war-torn areas in neighbouring afghanistan, and trust gap between the state and citizens hampered the social, economic and rural development in the region. the worst floods in the history of Pakistan brought disaster to Malakand division in 2010, destroying almost all of the infrastructural initiatives of the government. it destroyed a large portion of infrastructure, such as, schools, roads, hospitals, markets, hotels, lands and communication system. the most affected districts were swat, dir upper and shangla.

INFRASTRUCTURE ENGINEERING MANUALcommunity-driven local development02

2 inFrastructrual PersPective oF MalaKand division

3.1 Brief introductionthe government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (goKP) is facing numerous challenges, where Malakand division is at the forefront. a courageous and innovative initiative has been taken by the goKP in devising an overarching Policy of community-driven local development (cdld). the implementation modality of cdld Policy stands defined in the district development strategy (dds), which has been prepareid for all the six target districts. each dds contains an annual action plan, which is as per the priorities of the respective district, in line with cdld priority sectors. the cdld Programme's priority sectors and eligibility criteria are attached as annex-1.

3.2 implementation Modalitycdld Policy implementation is being done through district development committees (ddcs), headed by the respective deputy commissioners (dcs), following a two stage application process. the selected union councils (ucs) or village councils (vcs) are required to submit the 1st applications, invited from the communities for ascertaining their needs. after vetting and approval by technical evaluation committee (tec), they are handed over to sarhad rural support Programme (srsP) for social mobilisation of the communities and their transformation into cBos. srsP is working with these cBos in carrying out the engineering planning, designing and quantifying aspects of the detailed applications, which are then submitted to tec. after tec’s review, once the detailed proposal is granted technical approval, the proposal is submitted to ddc for administrative sanction, followed by grant agreement and release of funds to successful cBos for execution.

in terms of financial quantum, all the schemes under cdld have to be in the range of PKr 0.5 million and PKr 2.5 million, with a maximum completion time of 18 months. Besides srsP, during physical execution, the cBos are assisted by a pool of engineers, hired by the dcs. this pool is working to augment the roles of line departments. Hence, in a way, they are also responsible for the implementation of all works. the funds release to cBo is being done in three installments, 30% advance, 60% interim payment upon meeting the agreed milestones and specifications. the final installment of 10% will be paid upon final completion. For each stage, the respective line department has to provide its certification, as per the covenants of grant agreement.

3.3 role of technical assistancethe cdld Programme team is endeavoring hard to achieve the following three results:

1. supporting district authorities to implement the cdld Policy.

2. Building capacities of service providers to deliver cdld objectives.

3. Fostering better feedback mechanism and responsive policy formulation by the government.


3 coMMunitY-driven local develoPMent PrograMMe


this manual is developed for the community of engineers associated with the implementation activities of cdld Programme. it includes the engineers of tecnical assistance team, srsP engineers, pool of engineers and the line department engineers. the key objectives of the manual are to:

• develop a common perception and understanding about the perceived demands and types of infrastructural varieties.

• coach and brief about engineering standards and specifications of community infrastructural schemes.

• Harness the thought process of engineers about developing synergic approaches about community built infrastructural schemes, who will also be responsible for its post-completion operation and maintenance (o&M).

• ensure that “best engineering practices” are being followed in physical execution in a timely manner.

at a later stage, concise and informative “hands-on-work” communication material elaborated by graphics and pictures will also be developed for the executing communities. this material will also be translated in urdu, explaining various steps of physical execution work, from beginning till final completion.

4 use and PurPose oF tHe Manual


a sizeable part of financial resources are consumed by infrastructure development related interventions. these interventions require efforts to plan and are difficult to execute. similarly, these interventions are long lasting and their tangible benefits reach far beyond their life expectancy. the classical example is the grand trunk road (Kabul to calcutta), which was built about 600 years ago and continues to serve the populace till this day. the infrastructural schemes planned and built under the cdld Programme must have an inbuilt strategic vision. the community built infrastructural schemes under the cdld Programme should have the following:

• Besides catering to current needs of the respective population, it must have opportunity for the future expansion, extension and up-gradation. Hence, the infrastructural planners have to address the growth aspects with a 25 years future vision. For example, in case of a water supply scheme, besides catering to the existing needs, it should also address population demands for the next 25 years.

• in case of storage and distribution tanks, the site must have space for more tanks. there are ample proofs that population displays a varying degree of growth. With the changing lifestyles, their needs also display a significant growth in demands, which increases pressures on the supportive infrastructure. in case of a rural dirt road, it should be aligned to become a black-topped road. For community buildings like government Primary schools and Basic Health units, space should be available for potential up-gradation in the future.

• Being a community implemented programme, all the plans and designs must be simple so that communities can understand and participate in the implementation. the drawings have to be detailed enough for spelling out all the bottom-line requirements. excessive details make the drawings too cluttered, which may confuse the implementation teams of the cBos. the design has a deep connection with post-completion o&M which is the sole responsibility of the beneficiaries. a simple and easily executable design will mostly have an easy o&M, which needs to be accorded due priority.

5 strategic Planning oF inFrastructure

6.1 role of communitythe overall goal of the cdld Programme is to achieve sustainable improvement in the coverage and quality of frontline public service delivery through the active involvement of local communities. the cdld Policy will help the goKP to identify real needs of the citizens through participatory bottom up planning, implementation through local communities, involvement in participatory monitoring of projects, evaluating improvement in quality of citizens’ life and bridging the trust deficit by engaging them in the activities. in this regard, the cdld totally relies on the vital role and contribution of cBos in small scale development schemes. these membership based cBos will play pivotal role in improving access to services for disadvantaged and marginalised segments of the community.

cBos representing all segments of the community may effectively mobilise the demand for services, provide efficient feedback and lead to a more equitable sharing of benefits, thus making better use of allocated resources. Furthermore, cdld Policy also emphasises the capacity building needs of the citizens and the government authorities to enable the local governments to respond to local demand for services and support. cdld believes in sustainability of projects, and in a larger sense, of development, which cannot be achieved without the capacity of the beneficiaries and their institutions being strengthened in the process.

community participation is a process by which people are enabled to get involved in defining the issues of concern to them, in making decisions about factors that affect their lives, in formulating and implementing policies, and in taking actions to achieve change.

6.2 traditional Mode of Workingthe traditional style of public service delivery for infrastructural development adopts the following process:

• the end user beneficiaries are seldom involved in a collective manner. Hence, there is a sheer absence of their ownership right from the outset.

• development schemes are not prioritised according to the real needs of the community, which often result in resource wastage and under-utilisation of the investment.

• development process is initiated without asking for the difficulties and without soliciting for the most suitable solutions.

• traditional contractors are procured for execution, mostly in a non-transparent manner, which often raises the completion costs and in some cases compromise on the quality.


6 coMMunitY ParticiPation under cdld PolicY

6.3 cdld Mode of implementationin line with the cdld Policy, the programme has adopted a community based participatory approach, entailing following steps:

• a two stage application process is followed, where the first application is invited through public announcement from the selected ucs in a district.

• the first application is for need assessment and it can be submitted by an individual or group of individuals.

• after its initial screening by tec, the application is handed over to srsP for social mobilisation in a process to transform the applicant community into a cBo. at the same time, srsP also carres doing engineering planning, designing and estimation, along with grooming the cBo for physical implementation.

• srsP completes the detailed proposal with the assistance of applicant cBo, which is then submitted to tec for review and granting the technical sanction.

• tec may ask their technical member of the respective line department for review, scrutiny, and vetting of the proposal, including verifying the bill of quantities and cost estimates.

• Based on tec’s approval, the proposal is then referred to the ddc for the administrative sanction.

• once the ddc accords the administrative approval, the dc concludes a grant contract agreement with the cBo, including release of 1st installment of 30% tranferred in the cBos’ account.

• during physical implementation process, the cBo is directly assisted and guided by the pool of engineers, hired by each district1.

• throughout the construction phase, the cBo is guided and supervised by the pool of engineers which is augmenting the line departments.

• once the cBo has achieved the agreed target of 30% advance, that part of work done is inspected, monitored and verified by the appointed representatives of the line departments for quality and quantity, and reported back to tec and ddc.

• the 2nd and 3rd installments of 60% and 10% respectively, will be delivered strictly in line with the schedule of pre-spelled out physical, financial and quality targets.

• the respective line departments are monitoring the schemes. it is upon their certification of satisfactory work that the cBos will be paid 2nd and 3rd installments.

• during the course of physical execution, cBos will also be coached and groomed for post-completion o&M work, which is their responsibility under the cdld Policy framework.

1 Pool of engineers have been hired by each dc in all the six districts, in a manner that each tehsil will have one project engineer and two sub- engineers. their responsibility is to augment the manpower deficiencies of the line departments.


all out efforts must be made for maximum use of indigenous construction material of local origin. the natural construction material is sustainable, economical, and can blend with the surrounding in an environmental friendly manner, as these are embodied energy materials2. at the same time, demand for local material also promotes local employment. in remote valleys of Malakand division, transportation plays a major role. therefore, if a material can be sourced locally, it can reduce the embodied energy and carbon footprint quite substantially. the most common material available within the cdld area of operations are (i) construction stones, (ii) river bed, (iii) natural quarry gravel, (iv) sand and (v) construction timber. the different types of material will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

7.1 Building construction stonesgood quality construction stones of granite and lime origin are available in abundance, which can easily be excavated in a safe and environment friendly manner. traditionally, stones have served the area as the staple construction material. the following aspects should be given due consideration while using stones for construction purposes:

• stone size should be of manageable and workable dimensions, such as, using larger stones in foundations for achieving better structural stability.

• Weathered and laminated stones with cracks and fissures must not be used, as they are likely to crumble under load.

• longer length stones must be used at successive courses as headers and stretchers.

7.2 river Bed / natural Quarry gravelthere are two sources of gravel in nature, river beds and natural deposits. river bed gravel is not suitable for cement / concrete work due to its smooth surface and round edges, as it does not develop a good bond. Hence, it must not be permitted for any reinforced cement concrete (rcc) work. However, it can be used in plum-concrete, such as foundations and hard cores.


2 embodied energy is the sum of all energy inputs required for manufacturing, such as, logistic, transportation and workforce that are needed to make a product.

7 local construction Material

WeatHered stone


natural gravel is found in isolated sedimentary deposits, which generally has rough surface and sharp edges, and can be suitable for cement / concrete work. at times, it may have laminated and weathered chippings, which could make it unsuitable for cement / concrete work. However, its suitability must be ascertained through careful inspection.

7.3 sandlike natural gravel, good sand deposits are also found in isolated alluvial deposits. ordinarily, such sand is suitable for cement / concrete work. However, its suitability must be ascertained through inspection. For such type of sand sources, the following aspects need to be acounted for:

• sand must be free from impurities like clayey contents, organic impurities, and mica chippings.

• it should be rough and granulated.

• efforts should be made not to use fine or extra fine sand, as it retards the binding strength of cement / concrete.

7.4 construction timberWith the exception of chitral, Malakand division is known for good quality construction timber, mostly cedar and blue-pine, which are also supplied to other parts of the country. Besides doors and window, timber is also used for roof trusses. Following points are requisite for good quality timber:

1. Fresh cut timber is rich in sap, which tends to bend, deform, twist and crack. Hence, it must not be used.

2. Quality construction work always banks upon seasoned timber.

3. it should not have dark coloured knots.

4. to safeguard the timber against white ants, the building must have a termite proofing treatment. tiMBer WitH Knot

Poor QualitY sand WitH Mica cHiPPings

river Bed gravel


7.5 recommendations for cdldin the light of the narrative about the local construction material, with specific reference to cdld, it is recommended that:

• Maximum use of local construction material should be promoted, which is cost effective, environment friendly and does not involve embodied energies.

• its use will also generate local employment, which is in line with one of the cdld objectives.

• the use of exotic material should be restricted to the bare minimum, where it is absolutely essential.

• For conserving the shrinking forests and green vegetation, timber use should be restricted to the absolute minimal levels.

• due efforts should be made to find suitable replacement for timber, such as plywood, vim-board, metallic doors, and aluminum frames.


Because of economic prosperity, easy going lifestyle and pursuit of better quality of life, cement / concrete has almost become a mandatory construction material. its extensive use can be seen even in the remote parts of Malakand division, including the far-flung rural areas. such trends have certainly over-shadowed traditional construction techniques. However, despite its extensive use, a vast majority does not understand the working dynamics of cement / concrete, which often results in quality issues, thereby reducing its useful life span. in the succeeding paragraphs, an effort has been made to highlight some pertinent aspects of cement / concrete.

8.1 Main ingredientscement / concrete is mostly used in two forms, Plain cement / concrete (Pcc) and reinforced cement / concrete (rcc), where the latter also contains steel bars of varying dimensions. its main ingredients are cement, sand and gravel, the latter two being procured locally. the following elements should be the main characteristics of its two local ingredients:

• it must be free from clayey contents and organic impurities, such as leaves, grass, twinning etc.

• the gravel should be free from dust, having rough surface and sharp edges to ensure strength.

• sand should be rough and granulated, free from silt. Fine sand is not permissible for Pcc and rcc work.

8.2 Water QualityWater is the media for mixing all the concrete ingredients in its right proportions. its importance is often overlooked and ignored, which severely affects concrete quality. Hence, it is imperative to take following points in due consideration:

• it must be free from any type of turbidity, i.e. suspended particles, silt being the foremost.

• it must be potable water, which is fit for human consumption.

• salty water is a poison for any type of concrete.

• under ideal conditions, water must have a temperature of 30 to 35o c. Hence, under colder temperatures, it must be heated.

8 ceMent concrete WorK

ceMent / concrete MiXture

8.3 Water cement ratiothe ratio of water used in a concrete mix is of utmost importance, in terms of its quality, strength, durability and life span. Water to cement ratio determines concrete density and porosity, having a direct bearing on its strength. excessive water contents could result in reducing density, strength and durability. Whereas, less amount of water will make the concrete difficult to work with, resulting in inadequate compaction which may develop honeycombing. the relationship of water to cement ratio and the concrete strength, vis-à-vis its compaction, is depicted in the graph.

to find the right water to cement ratio, a simple empirical test known as slump test is conducted which determines consistency of the mix. consistency is a term very closely related to workability. it describes the state of fresh concrete. it refers to the ease with which the concrete flows. it is used to indicate the degree of wetness. Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency, i.e. wetter mixes will be more workable than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability. it is also used to determine consistency between individual batches.

the slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the profile of slumped concrete, the slump is termed as true slump, shear slump or collapse slump. if a shear or collapse slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test repeated. a collapse slump is an indication of "too wet a mix". only a true slump is of any use in the test. a collapse slump will generally mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability mix, for which slump test is not appropriate. very dry mixes, having slump 0 to 25 mm are used in road making. low workability mixes, having slump 10 to 40 mm are used for foundations with light reinforcement.Medium workability mixes, having slump 50 to 90 mm are used for normal reinforced concrete placed with vibration.

8.4 Formworkthe formwork (also known as shuttering) plays a crucial role in concrete, with a direct impact on its quality. Formwork is a mould for housing fresh concrete along with the steel bars. ordinarily, formworks are made either from steel or wooden planks, where the former is much superior to the latter. a good quality formwork should have the following characteristics:


tYPes oF sluMP

Collapse slump

slump slumpslump

Shear slump True slump

Co

mp

ressiv

e S

tren

gth

Water to Cement Ratio

Hand Compaction

Fully CompactedConcrete

Water to ceMent ratio vis-à-vis coMPressive strengtH and coMPaction


• it should be strong enough to withstand fresh concrete load without any deformity.

• it should be constructed in such a way that it can be removed easily, as the need be, and without damaging the concrete finishing.

• it should be as impervious as possible.

• its surface should be smooth and leveled so that the desired concrete quality can be attained.

• Formwork should be cheap with regards to the construction.

8.5 concreting temperaturescement is a mixture of chemical salts, which provides calcinations for binding all the ingredients together and forming it as a monolithic mass of solid rock like lump. Hence, for developing the bond, it needs temperature. at low temperatures, the chemical reaction stops and concrete does not attain the required strength. it is due to this reason that cement work conducted in cold weather conditions below standard limits start crumbling and pulverising.

as per Military engineering services (Mes) and Pakistan Public Works department (PWd) specifications, no cement work is allowed once the atmospheric temperature reaches 5o c. at 4o c, water changes its specific gravity and starts expanding. it is due to this reason that ice is the lightest and floats at water surface. at such temperatures, besides retarding chemical reaction, water expansion makes concrete highly porous leaving a thawing effect. cement / concrete work displays best results at 30o to 35o c temperatures. under an emergency situation, heated water must be used for preparing the mix. Hence, it is imperative to take the following points into account:

• all cement work must stop once the atmospheric temperature has plummeted down to 5o c.

• no wet water curing is to be carried out after 3:00 PM.

• under any emergency conditions, cement work is to be covered at night with a thick tarpaulin aided by hay and straw to ensure that temperature does not drop below 5o c.

8.6 Wet curingin addition to being the media for mixing all the concrete ingredients, water is also a source for facilitating the chemical reaction. concrete strength increases with age as long as moisture and favourable temperature are present for hydration of cement. concrete that is in air the entire time is only 55% of the strength of moist-cured entire time concrete at 28 days. in air after 3 days is

tHaWing eFFects

80%, and in air after 7 days is 90%. a quality curing and sealing compound will allow the concrete to continue in strength gain beyond 28 days as shown in the figure. Most of the cement users are unaware about this aspect, which severely hampers concrete strength. Hence, it is imperative to consider the following:

• Water must be free from any type turbidity, i.e. suspended particles, silt being the foremost.

• it must be potable water, fit for human consumption.

• Brackish water is a poison for any type of concrete.

8.7 recommendations for cdldcdld is operating in an area which is famous for mild summers and harsh winters. Hence, it is recommended that:

• no cement / concrete work must be allowed if the atmospheric temperature has reached 5o c.

• in case of extreme emergencies, limited cement work under roof cover can be conducted by using hot water at 35o to 40o c. such work will be covered with tarpaulin for maintaining the temperature so that it dose not frost.

• Potable water must be used for mixing the ingredients, which should be free from turbidity and salinity.

• Prior to fixing the formwork, its quality must be inspected and approved by the site engineer.

• Wet curing has to be done for a minimum period of 14 days, and preferrably for 28 days.


37 28 90

Age Days

5000 psi

4000 psi

3000 psi

2000 psi

1000 psi

Moist-cured entire time

In air after 7 days

In air entire time

Wet curing versus concrete strengtH


9.1 generaldry stone masonry is the most ancient, durable, widespread, and environment friendly building method. stone structures built without mortar rely on craftsmen skill and the forces of gravity and frictional resistance. stone has been a successful building medium throughout the ages because of its unique range of benefits. the structures are remarkably durable, and if correctly designed, equally earthquake resistant.

natural stones resist fire and water. the mason needs a minimum of tools. it is easily repairable and the material is readily available. dry stone masonry does not deplete resources, besides aesthetically complementing and enhancing the landscape. archaeologists have determined that the chinese built dry stone terraces at least 10,000 years ago. ancient tribes built dry stone shelters just after the last ice age 8,000 years ago. High quality stone tools recently found in europe are 2.2 million years old. the technique of dry stacking in construction has existed for thousands of years. the egyptian pyramids and many other ruins are best examples of dry stone masonry work.

in addition to the neglect and demolition of historic structures, the craft is handicapped by the lack of technical information and skilled craftsmen. construction and engineering data that professionals need are scarce and, if recorded at all, are difficult to locate. the primary function of masonry elements is to sustain vertical gravity loads. However, structural masonry elements are required to withstand combined shear, flexure and compressive stress under earthquake or wind load combinations of lateral as well as vertical loads.

in historical perspective, Malakand division has been the center of ghandhara civilisation, dating back to 2,500 Bc. the entire area is replete with classical stone masonry structures, which continue to withstand test of time for many centuries. during recent times, the art of dry stone masonry work has displayed significant deterioration, which can be attributed to several contributing factors. due to the above enumerated advantages, there is a dire need to revive the culture of dry stone masonry work at various tiers. in a rudimentary form, these practices are still being adopted by the rural communities, without understanding the basic dynamics and the thumb rules. Whereas, public sector organisations have almost abandoned it in totality.

