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Dysphagia Definition A difficulty with any of the stages of swallowing; difficulty in passing food and/or liquid from the mouth to the stomach. Causes Oropharyngeal Esophageal Mechanical Functional 1. Oral cavity: inflammations, dental problems, xerostomia 2. Pharynx: pharyngitis, tumors 3. Neurological disorders: stroke, Parkinson, myasthenia gravis. 4. Radiotherapy to the area of head and neck cause extensive fibrosis. 5. Medications e.g. sedatives, hypnotics and anticonvulsants Intraluminal obstruction a. Foreign bodies b. Webs (in some cases of PlummerVinson syndrome) Intramural obstruction a. Strictures, following reflux esophagitis, peptic ulceration, or ingestion of corrosive alkali b. Neoplasms of the esophagus: Benign or Malignant Extrinsic compression a. Abnormal arteries: dysphagia lusoria b. Enlarged left atrium (mitral stenosis) and pericardial effusion c. Aortic aneurysms d. Hypertrophic vertebral osteophytes e. Mediastinal cysts and neoplasms. F. Esophageal diverticulae 1. Achalasia of the cardia 2. Muscular dystrophies and polymyositis may affect the striated muscle of the upper esophagus 3. Myasthenia gravis 4. PlummerVinson syndrome 5. Progressive systemic sclerosis (scleroderma) due to replacement of esophageal muscle by fibrosis, causing failure of peristalsis 6. Diffuse esophageal spasm 7. Aging: abnormalities of peristalsis occur in the elderly Pathology Refer next page Clinical presentation 1. Drooling. 2. A feeling that food or liquid is sticking in the throat. 3. Discomfort in the throat or chest (gastro esophageal reflux). 4. A sensation of a foreign body or "lump" in the throat. 5. Weight loss and inadequate nutrition due to prolonged or more significant problems with swallowing 6. Coughing or choking caused by bits of food, liquid, or saliva not passing easily during swallowing, and being sucked into the lungs. Complication 1. Coughing and choking. 2. Respiratory problems. If food or liquid enters respiratory airway (aspiration); pneumonia, lung abscess or upper respiratory infections can occur 3. Malnutrition and dehydration Diagnosis 1. Examination of mouth and throat which may be aided by flexible laryngoscope which provides vision of the back of the tongue, throat, and larynx. 2. Speech assessment 3. An exam by a neurologist may be necessary if the swallowing disorder stems from the nervous system, perhaps due to stroke or other neurologic disorders. Management 1. medication 2. swallowing and speech therapy 3. surgery if needed Nb Odynophagia is used when there is pain during deglutition.

Definition) Causes) Oropharyngeal) Esophageal) Oral)cavity 1....Acute)peptic)ulcer) Definition) Transient"mucosal"inflammatory"process"that"may"be"asymptomatic" cause"variable"degreesof"epigastricpain,"nausea,"and"vomiting

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  • Dysphagia  Definition   A  difficulty  with  any  of  the  stages  of  swallowing;  difficulty  in  passing  food  and/or  liquid  from  the  mouth  to  the  

    stomach.  Causes   Oropharyngeal   Esophageal  

    Mechanical   Functional  1. Oral  cavity:  inflammations,  

    dental  problems,  xerostomia    2. Pharynx:  pharyngitis,  tumors  3. Neurological  disorders:  

    stroke,  Parkinson,  myasthenia  gravis.  

    4. Radiotherapy  to  the  area  of  head  and  neck  cause  extensive  fibrosis.  

    5. Medications  e.g.  sedatives,  hypnotics  and  anticonvulsants  

    Intraluminal  obstruction          a.  Foreign  bodies          b.  Webs  (in  some  cases  of  Plummer-‐Vinson  syndrome)    Intramural  obstruction          a.    Strictures,  following  reflux  esophagitis,  peptic  ulceration,  or  ingestion  of  corrosive  alkali          b.  Neoplasms  of  the  esophagus:  Benign  or  Malignant    Extrinsic  compression        a.  Abnormal  arteries:  dysphagia  lusoria        b.  Enlarged  left  atrium  (mitral  stenosis)  and  pericardial  effusion        c.  Aortic  aneurysms        d.  Hypertrophic  vertebral  osteophytes        e.  Mediastinal  cysts  and  neoplasms.  F.  Esophageal  diverticulae  

    1. Achalasia  of  the  cardia    2. Muscular  dystrophies  and  

    polymyositis  may  affect  the  striated  muscle  of  the  upper  esophagus  

    3. Myasthenia  gravis  4. Plummer-‐Vinson  syndrome  5. Progressive  systemic  sclerosis  

    (scleroderma)  due  to  replacement  of  esophageal  muscle  by  fibrosis,  causing  failure  of  peristalsis  

    6. Diffuse  esophageal  spasm  7. Aging:  abnormalities  of  

    peristalsis  occur  in  the  elderly  

    Pathology   Refer  next  page    

    Clinical  presentation  

    1. Drooling.  2. A  feeling  that  food  or  liquid  is  sticking  in  the  throat.    3. Discomfort  in  the  throat  or  chest  (gastro  esophageal  reflux).    4. A  sensation  of  a  foreign  body  or  "lump"  in  the  throat.    5. Weight  loss  and  inadequate  nutrition  due  to  prolonged  or  more  significant  problems  with  swallowing  6. Coughing  or  choking  caused  by  bits  of  food,  liquid,  or  saliva  not  passing  easily  during  swallowing,  and  being  

    sucked  into  the  lungs.      

    Complication   1. Coughing  and  choking.    2. Respiratory  problems.  If  food  or  liquid  enters  respiratory  airway  (aspiration);  pneumonia,  lung  abscess  or  

    upper  respiratory  infections  can  occur  3. Malnutrition  and  dehydration  

     Diagnosis   1. Examination  of  mouth  and  throat  which  may  be  aided  by  flexible  laryngoscope  which  provides  vision  of  the  

    back  of  the  tongue,  throat,  and  larynx.  2. Speech  assessment  3. An  exam  by  a  neurologist  may  be  necessary  if  the  swallowing  disorder  stems  from  the  nervous  system,  

    perhaps  due  to  stroke  or  other  neurologic  disorders.    

    Management   1. medication    2. swallowing  and  speech  therapy    3. surgery  if  needed  

    Nb   Odynophagia  is  used  when  there  is  pain  during  deglutition.  

     

     

  •  

      Explanation   Dysphagia  results  from  Plummer-‐Vinson  

    Syndrome  It  consists  of  severe  iron  deficiency  anemia,  koilonychia,  atrophic  glossitis,  and  dysphagia  with  female  preponderance  resulting  from  menstrual  blood  loss.  

    1-‐  Atrophy  of  the  pharyngeal  mucosa.  2-‐  web-‐like  mucosal  folds  present  in  the  upper  esophagus.  

    Reflux  esophagitis  

    Regurgitation  of  gastric  acidic  secretions  to  the  lower  esophagus  leading  to  lower  mucosal  inflammation  and  mucosal  abnormality  

    Sclerosis  and  stricture  

    Tumors  of  the  esophagus  

    Benign  tumors  are  less  common  than  malignant  tumors.  The  most  common  are  leiomyomas.    Malignant  tumors  may  be      a.Carcinoma:    most  common  Sq.cc  at  upper  2/3  Adenocarcinoma  at  lower  1/3    b.Lymphoma  &  other  sarcomas:  rare    

    Esophageal  obstruction.    

    Esophageal  diverticulae  

    Traction  or  true  diverticulae  develop  in  the    esophagus  due  to  external  forces  pulling  in  the  wall      Pulsion  or  false  diverticulae  forcible  distension  from  inside  (Zenker’s  divert.    

    Permanently  distention  with  retained  food  

    Achalasia     Incomplete  relaxation  of  lower  sphincter  during  swallowing  and  this  leads  to  functional  obstruction    Ganglion  cells  of  the  myenteric  plexus  are  diminished  or  absent  leading  to  Loss  of  inhibitory  innervations  to  the  sphincter  and  (Spasm)  of  the  sphincter  with  dilatation  of  the  upper  segment  (megaesophagus).      

    Causes  :  autoimmune,  viral  infections  May  occur  secondary  to  Trypanosoma  cruzi  infection  (Chagas  disease).      Clinical  picture:  dysphagia,  regurgitation  and  aspiration.      Histology:  Inflammation  in  the  area  of  M.  plexus    Complications:  5%  develop  squamous  cell  carcinoma,  at  younger  age.  

    Progressive  systemic  sclerosis:-‐  

    (scleroderms)  

    There’s  widespread  fibrosis  and  degenerative  changes  that  affect  the  skin,  gastro-‐intestinal  tract  especially  the  esophagus,  heart,  muscles  and  other  organs.  