9.2 common inconsistenciesthe common anomalies found in these structures are as under:

• the thumb rules of design proportions and height versus foundation width are not commonly known.

9 drY stone MasonrY

• the logical rules of proportionate distribution of header and stretcher stones are not well understood.

• Foundation beds are dug at improper slopes.

• inter-stone bonds are either not understood or are often grossly violated.

• in the classical sense, dry stone walls are built without any mortar. Hence, such structures are based on gravity and frictional bonds.

• instead of structural stability, maximum emphasis is laid on the cement bonded aesthetics.

the minimum dimensions of main stones should be 15 cm and its weight should be 10 kg. the rubble in-fill can be of smaller stones, which must be tightly packed without leaving any lose fill.

9.3 design Parameters

• in case of foundations, stone weight can be as heavy as 20 kg.

• Preferrably, the face stones should have 4 faces. in exceptional cases, it can also be of 3 faces.

• through (bond) stones should be provided at intervals of 1.0 to 1.5 m.

• in case of walls beyond 2.0 m height, mid-level Pcc band (1:3:6 ratio) with 6.0 to 7.50 cm thicknes may be laid for enhanced stability at vertical intervals of 1.0 to 1.50 m.

• in case of extra-large walls, it is advisable to provide rcc columns at regular intervals, as per the specifications and site requirements.

• irrespective of the wall height, its top must always have a thickness of 60 to 65 cm, and it must be protected and sealed with a Pcc band of 6.0 cm thick wearing course.

• the two dry stone masonry walls meeting at corners need to be dovetailed with stretcher stones of appropriate lengths, which are proportionate to wall thickness.

• Filler stones must not be dumped loosely. each one has to be hand packed, to fill the gaps compactly.

• stone masonry gravity walls have proven proportions amongst the wall height and the base width, where wall height is variable. For ensuring better wall stability against the back-fill thrust, these proportions must be maintained.

• However, it depends upon the nature of construction material. the dimensional variances vis-à-vis the construction material are depicted in the table, which may be viewed in conjunction dry stone masonry walls, dressed dry stone walls and random-rubble dry stone walls.



S/N Type of Construction Material Wall Height Foundation Raft Width Base Width

1 dressed cement stone Masonry H 0.52 H 0.35 H

2 dressed dry stone Masonry H 0.6 H 0.4 H

3 random rubble dry stone Masonry H 0.75 H 0.5 H

retaining Walls cross sections disPlaYing tHrougH stones, ruBBle inFill and toP cover stone

Well constructedinner and outer faces

Through stones

Cover band

Face stone

Through stone

Hearting

Footing

Rubble infill

dovetailed Wall corners

dressed ceMent - stone MasonrY

Rubble backing 1’.6” minimum thickness

Surcharge

Back vertical

Course at right anglesto face of wall

Concrete base

1’.6” to 2’.0”

4/1

H10

+ 1’.0” minimum

0.35 H

0.52 H

H


dressed drY stone MasonrY

Surcharge

0.4H

0.6H

H

randoM ruBBle drY stone MasonrY

0.4H

0.5H

H

0.75H

9.4 recommendations for cdldin the light of the explanation about stone masonry walls, under the cdld Programme, it is recommended that:

• concerted efforts are made for maximum construction of dry stone walls. this mode of work is cost efficient, environment friendly and does not involve embodied energies.

• its use will also generate local employment, which is in line with one of the cdld objectives.

• at the same time, masons, craftsmen and artisans will be employed, providing them with respectable means of their sustenance.

• the use of exotic materials will be restricted to absolute essentials.

• cement use should be kept to the bare minimal levels.


the predominant topography in Malakand division is based on rugged mountainous terrain, having a general lack of flat lands for agricultural activities. Because of this reason, these areas have been termed as food vulnerable regions. Most of the farm lands are available in valley beds, which are located along the central perennial water tributaries. some of the terraced lands are also along the gently rolling side slopes on either side of the valley beds.

nearly half of Malakand division falls outside monsoon rain-fall zone, receiving minimal precipitation in summers. Hence, such areas have almost no rain-fed based agricultural practices. it mostly receives winter rain and snow through western Mediterranean winds, between december and March. owing to this, farming practices are totally dependent upon open irrigation channels.

10.1 design considerationsMain issues on the design of technical components are installation, operation and maintenance of irrigation systems, mechanisms to achieve efficient and equitable water allocation and control losses. among various issues affecting sustainability, irrigation scheme design is the major component requiring special considerations.

10.1.1 Participation of Stakeholdersirrigation involves various stakeholders, such as, Water users' associations (Wua) and Farmers’ organisations (Fo). the most important stakeholder is the farmer, who if not integrated, may not feel obliged to play his role effectively, thus jeopardising the sustainability of efforts. stakeholders should be integrated from the beginning through effective coordination and clear definition of roles.

10.1.2 Surveyingsurveying will determine the relative positions of natural and man-made features on the earth surface to develop a map, plan or section. in practice, surveying is used for determining positions of different features of earth in horizontal plane.

during surveying, the most important thing in irrigation is to determine land levels for the channel as well as the command area. it will determine correct channel slopes vis-à-vis the soil strata and balanced water distribution in command area. in this manual, the term surveying refers to both surveying and leveling in an integrated manner. the common surveying instruments and accessories used in watercourse improvement are as under:

10 agriculture irrigation cHannels

• Tapes: Plastic tapes are now the most common type available. they usually come in 30 m but are also available in 15 m lengths.

• Staff Rod: the staff rod is used for the purpose of measuring vertical distance.

• Ranging Rods: the ranging rod is one or two pieces pole usually 2 m in length, painted red and white. it is generally used to establish a “line of sight”.

• Field Book: engineering field books are used for recording survey notes and layouts. they are valuable documents because of the time and expense involved in obtaining such data. the standard format used for watercourse is shown below:

• Auto Level: this instrument is primarily used for measuring vertical heights (elevations). However, horizontal distances and angles can also be measured by using this instrument. total station and geographic Positioning system (gPs) can also be used in surveys according to requirements. gPs can also be used for computing capital cost allowance (cca) of a scheme.

10.1.3 Determination of Crop Water and Irrigation Needsirrigation water require an estimate of the rate of crop water use. daily and weekly water use estimates are needed to schedule irrigation applications and determine the system capacities. seasonal or annual water use is required for irrigation facilities and to establish water rights. therefore, a procedure to determine short-term and long-term rates of water use is necessary. crop evapotranspiration, also called crop consumptive use, is the amount of water used by plants in transpiration and building cell tissues.

evapotranspiration is influenced by several major factors, including plant temperature, air temperature, solar radiation intensity, wind velocity, relative humidity, and soil water availability. daily, weekly, monthly, and seasonal crop water use requirements must be known. this data is essential for planning, designing, and operating irrigation systems for making irrigation management decisions. in addition, seasonal water requirements may also include water used for pre-plant irrigation, agricultural waste application, leaching for salt control, temperature control, facilitation of crop harvest, seed germination, and dust control.

10.1.4 Net Irrigation Water Requirementit is the amount of water required for irrigation to satisfy crop evapotranspiration and auxiliary water needs that are not provided by water stored in the soil profile or precipitation.

Station B.S H.I I.S F.S Elevation H.F Remarks


Net Irrigation Requirement

Fn = etc + aw - Pe - gW - dsW3

Where:Fn = net irrigation requirement for period consideredetc = crop evapotranspiration for period consideredaw = auxiliary water - leaching, temperature modification, crop qualityPe = effective precipitation during period consideredgW = ground water contributiondsW = change in soil water content for period considered

Volume of Water Needed / Irrigation System Capacity Requirements

Q = 453 x a x d/f x H4

Where:Q = Flow rate (gpm)a = area (acres)d = gross application depth (inches)F = irrigation Frequency (days)H = Hours of operation (per day)

10.2 irrigation schedulingirrigation water demands in a scheme are variable. large amounts of water may be needed for land preparation, followed by a period of low water demand during the initial crop growth. as the crop reaches full growth, water demand will increase, decreasing towards crop maturity.

Management allowable soil Water depletion (Mad) is the greatest amount of water to be removed by plants before irrigation so that undesirable crop water stress does not occur. generally, Mad between 30% to 60% of the soil available Water capacity (aWc) is used for management purposes. estimated irrigation Frequency (in days) is based on the Mad level for the aWc in the total crop root zone and the estimated crop evapotranspriation. irrigation Frequency (in days) can be determined by:

Mad X total aWc for crop root zone in inchesdaily etc rate in inches/day


3 u.s.department of agricultre irrigation Manual4 u.s.department of agricultre irrigation Manual


10.3 selecting irrigation Methodsthe four basic irrigation methods, along with the many systems to apply irrigation water, include surface, sprikle, micro and sub-irrigation:

10.3.1 Surfacethis irrigation methods involves the distribution of water by gravity across the soil surface by flooding or small channels, i.e. basins, borders, paddies, furrows, rills and corrugations. surface irrigation methods can be further classified into the following three categories.

1. level Basinsthis surface irrigation system uses relatively large flow rates supplied to level or nearly level soil surfaces over a short period of time. the basin may be of any shape and is surrounded on all boundaries by a control barrier, such as a low dike or levee. the water is confined until infiltrated into the soil. With proper design and management, level basin systems can result in high distribution uniformity and high overall application efficiency. application efficiencies of individual irrigation events exceeding 90% can be obtained. lack of uniformity in soil characteristics across the basin can reduce distribution uniformity of water infiltrated.

advantages• level basin irrigation systems are the easiest to manage of any system. application volume is

controlled by setting time of inflow.

• Properly designed and managed level basin systems minimise deep percolation losses and high application efficiencies are attained. distribution uniformity can be greatly improved over other irrigation systems. there is no runoff except for rice where flow through water is used to maintain the desired water surface elevation.

• Few turnout or outlet structures into a basin are needed.

limitations• Precision leveling is required for uniform water distribution. if low or high areas exist, uneven

infiltration occurs and distribution uniformity is reduced.

• the correct amount of water must be applied. over-application of water can lead to excessive plant inundation, high water temperatures that damage plants, leaching of nutrients, and the use of extra water.

• to meet desirable basin size and shape objectives, earthwork volumes may be greater than for other surface irrigation methods.

• large basin inflow structures require erosion control measures. More than one inlet onto a field may be desirable.


2. contour leveecontour levee irrigation is similar to level basin irrigation except when growing rice. Water is retained by small dikes or levees that are constructed generally on the contour. additional leveling may be required to square up fields or to widen the contour dike interval. Where rice is grown, water is applied to the level or nearly level area (basins) between levees at a rate (in excess of the intake rate of the soil) to maintain ponding. Flow-through water is used to maintain a preselected water surface elevation, thus some tail-water may be occasionally discharged from the lowest basin.

advantages• Maximum utilisation of rainfall can be realised by maintaining water surface elevations slightly

lower than flashboard crest elevations of water control structures.

• runoff from rainfall can be handled with little additional structure requirement.

• installation cost can be relatively low because land preparation is less where dikes and levees are installed on the contour. size of areas between levees doesn’t need to be uniform.

limitations• land grading is generally required to maximise area sizes between levees and provide a uniform

depth of water. land leveling can be substantial if it is desirable to make all basins the same size.

• relatively large irrigation inflows are required to fill the basins. Flows larger than 5 ft3/s with single inlet structures require erosion protection.

• use is limited to soils with land slopes less than 0.5 percent.

• residual pesticides can be carried downstream into public water through tail-water discharge, similarly surface drainage is required in high rainfall areas.

3. level Furrowlevel furrow irrigation is similar to both level basin and graded furrow irrigation. laser controlled land leveling is required for highest irrigation uniformity. irrigation water must be applied rapidly, using as large a stream as the furrow can contain, until the design volume or depth of irrigation is applied. dikes along edges of each irrigation set can be used to contain water. the end of the furrow or field is blocked so the water is contained and ponded within each furrow.

advantages• High application uniformity can be attained with a properly designed and managed system.

• net irrigation application can be easily adjusted. light applications can be applied where water can be introduced at both ends of the furrow or where outflow into a lower basin is allowed.

• there is no runoff from irrigation.

• level furrow irrigation systems are the easiest to manage of all irrigation systems. application volume is controlled by time, assuming the inflow rate is known.

limitations• except on uniform flat fields, extensive land preparation is required for initial installation.

• surface drainage must be provided to divert high rainfall events off the field.

• relatively large streams of water are needed and should be used.

• uniformity of the soil surface must be maintained. this essentially requires the use of laser controlled grading and planning equipment.

10.3.2 SprinkleWater is applied at the point of use by a system of nozzles (impact and gear driven sprinkler or spray heads) with water delivered to the sprinkler heads by surface and buried pipelines, or by both. sprinkle irrigation systems are classified by operation of the laterals. the three main types of these systems are fixed, periodic move, and continuous/self-move. sprinkler irrigation system examples include solid set (portable and permanent), hand-move laterals, side roll (wheel-line) laterals, end tow laterals, hose fed (pull) laterals, perforated pipe laterals, high and low pressure center pivots and stationary or traveling gun sprinklers and booms.

Pressure for sprinkler systems is generally provided by pumping, powered by electric motors and diesel, natural gas, or gasoline engines. Where sufficient elevation drop is available, sprinkler systems can be operated using gravity to provide the necessary operating pressure. if the system is properly designed and operated, application efficiencies of 50% to 95% can be obtained. the efficiency depends on type of system, cultural practices, and irrigation management.

advantages• effective use of small continuous stream of water.

• greater application uniformity on non-homogenous soils.

• ability to adequately irrigate steep or undulating topographies without erosion.

• good for light and frequent irrigation.

• can be effective for weather (micro-climate) modifications.


limitations• initial cost is high.

• operating cost is high compared to non-pressurised systems, unless sufficient availability from a gravity head supply.

• Water quality can be a problem with overhead sprinklers if water is saline, and in terms of clogging and nozzle wear. also, some types of water are corrosive to sprinkler pipes and other hardwares.

• some fruit crops cannot tolerate wet conditions during maturation (unless fungicides are used).

• irregular field shapes can be difficult to accommodate.

• very windy and very dry conditions can cause high losses.

10.3.3 MicroWater is applied to the point of use through low pressure, low volume discharge devices, i.e. drip emitters, line source emitters, micro spray, sprinkler heads, and bubblers supplied by small diameter surface or buried pipelines.

advantages• significant water, fertiliser and operating costs (labour and power) savings are possible.

• ease of field operations due to reduced weed problems and non-wetted soil surface.

• ability to operate on steep slopes and tough terrains.

• the ratio of crop yield to evapotranspiration can be higher under trickle irrigation because of reduced soil surface evaporation and continuously high soil water availability.

• relatively easy to automate the system

• can be less labour intensive than some other irrigation systems.

limitations• systems are expensive to purchase and install.

• susceptibility to clogging of emitters, which have very small openings, makes it important to spend time and money on maintaining the system, applying chemicals, and keeping filters clean.

• Possibly low distribution uniformity due to low operating pressures, steep slopes especially along laterals, and due to clogging.


10.3.4 Sub-IrrigationWater is made available to the crop root system by upward capillary flow through the soil profile from a controlled water table. each irrigation method and irrigation system has specific site applicability, capability, and limitations. Broad factors that need to be considered are:

• types of crops to be grown

• site topography and geographic characteristics

• Water supply channels and demand

• climatic nature of the area

• availability of energy sources

• chemigation options and practices

• operation and management skills

• environmental factors and concerns

• soil quality and nature

• Farming tools and techniques

• cost required versus available budget

10.4 lining of irrigation channelslining of irrigation channels is a common practice for saving water losses and easy operational managment practices which are calculated by Manning’s equation and irrigation design formulas:

Manning Equationv = (1/n) * r2/3 * s1/2

a = Q/vP = a/r

Where: Q = discharge, l/s r = Hydraulic radius in m = a/Pv = average Flow velocity, m/s P = Wetted Perimeter, mn = Manning’s coefficient, constant s = longitudinal slope, m/m

tables regarding the value of roughness coefficient (n) for different soil strata and material are given in annex-7.



Flow Area and Wetted Perimeter of Rectangular X-Section5

a = b dP = b + 2db = (P + (P2-8a)1/2)/2d = a/b

Where: b = Flow bottom width, md = Flow depth, moptimum X-section: b = 2d

Flow Area and Wetted Perimeter of Trapezoidal X-Section (Sharp Corners)

a = b d + d2 ZP = b + 2 d (Z2+1)1/2

d = (P-(P2-4a(2X-Z))½)/(2(2X-Z))b = (a-Z d2)/d

Where:Z = side slopeX = (Z2+1)1/2

optimum X-section: b = 2 d ((Z2+1)1/2-Z)

Flow Area and Wetted Perimeter of Trapezoidal X-Section (Round Corners)

a = b d + d2θ+d2cotθ=bd+d2(θ+cotθ)P=b+2dθ+2dcotθ=b+2d(θ+cotθ)d = (P-(P2-4aX)½)/(2X)b = (a-X d2)/d

Where:Z=SideSlope=cotθX=(θ+cotθ)

5 FB = 15% to 20% for lined channels and 30% to 35% for unlined channels. soil and Water conservation engineering by glenn o. schwab, chapter.13, open channel Flow.

rectangular douBle BricK lined section

0.24 b

Set top brickon edge

Dd

FB

0.12

0.07

b + 0.72

traPeZoidal concrete lined (sHarP corners)

FB

0.15 0.15

d

b

D

0.08

1

Z

traPeZoidal concrete lined (round corners)

FB

0.15 0.15

d

D

D

0.08

1

Z

Flow Area and Wetted Perimeter of Triangular X-Section (Sharp Corners)

a = d2 ZP = 2 d (Z2 +1)1/2

d = 2 r X/Z

Where: Z = side slopeX = (Z2 +1)1/2

r = a/P

Flow Area and Wetted Perimeter of Triangular X-Section (Round Corners)

a = d2θ+d2cotθ=d2(θ+cotθ)P=2dθ+2dcotθ=2d(θ+cotθ)d = 2 r

Where: cotθ=Z=SideSlopeX=(θ+cotθ)r = a/P

Flow Area and Wetted Perimeter of Parabolic X-Section

a = 2/3*t*dP = ((t/2*((((1+(4*d)^2)^0.5) + ((t/(4*d)*ln((4*d/t)+(1+((4*d/t)^2)^0.5)))/1000


triangular concrete lined section (sHarP corner)

FB

0.15

d

D1

Z

0.15

triangular concrete lined section (round corners)

FB

0.15

d

D1

Z

0.15

Pre-cast ParaBolic concrete lined section

0.08 0.08

T

FB

d

D

t

Parabolic segments available in enlisted yards of on-Farm Water Management department, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa are given below:

Flow Area and Wetted Perimeter of Semi-Circular X-Section

a = r2θ/2-(r-d)*tP=rθ

Where: cosθ/2=(r-d)/mr = Pipe radius, mt=Topflowwidth,m=2rsinθ/2

the purpose of lining is to prevent erosion, water losses, and reduced o&M. in lined channels, the maximum permissible velocity will not cause erosion, provided water does not carry suspended load of sand, gravel or stones. the minimum permissible velocity is the one which will neither cause sedimentation nor scouring. it will induce growth of aquatic plants. Maximum water velocities (m/sec) in earthen canals on different soils are:


Pre-cast seMi-circular concrete lined section

0.08

FB

D D

0.08

t/2

r

t/2

r

PCPS # Width (m) Full Depth (m) Remarks

1 0.31 0.23

such sections are recommended for plane areas, where its procurement and installation is realatively easy. it gets uneconomical at far-flung areas due to logistic costs and risk of breakage in handling and transportation.