    Fibrosis  of  the  esophagus  →  Narrowing  and  loss  of  prestalsis  

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

  • Acute  peptic  ulcer  Definition   Transient  mucosal  inflammatory  process  that  may  be  asymptomatic  

    cause  variable  degrees  of  epigastric  pain,  nausea,  and  vomiting.    In  more  severe  cases  there  may  be  mucosal  erosion,  ulceration,  hemorrhage,  hematemesis,  melena,  or,  rarely,  massive  blood  loss.  

    Causes   Heavy  use  of  NSAIDs  particularly  aspirin  Excessive  Alcohol  Heavy  smoking  ttt  with  Cancer  chemotherapy  Hypovolemia    

    Ischemia  and  Shock  Severe  Stress  (burns,  surgery,  strokes,  post  infarction)  Uremia    Enterogastric  reflux  Corrosives    (may  cause  perforation)  Mechanical  trauma  

    Chronic  peptic  ulcer  Definition   An  increase  in  the  number  of  lymphocytes  and  plasma  cells  in  the  gastric  mucosa.  

     Stages   Mildest  degree  of  chronic  gastritis  is  chronic  

    superficial  gastritis,  which  involves  the  subepithelial  region  around  the  gastric  pits.    

    Severe  cases  involve  the  glands  in  the  deeper  mucosa;  this  is  commonly  associated  with  gland  atrophy  (chronic  atrophic  gastritis)  and  intestinal  metaplasia.  

    Causes   ♣ Helicobacter  pylori  :Type  B  involves  the  antrum  and  is  associated  with  Helicobacter  pylori    infection  ♣ Autoimmune:  Type  A  involves  the  body  and  is  associated  with  pernicious  anemia;  ♣ Psychologic  stress,  caffeine,  alcohol,  and  tobacco  use  were  considered  the  primary  causes  of  gastritis  

    Site   ♣ First  part  of  duodenum  ♣ Stomach  ♣ Lower  esophagus    

    ♣ Meckel's  diverticulum  ♣ Stomal  (marginal)  ulcer  (gastro-‐jujenostomy)      

    Stomach  protective  mechanism  

    The  anatomic  integrity  of  the  mucosa:  The  mucosal  cells  have  a  specialized  apical  surface  membrane  that  resists  the  diffusion  of  acid  into  the  cell.    Gastric  mucus:  Mucin  and  HCO3  secreted  by  surface  epithelial  cells  create  a  mucous  layer  that  has  a  pH  gradient  which  is  very  acid  in  the  lumen  to  nearly  neutral  near  the  cell  surface.      Prostaglandins  (E  series),  which  are  synthesized  and  secreted  by  gastric  mucosal  cells,  have  a  cytoprotective  effect  on  the  gastroduodenal  mucosa.  They  act  to  increase  bicarbonate  secretion,  gastric  mucus  production,  mucosal  blood  flow,  and  the  rate  of  mucosal  cell  regeneration.    Mucosal  blood  flow:  Ischemia  of  the  mucosa  decreases  mucosal  resistance    

    Pathogenesis   Imbalance  between  erosive  effect  (  H.Pylori,  NSAIDs,  smoking,  etc  )  and  protective  mechanism  leads  to  ulcer  formation    Morphology   Usually  solitary,  round-‐to-‐oval  in  shape    

    Often  large  (larger  than  1  cm,  rarely  larger  than  5  cm)  and  usually  found  on  the  lesser  curvature  or  pyloric  antrum      Margins  are  either  flush  with  the  mucosal  surface  or  slightly  raised  because  of  edema.    The  edge  is  punched  out,  the  floor  of  the  ulcer  is  smooth,  and  its  base  is  thick  and  firm  because  of  fibrosis.  The  mucosa  around  the  ulcer  is  either  normal  or—in  the  stomach—shows  changes  of  chronic  gastritis.    The  mucosal  folds  around  the  ulcer  appear  to  radiate  outward  from  it,  which  is  an  effect  of  fibrous  contraction  of  the  base  of  the  ulcer                                      Microscopically,  the  base  of  a  chronic  peptic  ulcer  is  composed  of  :-‐  1-‐  A  surface  of  necrotic  layer  2-‐  Acutely  inflamed  layer  3-‐  A  zone  of  granulation  tissue.  4-‐  Extensive  fibrosis  of  the  base,  with  extension  of  fibrosis  into  the  muscle  wall.    5-‐  The  epithelium  at  the  edge  of  the  ulcer  shows  regenerative  hyperplasia,  which  frequently  demonstrates  marked  cytologic  atypia,  mimicking  neoplastic  change                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

    Clinical  feature   Epigastric  pain  (worse  at  night  and  relieved  by  food),  bleeding  (30%)    Perforation  (5%;  accounts  for  2/3  of  deaths).    

    Complications   Hemorrhage        Perforation,  penetration.  Fibrosis…stenosis,  hour-‐glass  stomach  Duodenal  diverticulum    Malignancy,  rare,  gastric  not  deudenal  

  • Malabsorption  syndrome  Definition     It  is  a  state  of  abnormal  intestinal  absorption  of  nutrients  resulting  in  malnutrition,  weight  loss  and  

    osmotic  diarrhea.  Causes     Luminal  phase     Cellular  phase    

    Inadequate  digestion  ♣ Postgastrectomy  ♣ Deficiency  of  pancreatic  lipase  

    o Chronic  pancreatitis  o Cystic  fibrosis  o Pancreatic  resection  

    ♣ Zollinger-‐Ellison  syndrome  (high  acid  inhibits  lipase)    

    Hypomotility  states    ♣ diabetes,  scleroderma,  visceral  myopathy,  amyloidosis  

     Deficient  bile  salt  concentration  ♣ Obstructive  jaundice  ♣ Bacterial  overgrowth  (leading  to  bile  salt  deconjugation)  

    o Stasis  in  blind  loops,  diverticula      ♣ Interrupted  enterohepatic  circulation  of  bile  salts  

    o Terminal  ileal  resection  o Crohns'  disease  o Precipitation  of  bile  salts  (neomycin,  cholestyramine)  

     

    Primary  mucosal  abnormalities                                                                ♣ Surgical  resection                  ♣ Celiac  disease                        ♣ Tropical  sprue    ♣ Whipple  disease  ♣ Radiation  enteritis    ♣ Amyloidosis  ♣ Lymphatic  obstruction  

    e.g.  lymphoma        

    Pathology     Explanation   M/E  or  characteristics  Celiac  disease   (Gluten-‐sensitive  enteropathy)  

       -‐  1:300  persons  are  affected,  hypersensitivity  to  gliadin,  a  component  of  gluten  (present  in  wheat  flour)  leading  to  blunted  villi  and  increased  intraepithelial  lymphocytes.  -‐  Changes  disappear  with  gluten-‐free  diet.  -‐  Increased  risk  for  lymphoma.  

    Flattening  of  the  duodenal  villi,  they  are  almost  absent.          Flattening  of  the  villi  greatly  decreases  the  surface  area  available  for  absorption.    Numerous  intraepithelial  lymphocytes  

    Tropical  sprue   Malabsorption  and  diarrhea  occurring  in  travelers  and  natives  in  certain  tropical  areas  .    -‐  Infectious  etiology,  responds  to  antibiotics.  -‐  Histological  changes  resemble  celiac  disease    

    Whipple  disease  

    A  systemic  disease  that  affects  GIT,  nervous  system  and  joints.    Caused  by  T.  whippelii    (gram-‐positive  organism  )    The  causative  organism  can  be  demonstrated  inside  the  macrophages.    

    Widening  of  the  intestinal  villi  with  numerous  macrophages  seen  throughout  the  lamina  propria  with  fat  cysts.    

    Crohn’s  disease   A  chronic  inflammatory  disorder  that  most  affects  any  part  of  the  GIT,  commonly  the  ileum  and  colon.  It  is  characterized  by  involvement  of  discontinuous  segments  of  intestine  (skip  areas),  non  caseating  epithelioid  cell  granulomas,  and  transmural  (full-‐thickness)  inflammation  of  the  affected  parts    Site:  terminal  ileum  and  right  colon  (any  part  of  the  GIT).    

    Skip  lesion  :  affected  segments  separated  by  healthy  ones.  Transmural  affection:  All  layers  up  to  the  serosa  with  marked  thickening  of  the  wall.  Deep  fissure  ulcers  with  mucosal  edema  giving  the  cobble-‐stone  appearance.  

  •  

    Acute  pancreatitis  

       

    Chronic  pancreatitis  Definition   It  is  a  chronic  disease  characterized  by  progressive  destruction  of  the  parenchyma  with  chronic  

    inflammation,  fibrosis,  stenosis  and  dilation  of  the  duct  system,  and  eventually  impairment  of  pancreatic  function.  

    Causes   • Alcoholism  and  biliary  calculi…..most  important  causes  • Following  acute  episodes.  • Cystic  fibrosis  • In  30-‐40%  of  cases  no  apparent  cause  can  be  identified.  

     Pathological  changes  

    • Stenosis  of  the  ducts  • Calculi  within  duct  system    • Atrophy  of  acini    • Chronic  inflammation    • Fibrosis    

    • The  pancreas  is  shrunken  and  fibrotic,  and  the  dilated  duct  contains  numerous  stones  

    • Atrophic  lobules  of  acinar  cells  are  surrounded  by  dense  fibrous  tissue  infiltrated  by  lymphocytes.  

    • The  pancreatic  ducts  are  dilated  and  contain  inspissated  proteinaceous  material.    

    Complications   • Pleural  effusion    • Pancreatic  pseudocyst  • Diabetes  • Pain  from  perineal  fibrosis    

    • Pancreatic  calcification    • Stones  in  pancreatic  duct  • Ascites  • Fat  malabsorption    • Obstructive  jaundice    

  •  

    Diarrheal  disorders  Definition   Diarrhea  =  Increased  frequency  or  volume  of  stool  (more  than  250  gm/day).  Types   Explanation   Causes  

    Secretory  diarrhea  

    Intestinal  cells  secrete  more  water  than  they  absorb  

    • cholera  toxins  • E.coli    • entero-‐virus  infection    • preformed  toxins  of  staphylococcal  food  

    poisoning  Osmotic  diarrhea   Due  to  the  presence  of  non-‐absorbable  

    substances  which  increase  the  intra-‐luminal  osmotic  pressure  leading  to  influx  of  water  and  electrolytes  into  the  lumen.  

    • Patients  with  genetic  lactase  deficiency:  diarrhea  after  milk  ingestion  due  to  lactose  osmosis.    

    • Malabsorption  syndrome  .  • Sorbitol  or  manitol  

    Exudative  diarrhea  

    Purulent  bloody  stool  (inflammation  of  the  mucosa  and/or  hemorrhage)  

    • Infections  causing  tissue  damage:  Shigella,  Salmonella,    Entamoeba  histolytica    

    • Infections  causing  both  tissue  damage  and  toxins:  Clostridium  difficile    

     • Idiopathic  inflammatory  bowel  disease  

    Mixed  causes      Reduced  

    absorption  time      

    Alcohol  induced  disease  Effects  of  chronic  

    alcoholism    • Fatty  liver,  alcoholic  hepatitis,  and  cirrhosis,  which  causes  portal  hypertension  and  increases  the  

    risk  of  development  of  hepatocellular  carcinoma.    • Increases  the  risk  for  acute  and  chronic  pancreatitis.    • Gastritis  and  gastric  ulcers.  • Peripheral  neuropathy  associated  with  thiamine  deficiency.  • Cardiomyopathy  .  • Cancers  of  the  oral  cavity,  pharynx,  larynx,  and  esophagus.  The  risk  is  greatly  increased  by  

    concurrent  smoking.    

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

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    Neoplasia  Definition   Abnormal  mass  of  tissue  growth  which  exceeds  and  uncoordinated  with  normal  tissue  and  that  persists  in  the  

    same  excessive  manner  after  cessation  of  the  stimuli  which  evoked  the  change  =autonomous  new  growth  

    Structure   Parenchyma   Stroma     Proliferating  neoplastic  cell  

    Made  of  transformed  or  neoplastic  cell  Determine  the  biological  behavior  of  tumor  Results  from  clonal  proliferation  of  a  single  cell  (monoclonal)  

    It  is  host  derived,  non  –  neoplastic  component  of  tumor    Made  of  CT  and  blood  vessel  of  tumor  Vascularity  is  related  to  tumor  –  angiogenesis  factors  (TAFs)  

    Classification   According  to  biological  behavior   According  to  tissue  of  origin     Benign    

    Malignant  Locally  malignant    

    Epithelial  :  adenoma,  papilloma  Mesenchymal:  sarcoma  Miscellaneous    

    Differences  between  benign  and  malignant     Benign  tumor   Malignant  tumor  

    Definition   A  single  mass  formed  of  mature  tissue,  slowly  growing,  remain  localized  

    A  mass  formed  of  immature  tissue  grows  rapidly  and  invades  surrounding  structures,  lymphatic  and  blood  vessel  to  form  2ry  tumor  

    Origin   Normal  cell  of  parent  tissue   De  novo  or  from  a  pre-‐existing  premalignant  lesion    Rate  of  growth  

    Slow     Rapid    

    Mode  of  growth  

    By  expansion  ;  pushing  the  surrounding  normal  tissue  without  invasion      

    By  expansion  and  infiltration  ;  destroy  and  invade  surrounding  normal  tissue  

    Gross  feature   Single   Number   Begin  single  and  metastasize  Usually  small   Size   Reach  a  large  size  within  short  time  Capsulated   Capsule   Absent,  non  -‐  capsulated  

    Uniform,  no  hemorrhage  or  necrosis  Small,  well  circumscribed,  rounded  or  oval  

    Cut  section  

    Usually  shows  hemorrhage  and  necrosis  Fixed  to  the  surrounding  structures  with  irregular  

    outlines            

    Microscopic  feature  

    No  cellular  atypia:  tumor  cell  resemble  parent  tissue  cell  in  both  cytology  and  

    histology  

    Cellular  atypia  

    Cellular  atypia  is  characteristic  of  cancer.  Cell  changes  in  both  cytology  and  histology  

    Resemble  the  mother  cell  of  origin  With  minimal  mitosis  

    Cytology   Pleomorphism  Hyperchromatism  

    Increase  nuclear/cytoplasmic  ratio  Increase  mitotic  fissure  with  abnormal  form  

    Tumor  giant  cell  Prominent  nuclei  

    =anaplasia  The  pattern  of  arrangement  same  to  the  

    origin  tissue  Histology   The  pattern  of  arrangement  is  variable  and  depends  on  

    tumor  grade  Excess  with  few  blood  vessels  2ry  changes  less  common  

    Stroma   Poor  with  prominent  vascularity  2ry  changes  are  common  

    Behavior  and  prognosis  

    Don’t  spread  Don’t  recur  if  well  excised  Don’t  endanger  patient  life  except  in  following  conditions  1. Located  in  vital  organ    2. Located  in  tubular  organ    3. Produce  hormones  4. Change  into  malignant  

    Spread  Recur  after  excision    Fatal  due  to    

    1. Local  organ  destruction  due  to  direct  spread  2. Destruction  of  distant  organs  by  distant  spread  3. Obstruction  of  hollow  organs  by  distant  spread  4. Anemia    5. Cachexia  

    Differentiation   Well  differentiated   Well  differentiated  to  undifferentiated  

  • Tumor  grade   It  is  degree  or  resemblance  of  tumor  cell  to  their  mother  cell  origin  both  morphologically  and  functionally    Based  on  microscopic  features  (  cytology  and  histology  )    

    Functional  differentiation  

    Better  differentiated  the  cell,  the  more  completely  it  retains  the  function  of  a  normal  cell  

    Spread  of  malignant  tumors  

    Local    Blood    Lymphatic    

    Trancoelomic    Natural  passages  Implantation  

    Methods  of  spreading  

    Local  invasion   Distant  metastasis  

      It  is  the  presence  of  tumor  cells  away  from  their  site  of  origin  without  loss  of  continuity  with  the  primary    Tumor  cells  follows  the  way  of  the  tumor  to  the  surrounding  This  leads  to  adhesion  of  the  tumor  to  the  surrounding    It  can  cause  severe  hemorrhage  and  obstruction  of  hollow  organ  

    It  is  the  presence  of  tumor  cell  away  from  the  primary  w/o  continuity  with  it    Metastases  occurs  through  

    1. Lymphatic    2. Blood  vessel  3. Transcoelomic  &  seeding  of  body  cavities  4. Natural  passages  5. Implantation    

       Detachment  of  tumor  cell  from  each  other  -‐ This  occur  due  to  loss  of  the  intercellular  glue  

    substance  (  E  adheren  )  -‐ It  results  in  loosening  up  of  tumor  cell    Attachment  of  tumor  cell  of  ECM  This  ECM  includes  -‐ Basement  membrane  w’  contains  lamiin  and  

    interstitial  CT  to  adhere  to  the  BM  &  interstitial  CT  

     Degradation  of  the  extracellular  matrix  -‐ Tumor  cell  then  secrete  proteases  w’  cause  

    degradation  of  the  ECM  (eg  type  IV  collagenase)  

     Migration  of  tumor  cell  This  step  occurs  under  the  effect  of  certain  chemotactic  factors  -‐ Tumor  cell  derived  cytokines  -‐ Cleavage  products  of  matrix  components  -‐ Some  growth  factors  

     

    Lymphatic  Typical  of  carcinoma    -‐ Lymphatic  emboli  -‐ Lymphatic  permeation    Haemotogenous  spread  Typical  of  sarcoma  Veins  with  thinner  walls  are  more  susceptible  to  penetrate  Liver  and  lungs  most  frequent  2ry  involved  site    Homing  of  tumor  cell  -‐ Lung  -‐ Liver    -‐ Bone  marrow  -‐ Brain    -‐ Adrenal  gland  Seeding  of  body  cavities  Occurs  whenever  malignant  neoplasm  penetrate  into  an  open  field  -‐ Peritoneal  cavity    -‐ Pleural  cavity    -‐ Pericardiac  cavity    -‐ Subarachnoid  space  Transcoelomic  Common  in  carcinomas  arising  in  the  stomach  or  GIT  giving  metastatic  deposits  on  the  surface  of  ovary  (  Krukenberg  tumor  )  