2 0.46 0.313 0.61 0.374 0.64 0.465 0.69 0.48

6 0.76 0.53

7 0.92 0.61

sand 0.3 – 0.7

clay 0.9 – 1.5

rock 1.2 – 1.8

sandy loam 0.5 – 0.7

gravel 0.9 – 1.5

10.5 Pipe Water channelsin piped surface irrigation systems, water is transported in closed conduits or pipes in part or all of the distribution system from the headwork up to the field inlet. the pipes can be all buried, with outlets in the form of hydrants protruding above ground level on field pipes. if the water level at the headwork is higher than the water level required at scheme level, the water can be transported through the pipes by gravity. if the water level at the headwork is lower than the water level required at scheme level, then the water needs to be pumped through the pipe to arrive to the scheme at the required elevation necessary to be able to irrigate by gravity from the field inlet onwards.

10.5.1 Pipeline hydraulics and design equationsFlow of water in pipes is always accompanied by a loss of pressure head due to friction. the magnitude of loss depends on the interior roughness of the pipe walls, the diameter of the pipe, the viscosity of the water, and the flow velocity. these factors are lumped into friction coefficients based on experimental data.

Discharge = Flow Area x Flow VelocityHazen Williams formula for calculating head loss

Hf = [{ K(Q/c)1.852}/ {d4.87}] * l

Where:K = 1.21 x 1010 Q = Pipeline discharge, lpsc = Friction coefficient for pipe sectionsd = inside diameter, mml = Pipeline length, mHf = Frictional head loss, m

Hazen Williams "c" values for different types of pipe material:

Material Constant C

uPvc 140-150asbestos cement (ac) 140cast iron (ci) 130galvanised steel (gs) 120



Hazen Williams equation underestimates friction losses when the reynolds number approaches the laminar range of values. a more correct equation under laminar flow conditions is darcy Weisbach equation:

Hf = f {lv2 / d X 2g}

Where;l = Pipe length, md = Pipe diameter, mv = average flow velocity, m/secg = gravitational constant, 9.81 m/sec2

f = Frictional factor

Friction coefficient ‘f’, is determined as a function of the reynolds number and the relative roughness of the pipe. the reynolds number can be calculated using:

re = 1.26 * 106 * {Q/d}

in which:re = reynolds numberQ = Pipe discharge, lpsd = Pipe inner diameter, mmthe flow is laminar, when re < 2000, flow is turbulent, when re > 2800

the flow is neither laminar nor turbulent, when re is between 2000 to 2800. then the value of ‘f’ is determined as follows:6

f = {64/re} for re < 2100f = {0.04} 2100 < re < 3000f = {0.32/re0.25} 3000 < re < 105

f = {0.13/re0.172} 105 < re < 107

For design of pipe water channel, the pipe size selection is made on hit and trial rule between head loss, discharge and sizes. different charts are developed by Pakistan agricultural research council (Parc) for friction head loss in various types of pipes for known discharge rates. recommended design peak crop water requirements for northern parts of KP according to Parc is 5 mm per day.

6 Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics by r.K Bansal and Fluid Mechanics by Franzini.

10.6 different structures used in small scale irrigation scheme:there are different types of irrigation structures for effective and efficient water conveyance, resulting in optimal use of the farmer. such structures are briefly discussed as under7:

10.6.1 Inverted Siphonsit is a closed conduit to convey water by gravity under culvert and depressions. it is designed to run full and under pressure. Head losses of selected pipes sizes should be calculated and compared with the available gravity head for designing the siphons. inverted siphons, sometimes called sag pipes or sag lines, are used to convey water by gravity under roads, various types of drainage channels, and depressions. a siphon is a closed conduit designed to run full and under pressure. the structure should operate without excess head when flowing at design capacity. closed conduits with straight profiles under roadways may also function as inverted siphons with internal pressure.

10.6.2 Bench FlumesFlumes are used to convey water along steep hill side terrain, over other water ways or natural drainage channels. Bench flumes are usually rectangular in shape and made of reinforced concrete with inlet and outlet transitions to the adjoining channel.

10.6.3 Dropsdrop structure is used to convey water from a higher to a lower elevation and to dissipate the excess energy resulting from this drop. a canal along this same terrain would ordinarily be steep enough to cause severe erosion in earth canals or disruptive flow in hard surface lined canals. the water must therefore be conveyed with a drop structure designed to safely dissipate the excess energy. different kinds of drops can be used, such as, vertical, baffled apron, rectangular inclined, and pipe drops. drops are used where the decrease in elevation is in the range of 3 to 15 feet over a relatively short distance.

b = 360 (Q)1/2

Q+350

Where:b = Width of pool in feetQ = discharge in cubic feet per second

10.6. 4 Chuteschutes are used to convey water from a higher to a lower elevation. chutes are usually used where


7 design of small canal structures, united states department of the interior Bureau of reclamation.


the drop in elevation is greater than 15 feet and where the water is conveyed over long distances and along grades that may be flatter than those for drops but yet steep enough to maintain super critical velocities.

10.6.5 Regulatory Structuresregulatory structure is an open irrigation system used to regulate the flow, to control the elevation of the upstream channel surface, or to do both. structures which perform these functions are checks, check-drops, turnouts, division structures, check inlets, control inlets, weirs, stop-logs and slide gates. different approved sizes of checks, outlets and field turnouts are available in the market, which can be procured as per the discharge requirements.

10.7 general thumb rulesFollowings are the common thumb rules for irrigation channels, which must be given due consideration:

• command area of the channel must be worked out in a meticulous manner with potential cropping patterns, which will give out the design discharge.

• Plain areas must be preferred, as the water demands are far lesser than sloping grounds.

• Water losses through seepages and leakages must also be catered during water requirements at the tail end.

• the water source must have a reliable hydrology, meeting the crop demands during its lowest yield.

• the total water source must not be tapped, as it may hamper other water users in the downstream areas. their needs must be addressed, including environmental flow requirements of pollutants dilution.

• irrigation channels above 2,750 meters (8,000 feet) may be avoided. such altitudes often have single crop cycle with lesser yields.

• depending upon the soil strata, the ideal slope in mountainous terrain is 1:2000, which can also be relaxed up to 1:1000.

• under ideal situation, the best water velocity of an irrigation channel should be non-silting, non-scouring and self-cleaning.

• For meeting these principals, experience has revealed that water velocity in hilly areas should be in the range of 0.6 to 1.75 m/sec.

• Minimum radius of curvature must be 100 m.

• shale soil stratum must also be avoided, as it is prone to land-slides. However, in short stretches, deep buried pipes could be a suitable alternative.

• trapezoidal cross-sections must be preferred over rectangular sections.

• the entire design must be based on optimum use of local material and curtailing down cement / concrete usage to the absolute minimum.

• Besides developing the take-off point, it should also have the provision of pebble, sand and silt traps.

10.8 Water storage tanksWater storage tanks (Wst) are used in areas of limited water availability, such as tube well, springs or any other source. the following points should be the general criteria for a Wst:

• a Wst should not be for the benefit of only a single user. it will not be cost effective.

• Wst should be for the use of storing water from the source, like tube well, or spring, not for the storage of runoff from rainfall.

• engineering site considerations should be taken into account in the design of Wst, including site layout, soil quality, topography character, material availability and labour requirement.

• locally available material and labour should be accorded the maximum preference.

• crop yield, cropping patterns, crop calendar and crop water needs must be known.

• the tank should be located as near to the command area as possible to minimise conveyance losses.

• the Wst shape should generally be rectangular due to design simplicity and ease of construction. there could be unusual circumstances where other shapes may be more suitable, however, they should be dealt with as a special problem.

• depth of water in the tank should generally be no more than 1.2 m (in addition, 0.1 m should be allowed for freeboard). this will minimise excessive pressures that could lead to leakage and/or failure of the tank.

• sources with flows greater than 15 l/sec do not need the facilities of Wst.

10.9 design steps8

• determine the capacity of source and the available water supplies.


8 Water Management Manual for Water storage tanks.


• Water demand is based on peak crop water requirement for a specific area, as per the cropping patterns.

• determine the total farm area that needs to be irrigated.

• Multiplying the crop water requirements with the total cultivable area will provide the value of total water requirements.

10.10 operation and Maintenancethe operation and Maintenance (o&M) of small irrigation schemes is the responsibility of Wua. it can also be a joint responsibility between groups of farmers and the government, depending on the size of the scheme. in large government-run schemes, the irrigation agency and Wua often share the o&M responsibility of irrigation infrastructure. in such cases, o&M of the water delivery and storage system is normally the responsibility of the agency, while the farmers are responsible for maintaining field level infrastructure, such as, distribution channels and small hydraulic structures. the dividing line, however, is not very clear. therefore, the agency and the farmers need to agree on their responsibilities and write them down in bylaws. Where irrigation projects are operated and maintained by farmers, as is the case for small community schemes, the farmers themselves bears all responsibilities for o&M. But even in this case, rules and regulation should be written down in bylaws.

10.11 recommendations for cdldin the light of this elaborate discussion about irrigation systems, the following recommendations are proposed for the cdld Programme:

• Maximum possible emphasis must be given for the gravity based irrigation system, which is cost effective and management efficient.

• in case, any mechanised pumping is involved, like tube well or lift irrigation, in addition to the normal undertaking for the o&M, the beneficiaries will also give an undertaking on an affidavit that they will be responsible for meeting its entire expenses.

• trapezoidal X-section, with round corners, is the most preferred one, which is the most common and is easier to build and maintain.

• However, in case of concrete lining, it requires formworks and trained labour, which may not be available in remote locations.

• For the sake of economy, maximum efforts need to be made to avoid concrete lining, as it may be difficult to control the quality. any post-completion repair work may pose some difficulties. Furthermore, it may entail high costs.


• in rocky reaches, rectangular section is more convenient to build.

• in plain and easily accessible areas of swat, Malakand and dir lower, pre-cast parabolic segments are a better option.

• Hence, it is advisable to carry out slate stone lining of the channel with cement grouting. it is economical and easier to maintain by the beneficiaries.

• Whenever, piped irrigation is required, partially or in totality, the best option is to use High density Polyethylene (HdP) pipe. it has the flexibility and can run along the ground curvature. the galvanised iron (gi) or cast iron (ci) pipe should be the second choice. cement pipes must always be the last choice, as it is more prone to damages.

• to avoid damages from the falling stones, all types of pipes must be buried as per the specified depth.

check dams are simple stone masonry structures, which are mainly built to control soil erosion in high precipitation areas where vegetative cover is thin. such in-stream storage structures are often without gated arrangements, which are capable of safely releasing the anticipated design flood without affecting the safety of the structures with minimum afflux in the upstream. Water can be stored in such a pond or reservoir towards the end of monsoon.

11.1 objectivesthe check dams may be built and used for one of the following purposes:

• to reduce the erosion of thin soil crust due to high water velocity.

• to provide limited water storage facilities in the middle of stream during high run-off period, like monsoon rains.

• delay dams for ground water recharge.

• to provide incidental irrigation during late Khariff and rabi by storing water at the end of monsoon mainly through lifting devices.

• irrigation use of water flowing down drainage channels.

• to divert water from perennial / semi-perennial streams in hilly areas for irrigation purpose.

• to reclaim degraded lands though a slow filling process of silt deposition.

• other uses by villagers like bathing, washing, fishing, recreation, etc. depending on the locality and potentiality.

11.2 selection criteriathe check dams store or divert surplus water flowing to the sea at the end of monsoon. While selecting locations for construction of in-stream storage structures or check dams, the following principles and priorities are to be followed:

• areas where farmers are using traditional irrigation by constructing temporary cross bunds on streams.

• Where the farmers are willing to undertake the post-completion o&M of the structure.

• the newly constructed structure should not have any adverse impact on the hydrological efficacy of the existing irrigation projects.

• in-stream storage can be developed near urban centers if suitable rivers and locations are available for multipurpose domestic and irrigation use.


11 cHecK daMs

though the purpose of the check dam is to be demand driven, hydrologically and technically feasible sites may be considered in consultation with the local people. the main emphasis on selection of a site will be proper use of water through community participation.

11.3 salient Features of check damsthe check dams (with or without gated arrangements) are to be capable of safely releasing the anticipated design flood without affecting the safety of the structures with minimum afflux in the upstream. Water can be stored in such a reservoir towards the end of monsoon. Based on the type of stream or nallah where the structure is proposed to be constructed, the check dams may be divided into different categories.

check dams, up to a height of 2 meters can be constructed across small tributaries or drainage channels within the suitable stream reaches. such structures are invariably based on dry stone masonry and will be primarily used for the purpose of curtailing down bed and side erosion of the stream during high rains and snow meltdown. in quite a few cases, it could also be used for land irrigation, re-charging of ground water and providing drinking water facility to nearby villages.

11.4 technical instructionsFor constructing good quality and durable check dams, following technical instructions should be adhered to:

11.4.1 Construction Timing check dams are meant to reduce the impact of melting snow and high runoff rains, which can be done whenever labour is available and hillsides are accessible. if possible, keep an eye on water flow conditions and erosion during the rainy seasons when water flow is greatest.


gullY erosion and cHecK daM

Cross section

BundStone

pitching

1.2 m

Foundation0.6 m

Side elevation

1:4 Slope1.2 m

0.6 m

Bund with adequate freeboard

11.4.2 Material and Porositycheck dams should be made of durable hand picked stones, preferably 15 to 60 cm in circumference. Bigger rocks are better where water flow is stronger. it is critical that the check dams are porous and allow water to flow through becuase the purpose of check dams is to reduce water flow speed, not to retain water. local partners might ask to use concrete or mortar to build the dams, but this should be avoided as concrete and mortar contradicts the porous design of the dams.

11.4.3 Key-Incheck dams should be “keyed” into the sides of the gully. dig lateral trenches into the sides of the gully, extend the check dam into the sides, and back fill so as to prevent water flow from gouging soil out from the sides of the check dams. With this arrangement, the dam will not be out skirted by water during high flow season.

11.4.4 Shapethe check dams should have a notched “v” or “u” shape at the top so as to channel water towards the centre of the dam and prevent water flowing around the edges. check dam height is often about ¼ of the base width, but this depends on the building material.

11.4.5 Foundationthe check dam should extend below the soil surface to bedrock or for at least 50 to 65 cm to prevent water from undercutting the check dam structure.

11.4.6 Dam Spacingcheck dams should be built in sequence. if possible, the distance between subsequent check dams should be so that the base of the previous dam is at the same height as the top of the second dam. this may not be possible in steeper settings, but a general rule to follow is that the space between check dams will decrease as the slope of the hillside increases. the following equation is used for calculating the spacing between the check dams:9


drY stone MasonrY cHecK daM

9 Heede and Mufich 1973.

S=He/KGcosθ

Where:s = spacing between the damsHe = effective height of the check damG=Gullygradientasaratio(G=tanθ)K = an empirical constant

the equation is based on the assumption that the gradient of the sediment deposit or delta is (1-K) g.

Where:K = 0.3 for g equal or less than 0.2K = 0.5 for g more than 0.2

11.4.7 Reducing Downhill Erosionlarge stones should be placed on the downhill side of the check dam to reduce the impact of spill over from gourging out soil behind the check dam. it will be advisable to provide a rough riprap so that the splash water energy can be dissipated for avoiding any soil erosion. such erosion can lead to piping, thereby damaging the check dam foundations.

11.5 constructionFollowing construction steps and procedures are recommended for all types of stone built check dams:

• Place rock to the lines and dimensions as laid down on ground. the heavier stones must be placed at the bottom for a better stability, over a well woven and hand packed foundation.

• install check dams and erosion control blanket immediately after drainage-way grading is complete.

• Make sure that the channel reaching above the most-upstream dam is stable.

• ensure that channel appurtenances, such as culvert entrances below check dams, are not subject to damage or blockage from displaced rocks.

11.6 Maintenanceunlike other civil structures, check dams require far higher maintenance efforts. Here are some recommendations for the same:

• inspect check dams and drainage ways for damage after each heavy rains, followed by the runoff event.


• anticipate submergence and deposition above the check dam and erosion from high flows around the edges of the dam.

• correct all damages immediately. if significant erosion occurs between dams, additional protection may be required. this may include a protective riprap liner in that portion of the channel or placing additional check dams.

• remove sediment accumulated behind the dams as needed to prevent damage to channel vegetation. allow the channel to drain through the stone check dam and prevent large flows from carrying sediment over the dam.

• add or remove rock to dams as needed to maintain design height, cross section, and flow through characteristics.

11.7 Water Harvesting structuressignificant parts of cultivated areas in Malakand division fall outside the command area of any type of irrigation system, locally known as barani (rain-fed) areas. in such areas, for land irrigation, farmers rely on rainfall, ground water, ephemeral streams, and hill runoff. at times, water harvesting techniques are also used to enhance the quality and reliability of rainfall water being delivered to the crop root zone. it may include field improvements to increase uniformity of water infiltration, small streams diversions to the fields through check structures built from local material, construction of field level conservation structures and water storage for intermediate use in the form of ponds. Water ponds are constructed to store the runoff water and to be utilised for irrigation and livestock. Ponds are constructed at site where it receive enough runoff water from adjoining areas and from where it can serve the surrounding cultivable lands through gravity.

11.8 soil Bioengineeringsoil bioengineering is a discipline of civil engineering. it pursues technological, ecological, economic as well as design goals by employing the use of living material, i.e. seeds, plants, part of plants and plant communities in near–natural constructions while exploiting the manifold abilities inherent in plants. soil bioengineering may sometimes be a substitute for classical engineering. However, in most cases, it is a meaningful and necessary method of complementing the latter.

its application suggests itself in all fields of soil and hydraulic engineering, especially for slope consistency, embankment stabilisation and erosion control. soil bioengineering is the use of living plant material to provide some engineering function. soil bioengineering is an effective tool for treatment of a variety of unstable or eroding sites. soil bioengineering techniques have been used


Bio-engineering sloPe staBilisation using local Material

for many centuries. during recent times, it has encouraged the use of soil bioengineering with a variety of examples. soil bioengineering is now widely practiced throughout the world for the treatment of erosion, unstable slopes and dry stone masonry retaining structures. in cdld area of operations, prior to introduction of cement, this has been the traditional practice amongst farmers for stabilisation of retaining structures around their lands. due efforts will be made for re-introducing the same with modern engineering techniques.