     

     

     

     

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    Systemic  effect  of  cancer  in  the  host  Neoplastic  syndrome   Most  cancer  symptoms  are  due  to  local  effects  of  primary  tumor  or  its  metastasis  

    Paraneoplastic  syndrome  

    Cancer  produce  remote  effects  not  attributable  to  invasion  of  metastasis  Eg:  fever,  nephrotic  syndrome,  neorologia,  hypercalcemia,  skin  manifestation,  etc  

    Cachexia  Definition   Characteristic  wasting  syndrome  in  cancer  patients  

    Eg:  anorexia,  weight  loss  lethargy    Causes   Inadequate  food  intake  

    Impaired  digestion,  absorption    Competition  between  host  and  tumor  for  nutrition    Increased  energy  requirement  of  cancer  patient  (↑ 𝐵𝑀𝑅)  TNF,  other  cytokines  

    Dysplasia  Definition     Abnormal  growth  

     

     

     

     

     

     

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    Colorectal  adenocarcinoma  Etiology     Genetic  influence  

    -‐ Pre  existence  ulcerative  colitis  /  FAP  coli  syndrome  -‐ Several  mutations  to  different  genes  :  APC,  K-‐ras,  P53  -‐ Hereditary  non  polyposis  colorectal  cancer  syndrome  (  Lynch  syndrome  )  Environmental  influence  -‐ Low  content  of  unabsorbable  vegetable  fiber  -‐ Corresponding  high  content  of  refined  CHO  -‐ High  fat  content  -‐ Decrease  intake  of  protective  micronutrients  (  Vit  A,C,E)  

    FAP   Autosomal  dominant,  Average  onset  is  25  years  old  Mostly  colorectal  ,  Minimum  of  100  polyps  are  necessary  for  diagnosis  Genetic  defect  on  chromosome  5q21,  APC  tumor  suppressor  gene  Precancerous:  virtually  100%  will  develop  cancer  within  10=15  years  

    Carcinogenesis     Chromosome  instability  pathway    (adenoma  carcinoma  sequence)  -‐ Genetic  defect  at  5q21,  APC  -‐ Germ  –  line  or  somatic  mutations  of  cancer  suppressor  genes  -‐ Methylation  abnormalities  (hypomethylation)  which  cause  inactivation  of  normal  alleles  -‐ This  leads  to  chromosome  instability  and  protooncogene  mutations  and  activation  -‐ Homozygous  loss  of  additional  cancer  suppressor  genes  and  over  expression  of  COX2  -‐ More  additional  mutations  

     Mismatch  repair  pathway  (  microsatellite  instability  )  -‐ Germ  –  line  somatic  mutations  of  mismatch  repair  genes  -‐ Alteration  of  second  allele  by  LOH,  mutation  and  promoter  methylation    -‐ Hypermethylation  cause  inactivation  of  tumor  suppressor  gene  and  inactivation  of  DNA  

    repair  gene  -‐ Lead  to  microsatellite  instability  or  mutator  phenotype  (  increase  mutation  rate  )  -‐ Accumulation  mutations  in  genes  that  regulate  growth,  differentiation  and  or  apoptosis  

    Symptoms     Right  colonic  cancers  -‐ Fatigue  -‐ Weakness  -‐ Anemia  (IDA)  -‐ Internal  bleeding    

    Left  colonic  cancers  -‐ Occult  bleeding    -‐ Bowel  habit  alteration  (melena,  diarrhea,  

    constipation)  -‐ Left  –  lower  quadrant  cramps  and  

    discomfort  Sites   50%  malignant  ulcers  in  sigmoid  colon  and  rectum    

    15%  napkin  ring  lesion  in  descending  colon  and  causing  obstruction    10%  mesenteric  lymph  nodes  15%  polypoid  lesion  in  ascending  colon    10%  in  caecum    

    Spread     Hematogenous,  LN  ,Retroperitoneum  Shape     Annular  ,Ulcerating  ,Polypoid    M/E   Neoplastic  cell  and  stroma  with  variable  glandular  differentiation  with  loss  polarity    

    -‐ Appear  disorganized  and  adhere  to  each  other  Neoplastic  cell  shows  all  cellular  criteria  of  malignancy  -‐ Pleomorphism,  hyperchromatism,  increase  N/C,  prominent  nuclei,  increase  mitotic  figure  Tumor  invades  deeply  into  colonic  mucosa  Tumor  cells  may  continue  to  produce  mucin    

    Diagnosis     Imaging,  endoscopy  and  biopsy,  increased  serum  carcino-‐embryonic  antigen    

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    Staging  (  Duke  system  )  Stage   Invasion  of  colonic  wall   LN  metastases   Distant  metastases   5  year  survival  rate  A   Mucosa  and  submucosa   No   No   >90%  B1   Muscle  wall  thickness   No   No   67%  B2   Full  thickness  of  muscle  wall   No   No   55%  C1   Partial  muscle  wall  thickness   Yes   No   40%  C2   Full  thickness  of  muscle  wall   Yes   No   20%  D   All   Yes  or  no   Yes   10%  or  <  

    TNM  staging  T=  size  or  direct  extent  of  the  primary  

    tumor  N=  lymph  node   M=metastases  

    Tx:  tumor  cannot  be  ecaluated  Tis:  carcinoma  in  situ  T1:  submucosa  T2:  muscularis  propria  T3:  subserosa  T4:  perforates  the  visceral  peritoneum,  directly  invades  organ  

    Nx:  lymph  node  cannot  be  evaluated  N0:  tumor  cell  asent  from  regional  LN  N1:  one  to  three  pericolic  LN  (near  spread)  N2:  four  or  more  pericolic  LN  (distant  spread)  N3:  tumor  spread  more  distant  and  numerous  

    M0:  no  distant  metastases  M1:  distat  organs  metastases  

    Diagnosis  of  tumor  Clinical  examination    Radiological    Laboratory  (  tumor  marker  )  

    Laboratory  diagnosis  of  cancer  Specimen  sample    -‐ Excision  of  biopsy  -‐ Incision  biopsy  -‐ Needle  aspiration    -‐ Cytologic  smear    

    Immunohistochemistry  -‐ Specific  monoclonal  antibodies  help  to  

    identify  cell  products  or  surface  markers  -‐ Determination  of  origin  of  cell  population    -‐ Detection  of  prognosis  and  therapeutic  

    markers  Tumor  marker  

    Alpha  fetoprotein   Hepatocellular  carcinoma  Germ  cell  tumours  

    Human  chorionic  gonadotropin  (HCG)   Trophoblastic  tumors  

    Acid  phosphatase   Prostatic  carcinoma  

    Carcinoembryonic  antigen  (CEA)   Gastrointestinal  tract  neoplasia  

    Hormone  products   Endocrine  tumors  

  •   Acute  Viral  Hepatitis   Chronic  Viral  hepatitis   Cirrhosis  Def   It  is  inflammatory  process  of  the  liver   It  is  continuity  of  hepatitis  can  be  

    symptomatic  or  biochemical  (elevated  enzymes  or  presence  of  viral  antigens)  without  steady  improvement  for  more  than  6  months  

    Chronic  diffuse  irreversible  progressive  liver  disease  characterized  by    -‐ Hepatocellular  necrosis  -‐ Hyperplasia  of  the  surviving  hepatocytes  

    forming  regenerating,  vascular  derangement  and  diffuse  fibrosis    

    Cause   HAV,  HBV,  HCV,  HDV,  HEV   Viral:  HBV  (+-‐  HDV)  ,  HCV  or  mixed  Autoimmune    Drug  induced  :  INH,  methyl  dopa  Metabolic:  congenital  𝛼1  anti  trypsin  deficiency    Cryptogenic:  idiopathic    

     

    Patho   Liver  cell  injury  is  caused  by:  -‐ Direct  cytopathic  effect  of  the  

    virus  -‐ Cell  mediated  immune  response  

    (by  cytotoxic  T  lymphocytes)  Systemic  manifestations  are  caused  by  -‐ Circulating  immune  complexes  

    May  be  an  auto  –  immune  mechanism    

    1. Fibrosis  is  the  key  feature  2. Type  I  and  III  collagens  are  deposited  in  

    the  lobule,  creating  delicate  or  broad  septal  tracts    

    3. Deposition  of  collagen  in  the  space  of  Dissed  is  with  loss  of  fenestrations  in  the  sinusoidal  endothelial  cells  accompanied  by  hepatocytes  hypoperfusion  w’  increased  liver  damage.  

    Fate/  Effects    

    1. Classic  case:  complete  recovery    2. Cases  with  diffuse  necrosis:  

    death  70-‐90%  3. Chronicity  that  may  progress  to  

    cirrhosis    4. Chronic  carriers  in  whom  the  

    viral  antigens  are  excess  in  hepatocytes  and  may  reach  the  blood  

    5. Post  –  necrotic  scarring  may  result  in:  PH,  LCF,  jaundice  and  increased  risk  of  HCC  

      Effects    1. Loss  of  hepatocytes    +  disruption  of  portal  

    circulation  leading  to    Ø Hepatocellular  failure    

    2. Obstruction  of  portal  circulation  leading  to  Ø Portal  hypertension    

    3. Liver  cell  hyperplasia  leading  to    Ø Hepatocellular  carcinoma    

     

    N/E     Liver  slightly  enlarged    Surface  may  be  smooth  or  nodular    

    Size:  shrunken  (except  in  biliary  cirrhosis)  Consistency:  firm    Outer  surface  &  cut  surface:  nodular    -‐ Micro:  less  than  3mm  -‐ Macro  -‐ Mixed    Color  :  sometimes  indicate  cause  -‐ Yellow:  nutritional  cirrhosis  -‐ Green:  nutritional  cirrhosis    -‐ Red:  congestion    -‐ Dark  brown:  hemochromatosis  

    M/E     Range  from  mild  to  severe  according  to      

    Grade:  degree  of  inflammation  a. Piecemeal  necrosis  b. Lobular  necrosis  c. Lobular  inflammation    d. Portal  inflammation    

     Stage:  extent  of  fibrosis  

    a. Portal  fibrosis  b. Portal  and  periportal  fibrosis  c. Septal  fibrosis  d. Bridging  fibrosis  e. Incomplete  cirrhosis  f. Cirrhosis    

    • Loss  of  normal  hepatic  architecture:  replacement  by  regenerative  nodules  surrounded  by  fibrous  tissue  septa  

    • The  regenerative  nodules:  the  regenerative  hepatocytes  may  be  small,  large,  uni  or  binucleated  

    • The  fibrous  tissue  septa:  it  replace  the  damaged  hepatocytes  and  develops  at  certain  site,  eg:  perivenular,  perisinusoidal,  pericellular  and  in  relation  to  portal  tracts.  The  fibrous  septa  contains  proliferating    bile  ductules  and  chronic  inflammatory  cells  

  •  

    Hepatitis  Pathological  types   Classic  acute  viral  hepatitis    

    Acute  viral  hepatitis  with  diffuse  necrosis  (fulminant  viral  hepatitis)  Clinical  course     1. Incubation  period    

    2. Pre  –  icteric  phase:  non  specific  constitutional  symptoms    a. Serum  sickness  like  symptom  b. Urtecaria,  skin  rash    c. Arthiritis,  glomerulonephritis      

    3. Icteric  phase:  jaundice,  dark  urine,  light  colored  stool  &  pruritis    4. Convalescence  stage:  for  few  weeks  

    n/b  of  cirrhosis     Major  source  of  excess  collagen  in  cirrhosis  is  the  peri  –  sinusoidal  stellate  cells  w’  is  activated  by  the  following  factors  

    a. Activated  Von  Kupffer  cell,  endothelial  cells,  hepatocytes  and  inflammatory  cells  b. PDGF  stimulates  stellate  cell  proliferation    c. TNF  is  a  potent  stimulant  of  stellate  cells  to  change  to  myofibroblastic  phenotype  d. TGF-‐β  stimulates  stellate  cells  to  secrete  the  ECM  (fibrogenesis)  

    Classic  acute  viral  hepatitis  Incidence   common  and  the  same  irrespective  of  causative  agent  

    Fate   Recovery  is  common    N/E   Slightly  enlarged  

    Shows  red  (congested)  areas  and  green  (cholestatic)  areas                    

    M/E  

    Hepatocytes  shows  -‐ Ballooning  degeneration    -‐ Feathery  degeneration  (foamy  cytoplasm  with  droplets  of  bile)  -‐ Fatty  change  (with  HCV)  -‐ Apoptosis  and  councilman  bodies  -‐ Focal  spotty  nectosis  -‐ Many  hepatocytes  are  normal    Inflammatory  cells  (macrophages  and  lymphocytes)  -‐ In  portal  tracts  and  around  the  necrotic  foci    Acute  cholestatasis:  due  to    

    a. Obstruction  of  bile  canaliculi  by  swollen,  degenerated  hepatocytes  b. Bile  canaliculi  above  the  obstruction  are  dilated  and  filled  with  bile.  It  may  from  bile  plugs  or  thrombi    c. Cholangiolitis  (  inflammation  of  intralobular  bile  canaliniculi  )  

    ♣ Intracytoplasmic  bile  droplets  accumulate  in  hepatocytes  (feathery  degeneration)  and  in  Von  Kupferr  cells    

    Recovery    -‐ Active  Von  Kupffer  cells  show  hypertrophy  and  hyperplasia  with  increased  phagocytosis  -‐ There’s  increased  inflammatory  cells    

    Hepatitis  B  virus  (HBV)  Structure   Dane  particle  formed  of  DNA  core  covered  by  a  lipoprotein  coat  

    Mode  of  infection   Parentral    Sexual    Vertical  transmission    

    Age   All  ages  are  affected    Incubation  period   8-‐12  weeks  Clinical  picture   Severe  à  recovery  within  3-‐4  months    

    1. Chronic  hepatitis    • Found  in  5%  of  patients    • Indicated  by  hepatocytes  having  HBs  Ag  6  months  after  the  onset  of  the  disease  

    2. Carrier  state  • 5%  of  cases  • Their  hepatocytes  have  ground  glass  cytoplasm  and  sanded  nuclei    

    3. Hepatocellular  carcinoma  4. Death:  10-‐20%  due  to  panacinar  necrosis  

  • Hepatocellular  failure  Definition   It  is  the  ultimate  fate  of  many  liver  diseases.  It  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic    

    Sign  ,  symptoms   1. Jaundice  :  hepatotoxic  2. Hepatic  encephalopathy    3. Coagulation  defects    

    -‐ Defective  hepatic  synthesis  of  clotting  factors  (prothrombin,  factors  VII,  IX,  and  X.  abonormal  factors  are  produced)  

    -‐ Thrombocytopenia  due  to  splenomegaly  -‐ DIC  due  massive  liver  cell  necrosis    

    4. Acute  liver  failure:  fever  and  foeter  hepaticus    5. Hypoproteinemia    6. Vitamin  deficiency:  vit  A,K,B12,  folic  acid    7. Hypoglycemia:  defects  in  CHO  metabolism    8. Hormone  disturbance    9. Hepatorenal  failure    10. Chronic  liver  failure  

    -‐ Ascites  and  edema  -‐ Hypothermia    -‐ Hyperesternism    

    Hepatic  encephalopathy  Patho   Results  from  inability  of  the  liver  to  detoxify  the  neurotoxic  nitrogenous  bacterial  products  of  the  gut  

    (ammonia)  w’  is  absorbed,  cross  the  portal  to  systemic  circulation  to  reach  the  brain  where  it  impairs  neuronal  functions  and  promotes  generalized  brain  edema    

    Causes   -‐ Massive  liver  cell  damage  -‐ Increased  nitrogenous  load  due  to  high  protein  diet  or  GIT  hemorrhage    -‐ Porto  –  systemic  anastomosis  especially  porto  –  caval.  In  this  case,  portal  blood  passes  to  the  

    hepatic  vein  prior  to  its  detoxification  in  the  liver    Raised  blood  

    ammonia  level  results  in  

    • Psychiatric  disturbance    • Flabby  tremors    • Disturbance  of  consciousness  • Coma  and  death    

    Hyperestrenism  Cause     Due  to  failure  of  estrogen  degradation  in  the  liver    

    Leads  to     a. Hypogonadism  in  both  sexes  b. Palmer  erythema  due  to  local  vasodilatation  of  blood  vessels  of  the  skin  of  the  palms  of  the  hands  c. Spider  angiomas  consisting  of  a  central  pulsating  dilated  arteriole  from  w’  small  vessels  radiate.  They  are  found  

    in  the  skin  of  the  face,  neck  and  arms  (areas  drained  by  the  superior  vena  cava)  d. Testicular  atrophy  and  gynaecomastia  in  males  e. Menstrual  irregularities,  secondary  amenorrhea  and  breast  atrophy  in  females  

    Portal  hypertension  Definition     Elevation  of  the  portal  venous  pressure  than  normal  (  N=7mmHg)  Causes     Pre-‐sinusoidal    

    1. Massive  splenomegaly    2. Portal  vein  obstruction    3. Portal  venular  obstruction  (fibrosis,  

    bilharziasis)    