11.9 recommendations for cdldWithin the cdld context of a mountainous topography, and constructing the check dams in the settings of Malakand division, followings are being recommended for the cdld Programme:

• all check dams should be built by using dry stone masonry, which is a customary practice in this type of works.

• Heaviest stones must be used in the foundations, the bottom courses and on both the sides.

• limited cement use could be permitted only in foundations, just for the monolithic base.

• depending upon the site conditions and type of soil stratum, gabion rafts could also be used for achieving the stable foundations.

• the dam foundation and sides must be keyed-in.

• it must have a depressed water escape route, and the downstream must also be rip-rapped for protection against erosion.

• the best use of bioengineering must be made with local vegetation, herbs, shrubs and grasses, thereby giving enhanced protection to the structure.


the various types of flood protection work are man-made infrastructural interventions of civil work for protecting the low-lying and flood prone communities against flooding. this kind of infrastructure is also termed as ‘flood defenses’. such defenses can generally be comprised by the followings:

• earthen embankments

• Flood walls and stone masonry works

• spurs

owing to unprecedented flood damages in Malakand division in the recent history (2010), it is envisaged that communities may make significant demands for flood defenses.

12.1 earthen embankmentsFlood embankments are earthfill structures designed to contain high river levels. they are commonly grass-covered, but may need additional protection against erosion by swiftly flowing water with high velocity, waves or overtopping. Protection may take many forms, but options include:

• stone riprap

• gabions and gabion mattresses

• open-stone asphalt

• concrete bag work

• concrete block work (which can either be individual blocks or linked to form a mattress)

various products can be categorised as bioengineering, such as, coir rolls, faggots and fascine mattresses. geogrids and geotextiles can also be used to reinforce grass on flood embankments. the width of the crest is normally determined by asset management requirements, widths of 1 to 3 meters being the normal range. the slopes of the inner and outer faces are a function of (i) the strength characteristics of the earth-fill material used, and (ii) the type of maintenance equipment used for grass and shrubs cutting, which has the


Jute Woven net used as geoteXtile WitH vegetation

12 Flood Protection WorKs

gaBion Wire MesH used as geoteXtile WitH vegetation

least landscaping requirements. normally, the embankment side slopes are between 1:2 (vertical to horizontal) and 1:3. steeper slopes are very difficult to maintain (grass cutting), while flatter slopes tend to add unnecessarily to the footprint of the embankment and the quantity of fill material required10.

12.2 Flood WallsFlood walls can be sub-divided in the following two categories:

• stone masonry walls

• gabion walls

any type of flood walls must be built after meticulous calculations of scour depth, which as per lacey formula for the prediction of the maximum scour depth is:11

ds/h =0.47 k [Q/fh3]1/3 - 1

Where:ds = scour depth measured from the initial bed levelh = approach flow depthQ = regime dischargef = silt factor = 1.76 d50k = amplification factor for local scour depthd50 = Mean diameter of bed sediment in mm

12.2.1 Stone Masonry Wallsthese are the common earth retaining structures, which could be built with either of the two techniques, dry stone masonry or cement / sand masonry. this type of civil work needs the same engineering principles as in case of any other retaining structure.


10 these types of earthen embankments are built in plains where water velocity is not high and stones are scarce. due to high velocity gushing hill torrents, such embankments are not recommended in cdld area.11 international Journal of sediment research, vol. 18, no. 4, 2003.

tYPical cross-section oF eMBanKMent

X

1

Y

1

Freeboard

Design

water level

Crest widthEarth fill

Originalground level

Topsoil removed

and reused on

embankment

Clay core and

clay cutoff may

be required

12.2.2 Gabion Wallsthe term gabion refers to a modular containment system that enables rock, stone or other inert materials to be used as a construction material. the box shape cages are formed of wire mesh fabric panels, jointed to form square, rectangular or trapezoidal shaped units. these units are part pre-assembled in the factory to form a flat pack system. these flat pack units are supplied to the customer and formed into the final shaped module on site with the necessary lacing wire, helical or rings, as required. each module has to be connected to adjacent modules to form a monolithic structure.

the types of mesh which are used must be of a type such as welded wire mesh or hexagonal woven wire mesh and provided with corrosion protection to suit the required exposure conditions. gabion baskets are “soft,” flexible support systems, which can be hand-filled with stones to ‘blend’ into their background, and thereby, becoming more aesthetically pleasing. gabions are gravity structures designed using the same methodology as those employed for retaining walls. these are flexible structures, able to withstand significant movements from undercutting or land-slippage.

the gabion crates are normally handfilled with good quality stones in layers to reduce excessive voids. the exposed faces are also systematically handpicked to provide an aesthetical appearance of a dry stone wall. For good performance of gabion structures, their quality of installation is of paramount importance.

gabion Walls installation guide

Foundation: Foundation requirements must be established by the engineer, which will vary with site conditions and height of gabion structure. generally, the top layer of soil is stripped until a layer of the required bearing soil strength is reached. in some cases, the foundation may consist of suitable fill material compacted up to the required density. in case of week soils, gabion mattresses compactly filled with stones, may also be used for stable foundation purposes. Foundation must be laid in way that it should have a reverse slope, as per the design, for better stability to withstand the backfill thrust.

assembly: Following steps must be followed for assembling gabions. to assemble each gabion, fold out the four sides and the ends, fold adjacent sides up and join edges with spiral binders, insert diaphragms at the centres and fasten them to the base panel with spiral binders. Place the


tYPical cross-section oF eMBanKMent

empty gabions in the designed pattern on the foundation. When the entire first course is in position, permanently secure adjacent gabions by installing vertical spiral binders running full height at all corners. similarly, secure both the edges of all diaphragms with spiral binders. crimp ends of all spiral binders. corner stiffeners are then installed diagonally across the corners on 1 foot centres (not used for gabions less than 3 feet high). the stiffeners must be hooked over crossing wires and crimped closed at both ends. Final gabion alignment must be checked before filling begins.

Filling: Fill material must be in accordance to the specification of the engineer. it must have suitable compressive strength and durability to resist the loading, as well as the effects of water and weathering. usually, 3 to 8 inches clean, hard stone is specified. a well graded stonefill increases the density and minimises the voids. Place the stone in 12 inches' lifts with power equipment, but distribute evenly by hand to minimise voids and ensure a pleasing appearance along the exposed faces. Keep baskets square and diaphragms straight. the filled-in adjoining cells should not vary in height by more than 1 foot. level the final stone layer allowing the diaphragms’ tops to be visible. lower lids and binds along all gabions’ edges and at diaphragms’ tops with spiral binders. alternatively, tie or lacing wire can be utilised for this operation.

successive courses: Place the next course of assembled empty gabions on top of the filled course. stagger the joints so that the vertical connections are offset from one another. Bind the empty baskets to the filled ones below the spirals or tie wire at all external bottom edges. Bind vertical edges together with spiral binders and continue with the same steps as for the first layer. successive courses are placed in the same manner until the structure is complete.


gaBion Walls cross-section

Reno/revettmentmattress

Geogrid placed at12 spacings

rock-filledgabions

reinforced concretefooting s/ continuouscut-off wall

concrete gabion footingsteel sheet pile cut-off wall

mattress

19

tWo tYPes oF gaBion gravitY Walls

it will be advisable to calculate the back-fill soil thrust, which can give more precise values:12

soil load = P = 0.5 Ka x W x H2

Where:H = Height of wall B = Base width Ka = active load constant, value of Ka = 0.333W = 120lb/cftY = H/3 = Point of action of load (rule of middle-third)otM = P x Y = overturning momentW1, W2, W3 ……… Weight of each step of the wall can be calculated from its dimensionsX1, X2, X3 …… Point of action of weight load X1, X2, X3 can be calculatedMr = sum of all moments of resistance

resisting moment is calculated by multiplying different weight loads with their respective points of action of load. total weight load is also calculated as W=W1+W2+W3, and resisting moment is the sum of all moments.

1st step to check against tensiondistance of resultant load on edge = a > B/3 where a = (Mr- otM)/W2nd step to check against moment i.e Mr/otM > 2.53rd step to check against sliding force, where sliding force = soil load = Pand resisting force = Pr = Wxtan30o, where Pr/P > 1.5

12.3 types of river training Worksriver training structures are man-made engineering interventions, which train the water course to flow in a desired direction so that losses due to erosion and scouring could be minimised.

12.3.1 Spursspurs may be aligned either perpendicular to the bank line or can be used in combination with other training measures. their use in series can also be done, if a single spur is not strong enough to deflect the water current. the position, length and shape of spurs depend on site conditions, and require significant judgment on


sPur For BanK Protection

12 soil Mechanics and Foundation by dr. B.c. Punmia/ashok Kumar Jain.

behalf of the designer. no single type of spur is suitable for all locations. Basic functions of a spur are to repell and deflect the water away from the banks. Hence, the spurs are angled at 30 to 60 degrees, depending upon the site conditions. the spur bears the full fury of the frontal attack of the river on its upstream face, where it has to be armoured adequately.

12.3.2 Dikesthese are artificial barriers to contain the watercourse, which are constructed out of earth to control or confine water. these barriers are preventing the water passage through undesirable areas, like population centers, agricultural lands or industrial zones.

12.3.3 Leveesit is an artificially constructed elongated ridge like embankment, or wall, which regulates water levels. it usually runs parallel to the course of a river in its floodplain or along low-lying areas.

12.4 Maintenancelike any other civil structures, gabion works need adequate care and maintenance during post-completion era. salient features of such maintenance are as under:

• all drainage channels are to be monitored on regular basis, particularly before the beginning and the end of rainy seasons.

• in case of any voids due to escaping stones or settlement, the same must be filled back.

• gabion interconnecting rings and spirals must be inspected on regular basis. any loose inter-gabion connections must be restored to ensure its monolithic homogeneity.

• Wherever possible, efforts may be made to facilitate growth of common grasses, herbs and shrubs. it will ensure better stability of gabion-built structures through bioengineering technology.


natural diKe Protecting land intrusion BY tide

Levee

Water-side Land-side

levees Protection For loW lYing areas

12.5 recommendations for cdldBecause of the rugged mountainous topography of Malakand division, and the gushing rainstorm waters at high velocity, heavy community demands for flood protection work can be quite substantial. Hence, for the cdld Programme following are the main recommendations:

• earthen embankments must not be built in cdld area, as they cannot withstand the high water velocities carrying considerable amount of suspended solids like stones, debris and sand. such solids add to the momentum, which can easily damage or even destroy any such structure.

• Hence, the most preferred choice for the flood walls will be gabion structures.

• the type of gabion mesh, its mesh size and wire thickness should be determined as per the site location, size of the available stones, type of back-fill materials and water velocity etc.

• Heaviest stones must be used in the foundations, the bottom courses and on both the sides.

• For attaining better stability, use of gabion mat must be preferred.

• soil bioengineering treatment will be a mandatory requirement in all such structures, where local population is well trained. it will ensure long-term structural sustainability.


Malakand division is known for its rough topography, mountainous terrain and deep isolated valleys, which are thickly populated. even during the current times, most of the valleys are totally devoid of any road communication facilities, which adversely affect the quality of life. Mobility of the community gets specifically hampered for the sick patients in emergencies and the school going children. at the same time, they also face exorbitant cost escalations for marketing their farm produce and bringing the farm inputs, like seeds and fertilisers. in this context, it is anticipated that quite a few communities are likely to demand shingle based rural roads.

13.1 Working Parameters• road alignment must have an expansion and up-gradation capability, addressing potential

needs of the community for the next 25 to 30 years.

• the alignment should avoid disturbance to cultivable lands, forests, woodlots, natural habitats, nature reserves and any other environmental and social hazards.

• Free land acquisition will be the sole responsibility of the respective beneficiary communities.

• except culverts and other cross-drainage structures, all construction will strictly be based upon local materials.

• all retaining structures will strictly be built with dry stone masonry work.

• Beneficiaries have to provide a verifiable proof that they are capable to operate and maintain the road asset under request.


13 roads

tYPical road cross-section in Mountainous area

Cleared width

Overall widthSidedrain Shoulder

Carriageway

ChannelCrownCutslope

Berm Pavement

KerbFootway

Fill

NOTE: In all cases,the vertical scaleis exaggerated forclarity

Original ground line

Base Sub-base

Formation

Sub-grade

Surfacing(B) Crossfall

Pavement

Pavement

(C) Camber(D) Details of pavement

(A) General nomenclature used in this publication

13.2 Working standards and specifications13

• carriageway width - 3.65 m

• shoulder width - 1.0 m, minimum on either side

• side drain, preferably trapezium - 0.65 x 0.65 m, with discharge relief at suitable intervals depending upon slope and climatic data

• gradient

• ruling gradient - 7.50%

• limiting gradient - 10%

• Maximum gradient - 15%, in short stretches on with breathing space

• camber and cross fall - 2%

• super elevation on horizontal curves - 2%

• Hardcore thickness in cultivable lands of low bearing capacity - 20 cm

• site distance - 30 m

• Horizontal and vertical curves - 35 m

13.3 drainage structuresWater drainage plays the most important role in roads. it becomes even more important in mountainous areas like Malakand division, where annual rate of precipitation is very high, vegetative cover is thinning down and soil erosion is on the increase. road drainage structures can be sub-divided in the following categories:

• rcc bridges

• suspension bridges

• culverts

• causeways

• roadside drains

13.3.1 RCC Bridgesthe main constituents of this type of bridges are the steel reinforcements embedded as per the design in cement / concrete mortar. these are the most conventional bridges in cdld area of operations, comprising of large varieties of bridge gap span and load classification, including foot bridges for pedestrians. there are different types of rcc bridges. Beam and slab bridges are


13 http://www.cwd.gkp.pk/etender/roads.php: this table does reveal out some of the dimensional specifications of the rural access roads. Besides, wherever applicable, the american association of state Highway and transportation official (aasHto) specifications are being followed by communication and Works department, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

probably the most common form of concrete bridge in this part of Pakistan. construction of rcc bridges often entails heavy costs and are difficult to build by the beneficiary communities. However, the possibilities for small bridges mostly for pedestrians, cannot be ruled out under the cdld Programme.

design

cWd has standardised designs for varying site conditions, abutments, bridge span and load classifications. all such designs stand tried and tested. Hence, it is recommended to adopt such design as per the site requirements and usage patterns the same be applied.

construction and Working Parameters

Following are the logical steps for the construction of bridge, where each leads to the next. each steps needs site engineers’ approval before moving to the next:

• the selected site for the bridge must have the narrowest gap with stable geological strata of the banks on either sides. narrow gaps will reduce the bridge cost.

• the bridge abutments must be based on firm and stable rock.

• the mild steel bars must be as per the design sizes, and they must be cut, bent and tied strictly as per the bar bending schedule without any compromise.

• extra care and diligence is to be exercised for the quality of formwork (shuttering) and its erection along with fixation.

• Highest priority must be accorded to the steel shuttering.

• in case of wooden shuttering, each plank must be inspected for its quality and smooth surface. Planks with gaps must be discarded away without a second thought.

• Fixing arrangements of shuttering, wooden planks, struts and prop beams, and stakes must be inspected beforehand.

• concrete ingredients like sand and aggregate must also be inspected well before the commencement of concreting works.

• sand must be coarse and granulated, which is free from all impurities.

• no river bed gravel should be allowed. it often has round edges and does not form a good bond. only machine crush aggregate should be allowed, which should be dust free. otherwise, it should be washed.

• under no circumstances, hand mixing should be allowed for bridge concreting works.



• all bridge concreting works should only be done through using a mechanical concrete mixing machine.

• to ensure monolithic casting, all the concrete work of an individual member must be done in one go, keeping the joints green and without any break.

• Water curing of main members like beams and slabs must be done for 28 days, without letting the concrete to get dry.

13.3.2 Suspension Bridgesa suspension bridge is one of the oldest, simplest and a primitive type of wet or dry gap crossing arrangement in the world. it is also known as swing bridge and hanging bridge. it is supported entirely from anchors at either end and may not have towers or piers. in such bridges, the bridge deck follows a downward and upward arc of the load-bearing cables, with additional light ropes at a higher level used to form a handrail. alternatively, stout handrail cables supported on short piers at each end may be the primary load-bearing element, with the deck suspended below. suspended well from two high locations over a river or canyon, simple suspension bridges follow a shallow downward catenary arc and are not suited for modern roads and railroads. owing to practical limitation in the grade (i.e. the deck being an arc) and the response to dynamic loads of the bridge deck, this type is quite restricted in its load carrying capacity relative to its span. this type of bridge is considered to be the most efficient and sustainable design in developing countries, especially for river crossings that lie in non-floodplain mountainous topography such as gorges. owing to difficult topography, deep cut gorges and high velocity water flow, suspension bridges are very common in cdld operational area.

suspension bridges are made up of high tensile steel cables strung in the form of catenaries to which the deck is attached by steel suspenders, made up of steel rods or cables. the decking can be of timber, concrete or steel spanning across the stiffening girders transmitting load to the suspenders.

design

Following aspects need specific considerations while designing a suspension bridge. the primary focus is the anchor design to resist pull-out failure for the dead-man anchors:

tYPical cross-section oF susPension Bridge

Tower

Anchorage

DeckMain cable

Suspender cable

Piers

Wherel = span in meterslb = Backstay lengthhsag = cable sag in metersho.b. = height overburden

• typical spans for consideration may range from 40 to 120 meters, backstay lengths from 5 to 10 meters, cable sag from 2% to 10% of the span and overburden heights from 1.5 to 3.0 meters.

• the primary components of a cable suspended bridge include, anchorage, approaches, foundation tiers and towers, walkway cables and deck.

• a simplified free body diagram depicts the typical forces inflicted upon the anchorage and tower.

Where:Pt = cable tension = Force imposed on anchorPv and PH = respective components of the forceWt=Weightofblock+weightsoilaboveblock=WB+WSWB=X*Y*γBWs=X*h*γsγs=UnitweightofsoilγB=Unitweightofreinforcedconcretec = cohesion intercept of the soilϕ=Angleoffrictionofthesoilψ=Angleofanchorcableθ=CabledeflectionanglePp = Passive force


cross section oF susPension Bridge

hsag

L Lb

hob

Free BodY diagraM oF dead-Man ancHor and toWer

Pv

Ws PT

PP

PH

WB

PT PT

• Therefore, the geotechnical parameters of interest are the angle of friction (ϕ), the soil unitweight(γs)andthecohesion(c).Theonlystructuralvariablethat influencesthefinalanchordesign is the loading (Pt).

• For cable to fail, the strands must elongate past the elastic range into the elastic- plastic portion of the material’s stress-strain curve. as the deck live load increases, the load to the walkway cables is increased proportionally until the added length due to stretch forces the suspenders to transfer the load onto the handrail cables. only when both the handrail and walkway cables are fully loaded that the cable has the potential to go beyond the elastic state required for cable failure.

• the suspension bridge has three types of loadings to cater for, dead-load, live-load and wind-load.

• a live load of 85 pounds / square feet is designated unless the walkway area is greater than 400 / square feet. then the live load figure is slowly reduced between 400 square feet and 850 square feet, at which time the minimum standard of 65 pounds / square feet is used.