    Sinusoidal    1. Cirrhosis    

    Post-‐sinusoidal  1. Veno-‐occlusive  disease  2. Budd-‐Chiarri  syndrome    3. Obstruction  of  major  hepatic  veins  by  tumor  4. RSHF  and  constrictive  pericarditis  

    Effects     1. Ascites    -‐ Definition:  intra-‐peritoneal  accumulation  of  transudate    -‐ Causes:    

    a. Increased  hydrostatic  pressure  in  portal  circualtaion    b. Decreased  osmotic  pressure  due  to  decrease  albumin  synthesis  by  the  liver  c. Na  and  water  retention  due  to  2ry  hyperaldosteronism  and  ADH  secretion    d. Leakage  of  hepatic  lymph  through  hepatic  capsule  due  to  hepatic  vein  obstruction    

    2. Splenomegaly    -‐ Due  to  chronic  venous  congestion.  May  lead  to  hypersplenism  (splenomegaly  and  pancytopenia)  

    3. Varices    -‐ Leads  to  esophageal  varices,  caput  medusa  (  varicosities  of  periumbilical  veins  )  ,  piles  (  ano-‐rectal  varices  )  

  •  

     

     

     

     

    Pathology  of  shistosomiasis    

    Species  S.  Haematobium    S.  Mansoni  S.  Japonicum    

             

    Life  cycle  

    1. Egg  from  host  2. Egg  hatch  release  meracidia  to  water  3. Miracidia  penetrate  snail  tissue  4. Miracidia  is  safely  in  sporocycst  of  snail  (successive  generation)  5. Cercaria  released  by  snail  into  water  and  freely  swimming  (this  is  infective  stage)  6. Cercaria  penetrate  the  skin  (  diagnostic  stage)  7. Cercaria  loses  it  tails  during  penetration  and  become  shistosomulae  8. Shistosomulae  will  reach  the  circulation    9. It  will  migrate  to  portal  blood  in  liver  and  mature  into  adults  10. Paired  adult  worm  migrate  to    

    -‐ Mesenteric  venule  of  bowel/rectum  (SH)  à  laying  eggs  that  circulate  to  liver  and  shed  in  stools    -‐ Venules  plexus  of  bladder  /  urogenital  plexus  (SM)  

       

    Early  tissue  reaction  

    ♣ Cercaria  penetrate  skin  à  rash  called  shistosome  or  swimmer’s  itch  ♣ Eggs  laid  in  target  organs  release  antigen  à  cause  Katayama  fever  ♣ Fever  ♣ Urticarial  ♣ Malaise  ♣ Diarrhea  

     =hypersensitivity  1          

    Late  tissue  reaction  

    Granulomatous  inflammatory  reaction    -‐  inflammatory  cell,  macrophages,  foreign  

    body,  giant  cell,  lymphocyte,  plasma  cell  and  esinophils  

    Granulation  tissue  -‐ Newly  formed  blood  vessels  called  angiomatoid  

    reaction  and  fibroblasts  which  mediates  collagen  deposition  and  fibrosis  

    Focal  reacation  -‐ Colon    -‐ SM  -‐ Morderate  amount  of  ova  -‐ Focal  reaction  forming  a  bilharzial  nodule  

    Diffuse  reaction  -‐ Bladder  -‐ SH  -‐ Heavy  deposition  of  ova  -‐ Diffuse  inflammatory  reaction    

    1. Lesion  of  hollow  organs  2. Bilharzial  hepatic  fibrosis  

    3. Bilharzial  splenomegaly  4. Pulmonary  bilharziasis  

    Lesion  of  hollow  organ    

    1. Hemorrhagic  spot  caused  by  penetration  of  venules  by  ova  2. Congestion  &  edema  caused  by  associated  inflammatory  cells  3. Granularitycaused  by  bilharzial  inflammatory  cells  aggregates  4. Polyps  5. Sandy  patches    6. Ulcers  and  erosion    7. Secondary  bacterial  infection    8. Closed  lesion  

  •  

      Bilharzial  cystitis   Intestinal  bilharziasis   Hepatic  bilharziasis  Site   Trigone   Rectum     Liver  (portal  tract)  

    Shistosoma   Hematoium     Mansoni     Mansoni    Characteristic   Polyps  are  few  in  number  

    Sandy  patches  are  common  Linear  fissure  ulcer  Contracted  ladder  Epithelial  changes  due  to  bilharzial  reaction  and  secondary  bacterial  infection    

    Polyps  are  numerous    Ulceration    Sandy  patches  are  not  common    Fissure  ulcers  are  asent  In  closed  lesion,  pericolic  mass  Intestinal  lumen  is  rarely  narrowed  

    Diffuse  hepatic  periportal  fibrosis  Embbboli  of  ova  and  worms  form  the  intestinal  venous  plexus  induce  an  inflammatory  reaction  that  ends  with  fibrosis    Fibrosis  not  cirrhosis    Not  related  to  HCC  

    Epithelial  changes  /  

    pathogenesis  

    Hyperplasia  Von  Brunn’s  nest  Cystitis  cystica  Cystitis  glandularis  Ulcer  Atrophy  Squamous  metaplasia  Leukoplakia  Squamous  cell  carcinoma    

      Pathogenesis  Ova:  venular  and  perivenular  bilharzial  reaction  then  fibrosis    Worms:  washed  by  the  portal  circulation  to  be  impacted  in  the  portal  tracts  Portal  tracts:  fibrosis,  vascular  and  bile  ductular  proliferation    Toxin:  mild  fatty  change  Kuppfer  cells:  dark  brown  pigment  

    Complication   Anemia  Obstructive  uropathy  Stone  formation  Carcinoma  Pulmonary  bilharziasis  

    Bilharzial  hepatic  fibrosis  Microcytic  hypochromic  anemia  Bilharzial  dysentery    Fibrosis  stenosis  is  rare  No  relation  to  malignancy    No  malabsorption  syndrome  

     

     

    Polyps  :  more  common  in  colon  

    N/E   M/E  Small  polyps  is  sessile  and  simple  Large  pedunculated  and  compound  Soft  with  gritty  sensation    Mucosa  in  between  is  intact  or  ulceration    

    Core  of  connective  tissue  containing  bilharzial  reaction    Mucosa  maybe  intact,  hyperplastic  or  ulcerated  

    Sand  patches   More  common  in  UB  Mechanism  :  heavy  deposition  of  ova  caused  which  are  dead  and  calcified  à  compressed  blood  vessels  à  leads  to  atrophy  of  overlying  epithelium  à  appear  as  calcified  ova  shine  through  mucosa  

    N/E   M/E  Circumscribed,  raised  patch,  rough,  and  dirty  yellow  (  wet  sea  sand  )  Gritty  sensation    

    Calcified  ova  with  minimal  or  no  bilharzial  reaction  fibrosis,  mucosa  is  atrophied  and  maybe  ulcerated  

    Ulcer   Pathogenesis   N/E     1. Passage  of  ova    

    2. Fissure  of  ulcer  (linear)  3. Tip  of  a  polyp  4. Twisting  of  polyp  5. Secondary  to  bacterial  infection  6. Allergic  necrosis  7. Over  a  sandy  patches  

    1. Single  or  multiple  2. Small  or  large  3. Superficial  or  deep  4. Irregular  margin  5. Sharp  edge  (wall  of  ulcer)  6. Granular  floor  7. Indurated  base  

    Closed  lesion   Severe  fibrosis  Closed  lesion  Contracted  organ  with  obstructive  syndromes  Pericolic  or  perivesical  mass  Parasitic  emboli  liver  and  pulmonary  bilharziasis    

    Failure  of  egg  to  go  outside  of  body  Cause  intense  fibrosis  to  deposit  the  trapped  eggs  Eggs  will  provoke  granuloma  reaction  Eggs  will  go  to  other  organ  to  infect  

  •  

    Epithelial  changes  in  bilharzial  cystitis  Cystitis  cystica   Cystitis  glandularis   Squamous  metaplasia   Leukoplakia  

    Large  size  Lined  by  1-‐2  layer  of  flat  cell  Contain  watery  secretion    It  is  due  to  2ry  infection    Not  precancerous    

    Small  size  Lined  by  1-‐2  layers  of  columnar  cell  Contain  mucus  It  is  due  to  metaplasia  It  is  precancerous    

    Change  of  transitional  epithelium  to  stratified  squamous  epithelium    It  is  precancerous    

    A  white  patch  on  mucosa  of  UB    It  is  formed  of  keratinized  stratified  squamous  epithelium    It  is  precancerous    

    Granulation  tissue  of  hepatic  bilharziasis  Fine   Coarse  

    Small  portal  tracts  Less  than  50%  

    Mild  or  moderate  Few  ova,  no  worm  

    Size  decrease  Fine  granular  

    Large  portal  tracts  More  than  50%  

    Severe  Many  ova,  or  worm  

    Marked  decrease  in  size  Coarsely  irregular  

     

    Portal  hypertension  Definition   Increase  resistance  more  than  7mmHg  in  portal  vein    Causes   Pre  hepatic    