• a wind loads applied horizontally at right angles to the longitudinal bridge axis shall be applied at 35 pounds / square feet, assuming that the wind can readily pass through the bridge profile. the specified wind pressures are for a base wind velocity of 100 miles / hour which in such case has higher wind-velocity requirements.

• the length of the decking planks is recommended to be 3.0 meters, although 2.0 meters decking planks are also acceptable with a slight reduction in longitudinal rigidity. design for longitudinal beams should assume a multi-support, simple beam analysis.

• crossbeams are the members that are spaced perpendicular to the length of the bridge. the initial design choices are crossbeam spacing and decking width.


tYPical decKing detail Plan vieW

3 m wooden boards,staggered 1 m

100 cm

300 cm

Maintenance Parameters

unlike rcc bridges, suspension bridges need a higher degree of o&M efforts. Following are the logical steps for its routine maintenance:

• all steel wires, clamps, suspenders and nuts / bolts must be protected against corrosion by regular application of anti rust paint or oil.

• Periodical inspection of dead-man anchorages on both the sides is a mandatory requirement.

• Wooden members are likely to get decayed due to profuse rains. at the same time, they may get brittle and develop cracks. the wood in contact with soil is likely to be attacked by termites. Hence, it needs vigilant care and monitoring. the best option will be periodic application of creosote oil or any other suitable alternative.

13.4 culvertsit is a mini bridge to discharge water runoff from roads, highways, streets, and any other place. culvert could have a maximum span of 3.5 meters. culverts can be divided into two functional types, (i) stream crossing and (ii) runoff management14. the stream crossing culvert is required where the roadway crosses a water channel to pass downstream. the runoff management culvert is one which is strategically placed to manage and route roadway runoff along, under, and away from the roadway. Many times, these culverts are used to transport upland runoff, accumulated in road ditches on the upland side of the roadway to the lower side for disposal. these culverts are commonly called cross-drains. in hilly areas, it is advisable to place the culverts at an average interval of 150 to 200 meters.


14 as per the general standard operating procedures of road officials, the term culvert is restricted upto 10 feet. larger spans are called bridges.

tYPical decKing cross-section WitH diMensions

X

N

Y

X + 36 cm

110 cm

Bottom slab

Box

Wall

Top slab

tYPical cross-section oF BoX culvert

13.4.1 Construction Types of Culvertculverts are found in many shapes, but the most common in cdld area are box culvert and pipe culvert.

Box culvert

these are the rcc built structures, where the load bearing top slab is cast in-situ. ordinarily, the bottom slab is of Pcc and walls are cement / stone built. For channelising the water in-flow and out-flow, wing walls are built on both sides of the culvert. this is the most common type of culvert in the cdld Programme area.

Pipe culvert

Pipe culverts are built with strong pipes, which are embedded in Pcc at bottom and top. such pipes could be of steel, rcc, thick plastic or corrugated steel sheets. it can take many sizes and shapes including round, elliptical, flat-bottomed, and pear-shaped. culverts may be made of concrete, galvanised steel, aluminum, or plastic.

rcc pipe culverts of 30.5 to 45.75 cm diameter are fairly common type of culvert in the cdld Programme area. depending upon base soil strata, the pipe has to be embedded in Pcc of 1:3:6 ratio, having a minimum depth of 25 to 30 cm. similarly, its top must also have a Pcc layer of 30 to 40 cm thick, where an additional layer of soil may also be a good cushion for its enhanced durability. in case of a choice amongst the two, pipe culvert will be a better option, as compared to box culverts.

13.4.2 General and Aquatic Environment Crossings Maintenance:general Maintenance

• culverts need periodic inspections and improvements, which should be done when stream flows and expectancy of rain are low.

• the waterways must be kept clean and repairs should be completed before the next rain event.

• roadside drains and catchment drains may need minor training efforts for directing the runoff towards the culverts.

• dry bushes and grasses in the catchment may be kept under observation, as it may choke the culvert.


PiPe culvert

• culvert runoff may also pose some social threats, if it is not disposed in a proper manner.

• the outflow water may create downstream soil erosion, which may travel back and damage the culvert. such places may need stone ripraps or other forms of energy dissipation.

aquatic environment crossings Maintenance

in ecological sensitive areas of aquatic life, runoff from roads may contain toxic substances like oil and fuel waste. therefore, the following may need additional deliberations:• do not alter water velocities. especially do not create excessive velocities.

• Keep in-pipe velocities within those navigable by fish.

• do not create vertical barriers.

• do not create adverse water depths. Keep in-pipe flow depths comparable to those of the associated stream channel.

• do not create flows outside the range of flows normally encountered throughout the year, or at least those flows which may negatively impact the aquatic life in the stream.

• culvert design should accommodate the fish size passing through it. in this way, it will also act as fish ladder for migrating aquatic species.

• Provide resting pools at culvert inlet and outlet for culverts installed across streams with high channel gradients.

• use bridges, bottomless arches, partially buried culverts, or other similar structures in areas where fish passage and species habitat is an important consideration.

• at stream crossings, select a culvert site where there will be no abrupt change in gradient and the upstream and downstream channel alignments are as straight as possible for 50 feet in either direction.

• consider maximum design flows which will not create adverse stream conditions.

13.5 causewayscauseway is a bed level or low level road built structure, which provides an easy, economical and simple vehicular crossing over a perennial or non-perennial water stream, wetland and marshy ground. there are two basic types of low level crossing:

• Fords and bed-level causeways

• vented and submersible causeways


the success or life of these structures depends on the hydraulic design. Fords and bed-level causeways, like conventional bridges, may be constructed so that they cause little interference with the design flood. vented causeways and submersible bridges inevitably disrupt river flow and so are liable to sustain damage themselves or indirectly cause scour damage to the river bed or banks, which in turn may affect the road approaches to the crossing. as fords and bed level causeways are overtopped by any water flowing in the river channel, there is no advantage in raising the road surface above the stream bed. vented causeways and submersible bridges usually present a dry carriageway for ordinary flows and are overtopped only during the design flood.

these crossings are suited to low traffic flows. they should be designed so that for most of the year, there will be 150 mm deep water flow over the carriageway. the best location for a low level crossing is similar to that of a conventional bridge, with the exception that a wide stretch of the river provides easier road approaches and shallower water. the stream should be straight with well-defined banks and a uniform gradient. the bed material should be strong enough to support traffic.

13.6 roadside drainsroadside drains are meant to carry away the rainstorm water run-off from the road surface as well as the side hills and ensure its safe disposal at relief points in such a manner that the road is not damaged. there are three types of drains, trapezoidal, triangular and rectangular. the former two are most common in rural areas, which are mostly earthen drains. the rectangular drains are mostly built with Pcc or stone masonry in urban areas. Many a times, rectangular drains are also covered. in case of long hill slopes, the roadside drains may get considerable run-off load during profuse rains, which may overload it. in such cases, it is advisable to dig out an interception or catchment drain. the run-off load from such drains is directly discharged into existing relief points like culverts or existing natural water channels.


isoMetric vieW oF a causeWaY

traPeZoidal roadside and intercePt drains

Roadsidedrain/ditchRoad

Dyke

Catch-water/intercepting drain

Original ground

traPeZoidal and triangular roadside drains

Trapezoidal

160 cm

30 cm1

2

40 - 50 cm

90 cmTriangular

30 cm1

1 2

1

13.7 road repairslack of road maintenance is a constant problem, where rural roads are amongst the most neglected ones. in a mountainous topography like Malakand division, with high rate of annual precipitations, the situation gets worse. out of these roads, shingle roads have perpetually been in a state of orphanage. due to such reasons, quite a few roads have become impassable, where risk factor for passenger and vehicular safety has become very high. the news media is replete with high rate of fatal accidents. Hence, this section is devoted to maintenance of shingle roads in mountainous terrain of the cdld Programme areas.

13.7.1 Types of Road Damagesshingle roads are damaged due to variety of contributing factors. the major ones are discussed below:

rain Water damages

roads sustain maximum damages due to annual precipitation, which depends upon a number of factors, such as:

• intensity of rainfall

• run-off factor

• Percolation factor

• road slope

• type of soil strata

all of this leads to a variety of different types of erosions, like:

• sheet erosion

• gully erosion

• raindrop erosion

• channel erosion

Wash Boarding

this most likely results from a lack of well graded road surface material, where fine particles get washed out due to high surface run-off.


diFFerent tYPes oF erosion

1. Raindrop erosion

2. Sheet erosion

3. Gully erosion

4. Channel erosion

tire-rutting on soft roads

due to water-saturated road base materials, tire-ruts leave a deep groove. such grooves act as mini-water channels on the road surface, which aggravate the situation by deepening the groove further.

Poorly graded road surface Material

shingled roads get premature damages due to poorly graded road surface materials. excessive clay will become slippery and washed out in rain. Hence, gravel will lose its cohesion due to wheel churning movements.

Potholes

Potholes always result from road sections on poorly drained soils or from insufficient crown or road tilting. such places will create depression where water accumulation will cause over saturation resulting into more damages.

culverts

culverts are an important means of cross-drainage. an inadequate, partially choked or blocked culvert will result in water accumulation, thereby damaging the road.

roadside drains

like culverts, roadside drains are also a neglected component of the transportation network. if suitable relief point are not provided, water accumulation will damage the road. earthen drains often result in deep cuts, which may damage the roadways.

13.7.2 Road Repair Worksroads require continuing maintenance efforts, round the year, more so during the rainy season. More maintenance inputs are required on shingle roads, where the right time is a crucial factor. any delay may magnify the damages and could aggravate the situation further. the following steps are proposed for maintaining shingle roads, which follow a sequential order:

• in order to avoid sheet erosion, road surface may be restored in its original shape having a crown, camber, and cross-fall on either sides.

• Wherever the surface material has displayed any disturbed gradation, it must be dug out and replaced with well graded shingle.

• the replaced surface material may also be compacted to attain matching homogeneity with the surface soil texture.


• Potholes and depressions must be filled without any time loss. otherwise, it will keep on expanding, thereby damaging other parts.

• Whenever tire ruts are observed, the same must also be repaired like potholes. otherwise, during next rain, the same may result in gully erosion.

• culverts may be inspected before the rainy seasons, and if any damages are found, it should be repaired.

• similarly, culverts may also be inspected during rain. if the adequate discharge is being carried away and once the rainy season is over, post-rain damages must be monitored and repaired.

• deliberations may also be made for appropriate disposal of discharge from the culverts.

• roadside drains also need a three stage inspection, before rain, during rain and after rain.

• depending upon the slope, soil strata and the inter-relief lengths, check dam gully plugs may also be inserted and built to avoid deep cuts.

13.8 recommendations for cdldowing to mountainous areas, where land-locked villages are located without any access to modern amenities, fairly high demand for roads is envisaged. Following recommendations are being made for the rural roads:

• all primary and secondary beneficiaries will be responsible for arranging the free lands for the roadways and its allied structures.

• For avoiding any subsequent litigations and social disputes, such lands should be transferred in a legal way in the name of respective cBos, vcs or ncs, as deemed appropriate.

• during the course of construction work, beneficiaries will be responsible for resolving any social disputes arising out of it.

• owing to financial limitations, all new roads will be shingle / gravel based. However, its design and specifications will have the provision of potential black-topping.

• reduced template width can be used in restricted areas like villages, graveyards or any other social and environmental sensitivities.


tYPical gullY Plug in side drain

B

B

Ditch channel

1/2 Depth

Typical section A-A

2Ditch channel

Typical section B-B

• upon completion of work, mass plantation of indigenous species will be carried out along the entire road corridor.

• 70% of the beneficiaries must give an undertaking and the proof that they will be responsible for its post-completion o&M, without getting dependant on any state agency.

• all out efforts will be made for using maximum local construction material, with the minimal use of cement.

• all retaining structures will be of dry stone masonry, which will also be given a strong blend of bioengineering, based on local herbs and shrubs.

• in case of cross drainage structures, only pipe culvert will be constructed, making concerted efforts to avoid box culverts.

• Wherever necessary, side drains will be stone lined.


14.1 Building repair Worksas per cdld Policy, education and health stand in the top priority sectors. it is envisaged that under the programme, works in both the sectors will be restricted to following aspects of the related infrastructure:

• Building of missing facilities like boundary walls, major or minor repair works, wash rooms, and electrical work.

• in case of dependent population growth, addition of classrooms and patient blocks.

• renovation and improvement of facilities like primary to middle school or dispensary to basic health unit.

However, in addition to these two priority sectors, the repair work may also pertain to other public sector buildings.

14.2 general Brick Masonry Workthree districts of Malakand, swat, and dir lower are heavily dependent upon burnt bricks, which are used as a staple construction material.

14.2.1 Workmanship Standards• Major cracks or greater damage to walls could be a structural defect and may require further

investigation, stabilisation and rectification including removal, clearing-out and replacing specific sections.

• Minor cracks will be repaired with wiretight mesh, grouting with cement slurry, and monitored for 12 months.

• Bricks should be laid in english Bond unless otherwise specified.

• Brick bats should not be used unless they are unavoidable.

• Horizontal and vertical joints should be properly filled with at least 1.0 cm (1/2”) thick mortar.

• the height of each course should be the same and it should be in plumb-line, vertically as well as horizontally.

• embedded brick frog key in each brick must be on the top and it should be filled with mortar.


14 Building WorKs

• Protection railing on the wall should be provided, which is applicable to washroom.

• Bricks should be thoroughly soaked for minimum of 6 to 8 hours before being laid.

• Fresh cement mortar should be used within half an hour after adding water.

• Plastering work of walls should commence after 24 to 48 hours. it should be stopped during or when expecting rain. Freshly plastered walls must be covered with tarpaulin sheet.

• Wet curing of brick walls should be done for at least 14 days.

14.2.2 Material Standards• First class burnt brick, measuring 9” x 4.5” x 3” should be used.

• Bricks should be of first class, regular shape, size and color, with metallic ringing sound.

• Bricks should be free from salinity marks and cracks.

• Bricks shall not absorb water more than one sixth of its weight.

• sand used should be clean, roughly granulated and free from clay and other organic impurities.

• Mortar should be mixed in the specified proportion of cement and sand. the material is weighed or measured and mixed on a watertight platform for avoiding loss of slurry.

14.2.3 Important to Note• the maximum height of a single brick boundary wall

(4.5” thick) laid in a day should not exceed beyond 3 feet.

• Protection railing on top of Pcc coping should be provided on the walls.

• depending upon the soil strata, boundary wall must have a foundation depth up to 35 cm (13.5”) and a cascading step of same width.

14.3 Wall Plasters14.3.1 Workmanship Standards• Wall plastering should only commence once the ceiling plaster has been completed in all

respects.

• the existing plaster must be scrapped or peeled-off up to exposing the bricks, without making any pit holes.

• Wash and keep the surface wet for 6 hours before doing the new plastering.


BricK Bats sHould not Be used. tHis Wall sHould Be deMolisHed and reconstructed

• average thickness should not be less than 20 mm (3/4”) (1:3 coat followed by 1:4 cement sand mix).

• Fair and plumb plaster should be used.

• Wet curing should be done for 14 days, followed by dry curing for 7 days.

• excess plaster should be scrapped off from the floors.

• traces of plaster must be cleaned off from doors and windows.

14.3.2 Material Standards• in case of saline soils15 and permanent dampness, use of sulfate resistant cement should be a

mandatory requirement.

• in all other cases, ordinary cement must be used.

• in case of mud plasters, clayey soils must be mixed with wheat hay straws and be allowed fermentation for 3 to 4 days before its use.

14.3.3 Important to Note• cement brand will be clearly mentioned in the bill of quantities, which may have considerable

variances due to site specific conditions.

• Manufacturing date should be less than 3 months.

• it must have a safe storage, which should be free of dampness.

• Preferably cement bags should be used on the same day they are opened.

• sand should not have soil lumps, silt and stone pebbles in an excessive amount.

• Painting and white washing should only be applied once walls are completely dry.


15 White salt crystals are visible in saline soils, where common crops do not grow. such conditions may be encountered in some areas like dargai (Malakand district).

Material Schedule of WorkPlaster 100 Square Feet

s/n Particulars unit item Quantity

1 1/2" thick in c /s mortar 1:3Bags cement 0.9cft sand 2.6

2 3/4" thick in c / s mortar 1:3Bags cement 1.35cft sand 5.2

14.4 Plaster surface repairsthe most common wall plaster damages are up to about 1.0 meter in height from the floors. Besides other contributing factors, it is mostly due to capillary action of seepage.

14.4.1 Workmanship Standards• Minor / thin hairline cracks could be repaired with cement and sand (1:2) grouting.

• Major cracks should be fixed by cutting out square or rectangular patches up to plaster depth, preferably 10 to 15 cm on either of the crack line. almost the same size patch of chicken mesh may be tightly fixed with nails and re-plastering it with rich cement / sand mortar of 1:3 ratio.

• the patch space should be thoroughly soaked before it is re-plastered.

• Mortar must be applied starting from the bottom and then moving upwards.

• often diagonal cracks are a good indicator that some differential settlement may have taken place, which requires further probing.

14.4.3 Material Standards• chicken mesh of size 4.75 mm.

• steel nails with wire of size 1½” at a distance of 6” per square feet.

• For damped surfaces, a mixture of Padlo powder along with ash soda be mixed with plaster mortar.

Material Schedule of WorkPlaster 100 Square Feet



4 1/2" thick in c /s mortar 1:4Bags cement 0.75cft sand 3.6


6 3/8" thick in c / s mortar 1:4Bags cement 0.6cft sand 3


Material Schedule of Work100 cft Cement / Concrete


1 in 1:1.5:3Bags cement 22.50cft sand 42.00cft coarse aggregate 84.00

2 in 1:2:4

Bags cement 17.33cft sand 43.34cft coarse aggregate 86.68

liters Water 476.00

3 in 1:2.5:5Bags cement 14.50cft sand 45.00cft coarse aggregate 90.00

4 in 1:3:6


liters Water 336.00

14.4.4 Important to Note• Plaster with meshing must be separately mentioned in the bill of quantities measured in square

feet.

• dampness should be prevented by studding its causes with adequate remedial measures.

• surface of wall should be painted with water repellant paint or weather shield.

• a mixture of 5% sunlight soap may be added in concrete mortar to clog the pores before applying a coat of water repellant paint to make it damp proof.


scraP Plaster FroM sucH Walls. a coat oF WHiteWasH MiXed WitH glue sHould Be aPPlied in case

tHe surFace is rougH

daMaged Part can Be rePaired BY MaKing a rectangular PatcH oF reQuired siZe and Filling it

WitH neW Material


Material Schedule of Work100 cft Cement / Concrete


5 in 1:4:8


liters Water 280.00

6 in 1:6:12


liters Water 168.00

14.5 dampened and leaking roof repair14.5.1 Workmanship Standards• Water proofing compounds should be applied as per manufacturers’ recommendations.

• Quite a few such waterproofing material is mixed and blended in cement slurry and applied on the roof surface area.

• there are quite effective synthetic membranes, which are also glued to the roof top with a paste of cement slurry.

• unused slurry should be discarded after 30 minutes of its mix, as the cement setting begins at this point.

• affected roof portions must be cleaned, removing its roughness, before any treatment.

• in case of any sags or depressions, it must be leveled with a rich cement / sand mortar.

14.5.2 Material Standardsdue to a wide variety of synthetic material, there are varying standards of its use, which must be adhered to in letter and spirit.