    -‐ Thrombosis  of  portal  vein    -‐ Congenital  atresia/stenosis  -‐ Extrinsic  compression    

    Hepatic  -‐ Cirrhosis    -‐ Shistosomiasis      

    Post  hepatic    -‐ Hepatic  vein  thrombosis    -‐ Cardiac  disease  

     Pathogenesis   Vascular  lesion    

    Pressure  by  fibrosis  Intrahepatic  porto  –  systemic  anastomosis    Extrahepatic  portal  and  splenic  vein  thrombosis    

    Manifestations   Ascites    Caput  medusa  Esophageal  varices  Haemorrhoids  Splenomegaly    

      Early  splenomegaly   Late  splenomegaly  Cause   REC  Hyperplasia  in  response  to  B  antigen     Portal  hypertension  (splenic  congestin)    Size   Slightly  increase  (2x)   Huge  increase  (10x)  

    Capsule   Stretched     Thick  and  whitish  adherent    Subscapular  hemorrhage    

    ME   Follicle  hyperplasia    Congested  red  pulp  excess  esinophils    

    Lymphoid  follicle  atrophy    Prominent  red  pulp  Fibrosidrotic  nodules    

    Splenic  vein   Normal     Dilated    Hypersplenism   Absent     Present  à  active  destruction  of  blood  cells  

    and  platelets  Effects  of  

    splenomegaly    Compression    Hypersplenism    Irregular  fever  

     

     

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    Egyptian  splenomegaly   Pulmonary  bilharziasis  Intestinal  bilharziasis    Hepatic  fibrosis    Splenomegaly    Anemia    Leucopenia    Irregular  fever  

    May  occur  with  SH  Cercariae  bronchopneumonia    Ova  lesions  à  vascular  lesions  &  intestinal  lesions  Worm  lesions  à  verminous  pneumonia      Effects  :    -‐pulmonary  hypertension  (  cor  pulmonale)  -‐pulmonary  aneurysm:  dilatation  of  pul.  Artery    

  •  

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    Diabetic  nephropathy  Lesions  

    encountered  1. Glomerular  lesions    2. Renal  vascular  lesions  mainly  artherosclerosis    3. Pyelonephritis,  including  necrotizing  papillitis  

    Risk  factors   ♣ DM  Type  &  duration    Ø 20%  of  type  1  after  20  years    Ø 40%  of  type  II  any  duration    

    ♣ Poor  diabetic  control    ♣ Hypertension    ♣ Smokers    ♣ Family  history    

    Stage  I   (Very  early  diabetes)  1. Increased  demand  à  increased  GFR  2. Hyperglycemia  leads  to  increased  kidney  filtration  (  osmotic  load  and  toxic  effects  of  high  sugar  

    levels  on  kidney  cells  )  3. Enlarged  kidneys  

    Stage  II   (developing  diabetes  :  clinically  silent  phase)  1. Continued  hyper  filtration  and  hypertrophy    2. GFR  remains  elevated    or  returned  to  normal    3. Glomerular  damage  progress  to  significant  microalbuminuria  (small  but  above  normal  level  of  

    the  protein  albumin  in  the  urine)  4. Significant  microalbuminuria  will  progress  to  end  stage  renal  disease  (ESRD).  All  diabetes  

    patients  should  be  screened  for  microalbuminuria  on  a  routine  basis    Stage  III   (overt  or  dipistick-‐positive  diabetes)  

    1. Glomerular  damage  has  progressed  to  clinical  albuminuria    2. BM  thickening  due  to  AGEP  3. The  urine  is  ‘’dipstick  positive’’,  containing  more  than  300mg  o  f  albumin  in  a  24  hour  period  4. Hypertension  typically  develops  during  stage  3  

    Stage  IV   (late  stage  diabetes)  1. Glomerular  damage  continues,  with  increased  protein  albumin  in  the  urine    2. Kidney’s  filtering  ability  began  to  decline    3. Steadily  BUN  and  creatinine  began  to  increase  4. GFR  decreases  about  10%  annually.  Almost  all  patients  have  hypertension  at  this  stage.    

    Stage  V   (end  stage  renal  disease,  ESRD)  1. GFR  has  fallen  to  

  • Diabetic  nephropathy    effects  GHF   Glomerular  hyper  filtration    

    -‐ Glucose  provides  an  osmotic  diuretic  effect  result  is  increased  renal  filtration  leading  to  glomerular  hypertrophy    

    -‐ Glomerular  pressure  increases  -‐ Kidney  responds  with  hypertrophy  of  epithelium  and  endothelium    -‐ Accelerates  glomerular  cell  failure  -‐ Result  is  premeature  glomerulosclerosis    

    Metabolic  changes   Oxidant  stress  -‐ Related  to  glomerular  hypertrophy  and  abnormal  metabolism    Non  enzymatic  glycosylation  of  macromolecules    -‐ Particularly  basement  membrane  à  increased  type  IV  collagen  &  decreased  proteoglycans    -‐ Both  changes  decrease  the  permeability  of  capillaries  and  disturb  leucocyte  diapedesis,  

    oxygen  diffusion,  nutrition  and  metabolic  waste  removal    Activation  of  glucose  metabolizing  enzymes  

    Hormonal  imbalance   1. Insulin  deficiency    2. Elevated  glucagon  concentrations  3. Increased  transforming  growth  factor  (TGF-‐β)  4. Increased  angiotensin  II  5. Abnormally  regulated  thromboxanes  and  endothelins  6. Abnormal  insulin  like  growth  factor  (IGF)-‐1  7. Elevated  platelet  derived  growth  factor  (PGDF)  

     Histologic  change   1. Mesangial  expansion    

    2. GBM  thickening  throughout  their  entire  length    3. Glomerular  sclerosis  due  to  intraglomerular  HTN  (renal  VD  and  ischemic  injury  induced  

    by  hyaline  narrowing  of  the  vessels  supplying  the  glomeruli)    In  many  advanced  cases,  there  is  also  nodular  glomerulosclerosis  (Kimmelstiel-‐Wilson  lesion)  with  round  masses  of  GBM  mesangial  matrix  material  in  the  glomerular  tufts.  This  histologic  picture  is  highly  characteristic  of  diabetes  and  it  is  usually  present  if  the  diabetes  has  been  present  for  longer  than  20  years  (  sometimes  much  less)  

    Role  of  TGF-‐β  1. Stimulates  ECM  synthesis  by  increases  ECM  proteins    2. Inhibits  ECM  degradation    3. Up  regulates  protease  inihibitors;  down  regulates  matrix  degrading  enzymes    4. Stimulates  synthesis  of  integrins  (matrix  receptor)  5. Key  role  in  glomerular  and  tubuloepithelial  hypertrophy,  basement  membrane  thickening,  and  mesangial  matrix  

    exoansion    6. Stimulates  production  of  several  growth  factors  (basic  fibroblast  growth  factor,  platelet  derived  growth  factor)  

    that  stimulates  formation  of  ECM  synthesis      

     

     

     

     

     

  •  

      Nephrotic  syndrome   Nephritic  syndrome   Rapid  progressive  glomerulonephritis  

    Chronic  glomerulonephritis  

    Patho   Wall  of  glomerular  capillary  esp  the  BM  leading  to  increased  permeability  to  plasma  proteins  

    Damage  of  the  glomerular  capillary  wall  with  decreased  filtration  and  escape  of  red  cells  with  urine    

    Epithelial  proliferation  of  the  parietal  layer  of  Bowman’s  capsule  forming  crescents    

    It  is  the  end  stage  of  most  glomerular  disease    

    C/P  or  characteris

    tics  

    a. Proteinuria  (>3-‐5g/day)  b. Hypoproteinemia()  d. Contains  RBC  and  

    pus  cells  e. Urinary  casts  mainly  

    red  cell  case,  less  common  à  hyaline,  granular  and  epithelial  

    If  it  is  severe,  rapid  onset  of    a. Hematuria  b. Oliguria  or  anuria    c. Hypertension    d. Variable  

    proteinuria  and  edema  

    Characteristics    1. Moderate  hypertension    2. Hypertensive  retinopathy  3. Increase  blood  urea  and  

    creatinin  4. Normocytic  anemia    

    Cause   Primary  glomerular  diseases    -‐ Foot  process  disease    -‐ Minimal  change  

    glomerulopathy    -‐ Focal  segmental  

    glomerulosclerosis    -‐ Membranous  

    glomerulopathy    -‐ Membrano  proliferative  

    glomerulonephritis    

    Primary  glomerular  disease  -‐ Acute  diffuse  

    proliferative  (post  strep)  glomerulonephritis    

       

    Secondary  glomerular  disease    -‐ Amyloidosis    -‐ Diabetic  glomerular  disease    -‐ SLE  -‐ Drugs  -‐ Infections  -‐ Malignancy    

    Secondary  glomerular  disease  -‐ SLE    

       