14.5.3 Important to Note• the affected roof portions having dampness or leakage need to be identified where roof

treatment is needed.

• it also needs proper investigations and suitable remedial measures for the root cause.

• in case of rcc roof, seepages are often caused due to rain, improper drainage or water stagnation.

• Proper drainage need to be ensured.

• in case of truss roof with corrugated galvanised iron sheets, it could be due to weathered out rubber washers or improper overlaps.

• the desired waterproofing material and its quantities should be included in the bill of quantities.

14.6 damaged Floor treatment14.6.1 Workmanship Standards• if more than 50% of the floor is damaged, it must be scrapped and removed in totality up to the

depth of hardcore, without damaging the latter.

• in case of Pcc flooring, it should be divided in regular panels for better aesthetics and avoiding potential expansion cracks, preferably not exceeding 1.0 meter.

• the panels should be fixed with dividers like marble, glass or synthetic strips.

• Before pouring cement concrete (1:2:4), it should be soaked in water for 12 to 24 hours.

• after the pouring cement concrete, it should be wet cured for 14 days.

• at times, in Pcc flooring, cracks may travel down of hardcore concrete. in this case, dowel bars of mild steel 10 to 15 cm in length may also be embedded in Pcc 1:2:4.

• in case of mosaic flooring, after determining the levels, tiles should be laid with cement mortar of 1:3 ratio.

• in case of single or isolated damaged panels, the same treatment is to be applied.

14.6.2 Material Standards• good quality controls need to be exercised for all the Pcc ingredients.

• Pcc floors are not recommended for any chemical or wax polishing.

14.6.3 Important to Note• For aesthetic reasons, tiles should be of same dimensions, designs, colours or patterns.

• Panels size may vary, such as, square or rectangular.

• the divider strips should be part of the bill of quantities.



14.7 doors and Windows Frames14.7.1 Workmanship Standards• the wood must be well seasoned and free from knots and pit-holes, preferably made of blue-

pine or cedar variety.

• depending upon the area and its climatic conditions, all wood items must be treated for termite protection.

• after installing new door and window leaves, it should be closed and fixed with nails for at least a month. it will avoid any deformity at a later stage due to its breathing characteristics.

• no painting should be done unless the breathing period is over.

• in extreme climatic conditions, steel doors, windows and frames are not recommendable.

• in case of steel door and window frames, an 18 Wg mild steel may be specified. Whereas, for paneled doors a 22 Wg mild steel sheet should be used.

• Mild steel flat strips 1/2" x 1/8" in windows grill of approved design including painting with primer and 3 coats is recommended.

• aluminum frame of specified dimension for doors and windows may also be used.

• all the glazed panel window leaves must not be fixed. it should have hinges for opening it during summers.

• damaged glass panels should be replaced with rubber strip sealants.

• Worn out wire mesh may also be replaced with a mesh of adequate specifications.

• door and window frames must be fixed during masonry construction work.

• Washroom doors from interior may be fixed with plain galvanist iron sheet lining up to 1.0 meter height from the ground.

14.7.2 Material Standards• Blue-pine or cedar wood should be preferred, with good quality seasoning.

• For steel door and window door leaves as well as frames, the recommended gauge of mild steel sheet should be used.

14.7.3 Important to Note• solid wood should be preferred for use in the frames,

which need to be mentioned in the bill of quantities.

• affected portion of door or window needs to be measured.

• replace damage wood panel with same quality of wood and same design.

14.8 Wash rooms14.8.1 Workmanship Standards• Washbasin should be of white vitreous china with rims on all sides. it should be in one piece with

a combined overflow.

• Water proof plaster should be applied in the toilet area, which will avoid water seepage to adjoining areas.

• For walls up to slab level, an under coat (13.0 mm) should be applied, followed by 20.0 mm thick cement plaster (1:3), which should be done above finished floor level up to a height of 600 mm.

• the thickness of cement plaster for floor shall be 25 mm.

• rectangular septic tank should be constructed using 2 to 3 chambered bricks or concrete, which have a better quality discharge.

• Because of poorer quality discharge capacity, onion shaped septic tanks should be discouraged.

• septic tank soakage pit must be constructed in the aerobic soil layers, having better absorption capacity.

• Water closet and wash room sewage must not be allowed to mix.

• the minimum acceptable capacity of a septic tank is found by using the formula, c = 2000 liters + 180 liters per person.

• in case of flush pipes, internal diameter for high-level cistern should be 32 + 1 mm and 38 + 1 mm for low level cisterns.


door FraMe Has given aWaY eitHer due to terMite or iMProPer FiXing WHicH needs rePlaceMent

a PoorlY Maintained WasHrooM

a Better Maintained WasHrooM

a Worn out slaB BecoMing a saFetY HaZard


• the external diameter for a high-density polyethylene pipe should be 40 mm.

• steel tube, seamless or welded, medium or light, should be completely protected from inside and outside by hot-dip galvanising, electroplating or vitreous enameling.

• cast iron (ci) pipes may be sealed with molten lead. ci pipes are difficult to maintain and may be replaced with polyvinyl chloride (Pvc) pipes of adequate specifications.

14.8.2 Material Standards• good quality bricks, sand and aggregate.

• Waterproofing chemicals of suitable specifications.

• ci and/or Pvc pipes.

• copper alloy tubes.

• High density polyethylene pipes.

14.8.3 Workmanship Standards• Proper drainage slope for easy and quick water flow-out.

• Marble or porcelain tile will be a washroom option for easy cleaning and avoiding dampness.

• the nominal bore of the gi / Pvc overflow pipe should not be less that 20.0 mm and should have non-corrodible mosquito proof brass cover with a 1.2 mm diameter perforation.

• the invert of the overflow pipe should be 19 mm minimum above the working water level.

• the plastic overflow pipes should be manufactured using high-density polyethylene or un-plasticised Pvc.

• inverted vent pipes should be well above the roof level.

14.8.4 Important to Note• Proper drainage is a mandatory requirement.

• all items must be reflected in the bill of quantities, along with required specifications.

• number of water coolers will depend upon students’ population.

• students need to be regularly educated for the proper use of the water closet.

14.9 Painting, distemper and Whitewashing14.9.1 Workmanship Standards• old surface should be properly cleaned, scrapped and dried before whitewashing and painting.

• after scrapping, surface should be rubbed with sand paper before whitewashing, otherwise it may not stick to the surface.

• For achieving smooth wall surface, synthetic protean or plaster of Paris is applied, which is also rubbed with sand paper.

• normally, three coats of whitewash or paint are sufficient to cover a new surface properly.

• one coat is enough if whitewash is expected annually.

• For painting with snowcap or weather shield paint, first coat is for the surface preparation followed by subsequent coats on old surface.

• For lime wash, required quantities of water soluble glue is added for good adhesiveness of the whitewash.

14.9.2 Material Standards• steel blade scrappers.

• sand paper for rubbing.

• distemper.

• Water or oil bound paint.

• Weather shield paint.

• Quick or powdered lime.

• Water soluble glue.

14.9.3 Important to Note• the craftsman has to make the brush movements in a rhythmic manner.

• one horizontal coat, followed by a vertical coat.

• depending upon the damages, the same sequence can be repeated until the desired levels of finishes have been achieved.



14.10 electric Work14.10.1 Workmanship Standards• electric wiring may become hazardous, which needs care and precaution.

• Wiring must not be left open.

• conduit pipe wiring must not be allowed.

• energy saver lights and specified fans should be installed in buildings and verandas.

• no level plugs should be allowed.

• all sockets and switches should be at a height of 1.0 meter.

• safety devices like circuit breakers must be installed and well distributed within the installation.

14.10.2 Material Standards• good quality wiring of approved specifications should be used.

• all wiring must be free from joints between switch and device.

• Fans should be of approved specifications.

14.10.3 Important to Note• Fans should be fixed at least 10 to 12 feet apart in veranda and rooms.

• lights should be properly distributed, ensuring balanced coverage.

• electric meter and main switch board should be at a sufficient height.

For the guidance of the cdld teams, general building related specifications for civil, electrical and sanitation works are attached as annexures. However, at the time of actual work, depending upon its nature and location, tailor-made specifications will be a mandatory requirement.

14.11 new Building Work

it is generally perceived that the bulk of building work under the cdld Programme will be pertaining to repair, renovation and rehabilitation of existing buildings (mostly school building and health facilities). However, the chances of constructing new buildings cannot be ruled out. new buildings, in general, will follow the same standards, specifications and code of work as explained above for repair, unless specified so. the pertinent considerations for new work should focus on some of the following aspects.

14.11.1 Site Selectionsdue to scarcity of arable lands in Malakand division, communities often tend to give degraded lands for public buildings. the following aspects need careful deliberations while selecting the site:

• it should be a safe site from floods, landslides, or any other damages, which are prone to the region of work.

• the site should have potential capacity for expansion, extension and up-gradation.

• it should meet the general health and hygiene requirements for direct and indirect beneficiaries.

• Being a mountainous and rocky terrain, it should not entail exorbitant cost of site development, like blasting, excavation, earth-filling and retaining structures.

• Preferably, the site should have road access for transporting the construction material.

14.11.2 Socioenvironmental Considerations• it should not pose a threat to the ecological, faunal, and floral environment of the area.

• Preferably, the site should be reasonably away from forests, wood-lots and wildlife habitats.

• it will be advisable to keep it in the center of its catchment area, having a balanced access to all.

• the site should have provisions for tree plantations, floral beds and green areas.

14.11.3 Site Layout• Buildings should be laid out in consideration with the climatic conditions, wind direction and dust

dispersal mechanism.

• the layout should be done in a conservative manner so that space should be available for plantation, green belts, and potentially for future expansion.

• in hot areas, buildings should be laid from east to West, which will give it the least exposure to the blistering hot summer sun.


Wrong sitting oF a Basic HealtH unit

incorrect site location oF a governMent PriMarY scHool


• in cold, areas buildings layout should be in north to south direction. in this way, the structure will get maximum exposure to the sun.

14.12 recommendations for cdldFollowing recommendations are being made for building repair and renovation work under the cdld Programme:

• all types of repair and renovation work must blend with the old building structures in aesthetic as well as engineering terms to give a pleasing and acceptable look.

• the new work must follow the same or better specifications than the previous ones.

• Wherever possible, best possible efforts should be made to use local construction material, as available within the close proximity of the work site.

• all non-local procured materials must be in strict conformity with the given specifications and standards.

• Poor quality water supply works often become a source of constant nuisance for the building structure as well as the users. Many examples can be quoted where a structure was declared dangerous due to water leakage damages. Hence, it must be pretested for any leakages and other defects.

• electrical fittings and fixtures can become life hazard, which needs extra careful checking, monitoring and inspection, for they must not be compromised.

• in case of new buildings, the site safety and its capacity for future expansion must always be accorded the highest priority.

Malakand division is gifted with abundance of water resources. it has perennial streams with sparkling good water quality and numerous fresh water springs. in valley beds, groundwater is also in abundance. disregarding temporal and spatial climate variability, this region has abundant rainfall and relatively low levels of water withdrawals.

despite having sufficient water resources, basic water supply services in Malakand division are inadequate. in rural parts, more than 50% of the population does not have access to safe water and nearly 80% are without access to adequate sanitation. despite inadequacies, urban areas are relatively better. due to these limitations, almost half of the population suffers from water related diseases. according to estimates, the poor access figures are likely to be compounded due to population growth in the coming years.

safe water security is relevant to rural transformation. it is defined as the capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of potable water for sustaining rural livelihoods, human development, and socioeconomic growth for ensuring protection against water borne pollution and diseases. it also has implications for preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and stability. due to high precipitation and topography, Malakand division is endowed with abundance of natural water springs, which are the primary source of water. these resources must be utilised to the fullest, where all water schemes should be gravity based. in the light of this preamble, it is envisaged that a sizeable demand for water supply, hygiene and sanitation will be made by the communities.

15.1 source development of springsthe spring catchment is the area which is supplied by percolation of rainwater to the spot where the water comes to the surface. the part closer around the spring is called the inner protection zone. spring is protected by the ground above the water-bearing layer, which depends on the covering stratum depth. However, after ascertaining its yield, it needs development and protection against contamination, and for that the following aspects must be considered:

• the right of ownership of the spring and the protection zone is clearly settled. the land having the spring, along with the protection zone, must be in the possession of the project owners. it may need some excavation, cutting of trees and construction work.

• the inner area, in a radius of 10 to 20 meters around the spring should only be having grass. all trees and bushes should be uprooted.


15 drinKing Water suPPlY


• this is because roots can damage the catchment systems by cracking the structures or by blocking the pipes. in any case, the inner area needs to be fenced with barbed wire to prevent any direct contamination.

• surface water must be diverted out of the inner catchment area by trenches and runoff barriers (stone walls).

• the extended protection zone (outside the radius of 20 meters) should be planted with mixed trees and/or bushes to prevent erosion in this area. the trees absorbing large amounts of water (such as eucalyptus) are not recommended for the protection zone. examples of more useful trees are pine species. However, local varieties absorbing least water should be given priority.

• in steep areas, runoff barriers (in the form of stone walls to create small terraces), may be constructed to prevent erosion above the catchment and to maintain conditions for good infiltration.

• it is advisable to fence the inner protection zone with barbed wire and reinforce it by planting a solid hedge of strong bushes around the fence. it protects the area from farming, animal grazing and preventing the establishment of pits, houses, stables or latrines.

• if one source does not meet the demand, a complimentary spring source may also be explored and tapped in the same manner.

15.2 Working Parameters and steps• total dependent population for water supply is to be assessed and calculated, preferably as per

the census records.

• as a standard practice, water supply scheme is to be designed for a period of 25 years.

• Hence, population projections are to be calculated till the end of the 25th year. it is based on the formula, Pf = Pp (1+r)n 16.

• For calculation purposes, water demand is to be worked out at a rate of 20 gallons per capita per day.

• Potential source is to be identified through help and assistance of the local communities.

• Preferably, the source should be studied over an extended period of time for ascertaining its yield, which may display seasonal variances. or, its history may be ascertained through credible local elders.

• By measuring its yield, the source credibility can be ascertained vis-à-vis the water demands.

16 Where Pf - future population, Pp - present population, r - annual population growth rate, n - number of years.


• the water quality must be tested as per World Health organisation (WHo) standards for ascertaining its credentials of being potable for human beings.

• if the source does not meet bottomline standards, it must be rejected and a suitable alternative must be identified.

• By taking full advantage of mountainous topography, all water supply schemes must be gravity based, free from any pumping, with a surface reservoir.

• Preparation of a hydraulic statement is a mandatory requirement, and it should be part of all such schemes along with the sketch. it must contain following information:

• Pipe route map, from source to the surface reservoir and distribution lines till the terminal end, indicating various names of the settlements, hamlets, and streets.

• a list of various sizes of the pipes, along with valves, sockets, bends, and taps.

• Water distribution times, if any.

• complete hydraulic designs and selection of main, service and distribution pipes with their routes.

• design of spring catchment, spring chamber, and water storage tank.

15.3 Working standards and specifications• approved quality gi or HdP pipes should be used, as specified by Public Health engineering

deparment, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

• all pipes must be buried, as specified.

• no open pipes should be allowed to run along the surface.

• Water pipes should be well segregated from sewage lines and open sewage drains.

• a companion sewage system will be a mandatory requirement for all such schemes under cdld.

• Beneficiary communities must be given practical education about water borne diseases and the remedial measures.

• at the same, time they will also be given a schedule for cleaning and disinfection of the surface water reservoir, along with the precautionary measures of the water source.

• in selecting the type of material and pipe size to be, one should consider carrying capacity, durability, maintenance cost, and first cost. the character of the water and its potential effect upon pipe of different material is an important consideration as well.


operation and maintenance

in the absence of mechanical equipment necessary for water development, spring catchments need negligible operational cost than other catchment systems. the following points have to be checked during regular visits to the catchment area:

• Protection area fence.

• diversion drainage above the catchment.

• Wet spots indicating any leakage from the catchment.

• trespass, such as, prohibited farming in the intake area.

• leakage at the chamber.

• the manhole cover.

• Blockage at the supply line from where the water comes through the reserve (overflow) pipe.

• the ventilation.

• Water quality and quantity to be tested without equipment.

• sedimentation in the chamber.

• if possible, measure the spring yield and compare it with data of previous years.

15.4 Hygiene, sanitation and Water Borne diseasesin general, the water supply schemes are often perceived and viewed by the vast majority in total isolation, without giving due importance to its associated aspects of hygiene, sanitation and water borne diseases. ample examples can be quoted where such negligent attitude has resulted in significant damage. under the cdld Programme, every water supply will be viewed along with strict integration of hygiene, sanitation and water borne diseases. the potential beneficiaries will also be educated and coached about these aspects.


15.4.1 Hygienethe basic knowledge about personal and communal hygiene is of paramount importance. if this basic aspect is ignored, it leads to a number of other risks, such as water borne diseases. the following points should serve as food-for-thought to educate communities about hygiene:

• education to children through schools by inviting local doctors and health workers.

• education to mothers through holding ladies gathering in girls’ schools and local hospitals.

• lectures through village mosques during Friday congregations and other occasions.

• informal discussions in communal gatherings, like Jirga.

15.4.2 Sanitationunder the cdld Programme, all water supply schemes must have the following in-built features:

• all pipes must be buried up to the required depth, depending upon the pipe diameters as per specifications of Public Health engineering department, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

• clear and rigid segregation should be maintained under all circumstances between water pipes and open sewerage channels.

• Beneficiaries should be educated about household sanitation systems, its segregation and proper disposal.

• community water taps must have a proper system for waste water disposal in a safe manner.

• village sewerage should be disposed in a suitable manner, without any interference with the natural perennial and non-perennial water channels, and without causing any damage to the environment.