    N/E         -‐ Kidney  is  contracted  -‐ Firm    -‐ Adherent  capsule  -‐ Finely  granular  surface  with  

    small  cyst  -‐ Cortex  and  medulla  are  not  

    demarcated    

    M/E         -‐ Glomeruli:  some  are  fibrosed  and  hyalinized  and  others  show  compensatory  hypertrophy    

    -‐ Tubules:  atrophy    -‐ Interstiitum:  interstitial  

    fibrosis  and  chronic  inflammatory  cellular  infiltration    

    -‐ Blood  vessels:  hypertensive  changes  

  •  

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    Membranous  glomerulonephritis  Explanation   M/E  

    Most  common  cause  of  nephrotic  syndrome  in  adults     There  is  thickening  of  the  basement  membrane  with  subepithelial  deposits  of  IgG  and  C3  and  fusion  of  the  epithelial  foot  processes    

    Minimal  change  GN  Explanation   E/M  

    Most  common  cause  of  nephrotic  syndrome  in  children     No  changes  by  ordinary  microscope    By  EM  there  is  fusion  of  foot  processes  of  podocytes  

    Kidney  failure  Causes   Renal  (1ry  renal  disease)  

    -‐ Congenital    -‐ Acquired  (glomerular/  

    tubulointerstitial)  

    Pre-‐renal  (inadequate  blood  supply)  

    -‐ Heart  failure  –  low  cop  -‐ Low  renal  perfusion    -‐ Volume  depletion    -‐ Sepsis  -‐ Severe  bleeding    

    Post-‐renal(bilateral  blood  supply)  -‐ Tumors,  BPH  (prostate)  

    ARF   Is  the  sudden  and  severe  reduction  in  previously  normal  renal  function,  may  result  from  primary  renal  disease.    Frequently  have:  metabolic  acidosis,  hyperkalemia,  disturbance  in  body  fluid  homeostasis,  2ry  effects  on  other  organ  system  

    CRF   Is  the  gradual  and  progressive  reduction  in  renal  function.  Failure  may  occur  over  weeks,  months  or  years    Effects   Cardiopulmonary    

    a. High  blood  pressure  with  its  problems  b. Fibrinous  pericaridits  c. Accelerated  atherosclerosis  

     GIT  

    a. Nausea  and  vomit    b. GI  bleeding  –  uremic  gastritis,  pinpoint  bleeding  in  the  stomach  mucosa,  uremic  colitis  c. Poor  appetite  and  altered  sense  of  smell  d. Alterations  in  sense  of  taste  (  low  serum  zinc)    e. Pancreatitis    

     Bones  Renal  osteodystrophy  that  includes  

    a. Secondary  hyperparathyroidism,  with  loss  of  calcium  and  eventually  collagen  from  bones  b. Osteomalacia  (increase  in  unmineralized  osteoid)  mostly  refractory  to  vit  D  ttt  

  •  

    Prostatic  disease  Inflammation   Prostatic  hyperplasia     Neoplasia  

    Prostatic  hyperplasia  General  features   When  sufficiently  large,  the  nodules  compress  and  narrow  the  urethral  canal  cause  partial  or  

    sometimes  virtually  complete  obstruction  of  the  urethra.  It  is  not  a  premalignant  lesion    Etiopathogenesis   1. Under  effect  of  a  metabolite  of  testosterone  ;  DHT  (ultimate  mediator  of  prostatic  enlargement)    

    ♣ Stromal  cells  of  prostate  synthesized  DHT  à  bind  to  nuclear  androgen  receptor  and  signal  the  transcription  of  growth  factorà  cause  autocrine  and  paracrine  effect  on  stromal  cell  and  nearby  epithelial  cells  à  prostatic  enlargement    

    2. Increase  in  estradiol  level  ♣ Estrogen  induce  in  increase  in  androgen  receptors  à  cells  more  liable  to  DHT  

    3. Heterogeniety  of  the  disease    

    N/E   ♣ Overall,  gland  is  enlarged  ♣ May  reaching  massive  size  ♣ Firm,  rubbery  in  consistency    ♣ Small  odules  are  present  throughout  the  gland,  usually  0.5-‐1  cm  in  diameter  but  sometimes  

    much  larger  ♣ Some  of  the  larger  nodules  show  cystic  change    

     M/E   ♣ Glands  are  composed  of  a  variable  mixture  of  hyperplastic  glandular  elements  and  

    hyperplastic  stromal  muscle    ♣ The  glands  are  larger  than  normal,  variable  in  size  and  shape  and  lined  by  tall  epithelium  

    that  is  frequently  thrown  into  papillary  projections  ♣ The  acini  may  contain  numerous  corpora  amylacea  

     Clinical  features   Mainly  obstructive  symptoms  due  to    

    1. The  hyperplastic  nodules  compress  and  elongate  the  prostatic  urethra,  distorting  its  course  2. Involvement  of  the  peri-‐urethral  zone  at  the  internal  urethral  meatus  interferes  with  the  

    sphinter  mechanism      

    Consequences   1. Continued  obstruction  of  the  bladder  outflow  results  in  gradual  hypertrophy  of  the  bladder  musculature    

    2. Trabeculation  of  the  bladder  wall  develops  due  to  prominent  bands  of  thickened  smooth  muscle  between  which  diverticula  may  protrude  

    3. Dilatation  of  the  bladder  occurs  when  the  compensatory  mechanism  fails,  this  results  in    ♣ The  ureters  gradually  dilated  hydroureter  allowing  reflux  of  urine  ♣ If  untreated,  bilateral  hydronephrosis  may  develop,  with  dilatation  of  renal  pelvis  and  

    calyces  ♣ Repeated  infections  predispose  to  the  development  of  calculi  often  containing  

    development  of  calculi  often  containing  phosphates,  within  the  bladder  ♣ Urinary  incontinence  

    Complications   1. Bladder  stones  /  lithiasis    2. UTI  3. Hematuria  4. Acute  urinary  retention    5. Bladder  decompensation    6. Urinary  incontinence    7. Upper  urinary  tract  deterioration  and  

    azotemia  

    8. Obstructive  uropathy    9. Bladder  hyperthrophy    10. Trabeculation    11. Diverticula  formation    12. Hydroureter  –  bilateral    13. Secondary  infection    

  • Carcinoma  prostate  General  features   Age:  the  tumor  is  rare  50y.o    

    Risk  factors     1. Endocrinologic  factors:  androgens    2. Racial  factors:  more  common  in  aftrican    3. Environmental  factors:  high  fat  diet,  exposure  to  polycyclic  aromatic  hydrocarbons    4. Genetic  basis:    familial  cases  (  ch  1  and  10  )  

    Etiopathogenesis    PIN   ♣ Definition:  prostatic  intraepithelial  neoplasia  

    ♣ Is  a  precursor  lesion  sugest  that  prostatic  carcinoma  may  also  be  present.    ♣ Consist  of  intra  acinar  proliferation  of  cells  that  demonstrate  nuclear  anaplasia  foundin  a  single  

    acinus  or  small  group  of  prostatic  acini    

    Presenting  features  

    1. Clinically  silent  and  latent  carcinoma:  unexpected  finding  in  autopsy    2. Incidental  carcinoma:  in  15-‐20%  of  TURP  done  for  BPH  3. Clinical  carcinoma:  detected  by  PR,  other  investigations  and  is  symptomatic    4. Occult  carcinoma:  presents  with  features  of  metastases  but  primary  is  not  evident  

     N/E   ♣ Peripheral  zone  in  the  posterior  lobe  of  the  gland    

    ♣ Palpable  in  PR  ♣ Multifocal,  gritty  and  firm    

     M/E   Back  to  back  arrangement  of  the  malignant  glands,  lining  cells  show  prominent  nucleoli    

    Invasion  of  stroma  and  perineural  spaces    

    Grading   Gleason  grades  (scores):  based  on  the  degree  of  differentiation  among  the  cells      

       

    1   Small  nodules  of  uniform  glands,  tightly  packed  2   Glands  show  various  shapes  and  sizes,  closely  packed  3   Glands  with  packed  variation  in  size  and  shape,  infiltrating  normal  prostatic  tissue  4   Large,  irregular,  fused  glands  5   No  obvious  glands,  solid  sheets  of  tumor  cells  spreading  through  prostatic  tissue  

    Spread   1. Local  spread:  tends  to  invade  nerves,  seminal  vesicles  and  adjacent  pelvic  organs  (  local  extension)  

    2. Lymphatic  spreads:  to  para-‐aortic,  iliac  LN  3. Hematogenous  metastates:  most  often  found  in  the  vertebrae  &  sacrum  ;  can  also  occur  in  

    kidneys,  lungs  and  brain    4. Bony  metastases  are  often  osteoblastic  and  are  associated  with  elevated  serum  alkaline  

    phosphatase    

    Diagnosis   1. Digital  rectal  examination    2. Diagnostic  imaging  3. Cystoscopy    4. Chemical  pathology    5. Biopsy