15.4.3 Water Borne Diseases:according to WHo, due to unsafe drinking water, over three million children under five years of age face death every year. only the diarrheal disease accounts for an estimated 4.1% of the total daily global burden of disease and is responsible for the deaths of 1.8 million adults every year. Water borne diseases are pathogenic micro-organisms, which are directly transmitted when contaminated drinking water is consumed. When used in the preparation of food, the water can be the source of food borne disease through consumption of the same micro-organisms. it was estimated that 88% of that burden is attributable to unsafe water supply, sanitation and hygiene, and is mostly concentrated on children in developing countries. Water borne disease can be caused by (a) protozoa, (b) viruses, (c) bacteria, and (d) intestinal parasites. the main features of these infections are briefly described as under:


A. Protozoal Infections

Disease and Transmission Microbial Agent Sources of Agent in Water

Supply General Symptoms

amoebiasis(hand-to-mouth)

Protozoan (cyst-like appearance)

sewage, non-treated drinking water, flies in water supply

abdominal discomfort, fatigue, weight loss, diarrhea, bloating, and fever

cryptosporidiosis (oral)

Protozoan (cryptosporidium parvum)

collects on water filters and membranes that cannot be disinfected, animal manure, seasonal runoff of water

Flu-like symptoms, watery diarrhea, loss of appetite, substantial loss of weight, bloating, increased gas, and nausea

cyclosporiasisProtozoan parasite (cyclospora cayetanensis)

sewage, non-treated drinking water

cramps, nausea, vomiting, muscle aches, fever, and fatigue

giardiasis(fecal-oral, hand-to-mouth)

Protozoan (giardia lamblia, most common intestinal parasite)

untreated water, poor disinfection, pipe breaks or leaks, groundwater contamination, campgrounds where humans and wildlife use same source of water

diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, bloating, and flatulence

B. Parasitic Infections

Disease and Transmission Microbial Agent Sources of Agent in

Water Supply General Symptoms

schistosomiasisMembers of the genus schistosoma

Fresh water contaminated with certain types of snails that carry schistosomes

Blood in urine, rash or itchy skin, fever, chills, cough, and muscle aches

dracunculiasis dracunculus medinensis

stagnant water containing larvae, generally in parasitised copepoda

allergic reaction, urticaria rash, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and asthmatic attack

taeniasis tapeworms of the genus taenia

drinking water contaminated with eggs

intestinal disturbances, neurologic manifestations, and loss of weight

Fasciolopsiasis Fasciolopsis buskidrinking water contaminated with encysted metacercaria

digestive disturbances, diarrhea, liver enlargement, cholangitis, cholecystitis, and obstructive jaundice

Hymenolepiasis Hymenolepis nana


abdominal pain, severe weight loss, and nervous manifestation

echinococcosis echinococcus granulosus

drinking water contaminated with feces containing eggs

liver enlargement, hydatid cysts press on bile duct, and blood vessels - if cysts rupture they can cause anaphylactic shock

ascariasis ascaris lumbricoides

drinking water contaminated with feces (usually canid) containing eggs

severe cases involve löffler's syndrome in lungs, nausea, vomiting, malnutrition, and underdevelopment.

enterobiasis enterobius vermicularis


Peri-anal itch, nervous irritability, hyperactivity, and insomnia


C. Bacterial Infections

Disease and Transmission Microbial Agent Sources of Agent in Water

Supply General Symptoms

Botulism clostridium botulinum

Bacteria can enter an open wound from contaminated water sources. can enter the gastrointestinal tract through consumption of contaminated drinking water or (more commonly) food

dry mouth, blurred and/or double vision, difficulty swallowing, muscle weakness, difficulty breathing, slurred speech, vomiting, and sometimes diarrhea. death is usually caused by respiratory failure

choleraspread by the bacterium vibrio cholerae

drinking water contaminated with the bacterium

in severe forms, it is known to be one of the most rapidly fatal illnesses known. symptoms include watery diarrhea, nausea, cramps, nosebleed, rapid pulse, vomiting, and hypovolemic shock at which point death can occur in 12 to 18 hours

dysentery

caused by a number of species in the genera shigella and salmonella with the most common being shigella dysenteriae

Water contaminated with the bacterium

Frequent passage of feces with blood and/or mucus and in some cases vomiting of blood

leptospirosiscaused by bacterium of genus leptospira

Water contaminated by the animal urine carrying the bacteria

Begins with flu-like symptoms then resolves. the second phase then occurs involving meningitis, liver damage (causes jaundice), and renal failure

typhoid salmonella typhiingestion of water contaminated with feces of an infected person

characterised by sustained fever up to 40 °c, profuse sweating, and also diarrhea may occur. symptoms progress to delirium, and the spleen and liver enlarge if untreated

D. Viral Infections



Hepatitis a Hepatitis a virus (Hav) can manifest itself in water

symptoms are only acute and include fatigue, fever, abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, weight loss, itching, jaundice, and depression


15.5 operation and Maintenancethe long-term tangible benefits and sustainability of any scheme in general and water supply scheme in particular cannot be ensured without an adequate o&M system. the provision of clean water and the accrual of health benefits is a result of a cycle of o&M, administration, and capacity. Beneficiaries communicate their water problems directly to the concerned body who will fix it and continue the flow of clean water. For this purpose, following steps are being suggested, with a presumption that water beneficiaries have organised themselves in a Water supply and sanitation organisation (Wsso):

• o&M is an on-going activity which cannot be performed without a resource base. Hence, there must be a tariff system, which is left to the behest of the beneficiaries. the fee collection must be on regular basis, along with appropriate record keeping, which is essential to maintain a steady flow of funds for long-term work that may be required. also, the reveneu generation will enable payment of staff salaries as well.

• it should be mandatory to open a separate bank account for the monthly water tariff.

• Wssos should formulate their own guidelines and procedures for conducting their o&M functions, including penalty for defaulters.

• tracking of work performed on the system will aid in determining where reserves can be spent and where additional attention needs to be paid. By adding in a preventative measures component, problems in the network can be preempted and a considerable savings can be realised.



Poliomyelitis (Polio) Poliovirusenters water through the feces of infected individuals

90 to 95% of patients show no symptoms, 4% to 8% have minor symptoms with delirium, headache, fever, and occasional seizures. others have serious symptoms resulting in paralysis or death

adenovirus infection adenovirus Manifests itself in improperly treated water

symptoms include common cold symptoms, pneumonia, croup, and bronchitis

gastroenteritis

astrovirus, calicivirus, enteric adenovirus, and Parvovirus

Manifests itself in improperly treated water

symptoms include diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, fever, malaise, and abdominal pain


• Women play an active role in meeting the household water needs. their rapport with the community allows Wsso to convey messages of health, hygiene, and sanitation with ease. Hence, their role in o&M must not be undermined.

• experiences from other parts have displayed that women users prefer to have the o&M crew from their own village, like plumbers, pipe-fitters, and valve-man. their preferences are due to ease and convenience of communication with these craftsmen.

• Wssos should have formal village management structures for administering their communities’ schemes, including tariff collection and payment of staff salaries. along with routine o&M duties, Wssos should also focus on the following:

• annual cleaning and disinfection of storage and distribution tank.

• Periodic inspection of hygiene and sanitation.

• annual testing of water from an authorised laboratory.

• Periodic awareness about water contamination and water borne diseases.

15.6 Water standards World Health organisationimproving the quality of water for purposes of drinking, domestic consumption, personal hygiene, and certain medical situations has always been among the top priority goals of the government of Pakistan. the guidelines and criteria for Quality drinking Water published by WHo have made it possible to review, evaluate, and further improve the quality of water in Pakistan against these standards. in the light of this, Health services academy working under the Ministry of Health, in collaboration with WHo and Pakistan standards Quality control authority, organised consultative workshops to finalise the water standards. a team of experts compiled the report based on the recommendations generated during these workshops. the report includes finalised standards for quality drinking water in Pakistan stated in accordance with WHo criteria and guidelines. Hence, adherence to these standards is a mandatory requirement, which are attached as annex.

15.7 recommendations for cdldcdld area of operations is endowed with abundance of natural water springs, being a safe and primary source of water. it must be utilised to the fullest, where all water schemes should be gravity based. Following recommendations are being advised for the rural water supply schemes under cdld:

• Maximum efforts must be made to select a water supply scheme based on natural springs, which are mostly impurities free source.

• By taking full advantage of the mountainous topography, all schemes must be gravity based.

• Pumping schemes may be recommended at plain areas due to non-availability of springs, but cBo will provide undertaking to be responsible for o&M and energy expenses of the installed system.

• Proper design and hydraulic formulas should be followed while designing pipes and other hydraulic components of the scheme.

• efforts must be made to use local construction material while developing spring catchment, constructing chamber and water storage tank.

• use of HdPe pipes must be preferred over gi pipes, due to its flexibility, durability and being against aggressiveness. HdPe is more cost effective and can run along the ground curvature.

• surface water must be diverted out of the inner catchment area of the spring by trenches and runoff barriers.

• all pipes must be buried underground, as per the specifications, which is a defense against falling stone damages, winter frosts and animal obstructions.

• every water supply scheme must also have a companion sanitation system, along with proper, safe and environment friendly disposal system.

• For the widely scattered communities in a village without perennial water source, the best option could be installation of hand pumps.

• Water supply committee must be educated about annual cleaning and disinfection of storage and distribution tank, along with maintaining a logbook.

• Beneficiaries must also be educated at different social forums about water borne diseases and its precautionary measures.

• Water must be tested as per the WHo standards once in a year from an approved laboratory and its record must be maintained by the cBos.

• the over-flow pipes from storage tanks and reservoirs must also dispose the water in an environmental friendly manner, without any accumulation and stagnation.


16.1 legislative Backgroundin 1974, the Ministry of Housing and Works established an environment and urban affairs division. it could not deliver the desired results due to various reasons. through an ordinance in 1983, the Pakistan environmental Protection council was created at the federal level, with powers to control pollution and preserve the living environment. the President of Pakistan headed the council, where ministers and environmental experts were its members. under this ordinance, provincial environmental Protection agencies (ePas) were organised.

in 1997, through a gazette notification the federal government had promulgated the current environmental act. this act has clarified many environment related aspects, where responsibilities have also been apportioned for conducting environmental assessment of the developmental projects. through this act, some responsibilities had also been assigned to provincial ePas, with the federal ePa retaining supervisory and regulatory responsibilities. after 18th amendment, all powers have been delegated to provincial ePas.

16.2 Key Features of environmental Protection agency actPakistan environmental Protection act of 1997 had addressed the past shortfalls in a befitting manner. it provides remedies for many deficiencies in environmental legislation. Principal sections of the act are:

• section 12 (1) of the act states: no proponent of a project shall commence construction or operation unless he has filed with the federal or provincial ePas, as the case may be, or, where the project is likely to cause an adverse environmental effect, an environmental impact assessment (eia) or initial environmental examination (iee), and has obtained from the ePas approval in respect thereof.

• For the first time, it directs the production of iee and eia reports, depending upon the extent, gravity and severity of negative environmental impacts.

• in case, if iees or eias have not been produced, the act issues significant penalties for failure to do so.

• it creates rules and regulations for determining categories of iees and eias.

• the act allows ePas to issue guidelines for preparing iees and eias.

• it makes provisions for lodging an appeal against orders from federal or provincial agencies to the environmental tribunals.


16 environMental considerations


• the act delegates federal environmental powers and functions to any level of the government.

• it gives power to ePa for making regulations, subject to notification in the official gazette and approval of the federal government.

16.3 environmental threats versus environmental assessmentenvironmental threats can be of a varying degree, depending upon the environmental settings of the project corridor, nature of interventions, and the type of project. in general, environmental threats are bracketed into three categories, each requiring a specific nature of commensurate environmental assessment. each category of threat, along the type of environmental assessment, are described as under:

16.3.1 Category “A” Threatthis is the most severe threat, where environmental impacts are either irreversible or entail sizeable efforts and resources for appropriate mitigation. environmental threats of such nature generally occur in case of mega-projects or located in eco-sensitive zones, nature reserves, and wildlife sanctuaries protected sites, such as heritage areas. such impacts may go far beyond the project corridor. Projects of “a” level threats need a full-scale eia. it is a very detailed study and often warrants a baseline environmental survey.

16.3.2 Category “B” Threatthis is a medium level threat, where negative environmental impacts could be reversed with some efforts and resources for suitable mitigation. environmental threats of such nature generally occur in case of big projects located in a zone with average environmental sensitivities, where there are no nature reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, protected sites, such as heritage areas. such types of projects require an iee, which does not require details of an eia.

16.3.3 Category “C” Threatthis is a minor level threat of insignificant nature, where negative environmental impacts can easily be mitigated. environmental threats of such nature generally occur in case of small scale community infrastructural schemes. such types of projects require a simple environmental review. it is expected that bulk of community infrastructural schemes under cdld would generally fall under category “c” threat.

16.4 Environmental Mitigation, Management and Monitoring Plansirrespective of the nature of threats, all the above referred levels of environmental studies will require the following three plans:


16.4.1 Environmental Mitigation Plansa project may have potential threats at various stages, from planning and designing, right up to its final completion and beyond. the mitigation plan identifies all such anticipated threats occurring at different stages and proposes suitable mitigation measures at each stage.

16.4.2 Environmental Management Planunder the management plan, proportionate with different project stages, roles and responsibilities related with the mitigation arrangements are assigned. such aspects do reflect the timelines proportionate with the project stage. Many a times, the proposed mitigation measures are also priced, which are advisable to be reflected in the project estimates.

16.4.3 Environmental Monitoring Planinfrastructure projects keep on changing hands, from planning, designing, construction, right till operation and maintenance. after completion, such projects are handed over to the proponents or the users. environmental impacts do not have rigid boundaries and are likely to occur far beyond.

Hence, monitoring plans are developed for the anticipated lifespan of the project. under this plan, long-term roles and responsibilities are assigned, along with the anticipated budget lines.


Annex-1: Eligibility Criteria and Priority Sectors Under CDLD Policy

A. Criteria for detailed proposal• Must have undergone or willing to undergo social mobilisation training.

• Must have cBo’s bank account.

• Must have rules of procedures to conduct its business.

• Must be membership based with 70% members belonging to the area of village or neighbourhood council.

• Must be registered with government agency or any other organisation mandated to do so.

• Must be willing to maintain the project after its completion.

• Must maintain books of accounts including details of incomes, expenses, assets, and liabilities.

• Must be willing to contribute 10% or above of the total project cost (in cash or kind).

• Parent teachers association, Water user associations and Farmers cooperatives can apply as part of cBos.

B. Eligible sectors for funding• education facilities (missing / additional) for primary and secondary education, vocational

education, and special education.

• Health facilities (missing / additional) for mother and child health care centers, basic health units, rural health centers, hospitals other than district headquarters, teaching and tertiary hospitals.

• social welfare and community development.

• sports and culture.

• irrigation.

• agriculture, livestock, and fisheries.

• on-farm water management.

• soil conservation and soil fertility.

• social and farm forestry.

• rural development and rural works.

• communication and works, district roads, and buildings.

• Public health engineering.


Annex-2: Specifications for Civil Work and Wash Works

s/n Work description specifications Material specifications

1 site clearance site clearance shall mean general cleanliness and dressing up of the site for proposed construction. it shall include clearance of the whole area from obstruction, cutting of trees and bushes, grubbing up of their roots and filling hollows with earth. all useless excavated materials shall be disposed of and shall be used to fill places in need of fillings.

2 excavation and back filling

excavation for foundations, trenches and drains in all kinds of soil shall be done according to the sizes given in drawings. excavated material should be carefully disposed of or shall be used as back fill in foundation, plinth or under floor including breaking clods, watering, consolidation. this should be done by ramming in layers not exceeding 9” in depth to full compaction and dressing. Back filling should be done in pace with masonry work in such a manner that no back filling is done when the masonry is green.

3 earth filling (from borrow pits)

the earth for filling must be free from all vegetables, alkali and other deleterious matter. Filling shall be in 6” layers and each layer should be well watered and rammed.

earth that contains greater than 0.5% salt and greater than 0.15% sulfates cannot be used for filling.

4 Pcc (1:4:8) in foundation

Measurement and mixing of ingredients i.e. cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water, shall be carefully done. concrete shall be prepared on a dry, water tight platform. cement, sand, and coarse aggregates shall be thoroughly mixed in dry state before water addition. Prepared concrete shall be used within 30 minutes after adding water in it.

screened and graded coarse aggregate of size 1¼” and down gauge shall be used.

concrete shall have minimum compressive cylinder strength of 1,000 psi.

5 Pcc (1:3:6) Measurement of ingredients is to be done by volume with care and diligence. the mixing shall be done by ensuring on a dry and watertight platform, where from the cement slurry must not flow out.

aggregate size shall not exceed ¾”. concrete should have a maximum slump of 3” and minimum compressive cylinder strength of 1200 psi.



6 Pcc (1:2:4) all ingredients should be thoroughly mixed in required proportion in dry state before adding water. Mass concrete should only be mixed by using mixer machine, where mixing time should not be less than two minutes. For hand mixing, water / cement ratio shall be 0.55 to 0.6, provided aggregates are immersed in water before use. For machine mix, water / cement ratio shall not exceed 0.5. slump should not exceed 3”. concrete should be compacted properly. the minimum recommended wet curing period is 14 days. under normal circumstances, when temperature is above 20° c, formwork (shuttering) can be removed after:

• Walls, columns and vertical sides of beams - 48 hours.

• side of slab (shores of props left under) - 6 days.

• Beams soffits (shores or props left under) - 12 days.

screened and graded aggregates of ¾” and down gauge should be used

concrete should have minimum compressive cylinder strength of 2,250 psi after 28 days.

7 reinforcement reinforcement shall be free from all loose flaky rust and mill scale or coating that may reduce or destroy the bond. reduced section steel reinforcement shall not be used. Bars shall be stacked and stored in racks or platforms above the surface of ground for protection againts scaling, rusting, oiling, damage and structural deformity defects prior to placement in works. Fabrication should be done according to drawings and designs. the cutting tolerance of all bars shall be plus/minus 1 inch. reinforcement shall not be bent or straightened in a manner that will injure the material. no bars shall be bent twice in the same place, nor shall be straightened after bending. reinforcement is to be accurately placed as shown in drawings and secured against displacement by using high-tension steel wires (binding wires). concrete clear cover for reinforcing steel shall be as follows;

• Foundations and concrete component permanently exposed to earth = 3”.

• slabs = ¾”.

• Beams and columns = 1 ½”.

• lap length shall be equal to 48 x dia of bar (minimum).

all deformed reinforcing bars shall have minimum yield strength of 40 ksi.



8 Brick masonry all burnt bricks to be thoroughly soaked in water before being laid in cement mortar, preferably for 4 to 6 hours. Burnt bricks build in mud mortar will only be dipped in water before use. unless otherwise specified, the bond shall be english and no half bricks or brick bats shall be used than those necessary to complete the bond and there should be no verticality of joints. the joints must be broken. each course of brick shall be laid quite level and perfect in bond with frog on top, that every brick is well bedded and flushed solid in mortar. all horizontal and vertical joints shall be filled up completely. Brick masonry walls shall not be constructed more than 4 feet high in a day. Brick masonry in cement sand mortar should be constantly kept wet for a period of 7 days.

the joints of brick work shall not exceed 3/8” in thickness.

Bricks (1st class bricks (astM c67, international standard of brick commonly used).

9 stone masonry course rubble masonry shall be laid in horizontal courses not less than 6” in height. all stones shall be set full in specified mortar in beds and joints. through stones shall be provided after every 4 feet in horizontal and 2 feet in vertical courses. all side joints shall be vertical and beds horizontal and no joints shall be more than 3/8” in thickness. all stones shall be soaked in water for two hours before being laid in cement mortar and should be cured for 7 days minimum after laying.

10 Block masonry only well dried blocks should be used in construction. Mortar used shall not be stronger than the concrete mix for the manufacture of blocks. succeeding courses of blocks are laid in such a manner so as to break the verticality of joints. thickness of joints should be 3/8” to ½”. a height of more than 3 feet of block masonry should not be laid in one day. When there is a big difference between heights of two adjacent walls e.g. when a main wall connected to a compound wall, a joint should separate the two walls.

Hollow blocks used should have a net area compressive strength of 800 psi.

11 sub-grade preparation

Preparation of sub-grade over top of embankment already compacted to at least 95% modified aasHto, maximum dry density with required dressing including cutting to required grade, camber (1:48), side slopes (1:2 or above), and disposal of surplus earth to suitable sites.

12 Brick pavement (flexible)

Burnt bricks shall be laid on edge (4.5” thick) over compacted sand layer of 2 to 3” thickness. Brick shall be laid using herring bone pattern with joint thickness not more than ½”. sand should be filled in joints and edge restraints. Berms or compacted earth fill shall be provided to restrict lateral displacement of brick during vehicular movements. Water shall be sprinkled after completing the brick pavement to remove surplus sand from the top and set the sand in joints.



13 cement sand plaster

the cement / sand plaster shall be of cement and sand in proportions specified in the item of work. Mixing of mortar shall be carried out on properly cleaned watertight platform. cement and sand shall be mixed dry to a uniform color. the water will then be added to get the desired consistency. the whole mix will then be shoveled a number of times to ensure proper mixing of the material. Masonry wall on which plaster is to be applied directly shall be clean and dry, but before applying, the rendering coat surface must be damped evenly to control water suction. the rendering coat shall be trowelled on hard and tight being forced into, surface depressions to obtain a permanent bond. the rendering coat will be allowed to settle for two days before the second coat is applied. Before applying the second coat the surface of rendering coat shall be dampened evenly. the second coat, will then be applied. it shall be brought to true even surface by treating it with a wooden float. surface should be kept wet for at least 7 days.

14 cement sand pointing

ingredients shall be mixed in required proportion. Masonry shall be raked and struck to ¾” depth. Joints shall be thoroughly cleaned and washed to remove all the dust with the help of an iron brush. Mortar shall be filled inside the joints and pressed with a pointing trowel. the joints shall be finished neatly and all the surplus mortar shall be removed. surface shall be kept wet for 7 days by sprinkling the water.

15 Mud mortar Mud mortar shall be prepared from good earth clay and water. clay shall be free from lumps, vegetation and organic impurities. chopped straw of 3 to 4” length shall be added to earth. Mud shall be kept soaked for 24 to 36 hours and kneaded thoroughly for desired results, ensuring its fermentation. the consistency of mud mortar for wall plastering may be thinner while for roof plastering may be of stiffer consistency.

For plastering works quantity of chopped straw shall not be less than ¾ kg for 01 cubic feet of mud mortar.

16 Water proof mud plaster

the mixture shall be thoroughly shoveled to get a homogenous mass. cow dung may be added to further enhance its water resisting properties.

Mix 1.5 liters of hot melted bitumen (80/100) with 300 ml kerosene oil. Pour this mix on 30 liters of mud mortar (1cft).

17 cement sand mortar

Measurement and mixing of ingredients (cement, sand, and water) shall be carefully done. cement and sand shall be thoroughly mixed in dry state before adding water to it. Water shall be sprinkled slowly on dry mix to make the mortar workable. only such quantity of mortar shall be prepared as can be used before initial setting time. a mortar that is not used within 45 minutes of addition of water to it shall be discarded. Mortar shall be of workable consistency having a slump of 2.75”.


Annex-3: General Specifications

• the bricks should be water soaked for 6 to 8 hours, and should be laid in cement mortar (1:4).

• the finished brickwork should be kept wet for at least 2 weeks (cement mortar) and for 2 to 3 weeks (lime mortar) to be cured twice a day under normal temperature.

• Mortar should be used within half an hour of its preparation. Hence, it is advisable to prepare it in small batches.

• Wall construction should commence from corners, progressing later towards the center.

• Brick pavement of hearing bone at 45 degree is provided with proper level.

• Brick work shall not be raised more than 10 courses a day.

• 2 to 3’’ mud plaster shoul be laid over polythene sheet with proper sloping for seepage control in heavy rain and snow fall areas, where sloped roofs are suitable.

• to avoid dampness between cement mortars or cement concrete layers, two layers of hot bitumen with one layer of cement slurry should be laid.

• For roof drainage, proper slope is desirable along with suitable and staggered water outlets.

• the brick wall plastering is recommended with a mix 1:3 or 1:4, as specified.

• Most common cement / concrete is recommended in proportions of 1:2:4, unless specified.

• First class burnt bricks should be as per astM c67.

• the minimum cement content is based on 20 mm aggregate. For 40 mm aggregate, it should be reduced to 30 kg/cum3 and for 10 mm aggregate, it should be increased to 40 kg/cum3.

• the temperature of the freshly placed concrete shall not be permitted to exceed 30° c.

• Pre-cast cemented mesh (jalli) should be reinforced with steel wire and fixed in cement sand mix 1:3.

• in hot weather areas, consideration shall be given to continuous water curing and protection against high temperature with dry hot winds for a period of at least 7 days immediately after the concrete has set.

• in such areas, it will be best to cover the newly concreted surface with a membrane of polythene sheet.


Annex-4: Material Specifications

1. civil work

MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS

s.no. Material description

1 cement ordinary Portland cement (oPc) and/or sulfate resistant (sr) brand cement, as specified in the bill of quantities.

2 sand rough / coarse granulated sand from a nearby quarry, or as specified.

3 crush crush stone 1/2” thick, free of dust, or as specified.

4 Bricks a class bricks size 9”x 4-1/2”x3”, meeting all the criteria.

5 Bitumen refinery bitumen of appropriate grade, as specified.6 colour Putty, sealer oil, distemper, paint of ici or Berger, or as specified.

7 Wood work cedar or blue-pine wood must be used for new wooden items and in case of repair work, the same wood may be replaced.

8 Wire gauze colour metal wire 22 Wg with 10 mesh size (10 wires / inch).9 iron girder solid iron, weight 8 kg per rft.

10 t-iron solid iron, weight 1 kg per rft.

11 gi door / window frame 18 Wg.

2. electric work

FITTING OF ALL ITEMS AND MAKING THEM FUNCTIONAL


1 energy saver 24 watts Phillips with fixing / fittings.2 ceiling fans With dimmer PaK/gFc company along with warranty card.3 switch Hero.

4 socket Hero.

5 Holder Hero.6 dimmer Pak/gFc.

7 Main board 40 amp main switch (Hero), 6 circuit breakers (Mitsubishi) with steel board and glass cover.

8 Wire orient / Million (Fayaz) 3/29, 7/29, 7/44.9 Board Wooden with laccolite plastic sheet.10 duct patti adamJee/ orient.11 electric motor with pump 1 HP, 3 star motor with diamond pump.12 ceiling rose Hero.13 Power stabiliser 3000 watt (Waves).14 Power plug Hero.


3. sanitation work

FITTING OF ALL ITEMS AND MAKING THEM FUNCTIONAL


1 Pvc pipes Pak saudi ½”, ¾”, 4”, 6”.2 Wc 3 star / Brite (19” clear opening).3 Wash basin 3 star / Brite (18” x 15”).

4 Flush tank 3 star / Brite.

5 Flush valve Master.6 Pea trap solid china clay.7 rcc pipe rcc 6”.8 Pvc elbows Master.9 Water taps Master.10 Water tank fiber Master / asia.11 Hand pump shallow hand pump.12 gi pipe iil.


Annex-5: National Standards For Drinking Water Quality

Properties /Parameters Standard Values for Pakistan WHO Standards Remarks

Bacterialall water intended for drinking (e. coli or thermo tolerant coliform bacteria)

Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample


Most asian countries follow WHo standards

treated water entering the distribution system (e. coli or thermo tolerant coliform and total coliform bacteria)




treated water in the distribution system (e. coli or thermo tolerant coliform and total coliform bacteria)

Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample. in case of large supplies, where sufficient samples are examined, must not be present in 95% of the samples taken throughout any 12 month period.

Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample. in case of large supplies, where sufficient samples are examined, must not be present in 95% of the samples taken throughout any 12 month period.


Physical

colour ≤15TCU ≤15TCU

taste non objectionable /acceptable

non objectionable /acceptable

odour non objectionable /acceptable

non objectionable /acceptable

turbidity ‹ 5 ntu ‹ 5 ntu

total hardness as caco3 < 500 mg/l —

tds ‹ 1000 ‹ 1000

pH 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5

ChemicalEssential inorganic mg / liter mg / liter

aluminum (al) mg/1 <0.2 0.2

antimony (sb) <0.005 (P) 0.02



arsenic (as) <0.05 (P) 0.01 standard for Pakistan similar to most asian developing countries

Barium (Ba) 0.7 0.7

Boron (B) 0.3 0.3

cadmium (cd) 0.01 0.003 standard for Pakistan similar to most asian developing countries

chloride (cl) <250 250

chromium (cr) <0.05 0.05

copper (cu) 2 2Toxic Inorganic mg / liter mg / litercyanide (cn) <0.05 0.07 standard for

Pakistan similar to asian developing countries

Fluoride (F)* <1.5 1.5

lead (Pb) <0.05 0.01 standard for Pakistan similar to most asian developing countries

Manganese (Mn) <0.5 0.5

Mercury (Hg) <0.001 0.001

nickel (ni) <0.02 0.02

nitrate (no3)* <50 50

nitrite (no2)* <3 (P) 3

selenium (se) 0.01(P) 0.01

residual chlorine 0.2 - 0.5 at consumer end 0.5 - 1.5 at source



Zinc (Zn) 5.0 3 standard for Pakistan similar to most asian developing countries

* indicates priority health related inorganic constituents which need regular monitoring.

OrganicPesticides mg/l PsQca no. 4639 - 2004,

Page no. 4, table no. 3, serial no. 20 - 58 may be consulted.***

Phenolic compounds(as Phenols) mg/l

<0.002

Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (as PaH) g/l

0.01 ( By gc/Ms method)

Radioactive alpha emitters bq/l or pci 0.1 0.1

Beta emitters 1 1

*** PSQCA: Pakistan Standards Quality Control Authority


Disease Pathogen Symptoms Causes Incubation

adenovirus infection adenoviridae virusvaries depending on which part of the body is infected

drinking contaminated water 5 to 8 days

amebiasis entamoeba histolytica parasite

diarrhea, stomach pain, and stomach cramping

Fecal matter of an infected person (usually ingested from a pool or an infected water supply)

2 to 4 weeks

campylobacteriosis campylobacter jejuni bacteria

chicken, unpasteurised milk, water

2 to 10 days

cryptosporidiosis cryptosporidium parasite

stomach cramps, dehydration, nausea, vomiting, fever, weight loss

Fecal matter of an infected person (can survive for days in chlorinated pools)

2 to 10 days

cholera vibrio cholerae bacteria

Watery diarrhea, vomiting, and leg cramps

contaminated drinking water, rivers, and coastal waters

2 hours to 5 days

e. coli 0157:H7 escherichia coli bacteria

diarrhea (may be bloody), abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and fever

undercooked ground beef, imported cheeses, unpasteurised milk or juice, cider, and alfalfa sprouts

1 to 8 days

giardiasis giardia lamblia parasite

diarrhea, excess gas, stomach or abdominal cramps, and upset stomach

swallowing recreational water contaminated with giardia

1 to 2 weeks

Annex-6: Water Borne Diseases

the following table lists some common water borne illnesses with their symptoms, causes, and incubation period. Please refer to the cdc's alphabetical index of Water-related diseases, contaminants, and injuries for a more comprehensive list of water borne pathogens.


Disease Pathogen Symptoms Causes Incubation

Hepatitis a Hepatitis a virus

Fever, fatigue, stomach pain, nausea, dark urine, and jaundice

ready-to-eat foods, fruit and juice, milk products, shellfish, salads, vegetables, sandwiches, and water

28 days

legionellosislegionella pneumophila bacteria

Fever, chills, pneumonia, anorexia, muscle aches, diarrhea, and vomiting

contaminated water 2 to 10 days

salmonellosis salmonella bacteria

abdominal pain, headache, fever, nausea, diarrhea, chills, and cramps

Poultry, eggs, meat, meat products, milk, smoked fish, protein foods, and juice

1 to 3 days

vibrio infection

vibrio parahae- molyticus, and vibrio vulnificus bacteria

nausea, vomiting, and headache (a quarter of patients experience dysentery-like symptoms)

raw shellfish and oysters 1 to 7+ days

viral gastroenteritis calicivirus virus

diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, cramps, headache, muscle aches, tiredness, and slight fever

Water, ready-to-eat foods (salad, sandwiches, bread), and shellfish

24 to 48 hours


uniForM FloWValues of the Roughness Coefficient

(Boldface figures are values generally recommended in design)

Type of channel and description Minimum Normal Maximum

A. Closed Conduits Flowing Full

a-1. Metala. Brass, smooth

b. steel1. lockbar and welded2. riveted and spiral

c. cast iorn1. coated2. uncoated

d. Wrought ion1. Black2. galvanised

e. corrugated metal1. subdrain2. storm drain

0.009

0.0100.013

0.0100.011

0.0120.013

0.0170.021

0.010

0.0120.016

0.0130.014

0.0140.016

0.0190.024

0.013

0.0140.017

0.0140.016

0.0150.017

0.0210.030

a-2. non metala. lucite

b. glass

c. cement1. neat, surface2. Mortar

d. concrete1. culvert, straight and free of debris2. culvert with bends, connections, and some debris3. Finished4. sewer with manholes, inlet, etc., straight5. unfinished, steel form6. unfinished smooth wood form7. unfinished, rough wood form

e. Wood1. stave2. laminated, treated

f. clay1. common drainage tile2. vitrified sewer3. vitrified sewer with manholes, inlet, etc.4. vitrified sub-drain with open joint

g. Brickwork1. glazed2. lined with cement mortar

h. sanitary sewers coated with sewage slimes, with bends and connections

i. Paved invert, sewer, smooth bottom

j. rubble masonry, cemented

0.008

0.009

0.0100.011

0.0100.011

0.0110.0130.0120.0120.016

0.0100.015

0,0110,0110.0130.014

0,0110,012

0,012

0.016

0.018

0.009

0.010

0.0110.013

0.0110.013

0.0120.0150.0130.0140.017

0.0120.017

0,0130,0140.0150.016

0,0130,015

0,013

0.019

0.025

0.010

0.013

0.0130.015

0.0130.014

0.0140.0170.0140.0100.020

0.0140.020

0,0170,0170.0170.018

0,0150,017

0,016

0.020

0.030

Annex-7: Values of the roughness coefficient (n)17

17 open channel Hydraulics by ven te chow.


develoPMent oF uniForM FloW and its ForMulasValues of the Roughness Coefficient n (continued)


B. Lined or Built-up Channles

B-1. Metala. smooth steel surface

1. unpainted2. Painted

b. corrugated

0.0110.012

0.021

0.0120.013

0.025

0.0140.017

0.030B-2. nonmetal

a. cement1. neat, surface2. Mortar

b. Wood1. Planed, untreated2. Planed, creosoted3. unplaned4. Plank with battens5. lined with roofing paper

c. concrete1. trowel finish2. Float finish3. Finished, with gravel on bottom4. unfinished5. gunite, good section6. gunite, wavy section7. on good excavated rock8. on irregular excavated rock

d. concrete bottom float finished with sides of1. dressed stone in mortar2. random stone in mortar3. cement rubble masonry, plastered4. cement rubble masonry5. dry rubble or riprap

e. gravel bottom with sides of1. Formed concrete2. random stone in mortar3. dry rubble or riprap

f. Brick1. glazed2. in cement mortar

g. Masonry1. cemented rubble2. dry rubble

h. dressed ashlar

i. asphalt1. smooth2. rough

j. vegetal lining

0.011 0.011

0.0100.0110.0110.0120.010

0.0110.0130.0150.0140.0160.0180.0170.022

0.0150.0170.0160.0200.020

0.0170.0200.023

0.011 0.012

0.0170.023

0.013

0.013 0.010

0.030

0.011 0.013

0.0120.0120.0130.0150.014

0.0130.0150.0170.0170.0190.0220.0200.027

0.0170.0200.0200.0250.030

0.0200.0230.033

0.013 0.016

0.0250.032

0.015

0.013 0.016

0.013 0.015

0.0140.0150.0150.0180.017

0.0150.0160.0200.0200.0230.025

0.0200.0240.0240.0300.035

0.0250.0260.030

0.015 0.018

0.0300.035

0.017

0.500


uniForM FloWValues of the Roughness Coefficient n (continued)


C. Excavated on Dredged

a. earth, straight and uniform1. clean, recently completed2. clean, after weathering3. gravel, uniform section, clean4. With short grass, few weeds

b. earth, winding and sluggish1. no vegetation2. grass, some weeds3. dense weeds or aquatic plants in deep channels4. earth bottom and rubble sides5. stony bottom and weedy banks6. cobble bottom and clean sides

c. dragline-excavated or dredged1. no vegetation2. light brush on banks

d. rock cuts1. smooth and uniform2. Jagged and irregular

e. channels not maintained, weeds and brush uncut

1. dense weeds, high as flow depth2. clean bottom, brush on sides3. same, highest stage of flow4. dense brush, high stage

0.0160.018 0.0220.022

0.0230.0250.030

0.0230.0250.030

0.0250.035

0.0250.035

0,0500.0400.045 0.080

0.0180.022 0.0250.027

0.0250.0300.035

0.0230.0250.040

0.0260.050

0.0350.040

0,0800.0500.070 0.100

0.0200.025 0.0300.033

0.0300.0330.040

0.0350.0400.050

0.0330.060

0.0400.050

0,1200.0800.110 0.140

d. natural streamsd-1. Minor steams (top width at flood stage <100 ft)

a. streams on plain1. clean, straight, full stage, no rifts or deep pools2. same as above, but more stones and weeds3. clean, winding, some pools and shoals4. same as above, but some weeds and stones5. same as above, lower stages, more ineffective slopes and sections6. same as 4, but more stones7. sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools 8. very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways with heavy stand of timber and underbrush

0.025

0.0300.0330.0350.040

0.0450.050

0.075

0.030

0.0350.0400.0450.048

0.0500.070

0.100

0.033

0.0400.0450.0500.055

0.0600.080

0.150


develoPMent oF uniForM FloW and its ForMulasValues of the Roughness Coefficient n (continued)

Type of channel and description Minimum Normal Maximumb. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel,

banks usally steep, trees and brush along banks submerged at high stages1. Bottom: gravels, cobbles, and few boulders2. Bottom: cobbles with large boulders

0.0300.040

0.0400.050

0.0500.070

d-2. Flood Plainsa. Pasture, no brush

1. short grass2. High grass

b. cultivated areas1. no crop2. Mature row crops3. Mature field crops

c. Brush1. scattered brush, heavy weeds2. light brush and trees, in winter3. light brush and trees, in summer4. Medium to dense brush, in winter5. Medium to dense brush, in summer

d. trees1. dense willows, summer, straight2. cleared land with tree stumps, no sprouts3. same as above, but with heavy growth of sprouts4. Heavy stand of timber, a few down trees, little undergrowth, flood stage reaching branches5. same as above, but with flood stage reaching branches

0.0250.030

0.020 0.0250.030

0.035 0.0350.0400.0450.070

0.1100.0300.050

0.080

0.100

0.0300.035

0.030 0.0350.040

0.050 0.0600.0600.0700.100

0.1500.0400.060

0.100

0.120

0.0350.060

0.040 0.0450.050

0.070 0.0600.0800.1100.160

0.2000.0500.080

0.120

0.100

d-3. Major streams (top width at flood stage >100 ft). the n value is less than that for minor streams of similar descriptions, because banks offer less effective resistance.

a. regular section with no boulders or brushb. irregular and rough section

0.0250.035

0.0600.100

CDLD Policy Implementation Unit local government, elections and rural development departmentgovernment of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

091 9210528 I www.cdldta.pk I www.facebook.com/kpcdld

Documents

delivering resilient and resolute engineering structures … 160412 Manual... · 2020. 8. 26. · 14.1 Building repair Works 14.2 general Brick Masonry Work 14.3 Wall Plasters 14.4